CHAPTER 1

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER AND OTHER DEVICES

A computer is a general purpose machine that manipulates raw facts according to a set of
instructions that are fed into it. The computer as a machine and all other equipment
associated with it constitute Hardware. A personal computer refers to a small electronic
data processing machine meant for individual use. The instructions that tell it what to do are
called software. A set of instructions that performs a particular task is called the program,
or software program. The instructions in the program direct the computer to perform input
operations, process the data and output the results.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Digital computer are classified according to their size and processing power in the following
categories:

(a) Supercomputers

(b) Mainframe computers

(c) Minicomputers

(d) Desktop computers containing the workstations and personal computers

Supercomputers: The processing speed of supercomputers lies in the range 400-10,000

MIPS (mega instructions per second), word length 64-96 bits, memory capacity 256 M byte
and more, hard disk capacity 1000 G byte and more and machine cycle time 4-6
nanosecond (ns).

Supercomputers are specially designed to maximize the number of floating point

instructions per second (FLOPS) which is usually more than 1 gigaflop per second.

A supercomputer contains a number of CPUs which operate in parallel to make it faster.

They are used for massive data processing and solving very sophisticated problems. They
are used for weather forecasting, weapons research and development, rocketing,
aerodynamics, seismology, atomic, nuclear and plasma physics.

Supercomputers have limited use because of their very high price. They are being used at
some research centres and government agencies involving sophisticated scientific and
engineering tasks.

Mainframe Computers : Mainframe computers are powerful, large general purpose

computers. Their word length may be 48, 60 or 64 bits, memory capacity, 64-256 M byte,
hard disk capacity, 1 - 10 G byte or more and processing speed, 30-100 MIPS.

They are used where large amount of data are to be processed or very complex calculations
are to be made and these tasks are beyond the computing capacity of minicomputers. They
are used in research organizations, large industries, large business and government
organizations; banks and airline reservations where a large database is required.
Minicomputers : Minicomputers work faster and have more powerful CPUs than
microcomputers. Their word length is 32 bits. Most minicomputers use Motorola 68030 or
68040 CPU. Some minicomputers are uniprocessor systems whereas some are
multiprocessor systems. The processing speed lies in the range 10 - 30 MIPS, Memory
(RAM) capacity lies in the range 8-96 Mbytes. In some systems, it can be extended up to
128-256 M byte. The hard disk capacity lies in the range 380-3 Giga bytes (GB). A
minicomputer can support up to 64 or even more terminals, in local area network setup.

Minicomputers are extensively used for payroll preparation, accounting and scientific
computations. High-performance workstations with graphics input/output capability use

minicomputers. Minicomputers are used for multiuser and interactive applications in

colleges, universities, research organizations, government organizations, industries. They
are also used for real-time (industrial) controls and engineering design work. Minicomputers
support a greater variety of peripheral devices.

Desktop Computers : A desktop computer is a computer that fits conveniently on the top
of a business desk. Most personal computers, as well as some workstations can be
considered desktop computers. Desktop computer is just another term for personal or
microcomputer.

Pares of Computer 

Central processing Unit (CPU) : The CPU is the brain of a computer. Its primary function
is to execute programs. Beside executing programs, the CPU also controls the operation of
all other components such as memory, input and output devices. Under the CPU’s control,
programs and data are stored in the memory and outputs are displayed on the CRT screen
or printed on paper after the processing has taken place. The CPU of a small computer has a
single microprocessor. The CPU of a large computer may contain a number of
microprocessors on one or more circuit boards. Each microprocessor in a large CPU
performs a specific task. A microprocessor contains a control unit and an arithmetic and
logic unit (ALU). When main memory is added to a microprocessor, it forms a CPU. The
major sections of a CPU are:

(a) Primary Memory

(b) Arithmetic and Logic unit (ALU)

(c) Control unit

Primary Memory : Memory is the computer’s working storage. Primary memory is one of
the most important parts of the computer, as it determines the size and number of
programs that can be simultaneously held within the computer, as well as the amount of
data that can be processed quickly. Primary memory is a fast random access memory
(RAM). It also stores the necessary programs of system software, which are required to
execute user programs. The main memory is directly addressed by the CPU.

Memories can be divided into the following two types:

(a) RAM (random access memory)

(b) ROM (read only memory).

RAM (read/write). RAM is a read/write memory. Information can be written into and read
from a RAM. It is a volatile memory. It retains the stored information as long as it is
supplied with power. When power supply is switched off or interrupted the stored
information in the RAM is lost. RAMs of various capacities are available, for example, 1M,
4M, 16M and so on.

Static and Dynamic RAM: There are two important types of RAMs: static RAM and
dynamic RAM. Static RAMs retain stored information only as long as the power supply is on.
But a dynamic RAM loses its stored information in a very short time (a few milliseconds)
even though the power supply is on. Therefore, dynamic RAMs have to be refreshed
periodically, generally every 2 milliseconds. The dynamic RAMs are cheaper and have high
packing density and moderate speed. They consume less power. They are used where large
capacity memory is needed. Static RAMs are costlier and consume more power. They do not
need refreshing circuitry. They have higher speeds than dynamic RAMs. Static RAM and
dynamic RAM are also written as SRAM and DRAM respectively.

ROM. ROM is a permanent type memory. Its contents are not lost when power supply is
switched off. The user cannot write into a ROM. Its contents are written into at
manufacturing time. ROMs store permanent programs and other types of information which
are needed by the computer to execute user programs. ROMs store functions such as sine,
cosine, logarithm, square root, exponential and code conversion tables, etc. An example of
a ROM is Toshiba Mask ROM, TCS 534000,512 K x 8 bits.

PROMS. Programmable ROMs called PROMs are also available. Moreover, different types of
PROMs such as erasable PROM called EPROM, electrically erasable PROM called E PROM are
available. Users can. Write information in PROMs, EPROMS and E2PROMs. Once
programmed the recorded information into an EPROM can be erased to record different
information, whereas in a PROM the information once written by the user cannot be
changed. Such information is required while executing user programs.

Volatility of Memory : Volatile memory is memory whose contents are lost when power is
switched off. A computer’s main memory, made up of dynamic RAM or static RAM chips,
loses its contents immediately upon interruption of power. A random access memory (RAM)
is volatile but core memory containing magnetic elements is not volatile.

Arithmetic Logic Unit 

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of instructions takes place during the processing operation. To be more precise,
all calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The
data and instructions, stored in the primary storage prior to processing, are transferred, as
and when needed, to the ALU where processing takes place. No processing is done in the
primary storage unit. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily stored in
the primary storage until needed again at a later time. Data may thus move from primary
storage to ALU and back again to storage many times during the processing operation. After
completion of processing, the final results which are stored in the storage unit are released
to an output device. The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that a
computer can perform is determined by the engineering design of the ALU. However, almost
all ALUs are designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations-add, subtract,
multiply, divide-and logic operations or comparisons such as less than, equal to, or greater
than. Figure 1.7 illustrates organization of a computer system containing different parts and
subsystems. In this figure, the calculator represents the central processing unit (CPU) and
the clock carries out the control function for different operations of the computer. The input
and output devices are shown for the keyboard input and the monitor output.

Control Unit (CU) 

This unit is responsible for controlling the entire functioning of the ALU. It receives its
instructions from the memory and executes them after decoding. The timing and control
signals are generated by this unit and sent to other units for execution of the program. It
also transfers data between memory and input/ output devices.

PERIPHERALS 

The input/ output (I/O) devices and the secondary storage units of a computer are
called peripherals.

Input Data and Input Units 

Data and instructions are entered into a computer through input devices. An input device
converts input data and instructions into binary form for acceptance by the computer. The
commonly used input device is a keyboard. A number of other input devices have also been
developed which do not require typing for inputting information. Examples are:

(a (b
Mouse Joystick
) )
(d
(c) Trackball Light pen
)
(e
Graphic tablet (f) Touch screen
)

Devices (a) to (e) permit the user to select something on the CRT screen by pointing to it.
Therefore, these devices are called pointing devices. Voice input systems have also been
developed. A microphone is used as an input in such devices.

Key-entry-devices : Data entry can be considered in two broad categories: off-line and
on-line. On-line data entry involves devices such as terminals which are connected directly
to the computer. On the other hand, off-line data entry involves devices through which data
are recorded on some media (such as tapes) and then entered into the computer later on.
Since data entry is done manually by data entry operators and the speed with which a
human being can enter data is very much less than the data processing speed of a
computer, in almost 90% of the applications, data entry is done off-line. This saves the
precious processing time of the computer.

VDU Terminal Inputs : Video display terminals (VDTs) are the most popular I/O devices
used today in direct-access processing applications. A typewriter-like keyboard, is used to
enter data into the computer and a cathode ray tube (CRT) that looks like a television
screen is used to display the input data as well as the messages and processed output from
the computer.
The terminal consists of a small memory known as a buffer. Each character entered through
the keyboard is stored in the buffer and is also displayed simultaneously on the CRT.

The data are not transmitted to the computer until the operator presses an enter / transmit
key on the keyboard. This gives an opportunity to the operator to proofread the data on the
screen. A small square or underscore character, called a cursor, indicates to the operator
where the next character to be keyed will be displayed on the screen. Any keystroke error
can be easily corrected by moving the cursor to the erroneous character and re-keying the
data.

Video display terminals with a graphic display capability are normally much more expensive
than the alphanumeric VDTs. They are capable of displaying graphics and diagrams as well
as alphanumeric characters and are used particularly as an aid to design. Graphic devices
provide not only a means of displaying high-resolution drawings but also the capability of
manipulating and modifying the drawings and designs displayed on the terminal screen.

Scanners : Scanners are a kind of input devices. They are capable of entering information
directly into the computer. The main advantage of direct entry of information is that users
do not have to key the information. This provides faster and more accurate data entry.
Important types of scanners are optical scanners and magnetic-ink character readers.

Scanners are extensively used in the USA. The two major types of scanners are magnetic
ink character recognition (MICR) devices and optical scanners.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) : These devices were developed to assist
the banking industry

in processing the tremendous volume of cheques being written everyday. A special type of
cheque is used in banks that is processed employing MICR devices. The bank’s identification
code and the customer’s account number are pre-printed (pre-coded) on all these cheques
with a special ink that contains magnetizable particles of iron oxide. When a filled-in cheque
is presented at the bank, a bank employee encodes the amount in the lower right corner.
This cheque is then processed using a MICR device.

Advantages and Limitations of the MICR System

(a) Even roughly handled, folded, smeared and over-stamped cheques can be read with a
high degree of accuracy.

(b) MICR devices speed up data input for the banking industry because cheques can be
directly fed into the input device.

(c) The characters coded on the cheques using magnetic ink can also be easily read by
people.

(d) The main limitation of MICR is that only the 10 digits and 4 special characters needed
for bank processing are used. No alphabetic characters are available.

(e) Special type of magnetic ink is required for encoding the characters to be read by the
machine.
Optical Character Reader (OCR) : These scanner devices are capable of detecting
alphabetic and numeric characters printed on paper. These characters may be either
typewritten or handwritten. In case of handwritten characters, special care has to be taken
to ensure that the characters are of standard size, lines making up the characters are
connected and no stylish loops etc. are used. On the other hand, if the characters are
typewritten, they must be typed using a special type font called an OCR font. A wide range
of fonts, using ordinary inks, can now be accepted by OCR devices.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR) : These scanners are capable of recognizing a pre-specified
type of mark made by pencil or pen. For example, many students might have appeared in
objective type tests where they had to mark their answers to questions on a special test-
scoring sheet by darkening a square or circular space by a pencil to indicate their correct
choice out of the various alternative. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for
grading with the use of an optical mark reader. The use of OMR is not limited to the grading
of objective type tests. In fact, any input data that is of a choice or selection nature can be
recorded for OMR input.

Joysticks : A joystick is also a pointing device. It is used to move the cursor position on a
CRT screen. Its function is similar to that of a mouse. A joystick is a stick which has a
spherical ball at its lower end as well as at its upper end. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The joystick can be moved right or left, forward or backward. The electronic circuitry
inside the joystick detects and measures the displacement of the joystick from its central
position. This information is sent to the processor.

Trackballs : A trackball is also a pointing device and contains a ball which can rotate-in any
direction. The user spins the ball in different directions to move the cursor on the CRT
screen. The associated electronic circuitry detects the direction and speed of the spin. The
information is sent to the processor. This type of pointing device is normally used in a
laptop personal computer

Light pen : A light pen is a pointing device. It is used to select a displayed menu option on
the CRT. It is a photosensitive pen-like device. It is capable of sensing a position on the CRT
screen when its tip touches the screen. When its tip is moved over the screen surface, its
photocell sensing element detects the light coming from the screen and the corresponding
signals are sent to the processor. The menu is a set of programmed choices offered to the
user. The user indicates his choice by touching light pen against a desired description of the
menu. The signals sent by the light pen to the processor identify the menu option.

Touch Screen : It is a computer screen designed or modified to recognize the location of a
touch on its surface. By touching the screen, the user can make a selection

or move a cursor. The simplest type of touch screen is made up of a grid of sensing lines,
which determine the location of a touch by matching vertical and horizontal contacts.
Another, more accurate, type uses an electrically charged surface and sensors around the
outer edges of the screen to detect the amount of electrical disruption and pinpoint exactly
where a contact has been made. A third type embeds infrared light emitting diodes (LEDs)
and sensors around the outer edges of the screen. These LEDs and sensors create an
invisible infrared grid, which the user’s finger interrupts, in front of the screen. Infrared
touch screens are often used in "dirty" environments where contaminants could interfere
with the operation of other types of touch screen. Touch screens are very popular in
applications such as information kiosks and automatic teller machines because they offer
pointing control without the requirement any movable hardware and because touching the
screen is intuitive.

Video Display Unit (VDU) : A terminal is an input/ output device for a computer that
usually has a keyboard for input and a video screen or printer as output device. A terminal
when connected to a VDU or a monitor is known as a softcopy terminal but when it is
connected to a printer so that the output can be taken on a sheet of paper, then it is called
a hardcopy terminal.

Monochrome/Colour Displays : In this monitor, text appears as white, green or amber.
Monochrome monitors do not display graphics on the screen. Thus if you run a program
which shows graphics (say games), then they will not run with MDA monitors

Video Graphics Array (VGA) : The most common video monitor sold today is the VGA
monitor which is the best among all the other types of Monitors. If can display both text as
well as graphics. These are available in black & white as well as in the colour type. These
monitors are comparatively costly.

Impact Character Printers 

Printers are the most popular output devices. They provide information in a permanent
readable form. They produce printed outputs of results, programs and data. A character
printer prints one character of the text at a time. They are low-speed printers. Their printing
speed lies in the range of 30-600 characters per second. The character printers can be
classified as:

(a) Impact printers

(b) Non-impact printers

Impact printers use an electro-mechanical mechanism that causes hammers or pins to

strike against a ribbon and paper to print the text. Two types of impact character printers
are available: dot-matrix printers and letter quality printers. Non-impact printers do not use
any electro-mechanical printing head to strike against ribbon and paper. They use thermal,
chemical, electrostatic, laser beam or inkjet technology for printing the text. Usually a non-
impact type printer is faster than an impact type. The disadvantage of non-impact type
printers is that they produce only a single copy of the text whereas impact printers produce
multiple copies of the text.

Non-impact Character Printers 

This type of printers use thermal, electrostatic, chemical and inkjet technologies. They are
briefly described below.

Dot-Matrix Type Thermal Character Printers : This type of printer uses a special heat
sensitive paper. These papers have a special heat sensitive coating. When a spot on the
special paper is heated, it becomes dark. A character is printed with a matrix of dots. A
print head consists of 5 x 7 or 7 x 9 matrix of tiny heating elements. The heating element is
heated by electric current. To print a character the printing head is moved first to the
correct character position. Then the heating elements for the desired character are turned
on. After a short time they are turned off. Thereafter the print head is moved to the next
character position. Such printers have a speed of about 200 characters per second (cps).

Ink-Jet Character Printers : It uses the dot-matrix approach to print text and graphics.
One type of an earlier ink-jet printer uses one or more nozzles in the print head that emit a
steady stream of tiny ink drops. Each droplet is changed when it passes through a valve.
Then it passes through horizontal and vertical deflecting plates. These plates deflect the ink
drops to direct them to the desired spots on the paper to form the impression of a
character. In this type of printers continuous stream of ink-drops is used. The speed of
inkjet printers lies in the range of 40-300 cps. The average life of an ink-jet print head is
about 10 billion characters which is 5 times more than that of the print head of an impact
type dot-matrix printer.

Laser Printers : Laser printers are non-impact type printers. They print one page at a
time. These printers use laser or some other light source to produce an image on a
photosensitive drum. The computer controls the laser beam to turn it on and off when it is
sent back and forth across the drum. An image is produced following the raster scan
principle. The laser-exposed areas attract toner (an ink powder). Thereafter the drum
transfers the toner to the paper. The paper then moves to a fusing station where the toner
is permanently fused on the paper with heat or pressure. After this the drum is discharged
and cleaned. Now the drum is ready for processing the next page. The laser printers are
quiet and they produce high-quality output. These printers are expensive and require
periodic maintenance. Low-speed laser printers produce 10 pages or more per minute and
are used with microcomputers. High-speed laser printers producing upto 300 pages per
minute are used with mini and large computers. Laser printers have become popular for
voluminous printing work. They are used for desk top publishing work too.

Line Printers : The line printer prints one line of the text at a time. Its printing speed lies
in the range of 300-3000 lines per minute. It is used for large-volume printing jobs. It may
be used with both mini and mainframe computers.

The impact type line printers are of the following types:

(a) Drum printer

(b) Chain printer

(c) Band printer

STORAGE DEVICES 

All computers except very small systems contain both semiconductor as well as magnetic
memory. The semiconductor memory is employed as the main memory (or primary
memory) of the compiler. It stores programs and data which are currently needed by the
CPU. The magnetic memory is used as secondary (or auxiliary) memory.

Massive Capacity: The secondary memory is employed for bulk storage (mass storage) of
programs, data and other information. It has much larger capacity than the main memory.
It stores system software, assemblers, compilers, useful packages, large data files, etc. The
secondary memory is non-volatile in nature.
Non-volatile: The magnetic memory retains the information once stored in it. The
magnetic memories such as hard disks and floppy disks are the most common secondary
memories used in computers. Backup memory is used to store the copy of the important
programs such as operating system, compilers etc. Floppy disks and magnetic tapes can be
employed as backup storage. These programs are generally available in the secondary
memory but their copies are also kept in the backup memory so that they can be reloaded
into the secondary memory in case the original programs stored in the secondary memory
are lost accidentally or due to any other reason.

Cost Effective: A 0.5 inch wide reel of tape costs much less than other data storage
devices. An additional cost benefit is that tapes can be erased and reused many times.

Modular Expandability : The capacity of each of the secondary storage devices can be
increased as the need of the organization grows. For example, the secondary storage
capacity can be increased by adding hard disks of capacity ranging from 1 GB and above
and by putting them together.

Magnetic Tape Systems 

Magnetic tape is one of the most popular storage medium for large volumes of data that are
needed to be sequentially accessed and processed. The tape is a plastic ribbon usually 1/2
inch wide that is coated on one side with an iron-oxide material which can be magnetized.
The tape ribbon itself is stored in reels of 50 to 2400 feet, in small cartridges or cassettes. It
is similar to the tape used on a tape-recorder except that it is of higher quality and more
durable. Like the recorder tape, the computer tape can also be erased and reused again and
again.

Density of Recording : A typical 0.5 inch wide reel of magnetic tape is 2,400 feet long and
is able to hold 800, 1600, or 6250 characters per inch of this length.

Thus, if 6250 characters are held per inch and if the tape is 28,800 inches long (2400 feet
times 12 inches), then the maximum capacity of the tape is 180 million characters.

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes 

Economical: A 0.5 inch wide reel of tape costs much less than other data storage devices.
A typical 0.5 inch wide reel of P1agnetic tape is 2,400 feet long and is able to hold 800,
1600 or 6250 characters per inch of this length. Thus, if 6250 characters are held per inch
and if the tape is 28,800 inches long (2400 feet times 12 inches), then the maximum
capacity of the tape is 180 million characters.

Fast input/output : As already discussed, data transfer rate for a magnetic tape can be in
excess of 1 million bytes per second.

Long term Storage : Since the reel is compact and weighs less than one kilogram, it
obviously occupies much less storage space and is much easier to handle. Large computer
centres make use of extensive tape libraries, which contain thousands and thousands of
reels of stored information and may occupy an entire room in an organization. The data
stored on magnetic reels kept in cool environment and away from dust can be retained for
years and retrieved as and when desired.
Reusable: An additional cost benefit is that tapes can be erased and reused many times.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Tapes  

Only Sequential Recording and Access : Magnetic tape is a sequential access device and
hence data recorded on tape cannot be addressed directly. Data can only be retrieved
serially. So if a required data item is at the end of a tape, all the earlier parts have to be
read before accessing this item. If random access is frequently required, then magnetic tape
is not a suitable storage medium for such a requirement. Too much operator time would be
required to load and unload tapes and too much machine time would be wasted in fetching
the exact data that is needed.

Inconvenient for Storing Large Number of Small Records : To isolate one record from
another stored on a tape, an inter-record gap is provided between two adjacent records.
Also, some portion of the tape at one end is left unrecorded for threading purposes. A tape
is for such a requirement.

Non-standardization of Drives makes Compatibility Difficult : Variability of tape

densities can be a problem since some drives cannot read tapes recorded at very high or
very low densities.

Hard Disks 

A hard disk is a device used for mass storage of data needed for direct access. This way a
hard disk can be used to retrieve any record of data at a very fast speed.

As a hard disk is more stable, being rigid and contained in a dust-free environment, its track
and bit densities are much higher than those of a floppy disk. It stores more information at
a faster rate compared to a floppy disk. The access time is about 20 ms. The disks come in
different sizes such as 3.5 inch, 5.25 inch and 8 inch. The larger disks are used in
minicomputers and the smaller disks in PCs and microcomputers. A minicomputer uses 300-
760 MB capacity hard disk.

Removable/Fixed Disk Packs 

A disk pack is a collection of disks in a protective container used primarily with

minicomputers and mainframe computers. A diskpack in the form of a stack of 14-inch disks
in a plastic housing is generally removable. When outside of the disk drive, the disk pack is
held in a plastic container that keeps the disk platter dust free. Before insertion, the bottom
of the disk pack is removed. After inserting the disk pack into the disk drive, the rest of the
housing is released for removal. A fixed disk is a non-removable disk system such as the
one found in most personal computers..

Advantages of Disks  

Large Storage Capacity : Hard disks are now available in small sizes such as 31/2 inches
with a capacity of 3 gigabytes. Thus considering their small physical sizes, the capacity of
hard disks is really large.

Reusable : Data stored on a disk can be erased and the disk space reused to store other
data. Thus a disk can be used again and again.
Ability to Store Large Number of Files in one Unit : Hard disks can store a large
number of files in one unit. Since each file is accessible in a random access mode, the read
and write operations are much faster.

Direct Addressing leading to Random Access/Addition and Deletion of Records: A

disk is a direct access type of storage medium. Therefore, the time required to store or
retrieve information is a fraction of that required in a tape. Consequently, a disk is more
efficient when only a very few records are needed to update a recorded file.

Disadvantages of Disks  

Costlier than Tapes : Hard disks are more expensive than tapes and therefore, the cost of
storing per byte is more for disks than for tapes.

Fixed Disks not Portable : Hard disks are not very convenient to carry from one place to
another as they are either, fixed inside the machine or are not easy to carry.

More Susceptible to Errors : Hard disks rotate at a very fast speed and are therefore
prone to errors if not aligned properly or maintained properly. However, data on a disk is
less likely to be lost due to mishandling or poor storage environment.

Video or Optical Disks (CD-ROM) 

It is an optical ROM. Prerecorded data can be read out. The manufacturer writes data on
CDROMs. The disk is made up of a resin, such as polycarbonate. It is coated with a material
which changes its reflecting property when a high intensity laser beam is focused on it. The
coating material is highly reflective, usually aluminium. The high intensity laser beam forms
a tiny pit along a trace to represent ‘1’ and the surface without a pit known as ‘land’
represents ‘0’. For reading the data, a laser beam of less intensity is employed. A laser
system needs 25 m W for writing whereas only 5 m W for reading. In some cases separate
laser beams are employed: one for writing and the other for reading.

The reflected laser is sensed by photo diode to read data. The intensity of the reflected light
of laser changes as it encounters a pit. A pit spreads the light so that the photodiode
receives little reflected light. But land reflects sufficient light to the photodiode. Thus the
change in reflected light is sensed and converted into electrical signals for data reading
purposes.

If the coating of the special material on the optical disk is a thin film, a hole is formed when
the laser beam falls on it. If the layer is a thick film, a pit is formed,. In some process of
thick film, a bubble is formed instead of a pit. First of all, a master disk is prepared. By
moulding a special plastic to the master disk, CD-ROMs are produced on mass scale. The
plastic copy of the data is then covered with a clear plastic layer and backed with a
reflecting coating.

Characteristics of CD-ROMs  

Large Capacity: Compared to magnetic tape, CD-ROM provides random access data

retrieval and data indexing and the disks have a shelf life of more than 40 years. But it is
more expensive than tape. CD-ROM is limited to 680 megabyte of data, making it
impractical for large volume applications and.
Judge yourself

A. State True or False

1. ALU is a part of CPU.

2. The floppy disk having program in it is software.

3. The main advantage of computer graphics is that it substantially increases productivity.

4. OCR is a device that scans written or typed text and transforms it in to computer
readable forms.

5. Intelligent terminal is a terminal with some processing capability.

6. Personal computer is a Micro computer.

7. An interactive system must be operating in real time.

8. CPU consist of ALU, memory unit and output device.

9. PROM is a non-volatile storage.

10. Semiconductor memory is static, slow, big in size and consumes large amount of power.

B. Select the correct answer

1. By processing we understand

(a) Processing string of only words

(b) Processing string of numbers and special symbols

(c) String manipulation only

(d) None of the above

2. The difference between memory and storage is that memory is

(a) temporary, permanent

(b) permanent, temporary

(c) Slow, fast

(d) None of the above

3. Which of the following holds the ROM, CPU, RAM and expansion cards?
(a) Hard disk (b) Floppy disk
(c) Mother board (d) None of the above

4. The language that the computer can understand and execute is called:

(a) Machine language (b) Application software

(c) System program (d) None of the above

 5. Which of the following devices can be used to directly input printed text?

(a) OCR (b) OMR

(c) MICR (d) None of the above 

CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING PROGRAMMING

computer languages

A computer can only do what a programmer asks it to do. To perform a particular task the
programmer writes a sequence of instructions, called the program. An instruction is a
command given to the computer to perform a certain specified operation on the given data.
A set of programs written for a computer is called software.

A computer contains a central processing unit (CPU) which interprets each instruction in a
program serially, sets up an internal route for flow of data, manipulates data and stores it in
the main memory. Thereafter, it fetches the next instruction. This process continues, till the
last instruction has been executed.

Each natural language has a systematic method of using symbols of that language. In
English, this method is given by this rules of grammar. These rules tell us which words to
use when and how to use them. Similarly, the symbols of a particular one computer
language must also be used as per the set of rules which are known as the "syntax rules" of
the language. In case of a natural language, people can use poor or incorrect vocabulary
and grammar and still make themselves understood. However, computers, being machines,
are receptive only to exact vocabulary governed by strict syntax rules of the language being
used. Thus, in case of a computer language, we must strictly adhere to the syntax of the
language, if we want to be understood by the computer. Computer languages are simpler
than natural languages but they have to be used with great precision. Computer languages
can be classified into three broad categories:
(a) Machine languages

(b) Assembly languages

(c) High-level languages

Machine Languages 

The set of instruction codes, whether in binary or in decimal notation, which can be directly
understood by the computer without the help of a translating program is called a machine
code or machine language program.

A computer understands information composed of only zeros and ones. This means that a
computer uses binary digits for its operation. The computer’s instructions are therefore
coded and stored in the memory in the form of 0s and 1s is called a machine language
program.

Advantages and Limitations of Machine Language 

Programs written in machine language can be executed very fast by the computer. This is
mainly because machine instructions are directly understood by the CPU and no translation
of the program is required. However, writing a program in machine language has several
disadvantages which are discussed below.

Machine Dependent. Because the internal design of computers is different from one

another and needs different electrical signals to operate, the machine language is also
different from one type of computer to another.

Difficult to Program. Although machine language is easily used by the computer, it is

very difficult to write a program in this language. It is necessary for the programmer either
to memorize dozens of code numbers for the commands in the machine’s instruction set or
to constantly refer to a reference card. A programmer is also forced to keep track of the
storage locations of data and instructions. A machine language programmer must also be an
expert who knows about the hardware structure of the computer.

Error Prone. For writing a program in machine language, the programmer not only has to
remember the opcodes, but also has to keep a track of the storage locations of data and
instructions. It therefore becomes very difficult for him to concentrate fully on the logic of
the problem. This frequently causes errors in programming.

Difficult to Modify. It is very difficult to correct or modify machine language programs.

Checking machine instructions to locate errors is about as tedious as writing them initially.
Similarly, modifying a machine language program at a later date is so difficult that many
programmers would prefer to code the new logic afresh instead of incorporating the
necessary modifications in the old program. In short, writing a program in machine
language is so difficult and time consuming that it is rarely used today.

Assembly Languages 

The instruction words which direct the computer are stored in the machine in numerical
form. The programmer, however, rarely writes his instructions in numerical form, instead,
each instruction to the computer is written using a letter code to designate the operation to
be performed, plus the address in memory of the number to be used in this step of the
calculation. Later, the alphabetical section of the instruction word is converted to numerical
form using an assembler. An instruction word as written by the programmer therefore
consists of two parts:

(a) the "operation-code" part which designates the operation (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, etc.) to be performed,

(b) the address of the number to be used

Mnemonics 

A mnemonic meaning memory aid, is a name or symbol used for some code or function. All
computer languages are made up of mnemonics except the machine language itself. For
example, BRANCHEQ could be mnemonic for a BRANCH ON EQUAL instruction.

Low Level Languages 

A language in which each statement is directly translated into a single machine code is

known as low-level language. Examples of low-level language are the assembly languages
of various processors. The basic problem of an assembly language is that it is more closely
related to the structure of a computer than to the performance of the task. The programmer
spends more time in manipulating registers and considering instruction sequences than
solving actual problems: The programmer must have detailed knowledge of the instruction
set, architecture and connection arrangement of peripherals to the ports of the computer.

Assemblers 

A computer does not understand any program written in a language other than its machine
language. Hence, the programs written in other languages must be translated into the
machine language of the computer before they are executed. Such translation is performed
with the help of software. A program which translates an assembly language program into a
machine language program is called an assembler. An assembler which runs on a computer
for which it produces object codes (machine codes) is called a self assembler (or resident
assembler).

High Level Languages (HLL) 

To overcome the difficulties associated with assembly languages, high-level or procedure-

oriented languages were developed. High-level languages permit programmers to describe
tasks in a form which is problem oriented rather than computer oriented, A programmer can
formulate problems more efficiently in a high-level language. Besides, he need not have a
precise knowledge of the architecture of the computer he is using.

The instructions written in a high-level language are called statements. The statements

resemble more closely English and mathematics as compared to mnemonics in assembly
languages. Examples of high-level languages are BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN, COBOL,
ALGOL, PL/1, PROLOG, LISP, ADA, SNOBOL, etc.
Machine Independence : High-level languages are machine independent. This is a very
valuable advantage because it means that a company changing computers - even to one
from a different manufacturer will not be required to rewrite all the programs that it is
currently using. In other words, a program written in a high-level language can be run on
many different types of computers with very little or practically no modification.

Portability : High-level languages are independent of computer architecture. The same

program will run on any other computer which has a compiler for that language. The
compiler is machine dependent and not language dependent.

Problem Oriented Languages : A problem oriented language is a computer language

designed to handle a particular class of problems. For example, COBOL was designed for
business applications. FORTRAN was designed for scientific and mathematical problems.
Query languages are designed for phrasing questions (interrogation problems)

Interpreter 

An interpreter is a translator program for a high-level programming language that translates

and runs the program at the same time. The program that is being interpreted is still in its
original source language, the way the programmer wrote it.

The interpreter translates one program statement into machine language and then causes
the machine language to be executed. It then translates the next statement and so on, until
the program is finished. Interpreted programs run more slowly than their compiler
counterparts, because the compiler translates the entire program all at once before the
program is run. However, it is convenient to write a program using an interpreter. Each
single line of code can be tested interactively, hence the programmer can test the results of
a programming statement right away. Programs that are interpreted are not stand-alone
programs and must always be run with the interpreter in the computer. For example, in
order to run a BASIC source language program, the correct version of the BASIC interpreter
must be in the computer.

Often, a program is developed with an interpreter and the final version is compiled for
better run-time performance. For example, BASIC, the most commonly used interpreted
language, can also be compiled.

Compiler Vs. Linker 

Usually a longer program is divided into a number of smaller subprograms

called modules. It is easier to develop, test and debug smaller programs. A linker is a
program that links (combines) smaller programs to form a single program. While developing
a program, subroutines are frequently used. The subroutines are stored in a library file. The
linker also links subroutines with the main program. Further, the linker links machine codes
of the programs.

Interpreter Vs. Compiler 

An interpreter is a program which translates statements of a high-level language program

into machine codes. It translates one statement of the program at a time. It reads one
statement of a high-level language program, translates it into machine code and executes
it. Then it reads the next statement of the program, again translates and executes it. In this
way it proceeds further till all the statements of the program are translated and executed.
On the other hand, a compiler goes through the entire high-level language program once or
twice and then translates the entire program into machine codes. A compiler is 5 to 25
times faster than an interpreter. An interpreter is a small program as compared to a
compiler. It occupies less memory space, so it can be used in a smaller system which has
limited memory space. The object program produced by the compiler is permanently saved
for future reference. On the other hand, the object code of the statement produced by an
interpreter is not saved. If an instruction is used the next time, it must be interpreted once
again and translated into machine code. For example, during the repetitive processing of
the steps in a loop, each instruction in the loop must be reinterpreted as the loop is
executed.

GENERATION OF LANGUAGES 

The term’ generation’ of computer languages is used to categories the generic

enhancements in the various computer languages that have evolved over the last 50 years.
Each generation indicates significant progress towards making computers easier to use. In
the early days of computing, it was assumed that only a few elite technical specialists would
learn to use computers, but now their use the a larger proportion of population is takes for
granted. Computer languages by generation are classified as follows:

(a) First generation (late 1940s)-machine languages.

(b) Second generation (early 1950s)-assembly languages.

(c) Third generation (late 1950s through to 1970s)- high level languages.

(d) Fourth generation (late 1970 onwards)-including a whole angle of query languages and
other tools.

We have already studied about the first and second generation languages namely machine
and assembly languages.

Differences between 4GL and Other Programming Languages 

A 4GL normally contains a utility software (tool) that interacts with the database
management system (DBMS) software to store, manipulate and retrieve data needed to
satisfy user requirements for information. A high level language is a procedural language
that requires the programmer to spell out all the processing steps needed to achieve a
desired result. But a 4GL is a non-procedural language. It allows users to simply specify
what the output should be without describing all the details of how the data should be
manipulated to produce that result.

The use of 4GL is increasing and these applications development tools are often easier to
use than high level languages. But 4GLs are not supported by industry standards. They offer
less control over output results than do high level languages. And they do not use hardware
resources as efficiently as do these languages. Thus, a majority of the new application
programs prepared today are written in these high level languages.

Advantages of 4GLs 
(a) Programming productivity is increased. One line of 4GL code is equivalent to several
lines of 3GL code.

(b) System development is faster.

(c) The finished system is more likely to be what the user envisaged, if a prototype is used
and the user is involved throughout the development.

(d) Program maintenance is easier.

(e) End users can often develop their own applications.

(f) Programs developed in 4GLs are more portable than those developed in other generation
of languages.

(g) Documentation is improved because many 4GLs are self documenting.

Judge yourself

A. State True or False

1. A program written in the machine language of a particular computer can be executed on
a different computer.

2. Syntax error and semantic error are one and the same thing.

3. A pseudo-operation is a special assembly language.

4. A fully compiled or assembled program, that is ready to be loaded into the computer, is
known as the object program.

5. An interpreter creates an object program from a source program.

B. Select the correct answer

1. Bug means

(a) A logical error in a program

(b) Documenting programs using an efficient documentation tool

(c) A difficult syntax error in a program

(d) None of the above

2. The part of machine level instruction, which tells the central processor what has to be
done is

(a) Operation code (b) Address

(c) Operand (d) None of the above

3. Indicate which, of the following, is not true about 4GL.

(a) 4GL does not support a high-level of screen interaction

(b) Many database management system pack ages support 4GLs

(c) A 4GL is a software tool which is written, possibly, in some third Generation Language.

(d) None of the above

4. Indicate which, of the following, best describes the term "software".

(a (b
Systems programs only Application programs only
) )
(d
(c) Both (a)and (b) None of the above 
)

CHAPTER 3
OPERATING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

An operating system (as in short) is a master control program that runs the computer and
acts as a scheduler. It controls the flow of signals from the CPU to various parts of the
computer.

It is the first program loaded (copied) into the computer’s memory after the computer is
switched on.

The operating system is an important component of the computer system, because it sets
the standards for the application programs that run in it. All programs must be written to
"talk to" the operating system.

Popular operating systems include MS-DOS, OS/2 Warp, Windows 95 and UNIX for PC/ AT.
The Macintosh uses Finder and Multifinder. Digital System uses the VMS and Ultrix operating
systems. The IBM mainframe computer uses MVS, VM or DOS/VSE operating system.

OS AS RESOURCE MANAGER

The operating system acts as a resource manager and performs the following functions:

(a) It assigns processors to different tasks being performed by the computer system.

(b) It allocates the main memory and other storage areas to the system programs as well
as user programs and data.
(c) It carries out the input/output management and coordinates and assigns different input
and output devices while one or more programs are being executed.

(d) It manages files on various storage devices and the transfer of these files from one
storage device to another. It also allows all files to be easily changed and modified through
the use of text editors or some other file manipulation software packages.

(e) It establishes and enforces the job priority. That is, it determines and maintain the order
in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.

(f) It automatically transits from job to job as directed by special control statements.

(g) It is able to interpret commands and instructions.

(h) It co-ordinates and assigns compilers, assemblers, utility programs, and other software
packages to various users working on the computer system.

(i) It establishes data security and integrity. That is, it keeps different programs and data in
such a manner that they do not interfere with each other. Moreover, it also protects data
from being destroyed by any other user.

(j) It also produces dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting codes.

(k) It maintains internal time clock and log of system usage for all users.

(l) It facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer
operator (human).

COMPUTER MANAGEMENT 

Processor Management : Job Scheduling

In large systems, a number of jobs are done on the computer everyday. When these jobs
are done individually, a lot of time is consumed between different jobs for operator’s action.
Hence in modern systems, a number of jobs are batched and kept ready. The job control
program of the as is given charge of executing these jobs one after the other (sequentially).
Instructions are written in the special language of the as such as the Job Control Language
(JCL of IBM as) or Work Flow Language (WFL of Burroughs OS) etc. These instructions tell
the as the names of the jobs, the files required for each, the devices to be used etc.

Most medium and large computers use multiprogramming and multi-tasking operating

systems. These computers can also execute several jobs using time-sharing techniques.

Multiprogramming

Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved execution of two or more different
and independent programs by the same computer.
Timesharing: Timesharing is a term used to describe a computer system that has a
number of independent, relatively low speed, on-line, simultaneously usable terminals. Each
terminal provides direct access to the CPU. In other words, timesharing refers to the
allocation of computer resources in a time-dependent fashion to several users
simultaneously. The principal notion of a timesharing system is to provide a large number of
users direct access to the computer for problem solving. Time sharing is accomplished by
providing a separate terminal to each user. All these terminals are connected to the main
computer system. Thus, a timesharing system has many terminals linked up to the same
computer at the same time.

Advantages of Timesharing

Reduces CPU idle time : It is wasteful and expensive to let for the CPU to be utilized for
less than 50% of the time. Yet this is what happens in a conventional batch processing
installation as the CPU waits during set-up time and during I/O operations. Timesharing
significantly increases CPU’s utilization by switching from one program to another in rapid
succession. Thus the throughput of the installation increases to a great extent.

Offers computing facility to small users. Small users can gain direct access to much
more sophisticated hardware and software than they could otherwise justify or afford. In a
timesharing system they merely pay a fee for resources used and are relieved of the
hardware, software, and personnel problems associated with acquiring and maintaining their
own installations.

Provides quick response. The response time is negligible in case of a timesharing

system. Thus, timesharing allows managers to react more quickly. Timesharing also reduces
waste in the use of business resources and it can permit quick follow-up on creative ideas.
In short, it helps in improving the users’ efficiency to a great extent.

Reduces the requirement of paper. If a manager can retrieve at any time the specific
information he needs, from an on-line file, he does not need a bulky paper report that
contains much of the file information.

Serving many users. There are several programs which are frequently used by many
users. In a timesharing system, such programs are stored in the system library. A user
need not write his own program instructions when performing such processing tasks. He
needs only call up the needed program stored on-line at the computer site and supply the
data.

Disadvantages of Timesharing

Question of Security. Since hundreds of users use a timesharing system simultaneously,

provision must be made to protect the security and integrity of user programs and data. The
programs and data of different users should not get mixed up.

Problem of Reliability. A timesharing system as far as possible should be highly reliable

as it caters to the needs of several users. Hence provisions must be made to provide
dependable and continuous service. The self-repairing computer or some sort of a standby
arrangementmay help overcome the reliability problem ultimately. But troubles that occur
are often with the on-line peripheral devices or software and not with the main CPU.
Problem of Data Communication. In a timesharing system, the users interact with the
main computer system through remote terminals that require data communication facilities.
The cost of data communication has been declining but not so rapidly as the cost of data
processing. Thus, data transmission charges make up an increasing portion of the total
timesharing cost package. In addition, telephone lines were designed for voice
communication rather than data communication. Therefore current communication facilities
are not considered adequate by many timesharing systems.

Question of Overhead Involved. The timesharing system with its control functions such
as switching from user to another and swapping programs in and out takes up an
appreciable amount of CPU time. This is termed overhead and must be minimized in the
overall hardware-software design. If a system is properly balanced, then the overhead is
manageable and the computer response time to a user request will be small. However, if
the system is overloaded with too many users, then the overhead can get out of hand,
resulting in very poor response.

Memory Management

An operating system is also responsible for managing the main memory of a CPU so that it
can be used efficiently. Three tasks along these lines are:

(a) Protecting programs including itself (operating system) from accidental erasure.

(b) Handling programs that exceed the physical limitations of the main memory.

(c) Protecting users form each other.

Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On Lines) 

Spooling is a technique that has been used successfully on a number of computer systems
to reduce the speed mismatch between the computer and the printer, and in turn, the idle
time of the CPU. It is available to the fast and expensive CPU on a high speed I/O medium
such as tape or disk.

Judge yourself

A. State True or False

1. OS manages files on various storage devices and the transfer of these files from one
storage device to another.

2. Job control program of the as is given the charge of executing a large number of jobs
automatically in mainframe type of computers.

3. The main idea behind timesharing systems is to allow one user program to have the
complete share of the CPU time.

4. One of the disadvantage of time sharing is that one can easily protect a system from
users.
5. Spooling is a technique to reduce mismatch between the computer and the printer and
intern the idle time of the CPU.

6. Electronic messaging is not expending rapidly because it is not only more costly but also
takes more time than ordinary mail.

B. Select the correct answer.

1. Operating system is:

(a) A collection of hardware components.

(b) A collection of input output devices.

(c) A collection of software routines.

2. Operating system

(a) Link a program with the subroutines it references.

(b) Provides a layered, user-friendly interface.

(c) Enables a programmer to draw a flowchart.

CHAPTER 4
COMPUTER AND COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

Communications refers to the transfer of data from one computer to another.

Communications is a major technology that requires special expertise in both the network
and related hardware and software that controls it. The phrase computer, communication
system covers everything from the transfer of data from PCs to a mainframe computer in
another country via satellite or vice verse.

A PC, like all other digital computers, stores and processes data as electrical signals that
represent 1s and 0s. Each of these 1s and 0s is abinary digit (bit) of information. The PC
stores, these bits in 8-bit groups called bytes. The PC also stores pairs of bytes (total 16
bits) as words. Although information may occupy two or more bytes of total storage space
in the PCs memory, it is communicated one byte at a time in some IBM PC models
and two or more bytes t a time in other PC/AT models. Data can be transferred between
two geographically distant personal computers by using communications program in each
computer and using modem with each computer. Data can also be transferred between two
side-by-side computers by looking up a cable from one computer’s serial port to the other
computer’s serial port. In this case you will only need the communication software in both
the computers. PCs can be part of local area network, in which databases and other files, as
well as printers, can be shared among many users. If the local area network interconnects
with a minicomputer or mainframe network, then personal computers can communicate
with larger computers.
A workstation is a high-performance, single user microcomputer or minicomputer that has
been specialized for graphics, computer aided design, data base management system or
scientific applications. Today, high-end personal computers, such as Pentium II based
machines are also called workstations

NEED FOR DATA TRANSMISSION 

Data transmission over distances has become essential for the following reasons:

(a) The transfer of documents over long distances becomes costly and it also takes a long
time. By using computers, the cost of transfer can be made cheaper than other conventional
means like telegrams etc. as computers can send data at a very fast speed. Thus computers
enable us to reduce both cost and time in transferring data.

(b) Timely transmission of data is essential for an effective use of data. For example, the
variation in the price of gold at London Metal Exchange, if not made known immediately,
would not help a trader to take decision for selling or purchasing gold. Thus timely receipt of
data from long distances is very important.

(c) As the time taken to transmit messages is very small, therefore several computers can
be connected together and users can work together in a group. Software packages have
been developed for group working in Data Base Management (DBMS) and graphical
artworks. .

(d) Different departments of an organization may be separated physically being at distant

places but their data could be stored on a central computer. The data can then be accessed
by computers located in different departments. The data at the central computer may be
updated from time to time and accessed by all users. This prevents any bottlenecks in the
smooth functioning of the organization because all the users will get the latest information
(for example, inventory) stored in the central computer.

(e) Fluctuations in rate of foreign exchange and in prices of shares/equities can be

communicated instantaneously using long distance digital communications and in this
computers playa major role because of their high speed of transmission and complete
accuracy.

Modem

The process of modulation and demodulation, that is, the conversion of digital data to
analog form and vice-versa, is carried out by a special device called a modem
(modulator/demodulator). Hence, when an analog facility is used for data communication
between two digit devices (say a terminal and a computer), two modems are required, one
near each digit device. The digital signal generated at the terminal is converted to analog
form by the modulator of the modem placed near it. The analog signal is transmitted
through the telephone lines and then converted to digital form by the demodulator of the
modem placed near the computer. This digital data is processed by the computer. The
processed digital information is modulated to analog form and returned via the telephone
lines to the terminal where the analog signals are demodulated to digital form for display on
the terminal.

Why Use Modems?

There are two main reasons for using modems. Modems allow higher speeds of transmission
on a given analog line, and they reduce the effects of noise and distortion. Modems can do a
lot more than simply transport data across telephone lines. A good modem can also perform
tests and checks on how it is operating. Some modems are able to vary their transmission
rate, commonly measured in baud. While the typical baud rate is 33.6 kbps, some modems
can transmit at higher speed than 33.6 kbps. Some of the more expensive modems actually
contain microprocessors that allow them to operate and function under a large number of
different circumstances. These modems are called smart modems.

NETWORK TERMINOLOGY 

Node: Any device attached to the network capable of communicating with other devices. In
Novel Netware, a workstation is often called a node.

Links : A communication path between two nodes or channels is known as a link.

Connectivity : By connectivity we mean a data communication process in which

communication proceeds through three well defined phases. These are:

(a) Connection between two or more nodes is established.

(b) Data transfer between two nodes.

(c) Connection is released after data transfer between two or more nodes has taken place.

Switching : Switching is an important technique that can determine how connections are
made and how data movement is handled on a Wide Area Network (WAN). Data sent across
the internet works (the media connecting WANs) can travel along different paths from
sender to receiver. Switching sends data along different routes, much the way trains are
switched over multiple racks. Three major switching techniques are available to route
messages through internet works are:

(a) Circuit switching

(b) Message switching

(c) Packet switching

Circuit switching connects the sender and receiver by a single physical path for the duration
the conversation. In contrast, message switching does not establish a dedicated path
between two stations; instead, messages are stored and forwarded from one intermediate
device to the next. Packet switching combines the advantages of both circuit and message
switching by breaking longer messages into small parts called packets. Packet switching is
most efficient switching technique for data communications.

CONCEPTS OF LAN, WAN AND MAN  

LAN (Local Area Network)

LANs provide the means to move data between stations on the network and to manage the
data path common to the stations. The significance of certain LAN industry ‘standards’ such
as Ethernet, Arc net and IBM Token Ring is more related to communication considerations
than to data processing.

Local area networking is a form of computer communications generally used for the internal
transfer of data and information within an organization. "Internal" in this context refers to
the confines of an office, a group of offices, a building or a closely spaced group of two or
more PCs connected together by some type of communications media (wire or cable) to
form a data path between the computers. Once the PCs are physically connected, software
designed specifically for local area network control allows the exchange of program and data
files between users connected to the network. This software also allows any user to access
shared data storage (hard disk) and output devices (printers) connected to the network.
Examples of shared devices are printers, plotters, imaging devices, hard disks and tape
drives.

Advantages of LANs

(a) Local area networks allow sharing of expensive resources such as laser printers and
high-capacity, high speed mass storage devices among a number of users.

(b) Local area networks allow for high-speed exchange of essential information between key
people in an organization. If properly managed, this sharing will promote greater efficiency
and productivity and will lead to more sophisticated applications such as electronic mail.

(c) Local area networks provide the catalyst to increase the range of potential applications
for the IBM Pc.

LANs are a productivity tool. A LAN purchase should be studied closely in the context of the
proposed LAN’s contribution to the long-range interests of the organization. In the case of a
business, a LAN should be a visible contributor to increased profitability.

Disadvantages of LANs

(a) The financial cost of local area networking is still high in comparison with many other
alternatives. If one plans to use a network to share a laser printer, the user might find it
cheaper to purchase another laser printer than to purchase today’s networking hardware
and software.

(b) Local area networking software requires memory space in each of the computers used
on the network. For an IBM PC/AT computer, with 2 megabyte of main memory, computer
ill an IBM Token-Ring Network that has a printer or a disk space shared with other users,
almost 20 per cent of the computer’s memory will be needed to manage the network
interface. This reduces the memory space available for the user’s programs.

(c) Local area networking adds another level of complexity to the computer operation. Users
may have difficulty in learning the network commands. The installation and management of
a LAN requires far more technical and administrative skills than installing and managing
several computers that are not networked.

(d) Some control on the part of the user is lost. You may have to share a printer with other
users. You may face a situation like, for example, the entire network suddenly locking up
because one user has made a mistake.
(e) Some type of security system must be implemented if it is important to protect private
data.

(f) Many current application programs will not run in a network environment. The program
may require too much memory or have other technical constraints. In other cases the
program may run, but the execution leaves too little memory for data. Memory-intensive
programs, such as spreadsheets and expert systems, are particularly vulnerable to
networking.

Types of LANS 

The most popular network types are Ethernet, Arc net and Token Ring.

Ethernet: Ethernet was originally developed by Xerox and DEC and has been available for
over 10 years as a way of cabling networks. The system was originally designed to use
coaxial cable, but other cabling systems are now available. Ethernet has a throughput of
10MB/sec. The topology of an Ethernet cable system is a linear bus. Workstation are
connected to the trunk segment of the cable that is terminated on both ends.

Arc net: Arc net is a base band, token passing network system that offers flexible
topologies and generally the lowest price. Transmission speed are 2.5 MB / sec. Arc net
combines the star and linear bus topologies to form a hybrid topology

A passive hub provides no signal amplification and the computers are limited to a maximum
of 100 feet from the passive hub.

Token Ring: The IBM Token Ring Network is a token passing network with a Star and Ring
topology. Token passing is the network access method that uses a circulating electronic
token to prevent multiple nodes from transmitting on the network simultaneously. Before a
node can transmit, it must be in possession of the token.

The network maintains a token passive ring with a multistation access unit (MAU) up to
eight workstations which extend from this unit in a star configuration. Token ring provides
the twin advantages of the ring and star topologies in one design.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

As the name suggested, wide area networks (WANs) operate at a much wider geographical
distance than LANs. They combine the continuous error detection and correction techniques
included in synchronous communications with robust network problem determination and
data routing to form powerful backbones that ensure high-quality, reliable service for end
users. These networks allow multiple users to access a variety of host computers
simultaneously through the same physical medium, while separating each user’s session so
that no user is aware of another on the network. Wide area networks also operate at speeds
much higher than the 19,200-bps limit of normal voice-grade telephone lines.

Centralizing Information

It is often convenient for a business to centralize regional/national information. For

example, auto-parts dealers can help in locating rare-auto parts using a centralized
computer file of inventory items. WANs enables such dealers to query centralized
databases.

Facilitating Communications

Corporations in advanced countries often use WANs to facilitate employee communications,

to save on long-distance phone calls and letter writing, to cut costs on the preparation of
written documents, and to overcome the time lags involved in the conventional means of
extracting information between different branches. Computer conferencing, in which users
communicate with each other through their computer systems, is another possible function
of WANs.

Two particularly important types of WANs are:

(a) Hierarchical Networks.

(b) Distributed Data-processing Networks

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

MAN is a data network intended to serve an area approximately that of a large city. Such
networks are being implemented by innovative techniques, such as running fiber cables
through subway tunnels. A popular example of a MAN is Switched Multimegabit Data
Service (SMDS). SMDS is an emerging high-speed datagram based public data network
service developed by Bellcore in USA and expected to be widely used by telephone
companies as the base for their data networks.

Judge yourself

A. Select the correct answer.

1. The frequency range used in satellite communication is of the order of

(a (b
KHz MHz
) )
(d
(c) GHz None of the above
)

2. In digital data transmission

(a) Baud rate is equal to bit rate

(b) Baud rate is always smaller than the bit rate

(c) Baud rate is always higher than the bit rate

(c) None of the above

3. Typical bandwidth of optical fibers is

(a (b
Order of GHz Order of kHz
) )
(d
(c) Order of Hz None of the above
)

4. A large number of computers in a wide geographical area can be efficiently connected

by .

(a (b
Twisted pair lines Coaxial cables
) )
(d
(c) Communication satellites None of the above
)

5. In MODEMS

(a) Several digital signals are multiplexed .

(b) A digital signal changes some characteristic of a carrier wave

(c) Digital signal is amplified

(d) None of the above

6. In asynchronous transmission

(a) Inter-character gap is fixed

(b) Inter-character gap is variable

(c) Inter-character gap is always zero

(d) None of the above

7. In synchronous transmission data from various users

(a (b
Require header do not require header
) )
(d
(c) Sometimes require header None of the above
)

8. The frequency range used in satellite communication is of the order of

(a (b
kHz MHz
) )
(d
(c) GHz None of the above
)
9. Communication between computers using standard telephone lines

(a) Requires a change to an analog signal

(b) Is most efficient

(c) Produces little noise and few disturbances

(d) None of the above 

MS-WORD

As MS-Word is too huge to accommodate in this preparatory book. Please refer your text
book for the preparation of the olympiad. Here we are providing additional and important
information, how to utilize MS-Word at its maximum.

Use Your Keyboard to Quickly Change the Case of Text

Here’s how you can use your keyboard to quickly change the case of text in Microsoft Word:

Select the text you want to change and press SHIFT+F3. Each time you press the F3 key,
the text case switches between Title Case, UPPERCASE, and lowercase.

Paste Using the INSERT KEY

Did you know that you can assign the Paste command to the INSERT key on your keyboard?
That means you only have to use one key to paste the contents of your Clipboard into your
document.

Here is how to set it up:

On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Edit tab. Select the Use the INS key for
paste check box to enable this feature. Click OK.

Now, each time you press the INSERT key, you will paste the contents of the Clipboard into
your document.

Note: Choosing this option disables the default function of the INSERT key in Microsoft
Word that enables you to switch between insert typing mode to overtype mode.

What’s This? Find Out What Formatting is Applied to Text in Word 

To find out what formatting (fonts, style, alignment, etc.) is applied to a paragraph in Word:

On the Help menu, click What’s This?. When the pointer becomes a question mark, click the
text you want to check. Then a message will appear describing the formatting in that
section. When you have finished checking your text, press ESC.
Don’t Lose Sight of Your Column Headings in Word 

When you create a table in Microsoft Word, you can use column headings to describe what
information is in each column. But if you have a table that spans multiple pages, you lose
the headings after the first page, so it’s hard to tell what each column topic is. Here’s how
to keep those headings visible:

Select the first row or rows of your table. On the Table menu, click Heading Rows Repeat.
Now Word automatically repeats the table headings at the top of subsequent pages.

Note: Word automatically repeats table headings on pages that result from automatic page
breaks—but not if you manually insert a page break. Also, repeated table headings are only
visible in Print Layout view or when you print the document.

Save All Your Word Documents at Once 

If you know the "secret" key, you can save or close all of your open documents in one step.

Hold down SHIFT and click the File menu. When you hold down SHIFT, two new options
appear on the File menu: Close All and Save All. To save all your open documents at once,
click Save All. Or, to close all your open documents, click Close All; Word will prompt you to
save your changes before closing any documents.

Note: The Close All command also works in Excel.

Speed Up Your Typing with AutoCorrect 

If you find yourself typing long words again and again, you should consider setting up
typing shortcuts, so you only need to type in part of the word and Word fills in the rest. For
example, if I need to type New Smyrna Beach (the town where I live), I just type NSB; then
I press the SPACEBAR, Word automatically spells out all the words.

Here’s how I set up this shortcut:

On the Tools menu, click AutoCorrect. Select the Replace text as you type check box. In the
Replace box, type an abbreviation you will remember—for example, NSB. In the With box,
type the complete spelling of the word—for example, New Smyrna Beach. Click Add.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 to add additional terms, then click OK. You can also use this tip to
quickly type people’s names, technical terms—anything you want. And once you add a term
to your AutoCorrect list, it also works in PowerPoint and Outlook—if you use Word as your
default e-mail editor.

Type Out a Table in Word 

You can create tables in Microsoft Word by simply typing out a string of PLUS SIGNS (+)
and MINUS SIGNS (-).

Start the row with a PLUS SIGN (+) and then type MINUS SIGN (-) until you have the
column width you want. To add a new column type PLUS SIGN (+) again. When you’re done
type a final PLUS SIGN (+) and press ENTER. Word turns your text into a table. To add
more rows to your table, move to the last cell in the table and press TAB.

Note: If this tip doesn’t work for you, then you need to turn on the AutoFormat feature in
Word. To do this, on the Tools menu, click AutoCorrect. Then, click the AutoFormat As You
Type tab and select the Tables check box.

Select Columns of Text in Word 

To select a vertical block of text in Word, such as a column of numbers, press and hold
down ALT, and then drag your mouse over the text.

Then, you can delete it or copy it into another file. So easy!

Note: If your column of text is inside a Word table, you will not be able to use this trick to
select it.

Move Images in Word to the Exact Position You Want 

When you position an image in a Word document, it automatically aligns (or snaps) to an
invisible grid, which helps keep everything lined up.

If you ever need exact control over the placement of your image, you can temporarily
override the grid by pressing the ALT key as you drag the object into place. You’ll notice
that the image moves smoothly and not in increments along the grid.

Note: This tip works as long as the image is not set to be in line with the text. To make sure
it works for you: Double-click the image, and select the Layout tab. Under Wrapping style,
choose any style except In line with the text. Then, click OK.

Quickly Replicate Text or Graphics in Word 

Here’s a quick way to make copies of text or graphics in Word:

Select the item or text you want to copy. Press and hold down the CTRL key. Then use the
mouse to drag the item to the desired position. A copy of the original item is made right
where you want it. This is helpful when you’re creating a document that will include a lot of
repeated text or images.

Find Your Place in Word Documents  

If you are working on a long document, it’s easy to lose your place. With Microsoft Word
documents, you can pick up where you left off in your last editing session because Word
keeps track of the last three locations where you typed or edited text. Just press SHIFT+F5
immediately after opening the document, and the cursor will appear at the exact point
where you last made a change.

To reach the previous two editing locations, press SHIFT+F5 until you reach the location you
want.
Check Spelling in Only a Portion of Your Word Document 

If you see a spelling mistake, you can correct it quickly without checking the entire
document. Just right-click the misspelled word, and then select the spelling correction you
want from the shortcut menu.

To find the next misspelled word in the document, press ALT+F7.

Increase or Decrease Line Spacing in Word  

To quickly change the line spacing of a paragraph in Microsoft Word:

Select the text you want to change. Do one of the following: To set line spacing to single-
space lines, press CTRL+1. To set line spacing to double-space lines, press CTRL+2. To set
line spacing to 1.5-line spacing, press CTRL+5.

Insert Current Date and Time in Word  

You can insert the current date or time in a Word document using keyboard shortcuts.
Here’s how:

Position the cursor where you want to insert the date or time. Do one of the following: To
insert the date, press ALT+SHIFT+D. To insert the time, press ALT+SHIFT+T.

Insert Accents and Special Characters in Word  

If you are tired of the complex steps involved in inserting accents and special characters,
here is a fast and easy way.

To insert an accent or special character by typing a character code: Click where you want to
insert the accent or character. Make sure the NUM LOCK is on. Hold down the ALT key, and
then, using the numeric keypad, type the character code.

Keep Words Together with a Nonbreaking Space  

Have you ever been typing a paragraph in Microsoft Word and had a multiword phrase, such
as a person’s name, get separated onto two lines? You can keep that phrase or name
together by inserting a nonbreaking space.

To create a nonbreaking space, select the space after each word in the phrase (except the
last word), and press CTRL+SHIFT+SPACEBAR.

Automate Repetitive Typing Tasks—Use AutoText  

Tired of typing your address over and over when composing letters in Word? Or perhaps
you have a standard disclaimer that you need to consistently add to your documents?

What if you could do either of these tasks with just a few keystrokes? Using an AutoText
entry in Word, you can.
To create an AutoText entry for later use:

Select the text (or graphic) you want to store as an AutoText entry. (To store paragraph
formatting with the entry, include the paragraph mark in the selection.) On the Insert
menu, point to AutoText, and then click AutoText. You will see your selected text in the
Enter AutoText entries here box. Make sure your entry contains at least four characters.
Then click Add. Word stores the AutoText entry for later use.

To insert an AutoText entry:

In your document, type the first few characters of the AutoText entry. When Word suggests
the complete AutoText entry, press ENTER or F3 to accept the entry. (To reject the entry,
keep typing.)

Note: To use AutoText, you must have AutoComplete turned on. To turn on AutoComplete,
on the Insert menu, point to AutoText, and then click AutoText. Select the Show
AutoComplete tip for AutoText and dates check box.

Take the Synonym Shortcut  

Find that word you’re looking for fast. You can find a common synonym for a word without
using the Thesaurus command. Just right-click the word and point to Synonyms on the
shortcut menu. Then, click the synonym you want, and it automatically appears in place of
your original word.

Word will sometimes supply antonyms for the selected word, for those times when you only
know what you don’t mean to say.

Note: You can access the full thesaurus by clicking Thesaurus on the shortcut menu.

Get More-Precise Measurements in Word 

If you use the horizontal ruler to specify the placement of tabs, margins, and page objects,
this tip will help you lay out your pages with more precision. By default, ruler measurements
are limited to one-tenth of an inch. For example, if you click on the ruler to set a margin or
tab, you can set it at 1.5 inches, but not 1.48 inches.

To set more-precise measurements (to one-hundredths of an inch), hold down the ALT key
and, while you click on the ruler or margin, make your adjustments to the tabs.

Edit Text in Print Preview 

Sometimes when you view a Microsoft Word document in Print Preview mode, you notice
adjustments or edits you’d like to make to graphics and text. Did you know you can make
those changes while you’re still in Print Preview mode? Here’s how you do it:

Click Print Preview on the File menu. Click the text in the area you want to edit. Word
zooms in on the area. Click Magnifier on the Print Preview toolbar. When the pointer
changes from a magnifying glass to an I-beam, you can begin making your changes to the
document. To exit Print Preview and return to the previous view of the document, click
Close.
Change Your Default Folder in Word 

Have you noticed when you save a document for the first time, Word automatically opens
the My Documents folder? If you don’t use My Documents to store your work, you’ll save
time by setting up the folder you do use as your default working folder.

To change the default working folder for Word documents:

On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the File Locations tab. In the File types list,
click Documents. Click Modify.

To select an existing folder to display as the default working folder, locate and click the
folder you want in the folder list. To create a new folder to display as the default working
folder, click Create New Folder, and then type a name for the new folder in the Name
box.  

CHAPTER 6
MS-EXCEL

As MS-Office is too huge to accommodate in this preparatory book. Please refer your text
book for the preparation of the olympiad. Here we are providing additional and important
information, how to utilize MS-Excel at its maximum.

Use AutoFill to Quickly Copy Formulas and Formatting in Excel

Would you like an easy way to extend a series of numbers in Microsoft Excel without typing
each one individually? With AutoFill, you can quickly copy data, formulas, or formatting to
adjacent cells. This brief tutorial will show you how:

Select the cells that you would like to copy. Move the cursor to the bottom right corner of
the highlighted cells. Your cursor will then turn into a black plus sign. Click and hold down
the right mouse button and drag across the cells you want to fill. Release the mouse button,
and when the shortcut menu appears, click Fill Series. By following these steps, you will be
able to save a lot of time creating your spreadsheets.

Show or Hide the Formulas in an Excel Spreadsheet

When you’re working in an Excel worksheet, you can alternate between viewing the values
in the cells and displaying the formulas. To toggle between the different views, press
CTRL+‘ (single left quotation mark).

Note: If you’re having trouble finding the single left quotation mark, it’s on the same key as
the "~" symbol. On most keyboards, it’s the key directly to the left of the "1" key.

Don’t Lose Sight of Your Column Headings in Excel 

Would you like to see the column headings on your Microsoft Excel spreadsheets no matter
how far down you scroll? Here is one way to keep the column headings constantly visible:

Select the row just below your column headings. On the Window menu, click Freeze Panes.
The "frozen" column headings don’t scroll, but remain visible as you move through the rest
of the worksheet.

Edit Cells Quickly in Excel—Without Using Your Mouse 

If you like to use your keyboard for everything, editing a lot of data quickly in an Excel
spreadsheet can be difficult because you find yourself constantly reaching for the mouse
when you want to make changes to a cell. But there’s a shortcut you can use so that your
hands never have to leave the keyboard—press F2. Here’s how:

Use the arrow keys to select the cell you want to edit. Then press F2 (or COMMAND-U, if
you use a Macintosh computer) to edit the cell contents. When you’re finished, just press
ENTER (or RETURN on a Macintosh keyboard) to enter your changes. Or press ESC to cancel
the changes.

Note: This tip is especially handy for editing hyperlinks in Excel because, if you use your
mouse to click on a cell with a hyperlink, it automatically opens an Internet browser
window. Using the keyboard lets you edit hyperlinks with ease.

Create an Excel Chart with the Push of a Button 

This is a very old Microsoft Excel trick. To quickly create a chart, using only your keyboard,
select the data you want to plot and then press F11. Excel automatically creates the chart
for you.

Note: G. Raghavan of Tamilnadu, India, wrote in with another way to do this trick: After
you select your cells, press ALT+F1 and you’ll get the same result.

Select an Entire Range of Cells in Excel 

In Excel, if you want to quickly select the entire range of cells you’re working on, press
CTRL+SHIFT+ ASTERISK (*).

For example, if you have a list of customers in Excel, this command will select the entire list
and the column headings, but not the empty cells around the list—so you get only the cells
you need.

This tip is different from the Select All command, which selects every cell in the worksheet—
even the ones that you are not using.

Insert Copied Cells Between Existing Cells Safely 

If you want to insert a range of copied cells between other rows or columns—instead of
pasting over them—there’s an easy way to do it:

Select the cells you want to copy. On the Edit menu, click Copy. Select the area on the
worksheet where you want to place the copied cells. Press Ctrl + SHIFT + Plus Sign (+). In
the Insert dialog box, click the direction you want to shift the surrounding cells, and press
OK.
Now, the copied cells are inserted right where you want them, and none of your existing
information is lost.

Build Vertical Titles in Excel 

Have you ever wondered how to create a heading for a table that runs vertically along the
side of a table instead of above it?

Here’s how I do it: Select the cell that contains your text as well as the surrounding cells
that you want your title to span. On the Format menu, click Cells, and then click the
Alignment tab. In the degrees text box, enter 90. Select the Merge cells text box and click
OK.

Format Excel Cells Fast 

If you want quick access to the Format Cells dialog box in Microsoft Excel to change things
like type style, alignment, or borders, select the cell you want to format and press CTRL+1.

Have Excel Save Your Files Automatically  

Have you ever wanted Excel to automatically save your spreadsheets for you so you don’t
lose your work? Excel 2000 includes a feature that saves workbooks automatically at
specified intervals, but it’s not installed by default. Here’s how you can install and use the
Autosave Add-in:

First you need to load the add-in, which will add it to your Tools menu:

On the Tools menu, click Add-Ins. In the Add-Ins available list, select the Autosave Add-in
check box and then click OK.

Note: If the Autosave Add-in is not available, you may need to install it. For more
instructions, search for the phrase "Install or remove individual features of Microsoft Office
or Excel" in Excel 2000 Help.

Then, to configure and use the Autosave feature:

On the Tools menu, click AutoSave. Select the Automatic save every check box. In the
Minutes box, enter how often you want Excel to save your workbooks.

Select any other options you want, and press OK.

Quickly Move Between Multiple Excel Workbooks or Worksheets 

When working with several Excel workbooks or worksheets (the individual pages in
workbooks) at once, you can quickly move between them using shortcut keys.

To move between open workbooks, press CTRL+TAB. To move to the next sheet in a
workbook, press CTRL+PAGE DOWN. To move to the previous sheet in a workbook, press
CTRL+PAGE UP.
Do Fast Calculations in Excel 

Have you ever needed to know the largest value in a series of cells? You can create a
formula to do that, but there is a faster way.

To view the largest value in a series of cells:

Select the cells in which you are interested, and you will see the sum of the range displayed
on the status bar, which is the horizontal area below the worksheet window. If the status
bar is not displayed, click Status Bar on the View menu. From Richard Linsky, Wynnewood,
Pennsylvania. Right-click the status bar, and then click Max. Now you can see the maximum
value displayed on the status bar.

You can use the same technique to find the average of, the sum of, or the minimum value
in the selected range. You can also count the cells that contain numbers (by selecting Count
Nums) or count the number of filled cells (by selecting Count).

Completely Delete Cells in Excel Using This Shortcut 

Have you ever wanted a keyboard shortcut that completely deletes a cell from your
worksheet, including the formatting and comments? Just select the cells you want to delete,
and then press CTRL+MINUS SIGN (–). The surrounding cells will shift to fill the space.

This is different from using the DELETE or BACKSPACE keys, which simply clears the
contents of a cell without actually deleting it.

Copy the Contents of an Entire Worksheet in Excel  

Here’s a timesaving tip for Excel users who frequently need to copy an entire worksheet (a
page within a workbook) of information—such as a list of items for a monthly inventory—
from one workbook (Excel file) to another.

To copy an entire sheet to another workbook:

Open the workbook into which you want to paste the copied sheet. Switch to the workbook
that contains the sheet you want to copy. Right-click the Sheet tab of the sheet you want to
copy, and then click Move or Copy on the shortcut menu. From the To book drop-down
menu, select the workbook that will receive the sheet. (To copy the selected sheet to a new
workbook, click New book on the drop-down menu.) Select the Create a copy check box. (If
you don’t select this check box, the sheet will be moved instead of copied.) Click OK.

Do Creative Calculations with Paste Special 

I find this trick fantastically useful. If you have a block of numeric data in an Excel
worksheet and you wish to change each entry to a negative value, use Paste Special with a
twist.

Here’s how:

In an empty cell, type -1.

Select the cell, and click Copy on the Edit menu.

Now select the cells containing the values you want to change.

On the Edit menu, click Paste Special.

Under Paste, click Values and under Operation, click Multiply.

Click OK.

All the numbers change from positive to negative, or vice versa. This method is also useful
for reducing numbers by a factor of 1,000, 1,000,000, and so on.

Quickly View All Worksheet Formulas in Excel 

From Jason Harper, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Sara R. Seals, Cleveland, Ohio

With a quick keystroke, you can display all the formulas in your worksheet, including the
serial values Excel uses to store dates.

To alternate between displaying cell values and displaying cell formulas, press CTRL+‘
(single left quotation mark, which usually can be found above the TAB key).

Add a Calculator to the Excel Toolbar 

Did you know that you could add a calculator to your Microsoft Excel toolbar? Here’s how:

On the View menu, click Toolbars, and then click Customize. Click the Commands tab. In
the Categories list, click Tools, and in the Commands list, click Custom (the one with the
gray calculator graphic). Drag the selected command from the Commands list to a toolbar.
(Lift your finger from the mouse when you see a plus sign next to your pointer.) Click Close.

Now click the button you just added to run the calculator.

Paste Information from Excel as a Picture 

Do you want to place an image of an Excel file into a Word document, image editing
program, or other program? It’s easy to do.

On the Excel worksheet or chart sheet, select the cells or click the chart or object you want
to copy. Hold down SHIFT and click Copy Picture on the Edit menu. For best picture quality,
make sure As shown on screen and Picture are selected, and then click OK. Click the
worksheet or other document where you want to paste the picture. Click Paste on the Edit
menu.

To make adjustments to the image after you’ve pasted it, use the Picture toolbar. (To open
it, point to Toolbars on the View menu and click Picture.)

Note: Cell gridlines appear in the picture if they are displayed. To omit gridlines, in Excel
click Options on the Tools menu, click the View tab, and then clear the Gridlines check box.
Protect Cells Using Data Validation 

Here’s a creative way to protect cells in an Excel worksheet so that other users can’t make
changes to them:

Select the cells you want to protect. (It’s a good idea to make a note of the cells you protect
in case you need to remove that protection later.) On the Data menu, click Validation, and
then click the Settings tab. Set the following restrictions: In the Allow box, click Text
Length; in the Data box, click between; in the Minimum box, type 10000; and in the
Maximum box, type 50000. Click the Error Alert tab.

Make sure the Show error alert after invalid data is entered check box is selected. In the
Style box, click Stop.

If you want a title to appear in the title bar of the message or in the Office Assistant balloon
if the Office Assistant is displayed, type the text in the Title box. If you leave the Title box
blank, the title defaults to Microsoft Excel.

If you want to display your own text for the message, type the text in the Error message
box, up to 225 characters. Press ENTER to start a new line in the message. If you don’t
enter any text in the Error message box, the message displays the following: "The value
you entered is not valid. A user has restricted values that can be entered into this cell."

Excel displays the message only when a user types data in the cell.

To remove data validation settings, select the protected cells, click Validation on the Data
menu, and then click Clear All. 

CHAPTER 7
MS-POWER POINT

As MS-Office is too huge to accommodate in this preparatory book. Please refer your text
book for the preparation of the olympiad. Here we are providing additional and important
information, how to utilize MS-Power Point at its maximum.

Quick-Start Your PowerPoint Slide Show

Want a quick and easy way to launch a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation? Save it as a
PowerPoint slide show file, and when you double-click it, it opens right up in slide show
view. No need to fumble around inside PowerPoint when you just want to give a
presentation, not create one.

To save your presentation as a slide show file:

Open the presentation you want to save as a slide show. On the File menu, click Save As. In
the Save as type list, click PowerPoint Show. Your slide show file will be saved with a .pps
file extension.

When you open this file from your desktop, it will automatically start your presentation in
slide show view. When you’re done, PowerPoint automatically closes and you return to the
desktop. If you want to edit the slide show file, you can always open it from PowerPoint by
clicking Open on the File menu.

Tweak the Layout of PowerPoint Slides 

When I need to fine-tune the placement of a graphic or text box on a PowerPoint slide, I use
the arrow keys. Here’s how you do it:

First select the graphic, then simply press the UP, DOWN, LEFT, or RIGHT arrow keys to
move the graphic in the desired direction.

Take a Break During a PowerPoint Slide Show 

Here’s an easy yet very useful tip for those who give presentations using PowerPoint slide
shows.

When you want to stop for a break in your presentation without losing your place in the
slide show, just press the lowercase B key or press the PERIOD (.). This will make the
screen go black, and if it is a self-running presentation, it will pause. When you are ready to
resume the show, press either key again, and you will start right where you left off.

Ten Favorite PowerPoint Shortcuts 

Here are some easy ways to make your PowerPoint slide show go smoothly:

TO PRESS
 Advance to the next slide N, ENTER, PAGE DOWN, RIGHT ARROW,
DOWN ARROW, or the SPACEBAR (or click
the mouse)
P, PAGE UP, LEFT ARROW, UP ARROW, or
 Return to the previous slide
BACKSPACE
 End a slide show ESC or HYPHEN
 Stop or restart an automatic slide show S or PLUS SIGN
 Go to slide <number> <number>+ENTER
 Display a black screen, or return to the B or PERIOD
slide show from a black screen
 Display a white screen, or return to the W or COMMA
slide show from a white screen
 Hide the pointer CTRL+H
 Redisplay hidden pointer and/or change CTRL+A
the pointer to an arrow
 Return to the first slide Both mouse buttons for 2 seconds

Apply Transition Effects to Multiple PowerPoint Slides 

Here’s a shortcut that enables you to apply the same transition effect to multiple slides at
once:

On the View menu, click Slide Sorter. Select the slides you want to apply the transition
effects to by clicking one slide, and then holding down the CTRL key while you click each
additional slide. On the Slide Show menu, click Slide Transition. In the Effect box, click the
transition you want, and then select any other options you want.

Click Apply.

Now your slide show has a consistent, seamless look.

Creating a Summary Slide in PowerPoint  

You’ve just created a quick PowerPoint presentation, but you haven’t added an introduction,
agenda, or conclusion. PowerPoint provides a quick method of adding a Summary Slide to
your existing presentation. This slide can be renamed Introduction or Agenda, or you can
copy it to the end of your presentation and rename it Conclusion or Review.

To create a summary slide from the titles of other slides:

Open the completed presentation you want to add a summary slide to. On the View menu,
click Slide Sorter. In slide sorter view, select the slides with the titles you want to use. To
select multiple slides, hold down CTRL and click the slides you want. (Be sure to select the
slides that will best summarize your presentation.) On the Slide Sorter toolbar, click
Summary Slide. A new slide, titled "Summary Slide," with bulleted titles from the selected
slides, appears in front of the first selected slide. Double-click the new slide to edit it. You
can change the title, edit existing bullets, or add new ones.

Keep Track of Action Items During a Slide Show 

When giving a presentation, have you ever needed to make a list of ideas, comments,
suggestions, or action items? Instead of using a flip chart, use PowerPoint. Here’s how: In
Slide Show view, right-click anywhere in the slide, and then, on the shortcut menu, click
Meeting Minder. Click the Action Items tab. Type your information into the Description,
Assigned To, and Due Date boxes, and then click Add. Repeat step 3 if you want to add
more action items, and then click OK. Your items appear on a new slide at the end of your
slide show. You can use this slide as a way to review the ideas or suggestions that came up
during the slide show or as a reminder of the action items that need to be addressed.

Note: You can export your action item list to Word or Outlook. Here’s how:

On the Tools menu in PowerPoint, click Meeting Minder.

In the Meeting Minder dialog box, click Export.

To create a new Word document that contains your list of ideas or action items, select the
Send meeting minutes and action items to Microsoft Word check box.

To place them on your task list in Outlook (and assign each task to the appropriate person
later), select the Post action items to Microsoft Outlook check box.
Then, click Export Now. 

Text Formatting
 To do this: Windows Keyboard:
Change Font CTRL+Shift+F, then use up/down arrow
 keys, click Enter when done
CTRL+Shift+P, then use up/down arrow
Change Point Size
keys, click Enter when done
Increase Font Size CTRL+Shift+>
Decrease Font Size CTRL+Shift+<
Bold CTRL+B
Underline CTRL+U
Italic CTRL+I
Superscript ALT+CTRL+Shift+>
Subscript ALT+CTRL+Shift+<
Plain Text CTRL+Shift+Z
Spelling Checker F7
Center Paragraph CTRL+E
Justified Paragraph CTRL+J
Left-Aligned Paragraph CTRL+L
Right-Aligned Paragraph CTRL+R
Shift+F3 toggles selection through lower
Change Case case, upper case, initial caps with each
press of keys
Create Hyperlink CTRL+K

Deleting and Copying

Delete Character Left Backspace
Delete Word Left CTRL+Backspace
Delete Character Right Delete
Delete Word Right CTRL+Delete
Cut CTRL+X
Copy CTRL+C
Paste CTRL+V
Undo CTRL+Z
Create a copy of the text CTRL+Drag

Navigating in Text Blocks

Character Left Left Arrow
Character Right Right Arrow
Line Up Up Arrow
Line Down Down Arrow
Word Left CTRL+Left Arrow
Word Right CTRL+Right Arrow
End of Line END
Beginning of Line HOME
Paragraph Up CTRL+Up Arrow
Paragraph Down CTRL+Down Arrow
End of Text Block CTRL+END
Start of Text Block CTRL+HOME

Navigating and Working With Objects

To Previous Object TAB
To Next Object Shift+TAB
Select All Objects CTRL+A
Drag and Drop Copy CTRL+Select and Drag
Create a Duplicate Object CTRL+D
 CTRL+D, move new copy to desired
Create another Duplicate with same
location, then use CTRL+D repeatedly to
offset as first Duplicate
create more copies

Outlining, in All Views

ALT+Shift+Left Arrow or
Promote Paragraph
TAB from beginning of Paragraph
ALT+Shift+Right Arrow or Shift+TAB
Demote Paragraph
from beginning of Paragraph
Move Selected Paragraphs Up ALT+Shift+Up Arrow
Move Selected Paragraphs Down ALT+Shift+Down Arrow

Outlining, in Outline View

Collapse to Titles ALT+Shift+1
Expand Text under a heading ALT+Shift+Plus
Collapse Text Under a Heading ALT+Shift+Minus
Show All Text and Headings ALT+Shift+A
Display Character Formatting Keypad / (numlock off)

Selecting, in Text
 Character Right Shift+Right Arrow
Character Left Shift+Left Arrow
End of Word CTRL+Shift+Right Arrow
Beginning of Word CTRL+Shift+Left Arrow
Line Up Shift+Up Arrow
Line Down Shift+Down Arrow
Select All CTRL+A or F2
Select Any Text Drag with left mouse button depressed
Select Word Double-Click
Select Paragraph Triple-Click
Drag and Drop Select and Drag
Drag and Drop Copy CTRL+Select and Drag

Working with Slides and Presentation Files

New Presentation CTRL+N
Open a Presentation CTRL+O, CTRL+F12
Save CTRL+S, F12
Save As F12
Print CTRL+P
Find CTRL+F
Replace CTRL+H
New Slide (menu) CTRL+M
New Slide like last one, no menu Shift+CTRL+M
Exit/Quit CTRL+Q or ALT F4
Move from Title to Text CTRL+Enter
Move from Body text to Title of Next CTRL+Enter
Slide

Working with Presentation Windows

Go to Previous Window CTRL+Shift+F6
Go to Next Window CTRL+F6
Size Presentation Window
ALT+F5
(Un-Maximize)
Maximize Application Window ALT+F10
Maximize Presentation Window CTRL+F10
Restore Presentation Window to
CTRL+F5
Previous Size
Put Presentation in its own Window CTRL+F5

Drawing & Formatting

Show/Hide Guides (toggle) CTRL+G
Switch from Normal View to Master
Shift+Click Slide View Button
View
Group CTRL+Shift+G
Ungroup CTRL+Shift+H
Regroup CTRL+Shift+J
Resize while Maintaining Proportions Shift+Resize
Resize from Center CTRL+Resize
Resize from Center while Maintaining
 CTRL+Shift+Resize
Proportions
Rotate in 15 degree increments Shift+Rotate tool
Rotate from Corner CTRL+Rotate tool
Rotate in 15 degree increments from
Shift+CTRL+Rotate tool
Corner
Extend Line along same angle Shift+Resize
Make Straight Segment while Using
CTRL+ALT+click (using curve tool)
Curve Tool
Nudge object one grid unit Arrow Key
Nudge object one pixel CTRL+Arrow Key
Temporarily Release Grid/Guide Snap ALT
Create Multiple Guides CTRL+Drag Guide

Controlling Slides in Slide Show

 Go to Slide <number>  <number> ENTER
Black/Unblack Screen B or Period
White/Unwhite Screen W or Comma
Show/Hide Pointer A or =
End Show ESC, CTRL+Break, Minus, END
Erase Screen Annotations E
Advance to Hidden Slide H
Mouse Click, Spacebar, N, Right Arrow,
Advance to Next Slide
Down Arrow, Page Down
Backspace, P, Left Arrow, Up Arrow,
Return to Previous Slide
Page Up
 Getting Help & Programming Tools
 Help F1
Menu and Dialog Explanations Shift+F1
Right Mouse Click without Mouse Shift+F10
Bring up Visual Basic Editor ALT+F11
Macro Recorder ALT+F8

Shortcut Keys Description

Ctrl + A Select all contents of the page.
Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection.
Ctrl + C Copy selected text.
Ctrl + E Aligns the line or selected text to the center of the screen.
Ctrl + F Open find box.
Ctrl + I Italic highlighted selection.
Ctrl + J Aligns the selected text or line to justify the screen.
Ctrl + K Insert link.
Ctrl + L Aligns the line or selected text to the left of the screen.
Ctrl + M Indent the paragraph.
Ctrl + P Open the print window.
Ctrl + R Aligns the line or selected text to the right of the screen.
Ctrl + T Create a hanging indent.
Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection.
Ctrl + V Paste.
Ctrl + X Cut selected text.
Ctrl + Y Redo the last action performed.
Ctrl + Z Undo last action.
Ctrl + Shift + F Change the font.
Ctrl + Shift + > Increase selected font +1pts up to 12pt and then increases font +2pts.
Ctrl + ] Increase selected font +1pts.
Ctrl + Shift + < Decrease selected font -1pts if 12pt or lower, if above 12 decreases font by +2pt.
Ctrl + [ Decrease selected font -1pts.
Ctrl + Shift + * View or hide non printing characters.
Ctrl + <left arrow> Moves one word to the left.
Ctrl + <right arrow> Moves one word to the right.
Ctrl + <up arrow> Moves to the beginning of the line or paragraph.
Ctrl + <down arrow> Moves to the end of the paragraph.
Ctrl + Del Deletes word to right of cursor.
Ctrl + Backspace Deletes word to left of cursor.
Ctrl + End Moves the cursor to the end of the document.
Ctrl + Home Moves the cursor to the beginning of the document.
Ctrl + Spacebar Reset highlighted text to the default font.
Ctrl + 1 Single-space lines.
Ctrl + 2 Double-space lines.
Ctrl + 5 1.5-line spacing.
Ctrl + Alt + 1 Changes text to heading 1.
Ctrl + Alt + 2 Changes text to heading 2.
Ctrl + Alt + 3 Changes text to heading 3.
Ctrl + F1 Open the Task Pane.
F1 Open Help.
Alt + Ctrl + F2 Open new document.
Ctrl + F2 Display the print preview.
Change the text in Microsoft Word from upper to lower case or a capital letter at
Shift + F3
the beginning of every word.
Shift + Insert Paste.
F4 Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+)
F5 Open the find, replace, and go to window in Microsoft Word.
Ctrl + Shift + F6 Opens to another open Microsoft Word document.
F7 Spell and grammar check selected text and/or document.
Shift + F7 Runs a Thesaurus check on the word highlighted.
F12 Save as.
Shift + F12 Save.
Ctrl + Shift + F12 Prints the document.
Alt + Shift + D Insert the current date.
Alt + Shift + T Insert the current time.

In addition to the above shortcut keys users can also use their mouse as a method of quickly do
something commonly performed. Below some are examples of mouse shortcuts.

Mouse shortcuts Description

Click, hold, and drag Selects text from where you click and hold to the point you drag and let go.
Double-click If double-click a word, selects the complete word.
Double-clicking on the left, center, or right of a blank line will make the alignment of the
Double-click
text left, center, or right aligned.
Double-click Double-clicking anywhere after text on a line will set a tab stop.
Triple-click Selects the line or paragraph of the text the mouse triple-clicked.
Ctrl + Mouse wheel Zooms in and out of document.
F2 Edit the selected cell.
F5 Go to a specific cell. For example, C6.
F7 Spell check selected text and/or document.
F11 Create chart.
Ctrl + Shift + ; Enter the current time.
Ctrl + ; Enter the current date.
Alt + Shift + F1 Insert New Worksheet.
Shift + F3 Open the Excel formula window.
Shift + F5 Bring up search box.
Ctrl + A Select all contents of the worksheet.
Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection.
Ctrl + I Italic highlighted selection.
Ctrl + K Insert link.
Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection.
Ctrl + 5 Strikethrough highlighted selection.
Ctrl + P Bring up the print dialog box to begin printing.
Ctrl + Z Undo last action.
Ctrl + F9 Minimize current window.
Ctrl + F10 Maximize currently selected window.
Ctrl + F6 Switch between open workbooks / windows.
Ctrl + Page up Move between Excel work sheets in the same Excel document.
Ctrl + Page down Move between Excel work sheets in the same Excel document.
Ctrl + Tab Move between Two or more open Excel files.
Alt + = Create a formula to sum all of the above cells
Ctrl + ' Insert the value of the above cell into cell currently selected.
Ctrl + Shift + ! Format number in comma format.
Ctrl + Shift + $ Format number in currency format.
Ctrl + Shift + # Format number in date format.
Ctrl + Shift + % Format number in percentage format.
Ctrl + Shift + ^ Format number in scientific format.
Ctrl + Shift + @ Format number in time format.
Ctrl + Arrow key Move to next section of text.
Ctrl + Space Select entire column.
Shift + Space Select entire row.