Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Riccardo Haupt, MD,1 Milen Minkov, MD,2 Itziar Astigarraga, MD,3 Eva Schäfer, MSc,4 Vasanta Nanduri, MD,5
Rima Jubran, MD,6 R. Maarten Egeler, MD, PhD,7 Gritta Janka, MD,8 Dragan Micic, MD,9
Carlos Rodriguez-Galindo, MD,10 Stefaan Van Gool, MD,11 Johannes Visser, MBChB,12
Sheila Weitzman, MD,7Jean Donadieu, MD, PhD4* and for the Euro Histio Network
These guidelines for the management of patients up to 18 years publications have been ranked according to evidence based medi-
with Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) have been set up by a cine and when there was a lack of published data, consensus
group of experts involved in the Euro Histio Net project who par- between experts was sought. Guidelines for diagnosis, initial clini-
ticipated in national or international studies and in peer reviewed cal work-up, and treatment and long-term follow-up of LCH
publications. Existing guidelines were reviewed and changed where patients are presented. Pediatr Blood Cancer
new evidence was available in the literature up to 2012. Data and ß 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Key words: clinical work-up; diagnosis; follow-up; guidelines; Langerhans cell histiocytosis; therapy
Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis Diagnosis clinicopathologic and should only be made in the appropriate
Since LCH may affect any organ or system of the body, the clinical setting to prevent a misdiagnosis in the presence of nor-
condition should be considered whenever suggestive clinical man- mal reactive Langerhans cells, particularly in regional lymph
ifestations occur in the skin, bone, lung, liver, or CNS. Table I nodes. In addition to clinical and radiological features, LCH
shows a list of differential diagnoses to be considered depending diagnosis should always be based on histological and immuno-
on presenting complaints, signs, or symptoms. The diagnosis is phenotypic examination of lesional tissue (agreement: 2), that
Pediatr Blood Cancer DOI 10.1002/pbc
Guidelines for Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis 3
should be taken from the most easily accessible, yet representative TABLE II. Laboratory and Radiographic Evaluation of Children
lesion. With LCH
There is a well defined histologically characteristic appearance
of the LCH lesions on hematoxylin and eosin stained sections, but Evaluation
positive CD1a and/or CD207 (Langerin) staining of the lesional Full blood count
cells is required for a definitive diagnosis [3–6] (agreement: 2). Hemoglobin
Electron microscopy is no longer needed (agreement: 2), since it White blood cell and differential count
has been shown that the expression of Langerin correlates with Platelet count
the ultrastructural presence of Birbeck granules. Diagnostic con- Blood chemistry
firmation may be a challenge in some circumstances (e.g., liver Total protein
specimens), where Birbeck granules are not present and CD1a Albumin
and/or Langerin may be negative because LCH cells have regress- Bilirubin
ALT (SGPT)
ed after having caused sclerosing cholangitis and Cirrhosis [7].
AST (SGOT)
In rare cases the risk of biopsy may outweigh the need for a gGT
definitive diagnosis, and therefore the risk/benefit ratio should be Creatinine
carefully assessed. This is the case in patients with isolated Electrolytes
involvement of a vertebral body without an adjacent soft tissue Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)
component, as in case of vertebra plana, or with isolated involve- Abdominal ultrasound (in particular for young children)
ment of the odontoid peg. If the decision to avoid or postpone a Size and structure of liver and spleen
biopsy is made, every effort should be made to rule out other Abdominal lymph-nodes
conditions that might lead to a similar radiological finding Coagulation studies
(Table I). INR/PT
APTT/PTT
Patients without a histologically confirmed diagnosis need to
Fibrinogen/factor I
be carefully monitored by appropriate imaging for at least the Chest Radiograph (CXR)
next 6 months in order to reassess the need for biopsy and its Skeletal radiograph surveya,b
justification, in order to exclude a malignancy.
ALT (SGPT), alanine transaminase (serum glutamic pyruvic transam-
inase); APTT/PTT, activated partial thromboplastin time/partial
Pretreatment Clinical Evaluation
thromboplastin time; AST (SGOT), aspartate transaminase (serum
Once the diagnosis of LCH has been ascertained it is impor- glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase); gGT, gamma-glutamyltransfer-
tant to collect further baseline information in order to decide on a ase; INR/PT, international normalized ratio/prothrombin time; MRI,
therapeutic approach. A complete history should include special magnetic resonance imaging; PET, positron emission tomography;
Tc, technetium. aNote that other imaging techniques as bone Tc
reference to the nature and duration of symptoms. Specific symp-
scan, PET scan, or MRI are not an alternative to the standard skeletal
toms to be sought are: pain, swelling, skin rashes, otorrhea, fever, survey. The real value of these images in LCH is still under study. In
loss of appetite, diarrhea, poor weight gain, growth failure, poly- particular information from bone scan should not be considered for
dipsia, polyuria, respiratory symptoms, irritability, behavioral, and evaluation of disease extent and decision-making. PET scan has prov-
neurological changes. A detailed examination should be per- en to be the most sensitive functional test used in the identification of
formed at the onset and at each follow-up visit. Currently there LCH lesions and in evaluating patient response to therapy. However,
is no specific biological marker of disease activity, however, there it is currently expensive, exposes the patient to a significant radiation
is a general agreement (agreement: 2) that biochemical and imag- dose and is not widely available [56]. bIt is not recommended to
ing evaluation at diagnosis and at disease reactivation should change the method of bone evaluation (skeletal radiograph), as it
include the mandatory investigations listed in Table II. Certain may lead to discrepancy between assessments. It is important also
to consider the ALARA principle (as low as reasonably achievable)
scenarios might require additional testing; the recommended
for ionizing radiation and, if possible, during follow up, limit the
laboratory investigations, imaging, or specialized clinical assess- evaluation to the anatomic region initially involved.
ments upon specific indication are shown in Table III; the detailed
protocol for head MRI is provided in (Supplemental Appendix I).
the absence of involvement of other risk organs, lung disease is
Defining Organ Involvement, Risk Organs, only in exceptional cases the ultimate cause of death [12,13], and
this usually occurs through ‘‘mechanical complications’’ such as
and CNS (Central Nervous System) Risk Lesions
an uncontrolled pneumothorax [14], or as a late event due to
The findings of the pretreatment clinical evaluation allow defi- chronic emphysematous changes. In the upcoming clinical trial
nition of organ involvement based on the clinical, biological, and for LCH in children (LCH-IV), the lung will be no longer consid-
radiological criteria shown in Table IV. Disease involvement of ered a risk organ.
certain organs is considered as a marker of higher risk of (a) dying Involvement of some skull bones might predispose to diabetes
from disease (risk organs) or (b) developing neuro-degenerative insipidus (DI) and CNS manifestations [15–17]. The term CNS
complications more commonly named as CNS risk lesions. risk lesions, representing a more recent concept [16], suggests that
Risk organs include the hematologic system, the spleen and these patients are more likely to develop neuro-degenerative CNS
the liver (evidence: B, agreement: 2) [8–10]. The lung had been disease, which may be an irreversible complication of LCH and
considered for many decades as a risk organ, but its individual may have a debilitating course [18]. Therefore, skull bone lesions,
prognostic impact has recently been questioned [11]. In fact, in with the exception of the vault, are considered as CNS risk
Pediatr Blood Cancer DOI 10.1002/pbc
4 Haupt et al.
TABLE III. Specific Clinical Scenarios and Recommended Additional Testing in Children With LCH
(HR-)CT, (high resolution) computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging. aSee Appendix 1 for details. b The clinical significance
of CD1a positivity in the bone marrow remains to be proven. An isolated finding of histiocytic infiltration on the bone marrow with no
cytopenia is not a criterion for diagnosis or reactivation [57,58]. cHemophagocytic syndrome with macrophage activation is a common finding
in patients with hematological dysfunction [59,60]. dSee discussion in Refs. [12,13].
lesions, assuming that risk factors for DI can also be considered as hypothalamic-pituitary/central nervous system, or others such as
risk factors of neuro-degenerative changes (evidence C; agree- thyroid or thymus. In MS-LCH, two or more organs, or systems
ment: 1). are involved either with or without involvement of risk organs.
ALT (SGPT), alanine transaminase (serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase); AST (SGOT), aspartate transaminase (serum glutamic oxaloacetic
transaminase); BAL, bronchoalveolar lavage; CT, computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging. aThe term radiological neuro-
degeneration has been coined to describe a certain pattern of MRI findings, but this terminology may be misleading as it does not necessarily
correlate with histopathology. bSee section ‘‘Risk organs.’’
Single system unifocal bone involvement (isolated bone Single system skin involvement (isolated cutaneous LCH).
lesions). Unifocal bone lesions are the predominant clinical LCH confined to the skin is rare and accounts for about 5% of
form of LCH. Spontaneous regression may occur, and the clinical the LCH population. It can occur at any age, but is most common
course is probably not greatly influenced by any form of treat- in newborns and infants. In most of these cases LCH tends to
ment. The decision on the most appropriate approach should be regress spontaneously, but progression to MS-LCH is common.
based on clinical symptoms, the size and location of the disease, Therefore, close follow-up and reassessment of the need for treat-
and on any evidence of healing on imaging. Often, simple curet- ment is warranted in all young patients with this disease form.
tage during the diagnostic biopsy will result in healing, and fur- Cutaneous lesions can appear either as isolated nodules or as a
ther intervention may not be necessary [19]. Indications for skin rash; in patients with isolated nodules surgical excision may
additional treatment include involvement of weight-bearing be indicated, but radical surgery is never warranted. In children
bones, imminent spinal cord compression, unacceptable deformi- with a skin rash, topical steroids are often suggested in standard
ty, intense pain, and functional disability. textbooks, but their efficacy has never been proven. Moreover,
Complete excision of bone lesions (curettage) may be indicat- most patients with isolated cutaneous LCH are often diagnosed
ed if the lesion is small (<2 cm) and is combined with the after unsuccessful treatment with topical steroids for other pre-
diagnostic confirmation. However, radical excision of large sumed diagnoses such as eczema [25]. Topical caryolysine (20%
lesions (>5 cm) is not indicated since it increases the size of nitrogen mustard ointment) has been shown to be effective on skin
the bony defect, could prolong the time to healing, and might LCH [26]. Even with potential mutagenesis effect, no secondary
result in permanent skeletal defects. For lesions 2–5 cms in diam- tumor deleterious effect has been reported in relation to this drug
eter, a biopsy and partial curettage is an option. Depending on for this indication. Unfortunately, it is not easily available and
the size and location of the lesion, an intralesional injection of necessitates application by trained personnel.
methylprednisolone may be administered [20] to promote healing In cases of ineffective local therapy or involvement of an
(evidence: C). Immobilization of the limb may need to be consid- extensive area, systemic therapy with steroids (VBL), or oral
ered and discussed with the orthopedic surgeon in rare cases. low dose methotrexate can be used, but the level of evidence is
‘‘Vertebra plana’’ per se is not an indication for an orthopedic low (D) [27–29]. In the most severe cases, treatments, including
corset, and expert physiotherapy assessment should be consid- thalidomide associated with neurological toxicity, pain and
ered; however, temporary immobilization may be required for fatigue [29], azathioprine, or PUVA-therapy which have been
symptomatic relief in the early phases of vertebral involvement. shown to be effective in some adult patients, might also be con-
Patients with temporal bone lesions and recurrent otorrhea, may sidered in children (evidence: D, agreement: 1).
have a secondary cholesteatoma which may need specific treat-
ment [21].
Single System LCH of the Lymph Nodes
In certain functionally critical anatomical sites, such as the
odontoid peg or other vertebral lesions with intraspinal soft tissue This is an extremely rare presentation of LCH [30]. Excision
extension there may be an immediate risk to the patient because biopsy may be the only treatment required for a solitary lymph
of the potential for disease progression and the hazards involved node.
in attempting a biopsy; however, these are exceptional situations, Single system LCH of the lung (primary pulmonary LCH).
and a biopsy should always be considered. Isolated disease in- This rare disease form occurs predominantly in adolescent and
volving functionally critical anatomical sites may justify systemic adult smokers. The impact of systemic therapy is not well docu-
therapy. mented in children, and adult pulmonologists do not consider it as
Because of the potential for development of sequelae, systemic the standard approach [12,13]. Smoking withdrawal is necessary,
therapy is indicated in patients with lesions involving the skull and usually results in significant clinical improvement and often
base, temporal bone, orbits, and vertebral column, where there is complete resolution. However, isolated lung involvement can be
also involvement of the adjacent soft tissues. very challenging due to the risk of acute severe complications
Single system multifocal bone involvement. LCH which such as pneumothorax, or cardiopulmonary arrest. Pneumothora-
presents with only multiple bone lesions at diagnosis (SS-LCH ces should be treated by standard techniques such as drainage and
multifocal bone) usually remains confined to the skeleton, and possibly pleurodesis. Pleurectomy should be avoided as lung
only rarely extends to other organs like the skin and pituitary transplantation may ultimately be considered in patients with
gland. However, the incidence of reported reactivations in cases severe progressive disease. In case of persisting and progressive
of multifocal bone disease is higher than for unifocal bone disease lung disease, systemic therapy with low dose steroids is most
[22–24]. Regardless of the treatment approaches that vary from commonly used, but 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine (2-CdA), and the
observation only to systemic chemotherapy, survival rates combination of VBL and steroids have also been used (evidence:
approaching 100% are reported for this disease form in almost D, agreement: 1).
all the published series. Therefore, the benefit of therapies should Isolated diabetes insipidus and pituitary involvement.
be evaluated in terms of localization and length of disease activi- DI occurs due to involvement of the posterior pituitary (neurohy-
ty, and hence, risk of permanent consequences and quality of life. pophysis) and may become manifest either before, concurrently,
Unfortunately, due to discrepancy in anatomic bone lesions and or after LCH diagnosis. Isolated DI is not considered an indica-
outcome assessment, published data are difficult to compare and tion for systemic therapy per se, except when active disease is
therefore no definitive conclusions can be reached. The most unequivocally documented by the presence of thickening of the
commonly used therapy for multifocal skeletal LCH consists of pituitary stalk or a mass lesion of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.
steroids and vinblastine (VBL), a relatively non-toxic, and well A lesion of the hypothalamus–pituitary axis is usually considered
tolerated combination. as active if it had local neurological consequences like alteration
Pediatr Blood Cancer DOI 10.1002/pbc
Guidelines for Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis 7
of the visual field or if its volume is increasing on sequential MRI. centre (evidence: D, agreement: 2). Therapeutic options (evi-
In the experience of experts, DI is with few exceptions uniformly dence: C) include combination chemotherapy with cladribine
irreversible, although DDAVP needs may vary. (2-CdA) and cytarabine (Ara-C) [39] or hematopoietic stem cell
There are some earlier anecdotal reports suggesting that treat- transplantation using reduced intensity conditioning regimen [40].
ment with 2-CdA [31], etoposide [32], or radiation [33,34] soon If there is evidence of disease progression in ‘‘non-risk organs,’’
after DI onset may reverse the condition (evidence: D). treatment with 2-CdA as monotherapy [41] or even with further
Brain lesions. In addition to pituitary stalk lesions, any brain, courses of a combination of VBL and steroids should be
or meningeal lesion (except local reaction to a skull vault lesion) considered.
is considered an indication for systemic therapy. The standard
therapy with vinblastine and steroid can be effective in this situa-
Radiotherapy
tion [35] or 2-CdA monotherapy [36].
Treatment of multisystem LCH. As mentioned before, the Most experts in this field would no longer recommend radio-
major clinical challenges of MS-LCH are mortality in young therapy due to the risk of long term sequelae, including the
children with involvement of risk organs, and bouts of reactiva- potential risk of developing a malignant tumor in the field of
tion resulting in morbidity and permanent consequences which the radiotherapy [38]. However, there are some physicians who
can occur in all age groups. Patients with risk organ involvement consider that radiotherapy may be useful for a single bone lesion
are at risk of death, and a poor response to therapy defines a sub- in teenager (evidence: C, agreement: 2).
group with a particularly dismal prognosis. Patients without in-
volvement of risk organs, although not at risk for mortality, need
Neurodegenerative Complications
systemic therapy in order to control the disease activity, reduce
reactivations, and reduce permanent consequences. Several inter- Neurodegenerative complications represent a complex situa-
national protocols for MS-LCH treatment have been designed tion and such patients need to be managed by a multidisciplinary
within the framework of the HS [8–10]. Their main conclusions team. Several therapies have been attempted but with possibly
are (evidence: B, agreement: 2) (i) standard treatment is based on occasional transitory responses. The treatment options include:
steroids and VBL, (ii) Clinical response after the first 6 weeks retinoic acid (evidence: C) [42], combination treatment with vin-
of treatment is a good marker of further disease evolution. (iii) cristine and Ara-C (evidence: C) [43], intravenous immunoglobu-
Prolonged treatment for at least 1 year reduces the risk of disease lin (evidence: D) [44], and cladribine (evidence: D) [45]. To date,
reactivations. intensive therapies have not shown any effect and should thus be
avoided, especially as they may add to the morbidity.
Front Line Treatment and Evaluation of Response
Monitoring and Supportive Care for
Front line treatment of MS-LCH is based on the association of
Permanent Consequences
VBL 6 mg/m2 i.v. weekly bolus for 6 weeks, with prednisone
40 mg/m2/day given orally in three divided doses for 4 weeks Although LCH is predominantly a benign and treatable dis-
and then tapered over the following 2 weeks. After the first ease, it can result in sequelae affecting various tissues involved
6 weeks of treatment, disease status should be reevaluated and [46]. Some may be present at diagnosis, while others may become
treatment continued accordingly. The evaluation of the disease manifest up to years and decades later. It is thus important to
response is usually classified as ‘‘better’’ in case of complete monitor these patients at least until growth is completed and
resolution or regression of the disease, ‘‘worse’’ in case of pro- possibly into adult life. The most common permanent consequen-
gression of the disease, and ‘‘intermediate,’’ in case of stable or ces are endocrine, auditory, and orthopedic. Neurocognitive, pul-
mixed response with new lesions in one site, and regression in monary, and hepatic sequelae are rare but may cause significant
another site. Other evaluation methods have been proposed such morbidity. The recommended investigations and tests are shown
as the disease activity score [37]. in Table V. A scoring system for sequelae has been developed in
In case of a good response (especially in the risk organs) but order to observe the evolution and to standardize the recording of
with some active disease still present in other sites, treatment with such problems [47].
VBL, and steroids should be continued for another 6 weeks with: Endocrine complications. DI is the most frequent endocrin-
VBL 6 mg/m2 i.v. weekly bolus, and prednisone 40 mg/m2/day opathy associated with LCH with a frequency from 15% to 30%
orally in three divided doses for 3 days every week. One or two of cases [30]. It is thus important to investigate thirst and polyuria
intensive courses according to the above mentioned schedule in LCH patients, even many years after the diagnosis of LCH.
should be followed by maintenance therapy for a total duration Growth hormone deficiency is the most frequent anterior pitu-
of up to 12 months with VBL 6 mg/m2 i.v. bolus every 3 weeks, itary hormone loss and occurs in up to 10% of patients. Measure-
and prednisone 40 mg/m2/day orally in three divided doses for ment of height and weight and assessment of puberty is therefore
5 days every 3 weeks and 6 MP at a dose of 50 mg/m2/day is recommended every 6 months or 1 year until growth is completed.
added if risk organ involvement is present. Any child whose growth is below that expected may need to be
investigated as suggested by the consensus guidelines of the GH
Research Society [48].
Second Line Therapy
Other hormone deficiencies may occur. These include delayed
Refractory disease in patients with hematological involvement puberty and rarely panhypopituitarism. Puberty should be
or liver dysfunction is a rare but life-threatening situation [10,38]. assessed according to Tanner stages and need investigation in
We suggest that such patients need to be referred to a specialized the following cases: delayed onset of puberty (B2 >13 years in
Pediatr Blood Cancer DOI 10.1002/pbc
8 Haupt et al.
Indication Assesment
All patients Routine assessment at clinically appropriate intervals including:
History of thirst, polyuria
Height, weight, pubertal status, neurological assesment
FBC (CBC), ESR, Liver enzymes, Albumin
Bone involvement X-ray oriented to the pathologic area at 6 weeks, 3 and 6 months and then depending on
clinical findings
If vertebral involvement Monitor for scoliosis especially during periods of rapid growth
If jaw involvement Monitor dental development and jaw growth
Pulmonary involvement Spirometry should be performed regularly (every 6–12 months) and if abnormal X-ray
and high resolution computed tomography of chest may be needed
Endocrine involvement
If endocrine signs and symptoms develops See text for indications for endocrine testing and repeat depending on clinical findings
and specialized advice
If proven hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction Head MRI, repeated after 1 year and then at 2, 4, 7, and 10 years
CNS involvement
If neurological symptoms/signs develops Neuropsychological tests, cerebellar function assessment and MRI of the head; repeat
depending on clinical findings and specialized advice
If tumorous a lesion has been identified in the Repeat head MRI after 6 weeks (in symptomatic patients and those with tumorous lesions)
CNS and 3 months. Further images should be decided on the basis of the results of the first
two examinations
If neurodegenerative findings on MRI, even Repeat head MRI is performed after 1 year and then at 2, 4, 7, and 10 years
without symptoms
Liver involvement Consider ultrasound scan/MRI of liver or cholangiography and repeat depending on
clinical findings and specialized advice
Ear/temporal bone involvement Audiogram at end of treatment and reassessed at start of school and if any new symptoms
develop
CT, computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging, CBC, complete blood count; ESR, erytrocyte sedimentation rate; CNS, central
nervous system; DI, diabetes insipidus, ENT: ear nose throat; BAL, broncho-alveolar lavage, GH, growth hormone.
girls, P2, T2 >14 years in boys), delayed onset of period in girls Oral tissue and jaw. Children with involvement of gums and jaw
(>14 years), precocious puberty (B2 <8 years in girls, P2, T2 <9 should be monitored for dental development and growth of the jaw.
years in boys), arrest, or regression of pubertal development. Neurological. Children with multisystem LCH should be reg-
In case of delayed growth/puberty, bone age should be ularly followed up clinically since they are at risk of developing
assessed by X-ray, and anterior pituitary function tests should late neuropsychological sequelae, in particular cerebellar ataxia
be performed to assess secretion of GH, LH, FSH, ACTH, and learning difficulties. In children with relevant history and/or
and thyroid function. If hormone deficiency is confirmed by the abnormal neurological examination, further investigations includ-
stimulation tests, MRI scan of head (Appendix 1) should be ing neuropsychological tests, cerebellar function assessment
performed. Bone mineral density (DEXA) scan needs to be moni- [49,50], and MRI of the head as described in Appendix 1 should
tored in patients with GH deficiency, delayed puberty, or be performed.
panhypopituitarism. Lungs. In those with a history of lung involvement, spirometry
Orthopedic. When several vertebrae are affected, scoliosis should be performed regularly and if abnormal or progressive,
may become manifest later in life, in particular during periods X-ray and computed tomography of chest may be needed. The
of rapid growth such as puberty. Children should be assessed dangers of smoking should be explained and smoking avoided.
clinically at least annually in order to identify any early signs Pulmonary involvement may also lead to respiratory insufficiency
of scoliosis. They should be referred to the orthopedic surgeon in due to fibrosis and emphysema.
order to start preventive physical therapies (e.g., orthopedic cor- Liver. Liver involvement is rare, but can cause serious mor-
set/brace or neck collar) in order to manage this proactively. If bidity. In those with abnormal liver function consider ultrasound
facial bones are affected, facial asymmetry may become manifest scan, MRI of liver, or cholangiography as clinically indicated. A
and reconstructive surgery may be required. subset of young children with liver involvement may subsequently
Hearing. Subjects with involvement of the middle or inner ear develop sclerosing cholangitis that progresses to cirrhosis; treat-
and the temporal bone should be monitored with audiometry ment for these children includes liver transplantation.
at diagnosis and at end of treatment and reassessed at start of
school and if any new symptoms develop. Early diagnosis and Associated Malignancies
interventional strategies such as hearing aids can avoid deteriora-
tion of school performance and significantly improve learning There is a recognized association between LCH and malignan-
outcome. cies [17]. The malignancies may precede, occur concurrently or
Pediatr Blood Cancer DOI 10.1002/pbc
Guidelines for Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis 9
follow the diagnosis of LCH and should be considered at every 4 Istituto G. Gaslini, Genova, Italy. Riccardo Haupt, MD, Associ-
clinical visit. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphoma more ated Partner, 5 Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Robert
often occur prior to the diagnosis of LCH but may be diagnosed J. Arceci, MD, PhD, Collaborating Partner, 6 Azienda Ospeda-
within 5 years after LCH. Myeloid leukemias usually follow LCH liero-Universitaria Meyer, Firenze, Italy. Maurizio Aricò, MD,
especially in those patients exposed to etoposide, alkylating PhD, Collaborating Partner, 7 Elisabethinen Hospital, Linz,
agents and/or radiotherapy. Solid tumors may occur concurrently Austria. Michael Girschikofsky, MD, Collaborating Partner, 8
or follow the diagnosis of LCH. Most of those that followed LCH Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. Jan-Inge Henter, MD,
developed in a previous radiation field. With the current treatment PhD, Collaborating Partner, 9 Children’s University Hospital,
strategies it is expected that these types of secondary malignancy Hamburg, Germany. Gritta Janka, MD, PhD, Collaborating Part-
will be rare. Patients treated with radiotherapy should see their ner, 10 Hotel Dieu de France Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon. Claudia
doctor in case of symptoms involving the irradiated area. Djambas Khayat, MD, Collaborating Partner, 11 Hellenic Air
Force & Veterans General Hospital, Athens, Greece. Polyzois
Makras, MD, PhD, Collaborating Partner, 12 Hospital de Clı́nicas
Follow-Up/Duration and Frequency
de Porto Alegre, Brasil. Mariana Michalowski, MD, Collaborating
Recommendations for follow-up are shown in Table V. They Partner, 13 Watford General Hospital, Watford, UK. Vasanta
are inspired by the long term follow-up for childhood cancer Nanduri, MD, Collaborating Partner, 14 Dana Farber Cancer In-
survivors [51,52]. Every patient should be followed by the local stitute and Childrens Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Car-
physician and if at any time a particular issue needs to be los Rodriguez-Galindo, MD, Collaborating Partner, 15 Medical
addressed, referral to a specialist is recommended. All patients University Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Mariya Spasova, MD, PhD, Associ-
should be followed for a sufficient time period, defined as (i) at ate Professor, Collaborating Partner, 16 University Pediatric
least 5 years after the end of therapy; or (ii) 5 years after the last Hospital, Lublin, Poland. Maria Jolanta Stefaniak, MD, PhD,
disease reactivation, in those who did not receive systemic thera- Collaborating Partner, 17 UZ Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. Stefaan
py; or (iii) until final growth and pubertal development have Van Gool, MD, PhD, Collaborating Partner, 18 University Hos-
occurred. pitals of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary Childrens Hospital,
Perspectives. LCH is a rare disease potentially resulting in Leicester, United Kingdom. Johann Visser, MD, Collaborating
death or permanent sequelae. The burden of therapy may also Partner, 19 Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
be extremely heavy. There is an obvious need for a full assess- Sheila Weitzman, MD, Collaborating Partner, 20 Newcastle Uni-
ment of each patient with a rational treatment tailored to the risks versity, Newcastle, United Kingdom. Kevin Patrick Windebank,
of the individual patient, which contributes to further fundamental MD, Collaborating Partner, 21 Clinique Al Madina, Casablanca,
and clinical research in this field. Morocco. Saadia Zafad, MD, PhD, Collaborating Partner.
In 2010, Badalian-Very et al. [53], reported somatic mutations Euro Histio Net Partners—Patient Associations. 1 The His-
of the BRAF oncogene in about half of the LCH patients in their tiocytosis Research Trust, United Kingdom, www.hrtrust.org As-
series, and this finding was recently confirmed by other teams sociated Partner; 2 Artemis Association on Histiocytoses, Greece,
[54,55]. This discovery may have a significant potential impact if www.histioartemis.gr Collaborating Partner; 3 Asociacion Espa-
we consider the possibility of treating LCH with the new class of nola contra la Histiocitosis de celulas de Langerhans (ACHE),
BRAF inhibitors. However, this promising discovery will need to Spain, www.histiocitosis.org Collaborating Partner; 4 Association
be verified and concretized before these drugs can be used for Histiocytose France (A.H.F.), France, www.histiocytose.org Col-
treatment of LCH. The group(s) of LCH patients who may benefit laborating Partner; 5 Associazione italiana ricerca istiocitosi
from BRAF inhibitor treatment must be determined and balanced (AIRI LCH onlus), Italy, www.istiocitosi.org Collaborating Part-
with toxicities as in the case of melanoma [56,57]. Knowledge ner; 6 Erwachsenen Histiozytose X e.V (EHX e.V.)., Germany,
about drug schedule and safety, especially long-term effects [57] www.histiozytose.com Collaborating Partner; 7 Föräldraförenin-
and mechanisms of resistance [58] must be acquired. gen För Histiocytos (Ffh), Sweden, www.histiocytos.se Collabo-
Progress may be expected from collaborations organized at rating Partner; 8 Histiocytosis Association of America (HAA),
national and international levels, among specialist groups and USA, www.histio.org Collaborating Partner; 9 Histiozytosehilfe
expert networks. Collection of tissue and blood samples in bio- e.V., Germany, www.histiozytose.org Collaborating Partner;
banks is essential for improving the understanding of the biology 10 LCH-Belgium, Belgium, www.lch.be Collaborating Partner;
of this rare and fascinating condition. New international protocols 11 The ECD Global Alliance, USA, www.erdheim-chester.org
will soon be opened and continue to represent an opportunity to Collaborating Partner.
develop global research in LCH (see www.histiocytesociety.org
and www.histio.net).
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