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International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
www.elsevier.com/locate/IJPRT
Received 8 January 2017; received in revised form 12 July 2017; accepted 25 July 2017
Available online 29 July 2017
Abstract
Airport runways and taxiways are commonly comprised of a flexible pavement with an asphalt surface. Marshall-designed asphalt
with sawn grooves is the most frequent airport asphalt surface material. However, some airports have adopted alternate asphalt mixtures
for improved resistance to shear stress and for increased surface texture, allowing grooving to be avoided. Of the alternate asphalt mix-
tures, stone mastic asphalt is the most commonly reported. Resistance to shear stress is a critical performance requirement for airport
surface asphalt. Shear stress resistance minimises the risk of rutting, shoving and groove closure. However, fracture resistance must not
be ignored when developing even more shear resistance asphalt mixtures. Significant distress in airport asphalt surfaces, compliant with
the traditional prescriptive specification, has increased interest in a performance-based airport asphalt specification. Commonly reported
distresses include groove closure in slow moving aircraft areas and shearing in heavy aircraft braking zones. Development of reliable
performance-indicative test methods is expected in the future and will enable warranted performance-based asphalt mixture design
for airport surfaces.
Ó 2017 Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2. Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1. Regulatory requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.2. Marshall designed asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.3. Changes in bitumen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.4. The evolution of aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3. Examples of distress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.1. Rutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2. Shearing/shoving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3. Top-down cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4. Groove closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.5. Asphalt stripping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.6. Premature ravelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4. Airport asphalt requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijprt.2017.07.008
1996-6814/Ó 2017 Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
78 G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
Constructed and maintained without deviations or There is a widely held perception that bitumen quality
bumps that would adversely affect aircraft operation. has reduced over the last thirty years. There is significant
In practice this requires asphalt that is resistant to defor- evidence to show that crude oil quality has reduced, oil
mation by shearing, shoving and rutting so as to remain refining processes have become more efficient and bitumen
smooth and free-draining. is extended by the addition of what would traditionally
Constructed and maintained to provide good friction have been waste or by-product [5]. Changes in bitumen
characteristics when the surface is wet. In practice this supply and quality have anecdotally been linked to a num-
requires either an asphalt surface with naturally not less ber of airport asphalt surface distresses, including early life
than 1 mm surface texture or grooving of the asphalt shearing, premature ageing and early life top-down crack-
surface. ing [16].
Maintained free of loose material on the surface to pre- Traditionally, conventional bitumen (unmodified by
vent damage to aircraft. In practice this requires airport polymers or acid, usually graded by viscosity or penetra-
asphalt to be durable and resistant to ravelling and tion) was the normal binder for airport asphalt and for
cracking. many years provided good asphalt performance. However,
stripping issues, horizontal deformation, groove closure
Some of these requirements are conflicting. For exam- and early ageing prompted many airports and designers
ple, a highly deformation resistant mixture can be con- to move to premium or modified binders around the year
structed with coarsely graded asphalt with a low portion 2000. Since then, premium (often polymer modified) bin-
of a hard bitumen. However, such an asphalt mixture is ders have been adopted for the majority of airport works.
unlikely to be durable. It follows that airport asphalt In countries where the Performance Grading (PG) system
design and specification requires a balance of the various developed in the USA is used, one or two grade-bumps
competing requirements. are required for airport asphalt accommodating aircraft
with significant wheel loads [17].
2.2. Marshall designed asphalt In practice, bitumen is being ever more engineered,
through the addition of polymers and other additives, to
The Marshall mixture design method was developed in maintain an acceptable level of asphalt performance. The
1939 by Bruce Marshall for the Mississippi Highways increase in engineering of bitumen is required to overcome
Department [1]. During the 1940s and 1950s, it was the reduced reliability of binder response to load, as well as
adapted and adjusted for significant military aircraft loads. the increased load being applied by modern aircraft.
Many countries, including Australia, predominantly retain
Marshall-designed asphalt for airport surfacing. The pri- 2.4. The evolution of aircraft
mary aims of the Marshall design method include [1]:
Since their first introduction in the early 1900s, aircraft
A densely graded aggregate skeleton with 15% voids in have become progressively larger and heavier. Particularly
the mineral aggregate. since WWII, aircraft wheel loads and tyre pressures have
Filling the voids in the mineral aggregate with bitumi- increased significantly [18–19]. At the time of its introduc-
nous binder so as to retain 4% air voids. tion in 1958, the DC 8–50 was the most damaging commer-
80 G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
cial aircraft in the world with a tyre pressure of 1.35 MPa stresses applied to asphalt surfaces, even when the pave-
and wheel load of 19.0 t, which is quite modest by ment structure is protected by increased wheel spacing.
modern-day reckoning. Since that time, tyre pressures More stress resistant asphalt is required to meet the
and wheel loads have increased incrementally. In 2001 Air- increasing demand of modern aircraft and avoid an
bus introduced its extended wide body A340-600 commer- increase in surface distress.
cial passenger jet. This modern and technologically
advanced aircraft remains one of the most demanding on 3. Examples of distress
pavements with a tyre pressure of 1.61 MPa and wheel load
of 30.8 tonnes [20]. Airport asphalt distress modes are not significantly dif-
The A380-800 became the largest passenger aircraft in ferent from road and highway asphalt distresses. However,
the world when it was introduced in 2005. Although heav- the particular requirements of airport pavements, relating
ier than other aircraft, its wheel load is less severe at to pavement-generated loose material, known as Foreign
26.8 tonnes with a tyre pressure of 1.40 MPa [20]. The com- Object Debris (FOD), and aircraft skid resistance, reduce
bined twenty-wheel main landing gear allowed for the less the tolerance of such distresses. Table 1 summarises com-
critical pavement loading. The B787-8, introduced in 2009, mon airport asphalt distress modes, how they impact air-
was a smaller aircraft with 1.60 MPa tyre pressure and craft pavement performance and what material factors
27 tonne wheel loads [21]. The most recent large aircraft affect their risk. Temperature is critical to all distress modes
advancement by Boeing was the B747-800F, introduced due to the temperature dependence of bitumen properties.
in 2010. With new gull-shaped wings, this aircraft joined Load-induced stress is also important as the primary trig-
the A380 as the only Code F (wingspan exceeding 65 m) ger of many modes of distress.
commercial jets in the world. Based on a B747-400, the Bottom-up asphalt fatigue cracking is rarely encoun-
landing gear remains relatively modest at 1.55 MPa tyre tered in airport pavements. This reflects the generally low
pressure and 26.5 tonnes [21]. traffic volumes and the greater thickness and stiffness of
In contrast, the newest aircraft from Airbus, the A350, airport pavements, when compared to road pavements
first flew in 2013. Its variants entered service in 2015 [16]. That is not to say that airport pavements are immune
(A350-900) and 2016 (A350-800). At 1.66 MPa and from asphalt fatigue and crocodile cracking. When pave-
31.8 tonnes [20] the A350-900 is now the most demanding ments are overloaded, high vertical deflection occurs under
commercial aircraft in the world, based on tyre pressure load. When exposed to such high deflections, pavement
and individual wheel load. The impact on the pavement surfaces fail rapidly by bottom-up asphalt fatigue.
structure is reduced by a wider wheel spacing. However, Bleeding is also rarely encountered in airport asphalt
asphalt surfaces are exposed to higher tyre pressures and and is avoided by maintaining a minimum in situ void con-
individual wheel loads than ever before. These higher tyre tent of 3–4% [15]. Aggregate breakdown is rarely a signifi-
pressures and wheel loads combine to impart higher shear cant issue with minimum aggregate properties specified,
stresses in asphalt surface layers [22]. such as abrasion resistance and parent rock soundness lim-
In practice, aircraft wheel loads and tyre pressures will its. The higher-risk distress modes include rutting, shear-
continue to increase as aircraft manufacturers strive for ing/shoving, top-down cracking, groove closure, stripping
ever greater fuel efficiency [2]. The result is higher shear and ravelling, as described in detail below.
Table 1
Summary of airport asphalt distresses.
Distress mode Impacts on Affected by Level of risk
Rutting Skid resistance Deformation resistance Medium
Surface smoothness
Shearing/shoving Skid resistance Deformation resistance High
Surface smoothness
Top down cracking Loose material generation Fracture resistance Medium
Water tight surface
Fatigue cracking Loose material generation Fracture resistance Low
Water tight surface
Groove closure Skid resistance Deformation resistance High
Bleeding Skid resistance Volumetric compositionAir void content Low
Deformation resistance
Stripping Deformation resistance Moisture susceptibility Medium
Aggregate grading
Premature ravelling Loose material generation Aggregate grading Medium
Bitumen ageing
Aggregate breakdown Loose material generation Aggregate properties Low
G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98 81
Fig. 1. Asphalt surface rutting [2]. Fig. 2. Severe surface asphalt shearing under aircraft braking.
82 G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
An Australian airport was reported to experience unu- [32]. No other reports of severe top down cracking of air-
sual asphalt surface softness during the summer months port surface asphalt have been located. However, increases
[15]. High temperature susceptibility of the binder was con- in aircraft wheel load and tyre pressures combine to
cluded, although a reduction in softness was observed after increase the shear and tensile stresses at the pavement sur-
three years. A similar case of surface tenderness was face. It follows that the risk of top down cracking in airport
reported at another Australian airport [26]. A change in pavements can only increase in the future. At this time, top
the modified binder crude oil source resulted in a more down cracking is a low-likelihood and moderate-
shear susceptible asphalt surface, leading to shearing and consequence risk to airport asphalt surfaces, mitigated by
tearing in the aircraft braking zone. Like the previous avoiding acid-modified bitumen.
example, the tenderness reduced after three years [11].
Newark airport, in New Jersey (USA) experienced
3.4. Groove closure
asphalt shearing in the heavy aircraft braking zone associ-
ated with aircraft landings [27]. It was concluded that inad-
Groove closure is one of the most commonly reported
equate aggregate interlock resulted in a reduction in shear
airport asphalt surface distresses, particularly in hot coun-
strength.
tries such as Australia [2]. Groove closure adversely
In summary, asphalt shearing is concerning for airport
impacts aircraft skid resistance because the effective volume
asphalt surfaces and there appears to be a growing fre-
of the grooves is reduced (Fig. 4) affecting the efficiency of
quency of incidents reported. Deviation in the groove
water egress from under the tyre. Groove closure most
alignment is not necessarily detrimental. However, the risk
commonly occurs where aircraft move slowly and in a
of surface tearing, allowing water ingress and potential
direction that is parallel to the alignment of the grooves
FOD generation, is significant and the potential to
[33] such as where taxiways intersect with runways.
adversely impact safe aircraft operation is high. Surface
Traditionally, grooves were cut transversely to the run-
asphalt shearing is therefore a high-likelihood and
way centreline and are generally 6 mm by 6 mm in dimen-
moderate-consequence risk.
sion and spaced 32 mm apart [17]. However, some airports
have recently used trapezoidal grooves for increased resis-
3.3. Top-down cracking tance to groove closure, as well as reduced build-up of tyre
rubber from landing aircraft [3]. The presence of the
Top down cracking is distinctly different to tearing of grooves also reduces the support provided to the asphalt
the surface due to shearing. It is also different to bottom- surface between the grooves. If follows that the deforma-
up fatigue cracking, which is generally not an issue for air- tion resistance of the asphalt mastic is critical to runway
port pavements [2]. Top down cracking results from high groove closure resistance [34].
shear and tensile stresses at the surface of the pavement, Groove closure has been reported at numerous airports
resulting from stress concentrations around the ribs and in Australia, usually occurring within the first three years
side walls of tyres [31]. Australian airports have experi- after resurfacing and most commonly during extended
enced significant top down cracking, likely associated with periods of unusually hot weather [15]. Significant groove
chemical hardening in acid modified bitumen [32]. In one closure was reported at the new Hong Kong airport,
severe case, FOD was generated from interconnected despite trafficking being delayed for 12 months after its
cracks (Fig. 3) and the asphalt surface required full construction [33]. Similarly, the runway at the new airport
removal and replacement, just five years after construction
Fig. 3. Severe top down cracking in an airport asphalt surface. Fig. 4. Groove closure in an airport asphalt surface.
G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98 83
mode of distress triggering airport asphalt resurfacing [41]. of the surface is impacted. Excessive surface-generated
As the binder ages and oxidises, the mastic becomes brittle FOD presents a risk to aircraft safety and surface ravelling
and erodes from the surface by wind, vehicle tyres and rain is a moderate-likelihood and moderate-consequence dis-
[15]. When mastic erosion progresses, the coarse aggregate tress for airport asphalt surfaces.
is exposed and is eventually lost from the surface (Fig. 6).
Resurfacing is triggered by the loss of coarse aggregate pre- 4. Airport asphalt requirements
senting an unacceptable FOD risk to aircraft [2,15].
Binder ageing, mastic erosion and the loss of coarse Airport asphalt surface requirements have not been
aggregate is an accepted mechanism of surface ageing. extensively researched or documented but must minimise
However, where ravelling occurs prematurely the service the risk of the most important modes of distress described
life and whole of life cost of the surface are compromised. above. EAPA [12] proposed skid resistance, freedom from
It has been reported in Australia that the average airport FOD and stability under high aircraft wheel loads as the
asphalt surface life has reduced from 15 or more years primary requirements. Emery [34] agreed and specifically
down to just 10 years [42]. More rapid binder ageing, noted resistance to groove closure and viscous deforma-
resulting in premature mastic erosion, is likely to be a sig- tion. In related work, compactability during construction
nificant factor. and durability were also noted [15]. In a more recent work,
Binder ageing is complex and not well understood [43]. White & Embleton [16] recommended that fatigue life also
Ageing is a function of oxidation, which is impacted by be considered as stiffer asphalt mixtures and binders are
binder film thickness, surface permeability and exposure developed to improve deformation resistance. The impor-
of the surface to thermal loading and radiation [44]. Accel- tance of fatigue resistance was also noted by Hachiya
erated ageing of binder samples in the laboratory is a com- et al. [47] along with deformation resistance. Further, Rod-
mon method of evaluation. A Pressurised Ageing Vessel way [2] noted asphalt moisture damage resistance and dur-
(PAV) was developed by Christensen & Andersen [45] able bond to the underlying pavement as important.
and is now the most common method for determining bin-
der susceptibility to rapid ageing [43]. 4.1. Deformation resistance
Reports of ravelling in airport asphalt surfaces are not
common. This likely reflects ravelling being an accepted Airport asphalt mixtures with high resistance to perma-
age-related phenomenon and a gradual acceptance of the nent deformation reduce the risk of shearing, shoving, rut-
reduction in average service life. However, premature rav- ting and groove closure. Surface layer asphalt rutting
elling was reported at Newmark airport in New Jersey results from shear deformation rather than densification
(USA) resulting in unacceptable FOD risk to aircraft of the mixture [48]. Shoving of the surface is also shear-
[46]. It was concluded that the polymer modified binder related and results from horizontal shear stresses associ-
had aged significantly faster than expected, resulting in a ated with braking and turning aircraft [49]. Groove closure
prematurely brittle mastic. results from shear and compressive deformation of the
In summary, asphalt surface ravelling due to binder oxi- asphalt between the grooves. Because of the smaller scale
dation and mastic embrittlement is a normal and expected and reduced support provided by the coarse aggregate
process for asphalt surfaces. However, where the rate of skeleton, groove closure resistance is more dependent on
deterioration is greater than expected, the serviceable life the mastic properties than rutting or shearing.
The impact of asphalt deformation is significant.
Groove closure impacts aircraft skid resistance and both
shearing and groove closure have necessitated significant
early intervention in recent years. It follows that improve-
ment in asphalt deformation resistance is required to pro-
tect airport asphalt against the effects of new aircraft
with higher tyre pressures and wheel loads. Concerningly,
the traditional Marshall mixture design method does not
include reliable deformation prediction tools [6–7]. Mastic
resistance to deformation must also be characterised to bet-
ter understand resistance to groove closure.
characterisation of aggregate sources is based on a combi- As discussed above, the natural sand content is often
nation of consensus properties (angularity, size and shape) limited in airport asphalt to avoid excessive round particles
as well as source properties (abrasion resistance, strength, resulting in mixture instability [69]. Although natural sands
deleterious material content and chemical composition) commonly have more rounded particles than manufactured
[63]. The relative importance of the consensus and the sands, there is a significant overlap [76]. Measured shape
source properties are different for the coarse and the fine and texture of particles is a more reliable differentiator of
aggregate fractions. rounded and angular sands than generic categorisation as
The separation between coarse and fine aggregate is gen- ‘manufactured’ or ‘natural’ [77].
erally defined as the material passing a 4.75 mm or 2.0 mm Clay minerals are commonly present in quarried aggre-
sized sieve, depending on the soil classification system gate sources [38]. Aggregates containing clay minerals that
being used [64]. Commonly, the very fine aggregate is con- exhibit significant plasticity are potentially deleterious and
sidered part of the asphalt mastic rather than the aggregate are either avoided or treated with active filler such as
skeleton, and is usually defined as the portion passing the hydrated lime [78]. Deleterious clay minerals in coarse
100, 75 or 63 mm sieve, depending on the jurisdiction [40]. aggregate is not usually detrimental. However, the same
The skeleton of an asphalt mixture is determined by the clay minerals in fine aggregate sources affect asphalt perfor-
structure and gradation of the aggregates, primarily the mance. This reflects the increased interaction between fine
coarse fractions, as well as the coarse aggregate particle aggregate and bitumen, as well as the exposure of the fine
shape. These properties have a significant impact on the aggregate to air and moisture. Established testing for mois-
deformation resistance of the asphalt [65]. Further, the ture damage susceptibility of asphalt mixtures and the pres-
importance of air void distribution [66–67] and grading ence of excessive reactive clay minerals in fine aggregate is
[68] have also been demonstrated. Regarding the coarse readily available [38].
aggregate particles, shape is commonly characterised by In summary, aggregate represents a significant portion
the parameters; form, angularity and texture [69–70]. How- of the mass of asphalt and the coarse aggregate forms the
ever, the scale of each parameter depends on the size of the skeleton of the mixture. Coarse aggregate shape and
particle being characterised [63]. particle packing are important to asphalt deformation
Regarding the overall aggregate skeleton of an asphalt resistance. The fine aggregate is equally important and con-
mixture, characterisation is performed either directly tributes to the asphalt mastic, which as detailed below,
through microstructure assessment or via bulk material determines the visco-elastic properties of the asphalt.
properties using macrostructure measurements [71]. Although aggregate properties are important, established
Research has shown asphalt performance to be affected consensus and source properties provide reliable indication
by variations in the orientation and spatial distribution of the contribution of the aggregate to the overall asphalt
of coarse aggregate particles [72]. The number and length performance.
of contact points is known to influence asphalt shear
strength [73] as does the distribution of the air voids within 5.2. Chemical fillers and liquid additives
the sample [74]. Further, the orientation of the aggregate
particles changes significantly during the first two to three Fillers are added to asphalt mixtures to improve density
years of trafficking, impacting the modulus, strength and and strength [79] through both physical and chemical inter-
other mixture characteristics [75]. actions with the bitumen [80]. Fillers stiffen bitumen by
Fine aggregate is commonly obtained from natural or thickening it and reducing viscous flow potential [81]. Some
manufactured sources. Natural sources include river sands fillers also reduce temperature susceptibility [82] and pro-
or sand pits. Manufactured sands are usually a by-product mote improved bitumen-aggregate adhesion [78] which
of quarry crushing operations associated with the produc- reduces the risk of stripping. Fillers can be chemically
tion of coarse aggregate fractions and graded crushed rock. active or inert minerals. Common fillers include limestone
Manufactured sands are commonly referred to as ‘dust’ as dust, hydrated lime, fly ash, general purpose or blended
they are the captured as airborne mineral particles gener- cement, as well as sandstone and granite dusts [80]. While
ated by crushing equipment. a range of fillers are commonly incorporated into asphalt,
Fine aggregate shape and packing properties impact their specific advantages and risks are not well understood
asphalt deformation resistance [75]. Further, the fine aggre- [55].
gate shape contributes more to asphalt performance than Different filler types and sources have very different
large aggregate particle shape does. The improved defor- chemical compositions, as well as different shapes, densities
mation resistance associated with angular fine aggregate and voids [83]. Of the various fillers, hydrated lime has
has been demonstrated by many researchers [76]. However, been most commonly specified for airport asphalt since
highly angular fine aggregate inhibits workability during the 1970s [2]. Hydrated lime is an effective asphalt filler
construction. In practice, a blend of rounded (usually nat- as it promotes anti-stripping properties by reducing mois-
ural) and angular (usually manufactured) sands provides a ture sensitivity [38]. Lime also reacts chemically to harden
balance between workability during construction and the bitumen while reducing the rate of post-production oxi-
deformation resistance under traffic. dation [78]. However, adding significant volumes of min-
G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98 87
eral fillers, such as hydrated lime, often introduces other extended with propane precipitated asphalt and other
challenges. products [90]. Commonly a combination of these processes
Crushing hard rock sources for coarse aggregate pro- is used. The properties of bitumen are responsible for the
duces a high portion of fine particles. This creates a chal- time and temperature dependence of visco-elastic asphalt
lenge for the mixture designer to maintain the portion of performance [90]. However, these properties are also essen-
aggregate passing the 75 mm sieve in the 4–6% range and tial for the production and paving of asphalt surfaces.
also achieve the specified grading on the 150 to 600 mm It has long been acknowledged that bitumen properties
sieves [84]. It follows that for many hard aggregate sources, can change and migrate over time and that multiple
adding 1–2% of active filler is not viable without creating batches or shipments from the same source of crude will
mixture instability risk through excess fine material con- have variability [91]. For example, bitumens manufactured
tent. Further, in many regional and remote areas, hydrated from light crudes are more susceptible to high temperature
lime is prohibitively expensive and logistically challenging. asphalt shear creep than those from heavier crudes [92].
Liquid anti-stripping agents provide an alternate to Crude source variability may also require changes in the
hydrated lime for improving resistance to moisture damage refining process. These processing changes could further
[85]. alter some properties of the resulting paving grade bitumen
Introduced in the 1960s, liquid anti-stripping agents are in order to meet the applicable specification requirements.
generally nitrogen based and contain amines, fatty amines There is a perception that bitumen properties have chan-
or polyamines [53]. Different studies have reported signifi- ged and performance has declined over the years [5,34,92–
cantly different effectiveness of liquid ant-stripping agents 96]. There have certainly been changes in crude oil sources
compared to active fillers such as hydrated lime. For exam- [15,97] and associated rheological properties [92,95]. This is
ple, Putman & Amirkhanian [86] found hydrated lime and likely the result of refineries using new technologies to
liquid anti-stripping agent to be equally effective based on extract more high-demand products from crude oil sources
indirect tensile strength retained after moisture condition- of reducing quality and increasing variability. This has led
ing. In contrast, Sebaaly et al. [85] found hydrated lime to reduced confidence in non-performance based specifica-
to be significantly more effective than liquid anti-stripping tions and increased use of rheological bitumen testing [98].
agent. However, Pickering et al. [87] reported one liquid The traditional binder testing regimes were largely empiri-
agent to be significantly less effective than hydrated lime, cal in nature and lack linkage to performance in the field
while another liquid agent was found to be equivalent to [99]. In response to these concerns, the USA introduced
hydrated lime. Finally, Nazirizad et al. [88] found liquid PG grading, of binders in the 1990s. However, some
anti-stripping agent to be superior to hydrated lime. The researchers have questioned the reliability of PG grading,
above differences likely reflect the importance of aggregate particularly for highly modified binders [100] such as those
properties on the effectiveness of anti-stripping products, commonly used in airport asphalt production.
including hydrated lime [89]. It follows that moisture sus- The contribution of the binder to asphalt performance is
ceptibility, and the benefit of liquid anti-stripping agents significant [65]. Otherwise identical asphalt mixtures with
or hydrated lime, must be evaluated on a case-by-case different binder types, or even two sources of nominally
basis. identical bitumen, can respond differently due to differences
In summary, chemical fillers provide a range of benefits in chemical composition and rheology [96,101]. This sug-
to asphalt. However, the most important are to stiffen the gests that compliance with empirical specifications does
bituminous mastic and to increase resistance to moisture not guarantee adequate or consistent performance in the
damage. Despite these benefits, lime and other fillers are field.
expensive and logistically challenging in remote areas. It Complicating asphalt binder performance is the process
follows that there is a trend towards liquid anti-stripping of bitumen ageing. As discussed above, bitumen hardening
agents in asphalt mixture design. Liquid agents also avoid results from chemical ageing, steric hardening, oxidation
the challenge of accommodating the fine mineral filler with- and loss of volatiles [43,81,102]. Ageing is often measured
out impacting the overall grading and the target 4–6% (by via the evolution of viscosity or penetration and the hard-
volume) of aggregate passing the 75 mm sieve. Variation in ening of bitumen during asphalt production may only be
the relative effectiveness of hydrated lime and liquid anti- around 30% of the hardening expected over the life of
stripping agents indicates a mixture-specific evaluation of the asphalt [103]. Oliver [95] found that ageing also signif-
stripping potential is required. Established moisture dam- icantly affected the rheological composition of bitumen.
age tests are effective and readily available. Similarly, White [96] reported concerningly different ageing
profiles for different sources of the same grade of acid-
5.3. Bituminous binder modified bitumen.
In summary, bituminous binder is arguably the single
Conventional (unmodified by polymers or acid) paving most important constituent affecting the performance of
grade bitumen is the residue from the second distillation asphalt mixtures. Binder determines the relationship
of crude oil. The unmodified bitumen is then either blown between asphalt modulus and temperature as well as
with hot air, modified with polymers, has oils added or is visco-elastic response of asphalt to load. The change in
88 G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
bitumen resulting from oxidation over time is largely acterise the complex visco-elastic properties of asphalt will
responsible for the erosion of mastic and the ravelling of likely focus more on testing mastic, primarily with regard
asphalt with age. Importantly, binder is also the most com- to asphalt groove closure susceptibility.
plex and variable of the asphalt constituents and confi-
dence in the empirical testing for performance prediction 6. Alternate airport asphalt mixtures
has been eroded over time. Test methods that are more
indicative of field performance have been developed. How- Grooving of dense graded Marshall-designed airport
ever, a direct and reliable link between binder properties asphalt is costly and introduces the risk of groove closure.
and asphalt field performance, across a range of binder As discussed above, groove closure is likely the most diffi-
materials and types, has not been established. cult mode of airport asphalt distress to avoid in hot cli-
mates due to the high reliance of airport asphalt on the
5.4. Bituminous mastic deformation resistance of the mastic. Moreover, grooves
cut through the coarse aggregate particles reduce the con-
As discussed above, asphalt mastic comprises the com- tribution of the coarse aggregate skeleton to groove defor-
bined bituminous binder, added filler and very fine aggre- mation resistance. Further, in wet climates, the delay
gate and Delaporte et al. [56] and Qiu et al. [104] both between surfacing and grooving, when the surface has less
suggested mastic is the ‘real’ binder in asphalt. Tashman skid resistance than after grooving, presents a skidding risk
et al. [58] supported this by stating that the micro- to aircraft safety. It follows that a range of alternate airport
constituents govern the behaviour of the overall mixture. asphalt surfaces have been considered. These alternate mix-
It follows that testing mastic provides greater insight into tures aim to provide the surface texture and skid resistance
asphalt performance than testing binder [57]. However, levels recommended by ICAO, without requiring grooving
the impact of mastic on asphalt performance is dependent of the surface. Importantly, the definition of airport
on the mixture type. Muraya et al. [105] found mastic had asphalt surface performance requirements (Table 2)
greater influence on the response of dense graded, high bin- enables an objective basis for considering the relative per-
der content mixtures than on stone-to-stone mixes, such as formance of these alternate asphalt mixtures.
stone mastic and porous asphalt. Airport asphalts are usu-
ally specified to be dense graded with high binder contents 6.1. Open graded friction course
and rely heavily on mastic performance to resist deforma-
tion [15]. It follows that mastic properties are critical for OGFC, also referred to as popcorn mix or porous
typical airport asphalt mixture performance. asphalt, utilises a low portion of fine aggregate to create
Despite this agreement regarding importance, less is a surface that is self-draining through interconnected air
known about mastic response than that of bitumen [80]. voids [110]. OGFC is generally placed in a thin layer and
Faheem & Bahia [106] explained that mastics of seemingly is intended to reduce water spray and increase wet weather
similar constituents can perform significantly different. skid resistance. Disadvantages of OGFC include clogging
This can only be explained by physico-chemical interaction by detritus, reducing the effectiveness over time, as well
between the binder and mineral elements. Such interactions as the relatively short life until binder oxidation leads to
cannot be assessed by considering the binder and mineral unacceptable asphalt ravelling. Draining of binder from
components separately. Like binder, mastic exhibits plas- the mixture during transportation has also been reported
tic, elastic and viscous properties that are inherently tem- [111]. Improvements, including polymer modified binder,
perature dependent [107]. Creep and recovery testing is changes in aggregate grading and fibres have resulted in
therefore suited to mastic characterisation. OGFC being a common surfacing for high speeds roads
The ratio of filler to binder in mastic has been shown to around the world [112].
be critical to asphalt performance. As the filler portion The benefit of OGFC for improved aircraft slid resis-
increases, the mastic stiffens [55,104]. Liao et al. [80] found tance on runways was first recognised in the 1970s [113–
that the filler portion had a greater impact on mastic 114] and the UK used OGFC extensively for runway sur-
response than filler type did. Little & Petersen [108] demon- facing for over 40 years [12]. However, dense graded
strated that filler type and portion had different effects on asphalt is still used in parking aprons and slow moving
different binder sources. Using a range of binder, mastic taxiways where OGFC is less suited. Hydrated lime and
and mixture tests, a relationship was established between polymer modified binder have also been introduced to
filler:binder ratio and mixture creep performance [109]. improve the OGFC for airport surfaces in the UK.
In summary, mastic is the combination of bituminous Experimental surface sections in the touchdown zone of
binder, very fine aggregate and chemical fillers. Mastic is the runway at Johannesburg airport (South Africa)
the effective binder of an asphalt mixture and is critically included OGFC [115]. Although the skid resistance
important to airport asphalt performance. Mastic proper- remained good over the trial period, stone loss from the
ties also provide insight into aggregate-binder interactions surface resulted in OGFC not being recommended for fur-
that cannot be assessed by testing the binder and fine ther consideration. Australia also experimented with
aggregate separately. It follows that future efforts to char- OGFC, as early as 1973, to improve skid resistance prior
G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98 89
to grooving machines being economically available [33]. In in the USA remain primarily surfaced with dense graded
some cases, OGFC performed well and lasted up to asphalt and are grooved [3] or are rigid (concrete)
18 years. However, at other Australian airports excessive pavements.
stone loss resulted in the OGFC being urgently removed
and replaced. When grooving machines became routinely 6.3. Beton Bitumeux Aeronautique
available in Australia in the 1980s, OGFC was discontin-
ued as a runway surface layer, in favour of grooved dense Beton Bitumeux Aeronautique (BBA) is an example of
graded asphalt [33]. the high modulus asphalt mixtures developed in France
since the 1980s [123]. BBA includes four classes of asphalt,
6.2. Stone mastic asphalt closed and gap graded mixtures, each with maximum
aggregate particle size of 10 mm or 14 mm. When a gap
SMA was developed in Germany in the 1970s for resis- graded and 14 mm sized mixture is selected, the surface tex-
tance to damage from studded snow tyres. Associated ben- ture is generally 1.2–1.3 mm immediately following con-
efits regarding durability and resistance to shearing were struction and grooving of the surface is avoided [124].
quickly recognised [116]. SMA aggregate is gap graded Where grooving is required, regardless of the asphalt sur-
and the voids are filled with mastic. The result is a stone- face texture, a dense graded mixture is preferred, either
on-stone matrix, with a bitumen-rich mastic mortar [117]. 10 mm or 14 mm in size.
The high binder content provides durability while the BBA has been used as the standard airport surfacing for
stone-on-stone matrix provides a deformation resistant French runways for more than 30 years [125]. BBA is most
surface [118]. SMA subsequently became a popular road commonly used in conjunction with a high modulus, base
surface in high traffic applications across Europe, the or binder course, asphalt mixtures known as Enrobes a
USA, Asia, South Africa and Australia [116–117]. Module Eleve Class 2 (EME2) [126]. Since 2006, seven run-
SMA has been used as an airport runway surface in ways in the UK have been surfaced with a BBA product.
parts of Europe for many years. For example, SMA, along Of these, three comprised the ungrooved, gap graded
with dense graded asphalt, is a normal runway surface in 14 mm version [127]. Visually, ungrooved BBA (Fig. 7)
Denmark, Germany and Norway [12]. Campbell [117] also appears similar to the 20 mm coarse graded mixtures
reported SMA on European airports in Austria, Switzer- adopted in Australia in the 1970s. These coarse mixtures
land and the Czech Republic. The main runway at Brussels were discontinued in the 1980s due to significant loose
airport (Belgium) was also surfaced with SMA with good stone generation [2] as discussed below. It is likely that
performance reported. However, complications associated the improved stone retention of BAA reflects the modified
with de-icing agents prompted engineers to revert to dense binder, which also results in a higher asphalt modulus. The
graded asphalt for subsequent work [119]. Despite this, the first ungrooved BBA runway surface in the UK was at
Belgian military continued with SMA for runway resurfac- Manchester airport (England) constructed in 2011.
ing [117]. SMA was also used on the runway of Aviano mil- Whether a reduced surface life, like that associated with
itary airport (Italy) [120]. Further, SMA was selected for OGFC, will result from the open surface texture, will not
the surfacing of the King Shaka airport runway, near Dur- be determined until around 2020.
ban (South Africa) based on higher deformation resistance
than other mixtures and to avoid grooving [120].
Asia followed Europe with China now the world leader
in SMA for runway surfacing [119]. SMA, either 13 mm of
16 mm maximum aggregate size, is a normal surface for
Chinese airports with over 35 runways surfaced with
SMA starting with Beijing airport in 1996 [121–122].
Reported benefits include high shear (deformation) resis-
tance, combined with acceptable skid resistance and sur-
face texture without requiring grooving [122].
Australia has made only limited use of SMA for airport
pavements. Cairns airport has SMA on a number of apron
areas and Sydney airport performed a small production
and construction trial in 1999 [119]. Variable success dur-
ing apron and taxiway trials, as well as perceived ravelling
risk, has prevented any significant use of SMA on Aus-
tralian airport runways [2].
In northern America, SMA has been successfully used
for surfacing at least two runways in Mexico in 2004 and
2005 [119]. Indianapolis airport (USA) surfaced a signifi- Fig. 7. Gap graded 14 mm sized BBA runway surface (Ó Daru
cant taxiway with SMA in 2005 [119]. However, runways Widyatmoko).
90 G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
6.4. Larger sized dense asphalt lent performance of seven to ten year old surfaces. Guercio
& McCarthy [135] reported that airport surface asphalt
Increasing the maximum particle size in the surface containing both RAP and WMA presented a saving of
asphalt mixture increases the surface texture. However, lar- up to 27% and recommended incorporation into future
ger sized surfaces also require thicker layers, which are FAA specifications. In Australia, WMA has been used at
more expensive. The additional cost of the surface layer a number of airports for rapid trafficability in hot climates
thickenings may be offset by a saving associated with not and where multiple layers of asphalt were constructed in
grooving the surface. However, even larger sized mixtures one work period [131]. Christchurch airport (New Zealand)
are unlikely to achieve the 1 mm surface texture recom- also trialled WMA on taxiways and runways since 2009
mended by ICAO [33]. Consequently, larger sized asphalt [136]. It is expected that use of WMA and RAP in airport
mixtures are not recommended for improved skid asphalt will increase as confidence in the performance of
resistance. the technology improves.
For example, prior to routine grooving of dense graded
asphalt some Australian airports utilised 20 mm sized 6.6. Summary
dense graded mixtures with the aim of increasing the sur-
face texture above that achieved by 14 mm mixtures. How- The cost and risk associated with grooving dense graded
ever, surface texture was still only 0.5–0.6 mm. The new asphalt for runway surfacing has increased interest in alter-
Hong Kong airport was similarly surfaced with a 20 mm nate mixtures types. The aim for these alternate airport
mix in the 1990s [2]. The lack of surface texture was asphalt surfaces is to provide adequate surface texture
accepted without grooving. and skid resistance to avoid grooving. However, a durable
Although field trials were not reported, Japanese surface must also be maintained to prevent FOD being
researchers investigated 30 mm and 40 mm sized asphalt generated in the form of loose stones ravelling out of the
surface mixtures for airports [128]. Interestingly, the larger surface layer. Alternate asphalt types include OGFC,
sized mixtures were compared against 13 mm and 20 mm SMA and BBA (gap graded) materials. Of these, SMA is
mixtures, both of which were reported to be conventional the most widely reported and has properties that appear
for Japanese airport surfaces. Durability, by stone loss to provide adequate surface texture and skid resistance,
from the surface, was unfortunately not reported. without significant ravelling risk. Further, SMA is likely
to provide a comparable or better surface life than grooved
6.5. Warm mix asphalt and Recycled asphalt pavement dense graded asphalt. Increased use of WMA and RAP is
also expected as environmental sustainability becomes a
Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) and Recycled Asphalt higher priority. Importantly, as airport asphalt surfaces
Pavement (RAP) are complementary technologies that pro- move further away from the traditional mixtures with
vide environmental and safety benefits. WMA relies on empirical performance records, test methods that are
additives or bitumen foaming to allow asphalt to be pro- indicative of airport asphalt performance properties
duced, paved, compacted and finished 30–40 °C cooler (Table 2) become more important.
than comparable hot asphalt [129]. Among other benefits,
this results in less oxidation of the bitumen during produc- 7. Laboratory test methods
tion. In contrast, replacement of some of the virgin aggre-
gate with RAP introduces a portion of bitumen than has As discussed above, there is a need for better performing
already been oxidised during production and in the field, airport asphalt mixtures. The basis for comparing and
resulting in a significantly harder binder [130]. The softer developing alternate airport surface asphalt must include
WMA binder and the harder RAP binder counter each laboratory test methods that are indicative of the field per-
other, making the two technologies complementary [131]. formance requirements (Table 2). This is particularly
Su et al. [132] recommended WMA for rapid trafficabil- important when considering changing the type(s) of asphalt
ity where runways are resurfaced in limited work periods. mixture utilised.
It was also recommended that any increased risk of mois-
ture damage be mitigated by the addition of anti- 7.1. Deformation resistance
stripping agent into the asphalt mixture design. The mois-
ture concern was also reported by Rushing et al. [133] after Deformation resistance of asphalt mixtures is charac-
comparing hot and warm asphalt mixtures produced in the terised in both static and dynamic load modes. Dynamic
laboratory and in production plants. In contrast, White loading is usually applied either by a wheel tracking device
[131] found no statistically significant differences in mois- or by a cyclic loading apparatus. Static testing is not rec-
ture content for otherwise nominally identical hot and ommended because the aggregate skeleton often locks-up,
warm mixed asphalt. which is not realistic under dynamic vehicle loading, reduc-
In the USA, RAP has been incorporated into airport ing the reliability of the results [48].
asphalt surfaces for over fifteen years [134]. A field inspec- There are a number of scaled or controlled load wheel
tion of three runways containing RAP found good to excel- tracking devices. Common machines include the Asphalt
G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98 91
Pavement Analyzer (APA), Hamburg Wheel Tracking applications. For research applications, the greater capabil-
Device and the French Rutting Tester [137–138]. These ity of the MMLS3 provides significant advantage over
common scaled-load test devices are useful for routine smaller wheel tracking devices. However, the MMLS3 is
and practical applications. Rushing et al. [6] recommended expensive compared to the simpler devices and it is not
the APA, modified to achieve higher wheel load, for quality widely available.
assurance of airport asphalt construction, citing compati-
bility with cores recovered from the asphalt layer for qual- 7.2. Fracture resistance
ity assurance testing. The UK and Australia predominantly
use the Cooper’s Wheel Tracker, which is also similar to Asphalt fatigue is traditionally characterised as a rela-
the APA [139]. tionship between tensile strain magnitude and number of
The University of Stellenbosch’s Institute of Transport cycles to failure [144]. This traditional approach is conve-
Technology (South Africa) developed a mobile load simu- nient for design and practical applications, but is not based
lator in the 1990s [140]. The current version, known as the on fundamental physical effects. Material characterisation
Mobile Model Load Simulator Mark 3 (MMLS3) provides for fracture resistance uses a number of test modes and
greater capability and flexibility for specialised arrangements [145] (Fig. 8). Two-point bending, four-
investigation and research applications than the more com- point bending, uniaxial tension, indirect tension and notch
mon laboratory wheel tracking devices. The MMLS3 is a bending are common laboratory test modes [146–147].
one-third-scale, accelerated loading facility and was first In practice, asphalt fatigue is most commonly charac-
produced in 1997. It comprises four single wheels of tyre terised by repeated load beam bending and indirect tensile
pressure up to 850 kPa and wheel load up to 2.7 kN. The modes. However, the low frequency of excessive cracking
four wheels cyclically traverse nine 100 mm diameter circu- in airport surfaces has resulted in little interest in the devel-
lar samples aligned in a track, at between 1800 and 7200 opment of airport-specific test methods [2]. A greater inter-
load applications per hour. The test bed is temperature est in airport asphalt fracture is expected in the future in
controlled ( 5 to 60 °C) and can be in a saturated or dry response to top-down cracking associated with higher
condition [140]. Key advantages of the MMLS3 over con- wheel loads and tyre pressures [32]. Road asphalt research-
ventional wheel tracking devices include the ability to scale ers in the USA have developed complex models based on
the load and tyre pressure and to test at a broad range of visco-elastic damage initiation and finite element based
temperatures, in wet and dry conditions. crack propagation for top-down cracking prediction,
Turning to mechanical testing of asphalt, the Trans- including the effects of ageing and healing, for road pave-
portation Research Board (TRB) selected and assessed a ments [149]. This work could be extended to airport asphalt
number of simple deformation performance tests [141]. surfaces in the future.
The three most appropriate tests were the repeated load tri- In summary, fracture resistance is not generally an issue
axial (returning a dynamic modulus), repeated uniaxial for aircraft asphalt surfaces due to the thick and stiff pave-
compression (returning a Flow Number) and static uniax- ment structures, combined with relatively low traffic fre-
ial compression (returning a Flow Time) [142]. Sousa et al. quency. The traditional fatigue tests, including beam
[48] recommended the Flow Number test over Flow Time bending and indirect tension modes, provide a reliable
due to the cyclic loading. In contrast, Rushing & Little basis for ensuring that more deformation resistant mixtures
[143] found the rut rate from the APA was better correlated are no more susceptible to fracture than current airport
to Flow Time than to Flow Number. It is possible that the asphalt mixtures. Where top-down cracking is a significant
particular mixtures assessed by Rushing & Little [143] did risk, more sophisticated evaluation methods are required,
not experience aggregate lock-up, as described by Sousa such as those developed for roads.
et al. [48] as a risk associated with static load testing.
White & Embleton [16] used the Flow Number test to
compare different bitumen types in the same aggregate
and mixture design. The strain rate per cycle indicated
the resistance to deformation of the bituminous mastic
while the cumulative strain at the commencement of ter-
tiary flow indicated the resistance to deformation of the
aggregate skeleton. This provided a mechanism for sepa-
rating the relative contributions of the aggregate skeleton
and the mastic to asphalt mixture deformation resistance.
In summary, mechanical testing and scaled wheel track-
ing both provide an established basis for the relative defor-
mation resistance of asphalt mixtures and both approaches
are applicable to aircraft pavement surfaces. Of the
mechanical tests, Flow Number is preferred while the smal-
ler wheel tracking devices are suited to routine or practical Fig. 8. Crack test mode arrangements [148].
92 G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
abrasive conditioning and the reduction in sample mass remain important because laboratory asphalt mixture char-
due to breakdown and erosion is measured [81]. Pérez- acterisation is unlikely to identify significant deficiencies.
Jiménez at al. [55] reported UCL of the asphalt mixture Importantly, the trend towards alternate mixtures and per-
to assess mastic durability, as an indicator of coarse aggre- formance testing of asphalt surfaces is well suited to the
gate loss from the surface. performance-based specification and procurement of air-
At the constituent material level, bitumen ageing and port pavement surfacing.
oxidation impact the durability of the asphalt mixture by
mastic erosion and coarse aggregate loss with time. Bitu-
men durability testing, based on accelerated ageing in the 8. Towards performance-based asphalt
PAV, is well established [43] and provides an indirect mea-
sure of the contribution of the bitumen to coarse aggregate As discussed above, there are a number of examples of
loss. Similarly, evaluation of aggregate source rock resis- compliant airport asphalt, constructed appropriately and
tance to breakdown is well established in airport asphalt with a high level of scrutiny, not performing as expected
specifications [15]. in the field. As a result, there has been a reduction in con-
In summary, the TSR is an established indicator of fidence that the traditional, prescriptive, Marshall-based
asphalt durability due to moisture damage. Wheel tracking specification reliably delivers the level of performance
tests using either the MMLS3 or the Hamburg wheel required by modern aircraft, as summarised in Table 2.
tracker, with immersed samples, also provides an indica- In response to these concerns, a number of airports have
tion of moisture susceptibility of the asphalt mixture. With attempted to transfer the responsibility for asphalt surface
regard to aggregate loss and ravelling due to ageing and performance to suppliers and contractors.
oxidation, durability testing of bitumen is well established. Where a prescriptive mixture design method is specified,
However, the UCL provides the advantage of taking into also requiring performance outcomes in the field is not
account the interaction between bitumen and fine aggre- appropriate. Rather, a relaxation of the prescriptive speci-
gate within the bituminous mastic. fication is required, with a focus on asphalt characteristics
that are more indicative of field performance. This
approach allows suppliers and contractors to innovate
7.5. Summary for overall efficiency and risk reduction, as well as provid-
ing airport owners with field-performance guarantees, via
Laboratory testing of asphalt mixtures is critical to iden- contractual warranty provisions. Importantly, the stochas-
tifying potential issues prior to construction of airport sur- tic nature of constituent ingredients, tolerances in asphalt
faces. This reflects the high disruption cost associated with mixture production and variability in construction must
unplanned runway closures. It is likely that airport asphalt all be considered in developing a performance based spec-
characterisation will become more focussed on test meth- ification [159].
ods that are more indicative of performance in the field In the USA, a number of Departments of Transport
(Table 3). As a result, the traditional and empirical test have developed nine year warranty provisions for asphalt
methods will become less important for mixture design. surfacing works [160]. The aim was to extend pavement life
However, the specialised testing equipment required for by making the contractor responsible for the performance
performance characterisation is often not available in of the asphalt. However, other agencies have avoided a per-
regional and remote locations. It follows that once the mix- formance warranty approach citing concerns regarding
ture design is completed, the traditional volumetric and reduced competition and increased project delivery cost
Marshall testing will likely remain the basis of asphalt pro- [161]. In contrast to this concern, Krebs [162] found that
duction quality control and compliance verification. Fur- warranted highways were 30% smoother and 14% less
ther, the key evolutionary constituent material properties, expensive than un-warranted works of comparable age.
such as bitumen ageing and aggregate weathering, will Importantly, the reduction in cost was only associated with
Table 3
Summary of airport asphalt test methods.
Physical requirement Traditional Test Methods Future Test Methods
Deformation resistance Marshall Stability Wheel tracking
Marshall Flow Flow Number/Flow Time
Mastic MSCR
Fracture resistance Not traditionally tested Two/Four point bending beam
Repeated load indirect tension
Surface friction and texture Sand patch testing Laser scanning
Continuous Friction testing devices
Durability Prescriptive grading (ravelling) TSR (stripping)
Aggregate source properties (breakdown) Cantabro losses (ravelling)
Bitumen PAV ageing (ravelling)
94 G. White / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 77–98
projects that were appropriately selected as being suited to It follows that alternate asphalt mixture types, such as
warranted delivery. Where circumstances were not con- SMA, which is more resistant to deformation and allows
ducive to warranty provisions, the costs were higher than grooving to be avoided, are of increasing interest to the air-
for un-warranted works [162]. port pavement industry. Performance-based specification
More recently, the Netherlands has delivered the major- of asphalt mixtures is also desired. Importantly, improved
ity of highway projects using either design and construct or asphalt surface performance must be driven by both defor-
design, construct and maintain contracts. Initially a five to mation resistance and fracture resistance. However, surface
ten year warranty was required but this has recently been texture and skid resistance must not be compromised and
increased to twenty or twenty-five years, with the addition surfaces must be durable with regard to ravelling and mois-
of long term maintenance responsibility [163]. The war- ture damage. Test methods indicative of airport asphalt
ranty extension reportedly reduced cost, as well as improv- performance requirements have been developed. However,
ing pavement quality, both attributed to the introduction some remain inaccessible to practitioners.
of innovation. Warranted performance guarantees of alternate asphalt
More focused on the asphalt mixture, increased traffic mixtures are expected to allow innovation for risk reduc-
loading and volumes prompted the Superpave project in tion, as well as reducing cost and providing better perform-
the USA. A number of tests, intended to be indicative of ing airport asphalt surfaces. Performance-based mixture
asphalt mixture field performance were developed, includ- design, with contractually robust performance guarantees,
ing fatigue, cold temperature fracture, dynamic modulus is expected to become a normal approach to airport asphalt
and creep/flow [164]. These tests potentially replace the tra- procurement in the future.
ditional Marshall and Hveem mixture design parameters
and provide a pathway to performance-based asphalt mix- References
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