International Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension IJAEE

Vol. 4(1), pp. 093-100, February, 2018. © www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: XXXX-XXXX

Review Article

Review on Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension

Service on Farm Productivity in Ethiopia
Asfaw Albore
Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension, Wolaita Sodo University, Sodo, Ethiopia
E-mail: asfawalbore@yahoo.com, Tel: (+251) 913025909

Majority of Ethiopian farmers have been using traditional way of agricultural practices which
persist to low productivity. To solve these problems, governmental and non-governmental
organizations have made efforts to bring about change through Agricultural extension strategy.
But these efforts notwithstanding, the rural population still practices subsistence. The
agricultural extension service is one of the institutional support services that has a central role
to play in the transformation process, but facing new extension challenge. There were many
studies conducted to identify role and challenges of extension service in Ethiopia in different
regions, but there is limitation of summarization of current state of understanding. However;
governments of developing countries are confronting new extension challenges: on the one
hand, there is a need to increase production to provide food for all citizens, raising the income
of the rural population and reducing poverty; on the other, hand there is a need to manage the
natural resources in a sustainable way with new technologies developed . The mandate of
extension services, whether public or private, has always been rural human resources
development with an aim to increase food production. The major challenge currently facing
agricultural extension service delivery in Ethiopia has its impact on the development of country.

Keywords: Extension, challenge, Role, Agriculture, Ethiopia.

INTRODUCTION

Eighty-three percent of the population depends directly on
agriculture for their livelihoods, while many others depend
on agriculture-related cottage industries such as textiles,
leather, and food oil processing (IFPRI, 2009). Agriculture
contributes 43 percent of gross domestic product (GDP),
85% of employment and up to 90 percent of total export
earnings (MoADR, 2010). In spite of the vast agricultural
potential, Ethiopia has been under the state of widespread
and persistent food insecurity since the 1970. People in
different parts of the country receive food aid (Birhanu et
al., 2016)
Majority of Ethiopian farmers have been using traditional
way of agricultural practices. This has contributed for low
productivity of the agricultural sector (Yishak and Punjabi,
2011). To solve these problems, governmental and non-
governmental organizations have made efforts to bring
about change in agricultural production system of peasant
Review on Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension Service on Farm Productivity in Ethiopia
farmers. But these efforts notwithstanding, the rural
population still practices subsistence (Birhanu et al.,
2016).
Agricultural extension has a role to play in agricultural
development through support and facilitate people
engaged in agricultural production to solve problems and
to obtain information, skills, and technologies to improve
their livelihoods and well-being. Agricultural extension
service could be the government agency or ministry
responsible for promoting the adoption and utilization
of new scientific farming practices through educational
procedures (Asiabaka et al., 2012; Christoplos, 2010;
Birner et al., 2006 and Dragic et al., 2009).
However; criticism was also created with regards to the
roles of agricultural extension service delivery due to a
lack of national framework for extension, but in this 21st
Asfaw Albore 094
century, extension and advisory services needs to
reinvents itself and clearly articulates its roles in the rapidly
changing rural and agricultural context in order to improve
their relevancy (Magoro and Hlungwani, 2014). Extension
services needs staff with good understanding of technical
knowledge and skills to manage social processes
The public extension services in developing country
started experiencing some challenges in the last decade
due to socio-economic changes and agricultural sector
reforms taking place (Zwane, 2012).According to Rivera
et al (2001) and Biratu (2008), governments of developing
countries are confronting new extension challenges: on
the one hand, there is a need to increase production
to provide food for all citizens, raising the income of the
rural population and reducing poverty; on the other hand
there is a need to manage the natural resources in a
sustainable way in a rapidly changing world with new
technologies developed all the time. The mandate of
extension services, whether public or private, has always
been rural human resources development with an aim to
increase food production through the introduction of
improved agricultural technology. The need to increase
agricultural productivity to enhance food security and
reduce poverty in Africa is widely acknowledged (World
Bank, 2007).
There were many studies conducted to identify role and
challenges of extension service in Ethiopia in different
region (Belay and Degnet, 2004; Belay, 2002; Belay & De
missie, 2014), but there is limitation of summarization of
current state of understanding on challenges and role of
agricultural extension service or previously published
studies on topic. Review of challenges and prospectus for
a particular region is crucial for future policy formulation.
This study has identified some of the challenges and
prospectus of agricultural extension service.
METHODOLOGY
Data were obtained from document analysis. It was
undertaken using in-depth review of related literature from
the Internet and up to-date extension service challenges
reports of Ethiopian government. Published articles and
books, reports from government and non-government
organizations, archives of stakeholders’ organizations and
some media reports (print and electronic) were also
explored.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Emerging challenges for sustainable agricultural
development
Emerging challenges for sustainable agriculture during the
past fifty years was agricultural development policies have
Review on Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension Service on Farm Productivity in Ethiopia
been remarkably successful at emphasizing external
inputs as the means to increase food production (FAO,
1998). This has led to growth in global consumption of
pesticides, inorganic fertilizer, animal feed-stuffs, and
tractors and other machinery. However, agricultural
extension has value as policy instruments to achieve
government goal of increasing food production, stimulating
economic growth, increasing the welfare of farm families
and promoting sustainable agriculture (Van den Ban and
Hawkins, 1998). The basic challenge for sustainable
agriculture is to make better use of internal resources. This
can be done by minimizing the external inputs used, by
regenerating internal resources more effectively, or by
combinations of both. Evidence is now emerging that
regenerative and resource-conserving technologies and
practices can bring both environmental and economic
benefits for farmers, communities, and nations (FAO,
1998).
Increased reliance on chemicals may have negative
consequences for the environment and raises the question
of both economic and environmental sustainability, and the
consequences of such inputs on the quality of livelihoods.
Pretty et al. (1996) called for greater emphasis to be
placed on ‘sustainable agriculture’ noting that ‘a massive
increase in inorganic fertilizers and pesticides is not a
necessary condition for feeding the world [although] in
certain agro-ecological systems, moderate applications of
fertilizers will be necessary to ensure the appropriate
balance of plant nutrients and minerals in the soils.’ A more
sustainable agriculture pursues a number of goals - the
incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling;
minimization of the use of external and non-renewable
inputs; the participation of farmers and rural people in all
processes of problem analysis and a greater use of local
knowledge (Shah, 1994; SWCB, 1994; Pretty, 1995).
According to Rivera et al (2001), governments of
developing countries are confronting new extension
challenges: on the one hand, there is a need to increase
production to provide food for all citizens, raising the
income of the rural population and reducing poverty; on the
other hand, there is a need to manage the natural
resources in a sustainable way in a rapidly changing world
with new technologies developed all the time. Therefore,
it is important that policy-makers are aware of the key role
that extension plays in the national economy development
before modernizing and reforming the existing agricultural
system (Qamar 2005). Though achievements in crop
improvement in the last 20 years are undeniable, poor
farming families’ needs are unaddressed. On the other
hand, exotic cultivars can give better yields under selected
demonstration sites with good management, but under
conditions that prevail in most peasant farms, where there
is low inputs and varying climatic conditions, local
landraces usually perform better than exotic ones (Lakew
et al., 1997).

Role of agricultural extension service on farm
productivity
A role may be defined as a set of norms, values and
interaction patterns associated with a given category of
individuals (Anaeto et al., 2012). It is therefore, the job
or function attached to a given status. It can be clarified
with the economic concept of division of labour, which
states that individuals work in different sectors of the
economy ( Mengistie and Belete, 2015). Agriculture
extension has a role to play in agriculture development.
Agricultural extension service could be the government
agency or ministry responsible for promoting the
adoption and utilization of new scientific farming
practices through educational procedures (Asiabaka et
al., 2012).
Agriculture commercialization
The rate of agricultural growth in Ethiopia in turn depends
on the speed with which the current subsistence oriented
production system is transformed into a market orientated
production system (Berhanu et al, 2006). Among the many
institutional support services that need to catalyse/support
the transformation process, the agricultural extension
service plays a critical role, since it contributes to change
farmers skill, knowledge and attitudes in agricultural
technology, farming activities and agricultural marketing
(Berhanu et al, 2006; Biratu,2008; Belay, 2003).
Role of agricultural extension in a commercialized
agricultural system is different from such service in
subsistence farming system. In the commercialized
agriculture the extension service will mainly concentrate
on the resourceful big farmers, with favorable
environmental conditions and higher socio-economic
status few the number of farmers and large farm size
(Rohana & Bandara,2006). But Agriculture Organization
(FAO) has categorized farmers into three different
groups based on the marketable surplus as a percentage
of total production in the following manner (FAO,
1989): Subsistence farmers (Marketable surplus under
25% of the total production), Transition
farmers(Marketable surplus ranging between 25-50% of
total production) and Commercial farmers (Marketable
surplus more than 50% of the total production). Do we
have to accept this concept under each and every
situation? We think the answer is “no”. By using improved
technologies farmers can move towards commercial
agriculture without considering the size of land.
Helping farmers to reach their goals
Extension agent gives timely advice to make them aware
of a problem and helps farmers to decide most important
goals (Van den Ban and Hawkins ,1998).
Review on Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension Service on Farm Productivity in Ethiopia
Int. J. Agric. Educ. Ext. 095
Farmers’ organization
Farmers in industrialized countries have organized
themselves in many different ways to serve their collective
interest (Van den Ban and Hawkins ,1998). Such
organizations play crucial roles in agricultural development
in these countries. In less industrialized countries which
organizations either do not exist or tend to be ineffective.
Establishment of effective farm organization is at least as
important as the introduction of scientific production
technology in many of these countries. Extensionists are
well trained in terms of local organizational development;
they can build farmer institutions, organizing farmers into
associations and commodity groups and other forms or co-
operative activities. The success of extension in Taiwan
and Korea has been equated to farmer associations which
extension has played significant role in promoting
institutional technology (Rivera, 1989: 95).
Educating farmers
One definition of agricultural extension widely used in the
FAO publications sees extension as a service or system
which assists farm people, through educational
procedures, in improving farming methods and
techniques, increasing production efficiency and income,
bettering their levels of living and lifting the social and
educational standards of rural life (Swanson, 1984).
Extension agents in agricultural extension solve farmer’s
problems through education. It is believed that in
agricultural extension the main way to improve farm
efficiency and to increase farm production is to educate
farmer (Van den Ban and Hawkins ,1998). Extension is
viewed as a provider of non-formal agriculturally related
continued education for multiple audiences such as
farmers, spouses, youth rural community and urban
horticulturists (Rivera, 1989: 94).
Food security
Food security is often defined in terms of food availability,
food accessibility and food utilization (USAID, 1995) as
cited by Rivera and Qamar (2003). Extensionists have
received training which combines technical knowledge and
communication skills. They can apply this knowledge to
help in improving farming, farm yields and thereby reduce
poverty (Neuchatel Group, 2008).A general consensus
exist that extension services, if properly designed and
implemented, improves agricultural productivity, Romani
(2003).
Conservation of Natural resource
Farmers and communities have little urged to conserve
resources unless they are forced by legislation (Zwane,
2012). An extensionist does not use force but known
strategies of persuasion to assist farmers and
communities to conserve natural resources.
Asfaw Albore 096
Dissemination of useful Information
For many years it thought that farmers’ conservatism was
the reason for their failure to adopt new technology
developed for them by agricultural scientists (Van den Ban
and Hawkins ,1998). Extensionists usually persuade
farmers to adopt new practices mainly because they have
access to research and its results (Zwane, 2012). They
have received proper training that can be executed to
benefit the farming communities. Extensionists should
access different information needed by farmers in terms
production, cultural practices, markets and marketing.
Depending on their tasks they can broaden it if possible to
include farmer education and problem solving advices
(Rivera, Röling, 1988: 37; Bembridge, Leagans, 1961: 3).
Other priority information may have to be identified for
dissemination. According to (Arion, Merce, Mihasan &
Horvat, 1991: 1) what extension should disseminate to
farmers may include: - technology transfer; - offering
economical advice (including book-keeping); - developing
agricultural markets and informational system; -
developing small enterprises and discovering new
alternatives for obtaining profits. It is important to note
that information and knowledge transfer are important
factors for accelerating agricultural development
through appropriate production planning, adoption,
management for developing to countries realize their
full potential (Pontius, et al, 2002)
Promote sustainable agriculture
According to Mengistie and Belete (2015), extension could
play a central role in fostering sustainability through its
educational programs but there has been a growing
realization that traditional extension models have not been
sufficiently effective in promoting adoption of sustainable
agricultural practices. Since sustainable agriculture is a
knowledge intensive system, it requires a new kind of
knowledge, which differs from other forms on the basis of
conventional agricultural practices. In fact, conventional
extension system cannot accomplish sustainability in
agriculture; because today's agricultural extension must
consider environmental implications, social issues, and
overall economic growth within the agriculture sector
(Mohammad, 2009). One of the tasks of extension is the
emphasis on developing the human capital, enhancing his
or her capacity to make decisions, to learn and manage
the communication process with others, to analyze the
environment, to be a leader, to stand up to oppression and
to organize (Röling,1988: 37).
Challenges of agricultural extension service in
Ethiopia
The major challenges of the past and current agricultural
extension service delivery in Ethiopia are :absence of the
national framework of agricultural extension policy that has
been developed in a participatory manner, top down,
Review on Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension Service on Farm Productivity in Ethiopia
unclear extension approach ,lack of suitable adaptation of
technology packages to local conditions, frequent
restructuring of the extension institutions, high turnover of
staff, limitation in the quality of field and technical staff,
inadequate budget for the implementation of the extension
system, limited private sector involvement in service
delivery, administrators unnecessary interferences on
technical matters, lack of monitoring and evaluation of the
extension system , weak system of agricultural inputs
supply and distribution (seeds, fertilized, credit, subsidies
etc) systems, involvement of experts on duties other than
extension responsibility, weak market linkage and
information system, weak linkage of research-extension
farmer, absence of public private partnership in extension
service delivery, not enough attention given to indigenous
knowledge of local people and absence of irrigated
agriculture focused extension and research
systems(IFPRI, 2009:Belay et al and Belay ,2002; Birhanu
et al, 2016 ;Tilahun, 2008 and Belay ,2014).Moreover;
According to Mengistie and Belete (2015) current
extension service challenge in Ethiopia has top-down
approach, non-participatory, supply driven not demand
driven, gender bias extension services, lack of staff moral,
capacity and capability of staff, development agents
involvement in non-extension activities, lack of qualified
extension supervisors, insufficient appropriate and
relevant technology options both for on crops and
livestock sector and inadequate public funding. According
to Belay (2014) the challenges are categorized as
technical, financial, institutional and administrative. The
major challenges of the current agricultural extension
service delivery in Ethiopia are:
Institutional
Institutional concern challenges of agricultural extension
service are top down, limited private sector involvement in
service delivery, lack of monitoring and evaluation of the
extension system, leak system of agricultural inputs supply
and distribution, involvement of experts on duties other
than extension responsibility, weak market linkage and
information system, weak linkage of research-extension-
farmer, absence of public private partnership in extension
service delivery, Not enough attention given to indigenous
knowledge of local people and absence of irrigated
agriculture focused extension and research
systems(IFPRI, 2009;Belay. and et al and Belay, 2002;
Birhanu et al, 2016 ; Tilahun, 2008 and Belay ,2014).
Top-down/non-participatory/supply driven
According to Biratu (2008) a good agricultural extension
system accepts and incorporates farmers’ traditional
knowledge in research processes and sees farmers as
partners during decision making. However, in most cases
the problem with science in agriculture and extension is
that it has a poor understanding of the knowledge from
very poor, indigenous rural people. For many scientists, in

order to develop those rural people, formal research and
extension has to transform their knowledge into another
knowledge system, because their knowledge is
considered as unscientific and primitive (Röling and Pretty,
1997). This is true when it comes to the case of agricultural
extension in Ethiopia. In most cases, the approach is top-
down, whereby technologies are developed somewhere
and the farmers are told what to do by the development
agents (EEA, 2006; Belay, 2002; Belay, 2003; Abesha et
al, 2000; Wale and Yalew, 2007) and as it was indicated
by Simane. (2004), much of the agricultural inputs
imported and distributed are supply driven, without giving
due consideration to the demand from the farmers’ side.
Weak research-extension linkage
According to Belay and Dawit (2017) earlier empirical
studies in developing countries have identified weak
links between research and extension as the major factor
limiting the flow of information, knowledge, useful new
technologies, and resources among actors in the
technology-delivery utilization system and recommend
measures to overcome the widely acknowledged
weaknesses (Agbamu, 2000; Anderson and Feder, 2004;
Asiabaka, 2002; Belay, 2002, 2003). Under normal
conditions, agricultural extension service serves as a
farmer organization that expresses the concern and
feeling of farmers to the public and conveys information
from research institute to farmers and from the farmers
back to research institutes (Birkhaeuser, et al 1991).
Contrary to this fact, agricultural research in Ethiopia is
poorly linked to extension (Belay, 2003; EEA, 2006; Wale
and Yalew, 2007) because of the fact that extension and
research activities have been carried out under different
institutions with zero or minimal coordination between
them (Belay, 2002).
Gender biased service
Gender issues should be afforded the highest priority in
Ethiopian extension. Failure to take into account gender
relationships leads to unsuccessful extension activities,
the marginalization of the disadvantaged sector of society
and a large part of the agricultural workforce (Vince, 2005;
Olawoye, 2005 and Odebode, 2008). It includes focusing
on the relationship between men and women, their roles,
access to and control over resources, the division of
labour, and other needs. Thus, understanding gender
relationships and adjusting methods and messages to
them is crucial. A holistic approach to research and
extension that considers the total socio-economic system
is more likely to result in technology solutions being more
family and women friendly
HIV/AIDS epidemic
Challenge of an HIV/AIDS epidemic on agricultural
extension services in sub-Saharan Africa is quite unusual
Review on Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension Service on Farm Productivity in Ethiopia
Int. J. Agric. Educ. Ext. 097
as it affects both staff and clientele and involves human
emotions to a depressing degree, that is, in addition to
technical aspects. The spread of HIV/AIDS is
counteracting gains in human development and has the
potential for serious social dislocation especially in rural
areas (Vince, 2005; Kalim , 2003). From nature of
extension work most of the extension staff themselves
have their genetic roots in rural families. They travel
frequently in rural areas, many times spending nights away
from home, and being offered “hospitality” in villages due
to their status. Also, they are in touch with so many widows
forced into farming because of their husbands’ death, who
need extension advice. Thus, the extension workers have
ample opportunities of getting involved with multiple sex
partners (Kalim, 2003). All these factors expose the
extension staff to the maximum risk of HIV infection,
especially with their very limited knowledge of the
epidemic. Reductions and disruptions in staff is the other
dimension of challenges extension service. According to
Kalim (2003) discussions made with government
extension service officials reveal that their capacity for
delivering satisfactory services is being affected by
HIV/AIDS. This is due to disruption in their programmes
caused by deaths, protracted sickness and frequent
absences of staff.
Technical
Lack of suitable adaptation of technology packages to
local conditions
Available evidence shows that yields of major crops under
farmers’ management are still far lower than what can be
obtained under research managed plots (Abate, 2006;
EIAR, 2007). This is the result of research and extensions
that were put in place used one size-fits for all types of
extension methods and there is no extension that suits
for all categories of adopters (EEA, 2006). Inadequate
research outputs on the felt needs of
farmers/pastoralists factors limit the contribution of
agricultural extension to the growth of agricultural
output and productivity (Birhanu G. et al, 2016; Tilahun,
2008). To summarize, research process and agricultural
extension services in Ethiopia lack preferences, criteria
and conditions of the farmers (Wale and Yalew, 2007)
and a well-articulated national research and extension
policy is not yet developed in the country (Demese, 2004
as cited in Wale and Yalew, 2007).
Financial
Inadequate public funding
One generic problem confronting the extension service is
inadequate public funding. The problem is especially acute
with regard to operational budget. Operating costs are
usually liable to budget cuts. Shortages of operating costs
seriously affect the effectiveness of the extension service
(Berhanu et al, 2006 and Axinn, 1988).
Asfaw Albore 098
Administrative
Lack of qualified extension supervisors and worker
According to Birkhaeuser et al (1991), agricultural
extension service needs agents for two main activities: in
the first place to transfer required information to the
farmers and secondly to report the problems faced by
the farmers. However, many front-line extension staff in
Africa lack the competences (skills, knowledge, attitude
and resulting behavior) they need to be effective in their
work with farmers (Lindley, 2000; Belay and Degnet, 2004;
Belay, 2003). In the same line, a worldwide analysis of the
status of agricultural extension reveals the low level of
formal education and training of field extension agents in
developing countries (Swanson et al., 1990).
Involvement of experts on duties other than extension
responsibility
Agricultural extension agents in Ethiopia (named as
Development Agents), are involved in different activities
which are not necessarily related to their normal work
such as collection of fertilizer credit, being government
spokesmen, or agents for other government bureaus
and this will highly affect their relation with the farmers
(Belay, 2003; Biratu, 2008). In this respect, Howard et al.
(1999) noted that many of the extension agents
interviewed expressed concern about their heavy
involvement in credit administration-not only because it
kept them from their technical responsibilities (advising
farmers on use of improved technologies), but also
because their role as credit collection agents had a
negative impact on their personal relationships with
farmers.
Lack of staff moral
Fieldwork in many developing countries is characterized
by conditions that foster low morale: lack of mobility,
virtually no equipment and extremely low salaries
(Belay, and Degnet, 2004). These difficulties contribute to
a high turnover rate; those who remain in extension are
typically people with few employment opportunities
elsewhere (Kaimowitz, 1991).
CONCLUSIONS
Agricultural extension ensures important and relevant
information on improved agricultural technologies and
good practices are communicated to farmers with the main
objective to improve their agricultural production and
productivity. The Role of agricultural extension service on
farm productivity is commercialization of Agricultural
activity, Helping farmers to reach their goals through
advice, organizing farmers to collectively act, educating
farmers, bringing food security, Conservation of natural
Review on Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension Service on Farm Productivity in Ethiopia
resource, dissemination of useful information and promote
sustainable agriculture. However; the major challenge in
the past and current agricultural extension service delivery
in Ethiopia are HIV/AIDS epidemic, gender biased service,
absence of the national framework of agricultural
extension policy that has been developed in a participatory
manner, top down, Unclear extension approach, lack of
suitable adaptation of technology packages to local
conditions, frequent restructuring of the extension
institutions, high turnover of staff, limitation in the quality of
field and technical staff, inadequate budget for the
implementation of the extension system, limited private
sector involvement in service delivery, administrators
unnecessary interferences on technical matters, lack of
monitoring and evaluation of the extension system, weak
system of agricultural inputs supply and distribution
(seeds, fertilized, credit, subsidies etc) systems,
involvement of experts on duties other than extension
responsibility, weak market linkage and information
system, weak linkage of research-extension farmer,
absence of public private partnership in extension service
delivery, not enough attention given to indigenous
knowledge of local people and absence of irrigated
agriculture focused extension and research systems. Most
of the challenges are institutional which require
administrative commitment, but further research must
enquire about suitable adaptation of technology packages
to local conditions
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Accepted 19 January 2018
Citation: Albore A. (2018). Review on Role and
Challenges of Agricultural Extension Service on Farm
Productivity in Ethiopia. International Journal of
Agricultural Education and Extension, 4(1): 093-100.
Copyright: © 2018 Asfaw Albore. This is an open-access
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