VERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT AND DERIVATIVES, SKIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION,

GLANDS, SCALES, HORNS, CLAWS, NAILS, HOOFS, FEATHERS, HAIR

The word integument means covering. The integumentary system covers the outside of the
body. It protects internal structures, prevents the entry of infectious agents, reduces water loss, regulates
body temperature, produces vitamin D and detects stimuli such as touch, pain and temperature. Since
the integument performs several functions, it is commonly referred to as Jack of all trades.

SKIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Introduction

The integument or skin is the largest organ of the body, making up 16% of body weight, with a
surface area of 1.8 m2. It has several functions, the most important being to form a physical barrier
to the environment, allowing and limiting the inward and outward passage of water, electrolytes
and various substances while providing protection against micro-organisms, ultraviolet radiation,
toxic agents and mechanical insults. There are three structural layers to the skin: the epidermis, the
dermis and subcutis. Hair, nails, sebaceous, sweat and apocrine glands are regarded as derivatives of
skin (see Figure 1.1). Skin is a dynamic organ in a constant state of change, as cells of the outer layers
are continuously shed and replaced by inner cells moving up to the surface. Although
structurally

Table 1.1 Layers of the skin.

Skin layer Description

Epidermis The external layer

mainly composed of layers of keratinocytes but also containing
melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkel cells.

Basement membrane The multilayered structure

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 
forming the dermoepidermal
junction.
Dermis The area of supportive connective tissue between the epidermis and the
underlying subcutis: contains sweat glands, hair roots, nervous cells and
fibres, blood and lymph vessels.
Subcutis The layer of loose connective tissue and fat beneath the dermis.
consistent throughout the body, skin varies in thickness according to anatomical site and age of the
individual.

Skin anatomy

The epidermis is the outer layer, serving as the physical and chemical barrier between the interior
body and exterior environment; the dermis is the deeper layer providing the structural support of
the skin, below which is a loose connective tissue layer, the subcutis or hypodermis which is
an important depot of fat (see Table 1.1).

Epidermis

The epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium. The main cells of the epidermis are the
keratinocytes, which synthesize the protein keratin. Protein bridges called desmosomes connect
the keratinocytes, which are in a constant state of transition from the deeper layers to the
superficial (see Figure 1.2). The four separate layers of the epidermis are formed by the differing
stages of keratin maturation. The epidermis varies in thickness from 0.05 mm on the eyelids to 0.8-
1.5 mm on the soles of the feet and palms of the hand. Moving from the lower layers upwards to
the surface, the four layers of the epidermis are:
1. stratum basale (basal or germinativum cell layer)
2. stratum spinosum (spinous or prickle cell layer)
3. stratum granulosum (granular cell layer)
4. stratum corneum (horny layer).

In addition, the stratum lucidum is a thin layer of translucent cells seen in thick epidermis. It
represents a transition from the stratum granulosum and stratum corneum and is not usually seen
in thin epidermis. Together, the stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum are sometimes referred
to as the Malphegian layer.

Stratum basale
The innermost layer of the epidermis which lies adjacent to the dermis comprises mainly dividing
and non-dividing keratinocytes, which are attached to the basement membrane by
hemidesmosomes. As keratinocytes divide and differentiate, they move from this deeper layer to
the surface. Making up a small proportion of the basal cell population is the pigment
(melanin) producing melanocytes. These cells are characterized by dendritric processes, which stretch
between relatively large numbers of neighboring keratinocytes. Melanin accumulates in
melanosomes that are transferred to the adjacent keratinocytes where they remain as granules.
Melanin pigment provides protection against ultraviolet (UV) radiation; chronic exposure to light
increases the ratio of melanocytes to keratinocytes, so more are found in facial skin compared to the
lower back and a greater number on the outer arm compared to the inner arm. The number of
melanocytes is the same in equivalent body sites in white and black skin but the distribution and
Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 
rate of production of melanin is different. Intrinsic ageing diminishes the melanocyte population.
Merkel cells are also found in the basal layer with large numbers in touch- sensitive sites such
as the fingertips and lips. They are closely associated with cutaneous nerves and seem to be
involved in light touch sensation.

Stratum spinosum

As basal cells reproduce and mature, they move towards the outer layer of skin, initially forming the
stratum spinosum. Intercellular bridges, the desmosomes, which appear as 'prickles' at a
microscopic level, connect the cells. Langerhans cells are dendritric, immunologically active cells
derived from the bone marrow,
and are found on all epidermal surfaces but are mainly located in the middle of this layer. They play a
significant role in immune reactions of the skin, acting as antigen-presenting cells.

Stratum granulosum
Continuing their transition to the surface the cells continue to flatten, lose their nuclei and their
cytoplasm appears granular at this level.

Stratum corneum
The final outcome of keratinocytes maturation is found in the stratum corneum, which is made up
of layers of hexagonal-shaped, non-viable cornified cells known as corneocytes. In most areas of the
skin, there are 10-30 layers of stacked corneocytes with the palms and soles having the most. Each
corneocyte is surrounded by a protein envelope and is filled with water-retaining keratin
proteins. The cellular shape and orientation of the keratin proteins add strength to the stratum
corneum. Surrounding the cells in the extracellular space are stacked layers of lipid bilayer (see
Figure 1.3).
The resulting structure provides the natural physical and water-retaining barrier of the skin.
The corneocyte layer can absorb three times its weight in water but if its water content drops
below 10% it no longer remains pliable and cracks. The movement of epidermal cells to this layer
usually takes about 28 days and is known as the epidermal transit time.

Dermoepidermal junction/basement membrane

This is a complex structure composed of two layers. Abnormalities here result in the expression of rare
skin diseases such as bullous pemphigoid and epidermolysis bullosa. The structure is highly
irregular, with dermal papillae from the papillary dermis projecting perpendicular to the skin
surface. It is via diffusion at this junction that the epidermis obtains nutrients and disposes of waste.
The dermoepidermal junction flattens during ageing which accounts in part for some of the visual
signs of ageing.

Dermis

The dermis varies in thickness, ranging from 0.6 mm on the eyelids to 3 mm on the back, palms and
soles. It is found below the epidermis and is composed of a tough, supportive cell matrix. Two layers
comprise the dermis:

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 
1. A thin papillary layer
2. A thicker reticular layer.

The papillary dermis lies below and connects with the epidermis. It contains thin loosely arranged
collagen fibres. Thicker bundles of collagen run parallel to the skin surface in the deeper reticular
layer, which extends from the base of the papillary layer to the subcutis tissue. The dermis is made up
of fibroblasts, which produce collagen, elastin and structural proteoglycans, together with Immuno-
competent mast cells and macrophages. Collagen
fibres make up 70% of the dermis, giving it strength
and toughness. Elastin maintains normal elasticity
and flexibility while proteoglycans provide
viscosity and hydration. Embedded
within the fibrous tissue of the dermis are the
dermal vasculature, lymphatics, nervous cells and
fibres, sweat glands, hair roots and small quantities
of striated muscle.

Subcutis

This is made up of loose connective tissue and fat,

which can be up to 3 cm thick on the abdomen.

Blood and lymphatic vessels

The dermis receives a rich blood supply. A superficial artery plexus is formed at the papillary and
reticular dermal boundary by branches of the subcutis artery Branches from this plexus form
capillary loops in the papillae of the dermis, each with a single loop of capillary vessels, one arterial
and one venous. The veins drain into mid-dermal and subcutaneous venous networks. Dilatation or
constriction of these capillary loops plays a direct role in thermoregulation of the skin. Lymphatic
drainage of the skin occurs through abundant lymphatic meshes that originate in the papillae and feed
into larger lymphatic vessels that drain into regional lymph nodes.

Nerve supply

The skin has a rich innervation with the hands, face and genitalia having the highest density of
nerves. All cutaneous nerves have their cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia and both myelinated
and non-myelinated fibres are found. Free sensory nerve endings lie in the dermis where they detect
pain, itch and temperature. Specialized corpuscular receptors also lie in the dermis allowing
sensations of touch to be received by Meissner's corpuscles and pressure and vibration by Pacinian
corpuscles. The autonomic nervous system supplies the motor innervation of the skin: adrenergic
fibres innervate blood vessels, hair erector muscles and apocrine glands while cholinergic fibres
innervate exocrine sweat glands. The endocrine system regulates the sebaceous glands, which are not
innervated by autonomic fibres.

Derivative structures of the skin

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 
Hair

Hair can be found in varying densities of growth over the entire surface of the body, exceptions
being on the palms, soles and glans penis. Follicles are most dense on the scalp and face and are
derived from the epidermis and the dermis. Each hair follicle is lined by germinative cells, which
produce keratin and melanocytes, which synthesize pigment. The hair shaft consists of an outer
cuticle, a cortex of keratinocytes and an inner medulla. The root sheath, which surrounds the hair
bulb, is composed of an outer and inner layer. An erector pili muscle is associated with the hair shaft
and contracts with cold, fear and emotion to pull the hair erect, giving the skin 'goose bumps'.

Nails

Nails consist of a dense plate of hardened keratin between 0.3 and 0.5 mm thick. Fingernails function
to protect the tip of the fingers and to aid grasping. The nail is made up of a nail bed, nail matrix and a
nail plate. The nail matrix is composed of dividing keratinocytes, which mature and keratinise into
the nail plate. Underneath the nail plate lies the nail bed. The nail plate appears pink due to adjacent
dermal capillaries and the white lunula at the base of the plate is the distal, visible part of the matrix.
The thickened epidermis which underlies the free margin of the nail at the proximal end is called
the hyponychium. Fingernails grow at 0.1 mm per day; the toenails more slowly (see Figure 1.4).

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Figure 1.4 Nail structure.

Sebaceous glands

These glands are derived from epidermal cells and are closely associated with hair follicles especially
those of the scalp, face, chest and back; they are not found in hairless areas. They are small in
children, enlarging and becoming active at puberty, being sensitive to androgens. They produce an
oily sebum by holocrine secretion in which the cells break down and release their lipid cytoplasm. The
full function of sebum is unknown at present but it does play a role in the following:1

1. Maintaining the epidermal permeability barrier, structure and differentiation

2. Skin-specific hormonal signaling
3. Transporting antioxidants to the skin surface
4. Protection from uv radiation.

Sweat glands

There are thought to be over 2.5 million on the skin surface and they are present over the
majority of the body. They are located within the dermis and are composed of coiled tubes, which
secrete a watery substance. They are classified into two different types: exocrine and apocrine.

• Eccrine glands are found all over the skin especially on the palms, soles, axillae and forehead. They
are under psychological and thermal control. Sympathetic (cholinergic) nerve fibres innervate
exocrine glands. The watery fluid they secrete contains chloride, lactic acid, fatty acids, urea,
glycoproteins and mucopolysaccharides.
• Apocrine glands are larger, the ducts of which empty out into the hair follicles.
They are present in the axillae, anogenital region and areolae and are under thermal control. They
become active at puberty, producing an odourless protein-rich secretion which when acted
upon by skin bacteria gives out a characteristic odour. These glands are under the control of
sympathetic (adrenergic) nerve fibres.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

Skin functions

The skin is a complex metabolically active organ, which performs important physiological
functions that are summarized in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Functions of the skin.

• Provides a protective barrier against mechanical, thermal and physical injury and noxious
agents.
• Prevents loss of moisture.
• Reduces the harmful effects of UV radiation.
• Acts as a sensory organ.
• Helps regulate temperature control.
• Plays a role in immunological surveillance.
• Synthesizes vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol).
• Has cosmetic, social and sexual associations.

Barrier function and skin desquamation

As the viable cells move towards the stratum corneum they begin to clump proteins into
granules in the granular layer (see Figure 1.5). The granules are filled with the protein fillagrin,
which becomes complexed with keratin to prevent the breakdown of fillagrin by proteolytic
enzymes. As the degenerating cells move towards the outer layer, enzymes break down the
keratin-fillagrin complex. Fillagrin forms on the outside of the corneocytes while the water-
retaining keratin remains inside.
When the moisture content of the skin reduces, fillagrin is further broken down into free
amino acids by specific proteolytic enzymes in the stratum corneum. The breakdown of
fillagrin only occurs when the skin is dry in order to control the osmotic pressure and the amount of
water it holds: in healthy skin the water content of the stratum corneum is normally around 30%.
The free amino acids, along with other components such as lactic acid, urea and salts, are known as
'natural moisturizing factors' (NMF) and are responsible for keeping the skin moist and pliable due
to their ability to attract and hold water.

Lipids
The major factor in the maintenance of a moist, pliable skin barrier is the presence of
intercellular lipids. These form stacked bilayer that surround the corneocytes and incorporate water
into the stratum corneum. The lipids are derived from lamellar granules, which are released into
extracellular spaces of degrading cells in the granular layer; the membranes of these cells also release
lipids. Lipids include cholesterol, free fatty acids and sphingolipids.
Ceramide, a type of sphingolipid, is mainly responsible for generating the stacked lipid
structures that trap water molecules in their hydrophilic region. These stacked lipids surround the
corneocytes and provide an impermeable barrier by preventing the movement of water and NMF
out of the surface layers of the skin. After the age of 40 there is a sharp decline in skin lipids
thus increasing our susceptibility to dry skin conditions.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

Figure 1.5 Barrier function of the epidermis.

Shedding (desquamation) of skin cells

Shedding the cells of the stratum corneum is an important factor in maintaining skin integrity and
smoothness. Desquamation involves the enzymatic process of dissolving the protein bridges, the
desmosomes, between the corneocytes, and the eventual shedding of these cells (see Figure 1.2).
The proteolytic enzymes responsible for desquamation are located intracellularly and function in
the presence of a well-hydrated stratum corneum. In the absence of water the cells do not
desquamate normally and the skin becomes roughened, dry, thickened and scaly. In normal healthy
skin there is a balance in the production and shedding of corneocytes. In diseases such as psoriasis,
which involve increased corneocyte production, and where decreases in shedding occur, the result
is dry, rough skin as the cells accumulate on the skin.

Remaining functions

UV protection
Melanocytes, located in the basal layer, and melanin have important roles in the skin's barrier function
by preventing damage by UV radiation. In the inner layers of the epidermis, melanin granules form a
protective shield over the nuclei of the keratinocytes; in the outer layers, they are more evenly
distributed. Melanin

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Table 1.3 Immune components of the skin.

Defense type Component Immune action

Structural Skin Impenetrable physical barrier to most external organisms.

Blood and Provision of transport network for

lymphatic cellular defense.
vessels

Cellular Langerhans cells Antigen presentation.

T lymphocytes Facilitate immune reactions. Self-regulating

through the action of T suppressor cells. Mast cells Facilitate

inflammatory skin reactions.

Keratinocytes Secrete inflammatory cytokines; have ability

to express surface immune reactive molecules.

Systemic Cytokines Cytokines: cell mediation

and chemicals produced by
eicosanoids components of the cellular
defense system.

Eicosanoids: non-specific
inflammatory mediators
produced by mast cells,
macrophages and keratinocytes.

Increase the number of cellular

Adhesi defense facilitators in an area by
on binding to T cells.
molecul Activation of this initiates a host of
es destructive mechanisms, including
Complem opsonisation, lysis, chemotaxis and
ent mast cell degranulation.
cascade Enables immunological
recognition of antigens.

Immunogenetic Major

Histocompatib
ility complex
(MHC)

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absorbs UV radiation, thus protecting the cell's nuclei from DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
damage. UV radiation induces keratinocytes proliferation, leading to thickening of the
epidermis.

Thermoregulation
The skin plays an important role in maintaining a constant body temperature through
changes in blood flow in the cutaneous vascular system and evaporation of sweat from the
surface.

Immunological surveillance
As well acting as a physical barrier, skin also plays an important immunological role. It
normally contains all the elements of cellular immunity, with the exception of B cells.2
Immune components of the skin are given.

PROTOCHORDATE SKIN
Protochordata are marine animals and show aquatic adaptations in the skin. Amphioxus
skin is made of the outer epidermis and an inner dermis but epidermis is composed of single
layer of living cells which must be protected on the surface by a layer of cuticle and a basement
membrane that attaches epidermal cells with dermal tissue. Dermis is composed of loose
connective tissue and lacks melanocytes.

SKIN OF CYCLOSTOMATA
Cyclostomes are also marine animals which are parasitic or flesh-feeders. They lack
scales on the skin and are dark in colour but the larval skin is ciliated. Epidermis is made of all
living cells but is thick and multilayered and is covered with a layer of cuticle for protection.
There are unicellular mucous glands in epidermis.
Dermis of cyclostomes is composed of collagenous connective tissue, which is tough and
fibrous tissue that provides strength to the skin. Thus, the cyclostomes skin is simple, without
many modifications as seen in more advanced groups.

FISH SKIN
All fishes being aquatic possess more or less similarly adapted skin. They possess a
multilayered epidermis of living cells that is covered on the surface with a layer of cuticle. Fishes
lack a typical stratum corneum made of dead and cornified cells as found in tetra pods.
Multicellular glands also occur in some fishes, e.g. electric organs of eels and electric rays,
and luminescent glands in deep sea fishes. Mucous glands are all unicellular.
Important modifications of skin are dermal scales that cover the body
for protection.

Kinds of scales. The following types of scales are found in living and extinct
fishes:

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

Cosmoid
scales. They
were found
in ancient
crossopteryg
ian fishes of
Devonian
period and
were many
layers thick
and strong
but not
flexible.
Apparently
ancient
crossopteryg
ian, with
thick and
hard scales covering the body, were not active and fast swimming animals.

Ganoid scales. They are thick rhomboidal scales having the surface coated with a hard enamel-
like material called ganoin and lacunae (pits) and canaliculae (fine canals) forming the surface
sculpture.

Cycloid and Ctenoid scales. These scales are found in modern teleosts and are thin, strong and
extremely flexible. They are large, oval in shape and made of isopodan and fibrous tissue.

Placoid scales. They are characteristics of cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthys) and are hard and
microscopic in size.

Evolutionary modifications in scales of fishes

Ostracoderms and placoderms, which were ancestors of all modern fishes, had their
bodies covered with dermal bony armour for protection from predators. These fishes were
sluggish in movement and were bottom feeders of detritus. To attain flexibility, the bony armour
gave way to cosmoid scales which were still like thick bony plates covering the body. In ganoid
fishes, the spongy bone of cosmoid scales was lost. Cycloid and ctenoid scales of modern
teleosts are very thin and flexible and consist of only isopodan and fibrous tissue. Thus modern
teleosts are agile and quick swimmers.

AMPHIBIAN SKIN
Amphibian skin shows adaptation to terrestrial life but the animals have to return back to
water for reproduction and hence the skin also demonstrate certain adaptation to aquatic mode of
life. On land a major problem faced by the animal is of desiccation and strong solar radiation.
There are no scales on the skin of modern amphibians, although ancestral labyrinthodont
amphibians had dermal scales on their skin for protection. Also, the scaly protection gone,
amphibians evolved mulitcellular poison glands to deter potential predators.

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Amphibian skin is the simplest skin having no particular modifications as found in higher
groups of vertebrates but it has typical structure of terrestrial skin that is subsequently carried
through to reptiles, birds and mammals.

REPTILIAN SKIN
Reptiles are completely independent of water. They do not have to go back to water for
breeding as they are capable of laying a large cleioid, shelled egg that can develop and hatch on
land. Reptiles are adapted to life in arid climate and have very few glands. Then there are dermal
plates on the body of crocodiles and turtles.
Exoskeleton of Chelonia (tortoises and turtles) consists of a dorsal convex carapace and a
ventral flat plastron which are attached by ligaments on the lateral sides. Outer surface of the
carapace and plastron consists of epidermal plates called scutes while the inner side is made of
dermal plates.
Carapace is fused with the vertebral column and attached to the plastron on the sides.

BIRD SKIN
Birds possess thin skin that is loosely attached to body to allow free movement of wings
during flight. Basic structure is of typical tetrapod skin. Feathers are characteristic modifications
of bird skin, which not only cover the entire body but also help in flight. Glands are absent in
bird skin except the uropygial glands near the tail that secrete oil for preening feathers.
Modifications of skin include epidermal scales on the legs and feet, claws, beak, spur, comb etc.

Contour feathers. Also called quill feathers, they are hard feathers that cover the entire body
and form the contour or outline of the body by which we identify the bird. Ventral side of the
shaft has a longitudinal groove called umbilical groove. Barbs on either side of the shaft area
arranged parallel to each other and in such a way that they form a flat Vane that has aerodynamic
shape.

Down feathers. Also called plumules, they are soft feathers that serve as insulation between the
hard contour feathers and the delicate skin. Powder down is a term used to identify such feathers
in adults whereas nestling down appear in chicks.

Hair feathers. They are hair-like thin and long feathers, also called filoplumes or pin feathers
and are scattered all over the body. They are especially modified to guard nostrils, ear openings
and serve as eye lashes. They are made of long thin hair-like shaft to the top of which are
attached a bunch of thin barbs and barbules.

Development of feather
Feathers grown on certain certain tracts on the skin called feather tracts or pterylae and
feathers do not grow on the areas termed as apterylae or apteria but the growth is dense and
hence the entire body is covered with feathers. Precocial chicks as in fowl and other game birds
are covered with nestling down when they hatch from the eggs but altricial chicks such as
sparrow and pigeon hatch naked and development of feather can be observed during the growth
of chicks. First indication of the growth of feathers on skin is the appearance of pimple-like
elevations called feather primordium that changes into feather follicle in the middle of which the

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

feather grows. The body of feather is produced by multiplication of epidermal cells assisted by
feather papilla.

MAMMALIAN SKIN
Mammalian skin is thick, tough, glandular and covered with hairs. Dermis is much
thicker than epidermis but general structure exhibits typical terrestrial skin characters. Epidermis
in some areas is very thick and can be differentiated into several layers. Dermis is thick and
composed of collagenous connective tissue which makes the entire skin tough and fibrous.
Mammalian skin has abundance of glands, particularly sudoriferous or sweat glands and
Sebaceous glands which are oil secreting glands attached to the hair follicle. Scent glands or
Hedonic glands found in musk deer and civets are also modifies epidermal glands.
Mammalian skin becomes sensory owing to the presence of large number of free
nerve endings and specialized receptors such as pacinian corpuscles, meissner’s corpuscles,
tactile discs, Krause’s end bulbs etc. Also the base of hair follicle is supplied with nerve, making

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

the hair sensory. Carnivores, rodents and many other mammals possess specialized hairs on the
upper lip called whiskers, which are sensitive to air currents, touch and vibrations.

Development of hair
Hairs grow on the skin in the embryonic stage and continue to grow throughout life.
When a hair has to grow, epidermal cells in that area multiply fast forming a mass of cells called
hair primordium that carries a dermal papilla at the base. Keratinization of epidermal cells inside
the hair follicle produce the hair root and shaft that grows out of skin. Length of the hair is
determined by the wear and tear to which the tip of the hair is exposed and the thickness of the
hair shaft.

Development of Mammary glands

Mammary glands are apocrine compound tubuloacinar glands that specialize in secreting
nourishing fluid called milk that is sucked from teats by the young ones of mammals.
Development of mammary glands is completed during embryonic stage in both male and female
sexes. The position and number of nipple formation along the milk line varies in different
species, e.g. one pair of axillary nipples are formed in flying lemurs, thoracic in primates, bats
and sirenians, one or two pairs of inguinal in ungulates.
When the mammary gland has to develop, epidermal cells of milk line in that particular
location start multiplying fast forming a mass of mammary tissue that grows and branches to
form a mass of considerable size. The development of mammary glands stops at this stage in
both sexes and further development takes place only in female at the time of puberty. Unlike in
hair or feather, development of mammary glands does not need the assistance of dermal papilla.
Monotremes possess primitive mammary glands which are perhaps modified sweat
glands that got attached to the hair follicles.

Horns in mammals
Mammals sport one pair of horns on the head which are organs and defense and offence
and sometimes serve as secondary sexual organs of male. The following five types of horns are
found in mammals:
1. True horns or Hollow horns, as found in family Bovidae that includes cattle.

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2. Pronghorns, found in pronghorn antelope.

3. Antlers, as found in deer family Cervidae.
4. Knob horns or Giraffe horns, found in giraffes.
5. Hair horns or Keratin fibre horns, found in rhinoceroses.
TRUE HORNS. These horns are found in cattle, sheep, goat and antelopes. They may be
straight, curved or spiralling as in antelopes and sheep and are made of bony core and a
keratinized epidermal sheath.

PRONGHORNS. They are found in pronghorn antelope, Antilocapra americana that inhabits
North American plains and also in Saiga antelope of Russia.

ANTLERS. They are found in the males of family Cervidae and are secondary sex organs meant
to attract females as well as to intimidate or fight the rival males. These horns are made of bony
core that grows from the frontal bones of the skull and is covered with living velvety skin.

KNOB HORNS. They are found in giraffes and okapi in both sexes and are permanent
structures. Structurally they are similar to the antlers with bony core covered with velvety skin.

HAIR HORNS. Found in rhinoceros, they are made of specialized hairs or keratinized fibres
that get agglutinated to form a pointed and hard horn.

OTHER MODIFICATIONS OF MAMMALIAN SKIN

1. Many mammals have epidermal scales as on the feet and tail of rats and mice.
2. There are dermal bony plates on the body of armadillo (order Edentata).
3. Ischial or Lilac callosities on monkey’s buttocks are cushion-like structures on
which the animal sits on hard branches and rocks.
4. Knee pads on the legs of camels are meant for absorbing shock when the animals
kneels and sits on the ground.
5. Tori are epidermal pads on fingers, palms and soles of feet of primates that help in
firm grasping branches of trees while climbing.
6. Baleens are horny epidermal plates numbering about 370 that hang from the roof
of the oral cavity of toothless whales. They are used to filter planktons such as
krill on which these giants of the sea feed.
7. Claws, nails and hooves are also cornified structures derived from the epidermis
of skin. They are made of two types of cornified tissue, the outer hard and shiny
tissue called unguis, under which lies a softer tissue called subunguis which lies in
contact with the living tissue.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016