Drying

(Geankoplis, Chapter 9)

13-17 November 2017

 Contents
1. Introduction and Methods of Drying
2. Equipment for Drying
3. Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
4. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
5. Rate-of-Drying Curves
6. Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
7. Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying
Period
 Contents
8. Combined Convection, Radiation, and
Conduction Heat Transfer in Constant-Rate
Period
9. Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and
Capillary Flow
10.Equations for Various Types of Dryers
11.Freeze-Drying of Biological Materials
12.Unsteady-State Thermal Processing and
Sterilization of Biological Materials
 Introduction and Methods of Drying
DRYING –
• removal of water or other organic liquids
(benzene, organic solvents) from solids
• removal of relatively small amounts of water
from material
• water is usually removed as a vapor by air

*Evaporation is the removal of relatively large

amounts of water, as a vapor at its boiling point
Introduction and Methods of Drying:
A. Purposes of Drying
• Final processing step before packaging to
make materials (soap powders, dyestuff, etc.)
easier to handle
• Preservation technique for biological
materials, especially foods
– food-spoiling microorganisms cannot grow and
multiply in the absence of water
– enzymes that cause chemical changes in food
cannot function without water
 Introduction and Methods of Drying
• Thermal drying – ordinary heating method;
Moisture content of final dried product depends on type
of product, ex. salt (0.5%), coal (4%), food products (5%)
• Mechanical drying – using presses, centrifuge
– Cheaper than thermal drying
• Freeze Drying – for biological materials and
pharmaceuticals, which may not be heated
• Sterilization – killing or removal of all
microorganisms (including bacterial spores)
through heat
 Methods and Processes of Drying:
Classification [1]
• Batch – material is inserted into the drying
equipment and drying proceeds for a given
period of time
• Continuous – material is continuously added
to the dryer and dried material is continuously
removed
 Methods and Processes of Drying:
Classification [2]
according to physical conditions used to add heat and remove water vapor
1. Heat is added by direct contact with heated
air at atmospheric pressure, and the water
vapor formed is removed by air
2. Vacuum drying – evaporation of water
proceeds more rapidly at low pressures, and
the heat is added indirectly by contact with a
metal wall or by radiation
3. Freeze drying –water is sublimed* from the
frozen material
*Sublimation – change from solid directly into vapor when heated, typically forming a
solid deposit again on cooling.
 Contents
1. Introduction and Methods of Drying
2. Equipment for Drying
3. Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
4. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
5. Rate-of-Drying Curves
6. Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
7. Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying
Period
Equipment for Drying
A. Tray Dryer
• aka shelf, cabinet, or compartment dryer
Equipment for Drying
B. Vacuum-Shelf Dryer
• For expensive, temperature-sensitive, easily
oxidizable materials or for materials with toxic
or valuable solvents

Image source:
http://www.mixerblenderdryer.com/images/pr
oducts/215_vacuum_shelf_tray_dryer_1.jpg
Equipment for Drying
C. Continuous Tunnel Dryer
Equipment for Drying
D. Rotary Dryer
• Rotating hollow cylinder
Equipment for Drying
E. Drum Dryer
• Heated metal roll
Equipment for Drying
F. Spray Dryer
• Liquid/slurry solution sprayed into a hot gas
stream
Equipment for Drying
G. Dryer for Crops and Grains
• Grains contain ~30-35% moisture (by weight),
should be dried to ~13% moisture for safe
storage for ~1 year
 Contents
1. Introduction and Methods of Drying
2. Equipment for Drying
3. Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
4. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
5. Rate-of-Drying Curves
6. Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
7. Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying
Period
Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
• Humidification – transfer of water from the
liquid phase into a gaseous mixture of air and
water vapor
• Dehumidification – reverse transfer, wherein
water vapor is transferred from the vapor
state to the liquid state
 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
• Vapor pressure of water is independent of the
total pressure of the system
VP – pressure of a vapor
in contact with its liquid
or solid form

gas - single defined

thermodynamic state at
room temperature
vapor - substance that is
a mixture of two phases
at room temperature,
namely gaseous and
liquid phase
Humidity and Humidity Chart
Humidity and Humidity Chart
Humidity and Humidity Chart
Humidity and Humidity Chart
Humidity and Humidity Chart
Humidity and Humidity Chart
Humidity and Humidity Chart
Adiabatic Saturation Temperature
Adiabatic Saturation Temperature
Wet-bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb Temperature
 Contents
1. Introduction and Methods of Drying
2. Equipment for Drying
3. Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
4. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
5. Rate-of-Drying Curves
6. Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
7. Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying
Period
Equilibrium Moisture Content
 Experimental Data of Equilibrium Moisture
Content for Inorganic and Biological Materials
 Experimental Data of Equilibrium Moisture
Content for Inorganic and Biological Materials
 Experimental Data of Equilibrium Moisture
Content for Inorganic and Biological Materials
 Bound and Unbound Water in Solids

*Hygroscopic substance is one that readily attracts water from its surroundings
through absorption or adsorption (ex. honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol,
concentrated sulfuric acid, lye)
Free and Equilibrium Moisture of a Substance
 Contents
1. Introduction and Methods of Drying
2. Equipment for Drying
3. Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
4. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
5. Rate-of-Drying Curves
6. Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
7. Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying
Period
Rate of Drying Curves
Rate of Drying Curves
Rate of Drying Curves for Constant
Drying Conditions
Rate of Drying Curves for Constant
Drying Conditions
Rate of Drying Curves for Constant
Drying Conditions
Plot of Rate of Drying Curve
Plot of Rate of Drying Curve
Drying in the Constant Rate Period
Drying in the Falling Rate Period
Moisture Movements in Solids During
Drying in the Falling-Rate Period

1. Liquid diffusion theory

2. Capillary movement in porous solids
3. Effect of shrinkage
1. Liquid Diffusion Theory
“diffusion of liquid moisture occurs when there
is a concentration difference between the
depths of the solid and the surface”
1. Liquid Diffusion Theory
2. Capillary Movements in Porous Solids

• When granular and porous solids (clays, sand,

soil, paint pigments, minerals) are being dried,
unbound or free moisture moves through the
capillaries and voids of the solids by capillary
action, not by diffusion.

Image source:
https://chem.libretexts.org/@
api/deki/files/50563/meniscu
s_formation.png?revision=1
2. Capillary Movements in Porous Solids

Image source:
https://www.energyvanguard.com/sites/default/files/hubimage/cap
illary-action-pore-size.jpg
2. Capillary Movements in Porous Solids
2. Capillary Movements in Porous Solids
Effect of Shrinkage
 Contents
1. Introduction and Methods of Drying
2. Equipment for Drying
3. Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
4. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
5. Rate-of-Drying Curves
6. Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
7. Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying
Period