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3, SEPTEMBER 2009
Abstract—In urban areas, congested traffic results in a large observed that, in most cases, the drivers responded well to the
number of accidents at low speeds. This paper describes an accu- warnings and were able to control the vehicle and avoid the
rate and fast driver-assistance system (DAS) that detects obstacles collision. A majority of collisions occur between vehicles trying
and warns the driver in advance of possible collisions in such
a congested traffic environment. A laboratory prototype of the to pass each other. Thus, it is a primary requirement that DASs
system is built and tested by simulating different weather condi- must have forward-looking sensors.
tions in the laboratory. The proposed DAS is also suitable as a There are blind spots on both the front sides of the vehicle,
parking-assistance system. Ultrasonic sensors are used to detect particularly when driving in urban areas [2]. These blind spots
obstacles in this paper because they have several advantages over can cause serious accidents. Thus, DASs must also have side-
other types of sensors in short-range object detection. Multiple
sensors are needed to get a full-field view because of the limited lat- looking sensors.
eral detectable range of ultrasonic sensors. Furthermore, crosstalk Typical sensors used in DASs are laser sensors, millimeter-
is a common problem when multiple ultrasonic sensors are used. A wave radar, charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras, ultrasonic
simple microcontroller-based method to reduce crosstalk between sensors, etc. Out of these, laser sensors (e.g., IBEO laser
sensors is described, which is achieved by firing each transducer sensors) and millimeter-wave radar are preferred for adaptive
by a pseudorandom number of pulses so that the echo of each
transducer can uniquely be identified. Existing DASs need more cruise control, and they are expensive compared with other
time to reliably detect the objects, making them unsuitable for sensors. CCD cameras are significantly affected by bad weather
DASs, where time is a critical factor. A method to reduce the conditions (e.g., snow, rain, dirt, and dust). Ultrasonic sensors
obstacle detection time of the system is also proposed. The cost are less affected by adverse weather conditions and are more
of this high-performance system is expected to be very reasonable. economical compared with all other sensors. By taking all these
All the practical implementation details are included. Extensive
experimentation has been carried out, and the results confirm the factors into consideration, ultrasonic sensors emerge as one of
speed and reliability of the presented system. the strong candidates for use in a DAS.
Although ultrasonic sensors have reasonable lateral reso-
Index Terms—Assistance, collision, driver, pseudorandom,
sensor, traffic, ultrasonic, vehicle. lution, multiple sensors are needed to get a full-field view.
The problem observed in using multiple sensors is that the
I. I NTRODUCTION sensors randomly influence each other, particularly when a
rapid firing strategy is adopted. The general solution to this
TABLE I
SURVEY OF THE EXISTING SYSTEMS
range of piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers has not been taken The principles used in the existing systems include the CCD-,
into account, which is not suitable for most of the commercial infrared-, ultrasonic-, radar-, and laser-based indicators. Some
ultrasonic transducers. In another work [7], all the sensors systems are better in certain aspects like the CCD camera,
are simultaneously fired, and the system waits for a duration which gives binocular vision, but the computation overhead and
corresponding to the maximum detectable range of sensors. If cost is too high, and the time for decision making increases
the object is detected by more than one receiver, then it is con- during time-critical situations. It is also affected by weather
sidered reliable and otherwise ignored (triangulation method). conditions such as snow, rain, etc. The infrared-based systems
After the lapse of the maximum duration, all the sensors are have a shorter range and are sensitive to ambient temperature
again simultaneously fired, resulting in a large detection time. variations. The laser-based systems have a longer range. How-
In another related work [8], a fixed time slot is allocated for ever, they may not be effective for collision warning applica-
each sensor to fire with some added delay in each slot, and tions, in addition to being expensive. Radar-based systems have
the errors are avoided by comparing two successive echoes a long range but are expensive. Ultrasonic-based systems have
received by the same receiver. All of these methods involve a moderate range and are least dependent on variations in the
complex digital signal processing techniques; in addition, firing environment.
sensors one after another in a particular sequence increases the This paper proposes a short-range collision-warning and
detection time of the system. parking-assistance system that is suitable to be mounted on a
A survey of the existing commercial DASs [9], [10], which vehicle. The system uses ultrasonic sensors and is particularly
fall in the category of collision warning or parking assistance relevant to today’s congested traffic environment, where the
systems, was carried out and is presented in Table I. vehicle speeds are relatively low. As the work has been carried
488 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 10, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2009
TABLE II
RESEARCH SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE PROPOSED SYSTEM
A. Ultrasonic Waves
The ultrasonic waves [19] come under the category of sound
waves with frequencies greater than 20 kHz. Because the
Fig. 1. Future implementation of the proposed system showing the position human ear’s audible perception range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz, it
of sensors and other electronics on a vehicle. is insensitive to ultrasonic waves; hence, the ultrasound waves
can be used for applications in industries/vehicles without hin-
out from a research point of view to achieve lower cost, high dering human activity. Ultrasonic transducers [19] are used to
reliability, high precision, and better capability to work under convert electrical energy into ultrasound waves and vice versa.
adverse conditions, a prototype of the proposed system has The property that the waves are reflected back when there is a
been developed and tested by simulating hostile environmental change in the nature of medium of propagation can be used for
conditions in the laboratory itself. The research specifications detecting obstacles. The time duration between the transmitted
of the proposed system are summarized in Table II. pulse and the received echo gives the distance of the object from
The proposed system employs multiple transducers and pro- the sensor. The important properties of ultrasound waves are
vides an economical and simple solution to reduce crosstalk given in the list that follows.
among the sensors with a lower detection time. The solution 1) They need a medium for propagation.
includes driving each sensor by a pseudorandom number of 2) Their velocity varies with the nature of medium.
sinusoidal pulses to reduce crosstalk and firing sensors im- 3) They can be reflected.
mediately after detecting an obstacle to reduce the detection 4) A unique property of ultrasonic waves is that, as their
time, rather than firing sensors one after another, in a particular frequency f is very high, they can be used to sense small
sequence. The proposed scheme requires an array of sensors to objects. For example, consider detection of an object in
be mounted on the front and rear bumpers of the automobile. water. The wavelength λ, velocity v, and frequency of
The warning device may be placed in front of the driver’s seat sound waves are related as v = f × λ. The velocity of
(on the dashboard), whereas the associated circuitry can be sound waves in water is 1500 m/s.
placed near the indicator panel, as shown in Fig. 1. The warning
The minimum frequency of ultrasonic waves is
device includes both audio/visual alarms to alert the driver and
to indicate the position of the obstacle. f = 20 kHz
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: A brief back- ∴ λ = 0.075 m = 7.5 cm.
ground of the underlying principles is presented in Section II.
Section III discusses the working of the proposed system, If a frequency greater than 20 kHz is used, λ will still be
followed by the design methodology. The firing scheme of smaller, enabling the detection of smaller objects. The con-
the sensors and an algorithm to reduce the detection time and ceptual block diagram of the proposed system, as shown in
crosstalk is presented in Section IV. Hardware implementation Fig. 2, depicts the transmission of ultrasound waves under the
AGARWAL et al.: COST-EFFECTIVE ULTRASONIC SENSOR-BASED DAS FOR CONGESTED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS 489
control of a microcontroller (μC). The reflected waves (echo) mances than with pulse–echo measurements can be obtained,
are sensed by a receiving transducer and analyzed by the μC. complex hardware is required to measure the phase, and in most
The μC then issues a warning signal to the driver. cases, different frequencies need to be used to determine the
number of integer wavelengths in the phase shift.
Pulse–echo techniques are widely used in commercial sys-
B. Ultrasonic Transducers
tems due to less complexity of hardware. In pulse–echo tech-
For distance-measurement applications, piezoelectric and niques, a short train of pulses is generated, enabling the same
electrostatic transducers are our main interest. Electrostatic transducer to be used both as a transmitter and as a receiver
transducers use a thin metal sheet or a single-sided metallized [20]. In the measurement methods, based on pulse–echo tech-
plastic foil as a diaphragm to convert electrical energy into niques, the distance information is retrieved from a time-of-
acoustic energy and vice versa. The plates are formed by a flight measurement, i.e., the time an ultrasonic wave needs to
movable metallized diaphragm and a stationary back electrode. travel from the transmitter to the receiver after being reflected
An external bias voltage is needed for this type of trans- by an object. Considering the aforementioned advantages, the
ducers. The advantage of electrostatic ultrasonic transducers pulse–echo technique is used in this paper to calculate the
is their high transfer coefficients both in the transmitter and distance of the obstacle from the vehicle. The distance between
the receiver mode, in combination with a wide bandwidth. the transmitter and the object is determined using the following
The disadvantages are the need for an external bias voltage, equation:
sensitivity to dust and humidity, and low mechanical rugged-
ness. Because of these reasons, the use of ultrasonic sen- t×c
D= (1)
sors, based on the electrostatic principle, is limited to outdoor 2
applications.
Piezoceramic ultrasonic transducers make use of the piezo- where D is distance the between the transducer and the obsta-
electric length or thickness extensions of the ceramic. The stan- cle, c is the ultrasonic wave velocity in air, and t is the interval
dard piezoceramic material is lead zirconium titanate (PZT). In between pulse emission and echo detection.
ultrasonic distance measurement systems for outdoor purposes, The accuracy of the measurement depends on the estimation
piezoceramic transducers dominate, because of their compact of the time of flight t and the knowledge of the acoustic
size, rugged mechanical design, high efficiency, and wide range velocity c. The velocity of sound in air depends on the tem-
of operating temperatures. Sharp ultrasonic pulses can be ra- perature and, to a much lesser extent, on the air humidity. The
diated, and high resolution is thus obtained by using these velocity V of sound in air depends on the temperature, accord-
transducers. As the transducers are key elements in sensors, ing to the following approximated equation:
the performance of ultrasonic sensors strongly depends on 12
the properties of the ultrasonic transducers used. The selec- T
V = 340 1 + (2)
tion of the ultrasonic frequency is mainly determined by the 273
measurement problem. With increasing frequency (and thus
smaller wavelength), better resolution is achievable. On the where T is the temperature (in degrees Celsius). Therefore, the
other hand, the maximum detection range is reduced because of temperature effect must be taken into account in the calculation
the increasing attenuation of ultrasound in air. The use of higher of distance. Hence, a temperature sensor is mounted inside
frequencies will be limited to special tasks such as short-range the measuring head of the ultrasonic sensor. Based on the
distance measurement or acoustic microscopy. In many cases, temperature, the velocity of sound and distance are accurately
the maximum spectral density of acoustic noise is observed in calculated. In this paper, it is assumed that it is possible to
a frequency range up to 40 kHz. Thus, the ultrasonic sensors mount the temperature sensor in a manner that it does not
with a center frequency greater than 40 kHz have to be used directly come in contact with the vehicle’s body and that it is
in outdoor applications. The large maximum detection range is possible to measure the ambient temperature with reasonable
achievable by high transducer efficiency in combination with accuracy. Per (2), it is clear that the velocity of propagation is
high transmission power. To transmit large-amplitude ultra- affected by the temperature of the medium. A temperature vari-
sonic pulses, the transducer is excited by a large-amplitude ation of ±20 ◦ C is assumed, which corresponds to a distance
burst signal. variation of less than ±10 cm.
Fig. 7. Changing the seed value (obtained from the temperature sensor) for
generation of a sequence of pseudorandom numbers.
Fig. 9. Inverter–amplifier–filter circuit used for exciting the transducers through HV209 switches.
Fig. 14. Outputs of the threshold detection circuit for obstacles at (a) 0.24 m Fig. 16. Transmitted and received waveforms for obstacles at (a) 14.3 cm and
and (b) 0.68 m. (b) 0.42 m.
Fig. 22. Simulation results for vibratory conditions. Snapshot of the trans-
Fig. 19. Picture showing the position of the thermometer, fan, and heater, mitted signal (channel-2) and the received signal (channel-4). Output of the
simulating hot windy conditions. inverter–amplifier–filter circuit (channel-3) is a 140-V peak-to-peak, 45-kHz
sine wave. Distance of object from sensors: 0.74 m.
Fig. 23. (a) Fall of tiny thermocol balls to simulate the snow environment.
(b) Shower of thermocol balls between the transducers and the object.
Fig. 20. Simulation results for hot windy conditions. Snapshot of the
scope showing the transmitted wave (channel-2) and the received wave
(channel-4). Output of the inverter–amplifier–filter circuit (channel-3) is a
140-V peak-to-peak, 45-kHz sine wave. Distance of the object from the sensor:
≈1.73 m.
Fig. 24. Simulation results for the snowfall condition. Snapshot of the trans-
mitted signal (channel-2) and the received signal (channel-1). Output of the
Fig. 21. Simulating vibrations. The transmitter and the receiver are placed on inverter–amplifier–filter circuit (channel-3) is a 140-V peak-to-peak, 45-kHz
a vibrating system. sine wave. Distance of object from the sensor: 1.32 m.
iments. Details of this part of the work are given in this 2) Is there a shift in the received signals before and after
section. introducing a simulated environment?
The involved performance evaluation is given in the list that The details of the experiments are discussed in the following
follows. sections.
1) Is the number of transmitted pulses equal to the number 1) Rain: A setup to simulate rainy weather was built in the
of received pulses? laboratory, as shown in Fig. 17. The transducers were made to
AGARWAL et al.: COST-EFFECTIVE ULTRASONIC SENSOR-BASED DAS FOR CONGESTED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS 497
TABLE III
SUMMARY OF THE PERFORMANCE UNDER VARIOUS WEATHER CONDITIONS
continuously transmit and receive the ultrasonic waves, and the TABLE IV
“BILL OF MATERIAL” COST OF THE DEVELOPED PROTOTYPE
observations were made on an oscilloscope, which displayed
the transmitted and received waveforms in the time domain. A
sieve above and a collecting tray below are placed in the space
between the transducers and the obstacle. Water is poured into
the sieve to evenly distribute the water, forming a dense screen
of flowing water as in a heavy rain condition. A screenshot of
the observation on the scope was acquired (see Fig. 18) and
analyzed.
2) Hot Windy Weather: A setup to simulate hot windy
weather conditions, typical of tropical regions, was built in the
laboratory, as shown in Fig. 19. The transducers are made to
continuously transmit and receive the ultrasonic waves, and the
observations were made on an oscilloscope, which displayed
the transmitted and received waveforms in the time domain. condition. A sample calculation is shown in the list that
An electric heater is placed between the transducers and the follows.
object, while a fan, placed adjacent to the heater, blows air on 1) The time of flight between the transmitted and the re-
to the transducers, raising the temperature from 28 ◦ C to 45 ◦ C. ceived pulse = 12.6 ms.
A screenshot of the observation on the scope is acquired (see 2) The velocity of sound in air = 330 m/s.
Fig. 20) and analyzed. 3) The distance of the object from the transducer = (330 ×
3) Vibratory Environment: In an actual system, the trans- 12.6)/(1000 × 2) = 2.079 m
ducers are held on the bumpers and are susceptible to vibrations 4) The actual distance between the transducer and the
generated by the engine of the automobile; hence, testing the object = 5 × 40 cm = 200 cm.
functionality against the vibration shocks is necessary. The ex-
All the results of this section are tabulated in Table III.
perimental setup for this experiment is shown in Fig. 21. The
transducers are mounted on a platform, generating a vibration
VII. C ONCLUSION
of 130 Hz. The transducers were made to continuously transmit
and receive the ultrasonic waves. An oscilloscope displayed An exhaustive survey of the existing DASs has been carried
the transmitted and received waves in the time domain (see out. An overview of the existing (representative) systems is
Fig. 22). No significant change in the reflected waveforms was summarized in Table I. As most of the systems use either ul-
observed. trasonic, infrared, camera (monochrome/color), or combination
4) Snowfall: A setup to simulate the snow weather con- of them for perceiving the environment, they all have their
ditions was also constructed in the laboratory, as shown in inherent advantages and disadvantages (e.g., detection range
Fig. 23(a) and (b). Since thermocol balls share the prop- may be more but accuracy is less).
erty of weightlessness and opaqueness with snow, they were It is important for any DAS to be least dependent on the
used to simulate snow flurry. The transducers were made to external environmental conditions. In addition to this, it is
continuously transmit and receive the ultrasonic waves while an desirable that it can be integrated with the vehicle’s control unit
oscilloscope displayed the transmitted and received waveforms (interoperability).
in the time domain. The thermocol balls are allowed to fall in Considering the aforementioned, the laboratory prototype of
the space between the transducer and the object simulating a a low-cost DAS has been designed and tested under laboratory
snow-filled medium. A screenshot of the signals in the oscil- conditions. The system is suitable as a short-range collision
loscope is acquired (see Fig. 24) and analyzed. No significant warning system or a parking assistance system for application
change in the reflected signal was observed. in a congested traffic environment, where vehicle speeds are
Note: A simple distance verification was performed for relatively low. It is experimentally verified that it is not sig-
every test, corresponding to each simulated environmental nificantly affected by the external environmental conditions.
498 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 10, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2009
The special feature of this system is that the driver need not [15] [Online]. Available: http://www.opticsplanet.net/atnaut20bacs.html
turn around to determine the position of the obstacle. This [16] [Online]. Available: http://www.bizrate.com/integratedamplifiers/pyle-
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is proposed and implemented using an ATMEL
89C52 μC. Vivek Agarwal (M’93–SM’01) received the B.Sc.
degree in physics from Delhi University, Delhi,
The developed system is economical. Table IV shows the India, the integrated M.Tech. degree in electrical
“bill of material” cost of the development of the system. The engineering from the Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, India, and the Ph.D. degree from the
cost can substantially be reduced if the components (including University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.
sensors) are bought in bulk for mass production of the pro- After completing the Ph.D. degree in 1994, he
posed DAS. briefly worked for Statpower Technologies, Burnaby,
BC, Canada, as a Research Engineer. In 1995, he
joined the Department of Electrical Engineering,
R EFERENCES Indian Institute of Technology-Bombay, Mumbai,
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[5] A. Carullo, F. Ferraris, and M. Parvis, “A low cost contact less dis- Hyderabad, India, in 2004 and the M.Tech. degree
tance meter for automotive applications,” in Proc. IEEE Instrum. Meas. in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of
Technol. Conf., 1996, pp. 84–89. Technology-Bombay, Mumbai, India, in 2006.
[6] K. Nakahira, S. Okuma, T. Kodama, and T. Furuhashi, “The use of binary He is currently with Texas Instruments (India) Pvt.
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[10] [Online]. Available: http://www.itsa.org degree in instrumentation and control engineering
[11] [Online]. Available: http://www.eaton.com/EatonCom/Markets/Truck/ from Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur,
ProductsSolutions/CollisionWarning/index.htm India. He is currently working toward the M.Tech.
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kit-with-colour-reversing-camera-and-monitor-in-rear-view-mirror.asp in electronic systems, with the Indian Institute of
[13] [Online]. Available: http://911phone.net/parkaid.htm Technology-Bombay, Mumbai, India.
[14] [Online]. Available: http://www.lexus.com/models/LS/features/pricing. His research interests include electronic biomed-
html ical applications and image processing.