i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Engine performance and emission effects of diesel

burns enriched by hydrogen on different engine
loads

€z a,**, T. Sandalcı a, L. Yüksek a, A.S. Dalkılıç b,*

Y. Karago
a
Automotive Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Yildiz Technical
University, Yildiz, Besiktas, Istanbul 34349, Turkey
b
Heat and Thermodynamics Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Faculty,
Yildiz Technical University, Yildiz, Besiktas, Istanbul 34349, Turkey

article info abstract

Article history: Although diesel engines will be used in future too, they are the indispensable part of our
Received 17 February 2015 daily lives. However, steadily decreasing emission regulations limit values and cost in-
Received in revised form creases due to corresponding need of hi-tech aftertreatment systems, and diesel fuels'
24 March 2015 increasing price in recent years force researchers to use alternative fuel types to use on
Accepted 28 March 2015 diesel engines. In this work, hydrogen which is in gas phase is sprayed with gas injector
Available online 15 April 2015 from intake port and ignition is provided by diesel fuel coming from diesel injector. Sent
hydrogen's energy content is stabilized at 30% in overall fuels and all tests committed are
Keywords: performed in 1100 rpm stable engine speed. Also, in different engine loads (40%, 60%, 75%
Hydrogen and 100%) intake air enrichment with hydrogen effect on diesel engine's engine perfor-
Diesel engine mance, emissions and effect on combustion have been examined. Obtained results show
Smoke that in part load conditions enriched with hydrogen, NOx emissions and soot emissions
NOx can be taken under control. However on, full load condition (100% engine load), with
Rate of heat release hydrogen addition, dramatical rise of NOx emissions is observed. Working conditions with
hydrogen þ diesel fuel, it is obtained that engine load affects NOx emissions significantly.
On full load conditions, enriched with hydrogen, even though there is some rise in THC
emissions, there are progresses in CO2 and CO emissions. Besides, peak in-cylinder gas
pressure and peak heat release rate have risen in hyrogen enriched condition.
Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.

pressuring effects of energy efficiency and emission regula-

Introduction tions because of environmental concerns, forces researchers
to pursuit alternative fuel types. According to European Union
Nowadays fossil fuels' rapid consumption based on rises on Commissions White Paper Report, aim is to decrease green-
energy demand causes price increases in petroleum fuels, also house gas emissions originated from transportation 60% in

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 212 383 2821, þ90 555 709 70 90 (mobile).
** Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dalkilic@yildiz.edu.tr (A.S. Dalkılıç).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.03.141
0360-3199/Copyright © 2015, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
2050 [1]. Even though between 2010 and 2011 renewable en-
ergy consumption reached to 3.8% from 3.5% level, it is stated
that this rate should reach up to 4.1% in order to reach to aim
[1]. With technological developments, emission limits on
regulations are continuously decreased, however, NOx and
particulate matter emissions have been rising [2e5]. Accord-
ing to Air Quality Report in Europe based on assays on traffic
control spots in 2011, at 42% of measurements, NO2 emission
limit is passed [1]. In 2011 particulate matter (<¼10 mm)
emissions passed the limits set as 43% in traffic spots, 38%
inner cities, 25% in industrial fields and 15% in rural areas [1].
The main cause of NOx and particulate matter rise is
increasing diesel engine vehicle usage. In parallel with those
developments, ecological fuel searches on automotive sector
continue. Some researchers tended towards LPG, CNG, LNG,
biogas, and ethanol etc. alternative fuel types [6e15].
Hydrogen with its carbon atom free structure only reveals
water after burning period and this specialty puts hydrogen
forward in alternative fuel types [16]. Usage of hydrogen in
fuel-injection engines will act as a bridge between hydrocar-
bon fuels typed vehicles to fuel cell vehicles [17]. Although
there have been a lot of researches regarding electrical vehi-
cles, because of problems such as low energy intensity,
insufficient substructure, those vehicles are not in common
usage and in near future, commitment to fuel injection en-
gines will remain [18]. Hydrogen could be produced by trans-
formation from fossil fuel or biomass, by electrolysis or direct
thermo chemical solar transformation [17]. Also, when
hydrogen is produced by renewable energy sources, it is
ecological and clean, also can be used as energy carrier (sec-
ondary energy) like hydrogen electrical energy [19e21].
Although, some researchers used hydrogen in homoge-
nously filled compression ignition engines (HCCI), because of
difficulties while controling ignition start and narrow working
spaces, it doesn't seem possible to use it commercially in the
future [21,22]. Most of the researchers made their researches
on usage of hydrogen on Otto engines [23e27]. In those re-
searches regarding usage of hydrogen on Otto engines showed
that there is 30% power loss, early ignition, flame impingment
and knocking problems [16].
Some researchers used hydrogen þ oxygen gas mixture
(they called it hydroxygen) as an additional fuel in Otto en-
gines [28]. Karagoz et al. [28] studied on 4 cylinder, 4 stroke,
naturally aspirated, 1.123 l SI engine, 0%, 3.75% (2.5%
H2þ1.25% O2) and 7.5% (5% H2þ2.5% O2) hydroxygen addition
and water injections on performance of the engine and effects
on emissions have been examined. As a result of those ex-
aminations, even though there are improvements in emis-
sions except NOx and engine performance, with water
injection method NOx increase could not have been
prevented.
On the other hand, some researchers [29e31] studied
about natural gasehydrogen blends combined with EGR in
spark ignition engines. Hu et al. [29] experimentaly investi-
gated the effect of different hydrogen fractions and EGR rates
on performance and emissions of an SI engine. According to
their results, thermal efficiency is improved in the case of
small EGR rate and thermal efficiency is reduced with
increasing EGR rate. Also, they obtained that CO, CO2 and HC
emissions are improved with hydrogen addition. In another
6703
study of Hu et al. [30], they studied on combustion charac-
teristics of an SI engine fueled with natural gasehydrogen
blends combining with EGR. They found that flame develop-
ment duration, rapid combustion duration and total com-
bustion duration are increased with increasing rate of EGR,
and decreased with increasing rate of hydrogen. Huang et al.
[31] experimentaly investigated cycle by cycle variations in a
spark ignition engine fueled with natural gasehydrogen
blends combined with EGR. According to their results, they
obtained that cycle by cycle variations increase with
increasing EGR ratio and decrease with increasing hydrogen
amount.
Despite its high thermal efficiency and low specificity on
CO2 emission advantages, diesel engines have disadvantages
as high amount of NOx and smoke emissions [32,33]. In order
to limit NOx and smoke emissions within regulation limits,
aftertreatment systems (catalyst, SCR, LNT, DPF etc.) are used,
however those systems increase costs. Usage of hydrogen as
dual fuel in diesel engines could be an alternative to control
emissions [17]. Because of hydrogen's high inflammation
temperature (576  C), it is not possible to use it as a fuel in
diesel engines [19]. Therefore, they need an energy source to
create inflammation [34]. While Ikegami et al. [35] used special
gas injectors with heater plugs to ignite hydrogen, Antunes
et al. [34] used intake air to provide ignition.
Most frequently used methods about hydrogen þ diesel
fueled internal combustion engines (ICEs) in the literature are
hydrogen injection into intake manifold or intake port, direct
hydrogen injection into cylinders and continuous introducing
hydrogen into intake manifold such as carburation method
[36e38]. Ignition is provided by pilot diesel injection during all
of these methods. Continuous introducing hydrogen into
intake manifold causes some combustion problems such as
pre-ignition, backfiring, knock etc. Also, poor volumetric effi-
ciency and low engine power output problems will occur
during both hydrogen injection into intake manifold or intake
port and continuous introducing hydrogen into intake mani-
fold (such as carburation) since hydrogen occupies a large
amount place on volume basis instead of air [2]. On the other
hand, however using direct hydrogen injection into cylinders
method has some advantages such as high engine power
output, high volumetric efficiency etc, it requires using special
direct injection hydrogen injectors which must be durable
against high pressure and high temperature in cylinders. Also,
these injectors haven't been used in the market. Moreover,
some special modifications must be done to install these in-
jectors on cylinder head. For these reasons, hydrogen injec-
tion into intake manifold or intake port and pilot diesel fuel
injection into cylinder is the best method for using
hydrogen þ diesel bifuel in compression ignition (CI) engines
[5,20]. When compared to diesel engines, hydrogen have su-
perior properties as higher flame velocity and larger flam-
mability limits, shorter quenching distence and higher
diffusion parameter [34,39]. Using hydrogen in diesel engines
as a dual fuel (diesel þ hydrogen) will create more homoge-
neous mixture and it will help to reduce particulate matter
emissions [40]. Since hydrogen does not involve carbon atom,
CO2, HC and CO emissions decrease. Studies about
hydrogen þ diesel mixture fuelled CI engines in the literature
are presented in the next paragraph.
6704 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
While working on direct injection diesel engine Horng-
Wen Wu and Zhan-Yi Wu [38], at 1800 rpm engine velocity,
sent 0%e20% of total fuels energy content hydrogen through
intake manifold and applied EGR from 0% to 40% volume on
different engine power conditions. According to results of the
research, thermal efficiency rises with increasing hydrogen
rate and specific fuel consumption increases with EGR rise.
Besides, in contrast to HC and NOx emissions’ increase with
rising hydrogen, NOx emission could be controlled with EGR.
On soot and CO emissions, decrease is obtained. Pan et al. [37],
used 2 stroke, supercharged MTU/Detroit 12V-71 TI diesel
engine on their work to investigate effects on emission, on
idle and four different load conditions (%25, %50, %75 and %
100) and sent hydrogen on 0 slpm, 22 slpm and 220 slpm
flows. According to results, on every load conditions 22 slpm
hydrogen flows affect on CO2 and NOx emissions are insig-
nificant, however, with 220 slpm hydrogen addition 1.16%
increase on CO2 emissions, 11% decrease on PM 2.5 emissions
and 37% decrease on CO emissions are obtained. Bika et al.
[17] used, supercharged, direct injection Volkswagen TDI en-
gine, with 2 different fuel types (diesel and biodiesel) at
1700 rpm stable engine velocity and 20%, 40% and 60% load
conditions in order to see the effects of 0%e40% hydrogen
energy contents change on particulate matter and NOx
emissions. According to results, for hydrogen addition, when
starting engine with diesel fuel, there is a 10%e50% decrease
on particulate matter emissions and there is no significant
change obtained on NOx emissions. Miyamoto et al. [18],
investigated hydrogen addition effect on emissions and
combustion characteristics of a direct injection, single cylin-
der diesel engine. On this work, sent hydrogen amount has
been increased till 16% by volume, and injection of diesel has
been made after top dead point. With this method, NOx
emissions and in-cylinder pressure increase rate kept under
control. Also, with hydrogen addition HC emissions did not
increase and NOx emissions are reduced. Saravanan and
Nagarajan [16] compared methods of introducing hydrogen
into carburator, injecting from port and injecting from
manifold through their one cylinder, direct injection Kirloskar
AV1 branded diesel engine. At 1500 rpm stable engine speed
25%, 50%, 75% and 100% load conditions, there is no signifi-
cant difference between injecting from port and injecting
from manifold. On introducing hydrogen into carburator NOx
emission increased 8%, efficiency and soot emissions
increased 5% and 8% respectively. While injecting hydrogen
to port, soot emission decreased by 18%, efficiency and NOx
emissions increased 17% and 34% respectively.
However, lots of studies in the literature show that CO, CO2
and smoke emissions decrease with hydrogen addtion in
diesel fuelled engines, there isn't an agreement about effect of
hydrogen addition on thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc), THC and NOx emissions in diesel engines
at different engine load conditions [16e22]. For this reason,
using gas injector 30% hydrogen energy content of total fuel
was injected into intake manifold at 1100 rpm engine speed
and at different engine loads (40%, 60%, 75% and 100%). The
effect of engine performance, emissions and combustion
characteristics were investigated at different engine loads
with hydrogen enriched and without hydrogen enriched (pure
diesel) conditions.
Materials and methods
Test engine and experimental setup
Test engine is water cooled, unsupercharged (naturally aspi-
rated) CFR engine which has single cylinder, 4 stroke and
variable compression ratio. During the work, engine's
compression ratio was set to 19:1. Engine loading system
consists of DC engine and electronic control system; engine
torque is scaled via load-cell on the system. Engine and
dynometre details are given in Table 1. Mass air amount
sucked by engine is calculated by inclined manometer and
orifice datas. Diesel fuel consumed by engine is calculated by
scaling gravimetric method and VZ O.2 model Sika brand
miniature turbine type flow meter. Engine coolant water entry
and exit temperature, exhaust gas temperature is scaled by K-
typed thermocouple. In Fig. 1 experimental setup schematic
display is presented in detail. Hydrogen consumption is scaled
with New-Flow branded TLF 23 model thermal mass flow
meter. Force detector, diesel fuel consumption, hydrogen
consumption and emission datas are recorded via NI USB 6215
type data acquisition card on computer.
Hydrogen fuel system
Schematic display of hydrogen line is given in Fig. 2. Hydrogen
is stored in high pressure tube (in 200 bar) and pressure of tube
is decreased to 4 bar value by double pressure regulator,
before introducing into the engine by gas injectors, one check
valve and one flame arrester are used. Thus, preventions were
taken in case of a backfiring situation. Besides, on hydrogen
line, one emergency valve is placed and if line pressure rises
above 10 bar, releasing line provided pitching hydrogen out of
laboratory. By one line pressure regulator, line pressure is
stabilized to 4 bar precisely. By a buffer tank, fluctuation on
hydrogen flow is prevented and with thermal mass flow
meter, hydrogen flow rate is precisely calculated. Besides, in
order to affirm measurement values as in diesel fuel con-
sumption measurement, along with thermal mass flow meter,
for 4 bar pressure value and 20  C ambient temperature
specially manufactured rotameter is used for measurement.
Keihin brand LPG-CNG gas injector is used for introducing
hydrogen into intake manifold. Gas injector is precisely
controlled by a microcontroller electronical control unit
Table 1 e Engine and dynamometer properties.
Engine producer company Ferryman,4-strok CFR engine
Aspiration Natural
Cylinder amount 1
Caliber x stroke [mm] 90  120
Cylinder volume [cc] 799
Compression volume 19 (value selected for
this study)
Swept volume [cc] 765
Speed range minemax [rpm] 600e2000
Intake & exhaust valve amount 1&1
Cooling system Water cooled
Dynamometer type & DC & 7.5
power [kW]
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
Fig. 1 e Experimental setup schematic display.
developed by us for this kind of works and hydrogen dispatch
start timing is programmed to start on intake stroke.
In-cylinder pressure change
In-cylinder pressure is obtained by Kistler branded 6061B type
pressure transducer and booster, datas are recorded via 2 GS/s
sampling rate digital oscilloscope. Piston position and crank
angle (CA) measurement is made by an incremental encoder
placed in crankshaft and recorded simultaneously with
Fig. 2 e Hydrogen lines schematic display.
6705
cylinder pressure datas by oscilloscope. In-cylinder pressure
datas obtained in this work are evaluated by taking 100 cir-
cuits' average value in order to decrease cyclical differences.
Heat release rate
In this work, single dimensional heat release rate model is
used. Combustion process in examined according to heat
release rate created by Krieger and Borman [38] and using
Janaf Tables.
Exhaust emission measurement
By AVL DiCom 4000 device CO, THC, CO2 and NOx emissions are
measured, by AVL 415S smoke emission is measured. Though
AVL DiCom 400 device gives CO and CO2 rates in % volume,
THC and NOx in ppm; AVL 415S gives smoke emissions in FSN
or mg/m3, in this work all emission rates are converted to g/
kWh according to VDMA Exhaust Emission Legislation.
Experimental procedure
As mentioned before, all experiments are made in one cylin-
der, 4 stroke diesel CFR research engine and is loaded by DC
dynamometer. Hydrogen fuel used in this work is of 99.99%
purity and supplied by Linde Group (Istanbul, Turkey). Diesel
fuel used in this work conforms EN590 standards. The injec-

tion advance of diesel injector is 22 CA before top dead center
(BTDC). The injection advance of hydrogen injector is TDC (top
dead center) during intake stroke. Hydrogen injection dura-
 
tion takes 5.6 crank angle (0.92 ms), 13.1 crank angle (2.15 ms),
 
18.4 crank angle (3.01 ms) and 25.4 crank angle (4.15 ms) for
1.2 kW, 1.8 kW, 2.25 kW and 3 kW engine brake power with
30% hydrogen addition during intake stroke. ESC cycle A
6706 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3

operating point engine speed (1100 rpm for test engine) was
Table 3 e Accuracy and measurement uncertainty.
selected in the experimental studies, since the aim this study
is to investigate the effect of hydrogen addition at different Measuring Measuring device Measurement
parameter
engine loads. 30% hydrogen energy content of total fuel en-
ergy was kept constant all load condition because of aim of Engine torque Load-cell ±0.05 Nm
this study (investigation of hydrogen addition effect at Engine speed Incremental encoder ±5 rpm
Fuel flow Sika VZ 0.2 ±1% (Reading value)
different engine loads). Hyrogen þ diesel fuel mixture was
Hydrogen flow New-Flow TLF 23 ±1% (Full scale)
tested and compared with pure diesel fuel at 40%, 60%, 75%
CO AVL DiCom 4000 0.01% hacim
and 100% engine loads which is equal to 1.20 kW, 1.80 kW, CO2 AVL DiCom 4000 0.1% hacim
2.25 kW and 3.00 kW engine brake power, respectively on the THC AVL DiCom 4000 1 ppm
test engine. Details about test conditions is given in Table 2. NOx AVL DiCom 4000 1 ppm
Also, measurement uncertainties of test devices and calcu- Smoke AVL 415S 0.4% Vol.
lated total accuracy values according to Kline ve McClintock Calculated results Uncertainty
Power ±0.26%
method [42] are presented in Table 3.
Bsfc ±2.26% (1.20 kW)
±1.92% (1.80 kW)
±1.85% (2.25 kW)
Results and discussion ±1.65% (3.00 kW)

In the work, on different engine loads hydrogen addition's

engine performance and effect on emissions are examined
experimentally. All engine tests are held in University of Yildiz
ICE laboratory. The influence of hydrogen addition on the test
engine performance and emissions is higher than the high-
pressure common-rail injection engines since the test en-
gine has low pressure injection and two valves; moreover it is
a naturally aspirated, old type diesel engine. On previous
works, Sandalcı and Karago € z [43] examined effect of sending
different rates of Hydrogen (0%, 16%, 36% and 46% H2 of total
fuel energy) on combustion, engine performance and emis-
sions withone cylinder diesel engine at full load condition
(100% engine load), at 1300 rpm engine speed. On experi-
mental work, at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load
(respectively 1.20 kW, 1.80 kW, 2.25 kW and 3.00 kW), with
1100 rpm stable engine speed, diesel þ hydrogen dual fuel
(30% hydrogen energy content), thermal efficiency, bsfc, CO,
CO2, THC, NOx, smoke emissions, in-cylinder pressure and
heat release rate are compared with pure diesel fuel. During
these works, since time to time backfiring could be faced if
hydrogen energy content is above %30, this value was not
passed. On determined experiment conditions pre-ignition,
knocking or backfiring problems were not faced.
Engine characteristics
Thermal efficiency
Effect of filling enrichment with hydrogen on thermal effi-
ciency is given on Fig. 3. As it is seen on the Figure, thermal
efficiency decreases on every engine load condition with
usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen. Thermal efficiency is calcu-
lated 22.5% at 40% engine load (1.638 bar BMEP) with diesel
fuel, it is calculated as 20% with diesel fuel þ hydrogen mixed
fuel. At 60% engine load (2.457 bar BMEP), thermal efficiency is
calculated as 23.7% with diesel fuel, it is calculated as 21.9%
with diesel fuel þ hydrogen mixed fuel. At 75% engine load
(3.072 bar BMEP), thermal efficiency on diesel fuel is 24.4%, it is
calculated as 22.9% with diesel fuel þ hydrogen mixed fuel.
Lastly at 100% engine load (4.069 bar BMEP) thermal efficiency
is calculated as 29.4% diesel fuel, 26.9% with diesel
fuel þ hydrogen mixed fuel. As seen, on every engine load
with hydrogen addition thermal efficiency is decreased.
Maximum decrease on thermal efficiency is calculated as
10.9% at 40% engine load. With hydrogen addition at 60%, 75%
and 100% engine load, decrease on thermal efficiency is
respectively 7.6%, 6.3% and 8.4% compared to only diesel fuel.
Hydrogen's flame speed is nine times faster than diesel fuel
[44]. Normally, hydrogen added diesel fuel combustion in-
creases combustion efficiency. Varde and Frame [45]
mentioned on their work that since combustion phases
advance changes due to hydrogen addition, it might create
negative effect on thermal efficiency. Christodoulou and
Megaritis [36] mentioned on their work on Ford Puma diesel
engine that thermal efficiency decreases at low speeds. They
attributed it to decrease of hydrogen's combustion efficiency,
they procured experimentally. Besides, since hydrogen's
molar heat capacity is higher than N2's molar heat capacity, it

Table 2 e Test conditions.

Engine BMEP Engine Engine speed H2 energy Diesel energy Diesel injection H2 injection
load power content content advance advance

40% 1.638 bar 1.2 kW 1100 rpm 0% 100% 22 CA TDC

1100 rpm 30% 70% 22 CA TDC

60% 2.457 bar 1.8 kW 1100 rpm 0% 100% 22 CA TDC

1100 rpm 30% 70% 22 CA TDC

75% 3.072 bar 2.25 kW 1100 rpm 0% 100% 22 CA TDC

1100 rpm 30% 70% 22 CA TDC

100% 4.096 bar 3 kW 1100 rpm 0% 100% 22 CA TDC

1100 rpm 30% 70% 22 CA TDC
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
Fig. 3 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on thermal
efficiency at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load
(1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
is mentioned that this condition dilutes in-cylinder gas and
accordingly decreases combustion efficiency [37]. Also,
Owston et al. [46] on their work, mentioned, with hydrogen
addition heat flow rises and this condition causes increase of
thermal loss. It is seen that results obtained on work are
similar with the results of Christodoulou and Megaritis [36],
Varde and Frame [45] and Zhou et al. [47].
Bsfc
In Fig. 4, effect of fillings enrichment with hydrogen on bsfc
value at different working conditions is given. Bsfc is found in
diesel fuel by adding equivalent diesel fuel amount, based on
consumed hydrogen's lower heating value (LHV), to consumed
diesel fuel. On hydrogen enriched condition, at all load con-
ditions (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP) it is
seen that bsfc increases. At 1.2 kW engine power (40% engine
load), with only diesel fuel, bsfc value is 376.4 g/kWh, when
diesel fuel þ hydrogen is used, bfsc value increases to 422.7 g/
Fig. 4 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on bsfc at 40%, 60%,
75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar
and 4.069 bar BMEP).
6707
kWh. At 1.8 kW engine power (60% engine load) with diesel
fuel bsfc is 356.8 g/kWh, using diesel fuel þ hydrogen, it in-
creases to 386.3 g/kWh. At 2.25 kW engine power (75% engine
load) with diesel fuel usage, bsfc is 347.4 g/kWh, at diesel
fuel þ hydrogen condition, it increases to 370.4 g/kWh. Lastly,
at 3 kW engine power (100% engine load) only with diesel fuel
usage, bsfc value is 287.8 g/kWh and at diesel fuel þ hydrogen,
it increases to 314.8 g/kWh. At 1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar
and 4.069 bar BMEP (40%, 60%, 75% and 100%) compared to
only diesel fuel usage, respectively 12.3%, 8.3%, 6.7% and 9.4%
increase is obtained.
Emission characteristics
Carbon dioxide
In Fig. 5, CO2 emissions' change with hydrogen enriched fuel
and only diesel fuel can be seen. As it is seen in the Figure, CO2
emissions dramatically decrease by filling enriched with
hydrogen. While only diesel fuel usage at 1.638 bar BMEP (40%
engine load condition) is scaled as 862 g/kWh, with diesel
fuel þ hydrogen usage it is scaled as 663 g/kWh. At 2.457 bar
BMEP (60% engine load condition) only diesel fuel usage CO2
emissions are scaled as 898 g/kWh, CO2 emissions decrease to
650 g/kWh with diesel fuel þ hydrogen condition. At 3.072 bar
BMEP (75% engine load condition), usage of diesel
fuel þ hydrogen decreases the emission from 932 g/kWh to
596 g/kWh. At 4.069 BMEP (100% engine load), emissions
decrease from 924 g/kWh to 651 g/kWh. According to results,
specific CO2 emission values decrease at hydrogen enriched
filling conditions by 23.1%, 27.5%, 36.1% and 29.6% respec-
tively at 1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP (40%,
60%, 75% and 100% engine load) power levels. Main reason of
the decrease is that hydrogen does not involve carbon [48].
Besides, with hydrogen addition, overall fuel's H/C rate in-
creases, combustion duration shortens and combustion effi-
ciency increases [49,50]. Also, with the help of hydrogen's high
diffusion parameter, diesel fuels assembly heterogeneity gets
better and more uniform premixed combustible mixture is
formed [22]. As the results suggest, with the addition of
hydrogen, specific CO2 emissions decrease.
Fig. 5 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on CO2 emissions
on 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar,
2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
6708 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
Carbon monoxide
Fig. 6 shows specific CO emission at different working condi-
tions (40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load condition) with
diesel fuel and hydrogen þ diesel fuel. It can be seen that CO
emissions decrease with hydrogen addition at all loads. At
40% engine load (1.638 bar BMEP) with only diesel fuel 5.7 g/
kWh CO emission is released, with diesel fuel þ hydrogen, this
value decreases to 2.01 g/kWh value. At 60% engine load
(2.457 bar BMEP) CO emission decreases from 2.6 g/kWh to
1.3 g/kWh with the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen, at 75%
engine load (3.072 bar BMEP) it decreases from 2.3 g/kWh to
1.1 g/kWh, at 100% engine load (4.069 bar BMEP) it decreases
from 2.5 g/kWh to 0.8 g/kWh. According to obtained results,
with the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen at 40%, 60%, 75% and
100% engine load, specific CO emission respectively decreases
by 64.3%, 51.7%, 54.7% and 68.4. On the work, all values scaled
regarding carbon monoxide are below emission regulations.
However, according to results obtained from work with diesel
fuel þ hydrogen usage calculated via AVL DiCom 4000 device,
since device by %0.01 volume and the scaled values are below
device's scaling lower limit, we can not mention decrease
values made percentally are completely certain. With the
addition of hydrogen there can be lower values obtained than
device could measure so it is possible that those values in-
crease. Hydrogen's high flame speed increases in-cylinder
pressure and causes a little improvement on combustion ef-
ficiency. Besides, because of hydrogen's high diffusion
parameter, before combustion more homogeneous mixture
forms and mixture's accesibility to oxygen increases [49]. This
explains the decrease on CO emission.
Total hydrocarbon
Unburned hydrocarbons in exhaust gas in generally stated as
total hydrocarbon (THC) [32]. In Fig. 7, THC emissions ob-
tained at working conditions is shown. With the usage of
diesel fuel þ hydrogen at every load stage, it can be seen that
THC emissions increase. At 1.638 bar BMEP (40% engine load),
diesel fuel þ hydrogen usage increases specific THC emis-
sions from 0.10 g/kWh to 0.14 g/kWh. Similarly at 2.457 bar
Fig. 6 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on CO emission at
40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar,
3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
Fig. 7 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on THC emission on
40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar,
3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
BMEP (60% engine load) THC emissions increase from 0.05 g/
kWh to 0.10 g/kWh; at 3.072 bar BMEP (75% engine load)
values increase from 0.04 g/kWh to 0.07 g/kWh, at 4.069 bar
BMEP (100% engine load) it increases from 0.02 g/kWh to
0.04 g/kWh. At 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine loads, 36.3%,
93.3%, 68.2% and 42.3% increase is obtained. Obtained THC
results are below regulations and with the usage of diesel
fuel þ hydrogen increasing amount of THC is negligible ac-
cording to regulations. In this study, hydrogen was injected
into intake manifold and it provides additional resistance for
air flow during intake stroke since hydrogen flow rate is fixed
at 30% as energy basis. Therefore, it can be concluded that
the volumetric efficiency values were decreased with
increasing amount of fuel (especially hydrogen). The calcu-
lated volumetric efficiencies of the test engine are 80%, 79%,
79% and 78% for neat diesel fuel; 80%, 79%, 79% and 78% for
30% hydrogen addition for 1.2 kW, 1.8 kW, 2.25 kW and 3 kW
brake engine power, respectively. For this reason, THC
emission increases with hydrogen addition due to decrease
of inlet air. Obtained results are parallel with the works of
Zhou et al. [47] and Horng-Wen and Zhan-Yi [38] in literature.
Smoke
In Fig. 8, change in smoke emissions on work can be seen. It is
seen that at every load stage specific smoke emissions
decrease with the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen. At 1.638 bar
BMEP (40% engine load) with the usage of diesel
fuel þ hydrogen specific smoke emissions decrease from
2.21 g/kWh to 1.31 g/kWh. At 2.457 bar BMEP (60% engine load),
it decreases from 1.08 g/kWh to 0.49 g/kWh. At 3.072 bar BMEP,
it decreases from 1.22 g/kWh to 0.33 g/kWh, at 4.069 bar BMEP
(100% engine load) it decreases from 2.29 g/kWh to 1.11 g/kWh.
According to results at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load,
specific smoke emissions respectively decrease by 40.5%,
54.3%, 72.6% and 51.3%. With the hydrogen addition both
overall fuels H/C rates [5] and hydrogen's high diffusion
parameter, combustible mixtures homogeneity increase and
with fuel's accesibility to more oxygen, smoke formation de-
creases [22,49].
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
Fig. 8 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on smoke emissions
at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100 engine load (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar,
3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
Nitrogen oxides
In Fig. 9, NOx emission values obtained with diesel fuel and
diesel fuel þ hydrogen fuel is shown. During tests, it is seen
that NOx formations change with engine load. At all partial
engine loads (40%, 60% and 75%), with the usage of diesel
fuel þ hydrogen specific NOx emissions decrease and at full
load condition (100% engine load) diesel fuel þ hydrogen
mixture usage NOx emissions increase. With the usage of
diesel fuel þ hydrogen at 40% engine load (1.638 bar BMEP)
specific NOx emissions decrease from 5.7 g/kWh to 1.9 g/kWh,
at 60% engine load (2.457 bar BMEP) it decreases from 4.3 g/kWh
to 2.0 g/kWh, at 75% engine load (3.072 bar BMEP) it decreases
from 3.8 g/kWh to 3.3 g/kWh. At 100% engine load (4.069 bar
BMEP) with usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen, there is an icrease
from 3.3 g/kWh to 5.5 g/kWh. According to obtained results at
40%, 60% and 75% engine load conditions (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar,
3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP) NOX emissions respectively
decrease by 65.6%, 52.5% and 13.7%, at 100% engine load (3 kW
Fig. 9 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on NOX emissions at
40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine loads (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar,
3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
6709
engine load condition) there is a 65.8% increase on NOX emis-
sions. NOx formation is related to in-cylinder gas temperature,
oxygen concentration and reaction duration [2]. At normal
conditions, diesel fuel þ hydrogen fuel combustion increases
in-cylinder peak heat and increase on NOX emissions are ex-
pected [48]. However, on the work of White et al. [50], they
mentioned that, increase of combustion efficiency with
hydrogen addition is related to excess air factor, if there is no
proper excess air factor thermal NOx emissions may decrease.
Rortveit et al. [51] analyzed diluter consists of N2, He and CO2
gases affect on NOX emissions, according to their obtained
results, they found out there is a critical decrease on NOx
emissions. Frassodalti and others [52] showed that with
diluting in-cylinder, thermal NOX emissions could be taken
under control. Also, on many works N2's usage on controlling
NOx emission and simulating EGR is known [53,54]. On the one
hand, hydrogen's flame speed level is higher than diesel fuel
[44,55]. Because of that reason, with the addition of hydrogen,
ideal theoretical cycle is more accessible. On the other hand,
hydrogen's LHV is higher than diesel fuel. Thus, the addition of
hydrogen causes peak in-cylinder pressure and temperature
rise [44,55]. Since, one of the main reason of NOx emissions
release is incylinder temperature, with H2 addition NOx emis-
sion may increase. When considering all, hydrogen's diluting
effect causes decrease on NOx emissions at partial loads (40%,
60% and 75% engine load conditions); at full load condition
(100% engine load) with H2 addition because peak incylinder
temperature is outweighing, there are dramatical increases on
NOX emissions. With hydrogen addition, it is understood that
engine load condition has a big effect on NOx formation. Ob-
tained results at partial load conditions are similar to work of
Pan et al. [37] work on literature and at full load conditions
there are similarities with works of Zhou et al. [47], Bari and
Esmail [48], and Bose and Maji [19].
Combustion characteristics
In-cylinder pressure
With the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen at 40%, 60%, 75% and
100% engine load values, in cylinder pressure change related
to CA scale graphics are shown in Fig. 10. According to ob-
tained results; with the usage of diesel fuel þ hydrogen at
1.638 bar BMEP (40% engine load) peak in-cylinder gas pres-
sure increases from 53.3 bar to 54.2 bar, at 2.457 bar BMEP (60%
engine load) from 52.2 bar to 55.9 bar, at 3.072 bar BMEP (75%
engine load) from 54.8 bar to 59.5 bar, at 4.069 bar BMEP (100%
engine load) from 55.5 bar to 69.7 bar. According to these
measurement datas, with diesel fuel þ hydrogen usage, there
is a 1.7% increase at40% engine load on incylinder peak
pressure, at 60% engine load there is 7.1% increase, at 75%
engine load 8.6% increase, at 100% engine load 25.6% increase
occurs. Because of hydrogen's high flame speed resulting with
rapid combustion, rise of pressure rate increases in peak in-
cylinder pressure values obtained by combustion [5]. Similar
results are obtained on study of Christodoulou and Megaritis
[36] in the literature.
Heat release rate
In Fig. 11, work on heat release rate related to CA graphics is
shown. During combustion with diesel fuel, classical diesel
6710 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3
Fig. 10 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on in-cylinder gas pressure related to CA at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine loads
(1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).
combustion phases can be obtained, during diesel
fuel þ hydrogen combustion, because of hydrogen's high
flame speed, unregulated combustion phase, an explosive
type of combustion is seen [5]. Since hydrogen was directly
introduced into intake air, an explosive type combustion
period is seen because of instantaneous combustion of
hydrogen. With using diesel þ hydrogen fuel mixture, any
combustion problems such as backfiring, pre-ignition etc.
didn't occur during studies since energy content of hydrogen
fuel didn't exceed 30% of total fuel. Peak heat release rate
values were increased 27.06 J/ CA from 26.03 J/ CA at 40%
engine load (1.638 bar BMEP), 31.81 J/ CA from 26.77 J/ CA at
60% engine load (2.457 bar BMEP), 37.89 J/ CA from 28.61 J/ CA
at 75% engine load (3.072 bar BMEP) and 45.16 J/ CA from
27.99 J/ CA at 100% engine load (4.069 bar BMEP) with
hydrogen enrichment. With using diesel þ hydrogen as fuel,
the raise of peak heat release rate values were obtained, 3.9%,
18.8%, 32.1% and 61.3% on 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine
loads respectively, according to pure diesel fuel. Due to pres-
ence of hydrogen in intake air, pre-mixed type explosive
combustion period shows the domination all of the engine
load with hydrogen enrichment. The results of this study are
consistent with the results of Saravanan and Nagarajan [16] in
terms of heat release rate.
According to obtained results, a critical result is achieved:
the effect of hydrogen addition on NOx emissions varied
depending on diesel engine load. By using hydrogen þ diesel
mixture fuel, both NOx and smoke emissions can be reduced
at partial loads. At full load condition, however smoke emis-
sions are reduced with hydrogen addition, the dramatic in-
crease on NOx emissions couldn't be prevented. Thus, CI
engine may reach high emission standards with using
hydrogen as additional fuel especially at partial load operating
conditions though any after treatment devices aren't used on
the engine.
Conclusions
The focus of this experimental work is to investigate the effect
of 30% hydrogen enrichment (energy basis) at different engine
loads (1.638 bar, 2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP) and
1100 rpm constant speed on a diesel engine. The effect of
using diesel þ hydrogen fuel mixture on emissions, engine
performance and combustion characteristics were experi-
mentally investigated and the results were compared with
pure diesel fuel condition. The obtained test results are listed
below:
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 6 7 0 2 e6 7 1 3 6711

Fig. 11 e Effect of hydrogen enrichment on heat release rate related to CA at 40%, 60%, 75% and 100% engine load (1.638 bar,
2.457 bar, 3.072 bar and 4.069 bar BMEP).

a) Brake thermal efficiency values were decreased at all en-
gine loads with hydrogen addition. The decrease of brake
thermal efficiency is changing between 6.3% and 10.9%
with hydrogen addition compared to diesel fuel.
b) A great improvement on CO emission was acquired at
entire engine load conditions. CO emission was reduced up
to 68.4% with 30% hydrogen addition. A sharp drop on CO2
emission was obtained with hydrogen enrichment. The
improvement on CO2 emission is varying between 23.1%
and 36.1% with hydrogen addition compared with neat
diesel fuel.
c) THC emission values were increased at all of the engine
loads. However, obtained THC results are below regula-
tions and extremely low values; for this reason with the
usage of diesel þ hydrogen fuel mixture increasing amount
of THC is negligible according to regulations.
d) A remarkable result was achieved on NOx emissions with
hydrogen addition. According to results, however NOx
emissions were decreased at all partial engine loads, a
dramatic increase (51.3%) was obtained at full load condi-
tion with hydrogen addition. Smoke emission was
improved with hydrogen enrichment at all engine loads.
According to obtained results, smoke emission was
decreased between 40.5% and 72.6% at all engine loads
with hydrogen addition.
e) Peak in-cylinder pressure values and peak heat release rate
values were increased at all engine loads, respectively with
hydrogen addition. Explosive type combustion is observed
and the pre-mixed type dominated combustion period
shows the domination of all engine load with hydrogen
enrichment.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by the Yıldız Technical Univer-
sity Scientific Research Projects Coordination Department.
Project Number: 2011-06-01-YULAP01.
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