Phys4C Lecture13

Waves
Sine Waves
Energy Transfer
Interference
Reflection and Transmission
Lana Sheridan
De Anza College
May 22, 2017

Last time
• kinds of waves
• wave speed on a string
• pulse propagation
• the wave equation

Overview
• solutions to the wave equation
• sine waves
• transverse speed and acceleration
• energy transfer by a sine wave
• interference
• boundary conditions
• reflection and transmission

The Wave Equation
The wave equation:
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
=
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
We derived this for a case of transverse waves (wave on a string)

and a case of longitudinal waves (spring with mass).
It applies generally!
Solutions to the Wave Equation
Earlier we reasoned that a function of the form:
y (x, t) = f (x − vt)
should describe a propagating wave pulse.
Does it satisfy the wave equation?
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
=
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
Earlier we reasoned that a function of the form:
y (x, t) = f (x − vt)
should describe a propagating wave pulse.
Does it satisfy the wave equation?
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
=
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
Let u = x − vt, so we can use the chain rule:
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂y
= = (1)
∂x ∂x ∂u ∂u
and
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂y
= = −v
∂t ∂t ∂u ∂u
∂2 y ∂2 y
Replacing ∂x 2
and ∂t 2
in the wave equation:
∂2 y 1 2 ∂2 y
= (v ) 2
∂u 2 v2 ∂u
1 = 1
The LHS does equal the RHS!
y (x, t) = f (x − vt) is a solution to the wave equation for any

(well-behaved) function f .
Sine Waves
the new expression
An important form ofrepresents
the function fa ispulse
a sine with
or cosine
wave. (All
called “sine waves”). y (x, t) = A sin B(x − vt) + C
This is the simplest periodic, continuous wave.
It is the wave that is formed by a (driven) simple harmonic

oscillator connected to the medium.
y
vt S
v
s shown in
ve because x
sinusoidal
of the rope
s wave and
n curve in t!0 t
Wave Quantities
Wave Quantities
wavelength, λ
the distance from one crest of the wave to the next, or the
distance covered by one cycle.
units: length (m)
time period, T
the time for one complete oscillation.
units: time (s)
Sine Waves
Recall, the definition of frequency, from period T :

1
f =
T
and
2π
ω= = 2πf
T
We also define a new quantity.

Wave number, k
2π
k=
λ
units: m−1
Wave speed
How fast does a wave travel?
distance
speed = time
It travels the distance of one complete cycle in the time for one
complete cycle.
λ
v=
T
But since frequency is the inverse of the time period, we can relate
speed to frequency and wavelength:
v =fλ
Wave speed
v =fλ
2π
Since ω = 2πf and k = λ :
ω
v=
k
Sine Waves
y
vt S
v
shown in
e because x
inusoidal
the rope
wave and
curve in t!0 t
, and the Figure 16.7 A one-dimensional
2π
two types y (x, t) = wave
sinusoidal A sin traveling
λ
(x − vt)to+the
φ
es to the right with a speed v. The brown
achesThis
theis usuallycurve represents
written in a slightlya different
snapshot of the
form...
Sine Waves
y
vt S
v
shown in
e because x
inusoidal
the rope
wave and
curve in t!0 t
, and the Figure 16.7 A one-dimensional
two types sinusoidal
y (x, t) wave
= A sintraveling toφ)
(kx − ωt + the
es to the right with a speed v. The brown
acheswhere
theφ is a curve represents a snapshot of the
phase constant.
Question
Quick Quiz 16.21 A sinusoidal wave of frequency f is traveling

along a stretched string. The string is brought to rest, and a
second traveling wave of frequency 2f is established on the string.
What is the wave speed of the second wave?
(A) twice that of the first wave

(B) half that of the first wave
(C) the same as that of the first wave
(D) impossible to determine
1
Serway & Jewett, page 489.
Question

What is the wave speed of the second wave?

(C) the same as that of the first wave ←
1
Question

What is the wavelength of the second wave?

1
Question

What is the wavelength of the second wave?

(B) half that of the first wave ←
1
Question

What is the amplitude of the second wave?

1
Question

What is the amplitude of the second wave?

(D) impossible to determine ←
1
Sine waves Sinuso
y In Figu
l and dow
Consider a point, P, on a string x
P
with an
carrying a sine wave. A sents sn
of the b
t=0
as that a
Suppose that point is at a fixed element
a
horizontal position x = 5λ/4, a frequen
constant. P element
with a sp
1 If we
The y coordinate of P varies as: t=
4
T
shown i
b

5λ
y ,t = A sin(−ωt + 5π/2)
4 We can
ment at
= A cos(ωt) P 1
t=
2
T coordin
c
with the
The point is in simple harmonic

P 3
motion! t=
4
T
d
Figure 16.10 One method for

Sine waves: Transverse Speed and Transverse
Acceleration
The transverse speed vy is the speed at which a single point on the
medium (string) travels perpendicular to the propagation direction
of the wave.
We can find this from the wave function
y (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)

Acceleration
The transverse speed vy is the speed at which a single point on the
medium (string) travels perpendicular to the propagation direction
of the wave.
We can find this from the wave function
y (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)
∂y
vy = = −ωA cos(kx − ωt)
∂t
For the transverse acceleration, we just take the derivative again:
∂2 y
ay = = −ω2 A sin(kx − ωt)
∂t 2
Acceleration
vy = −ωA cos(kx − ωt)

ay = −ω2 A sin(kx − ωt) = −ω2 y
If we fix x =const. these are exactly the equations we had for
SHM!
The maximum transverse speed of a point P on the string is when

it passes through its equilibrium position.
vy ,max = ωA
The maximum acceleration occurs when y = A.
ay = ω2 A
Questions
Can a wave on a string move with a wave speed that is greater

than the maximum transverse speed vy ,max of an element of the
string?
(A) yes
(B) no
Questions
Can a wave on a string move with a wave speed that is greater

than the maximum transverse speed vy ,max of an element of the
string?
(A) yes ←
(B) no
Questions
Can the wave speed be much greater than the maximum element
speed?
(A) yes
(B) no
Questions
Can the wave speed be much greater than the maximum element
speed?
(A) yes ←
(B) no
Questions
Can the wave speed be equal to the maximum element speed?
(A) yes
(B) no
Questions
Can the wave speed be equal to the maximum element speed?
(A) yes ←
(B) no
Questions
Can the wave speed be less than vy ,max ?
(A) yes
(B) no
Questions
Can the wave speed be less than vy ,max ?
(A) yes ←
(B) no
Acceleration
vy = −ωA cos(kx − ωt)
ay = −ω2 A sin(kx − ωt) = −ω2 y

Rate of Energy Transfer in Sine Wave
Waves do transmit energy.
A wave pulse causes the mass at each point of the string to

displace from its equilibrium point.
At what rate does this transfer happen?

Waves do transmit energy.
A wave pulse causes the mass at each point of the string to

displace from its equilibrium point.
At what rate does this transfer happen?
Consider the kinetic and potential energies in a small length of

string.
Kinetic:
1
dK = (dm)vy2
2
Replacing vy :
1
dK = (dm)A2 ω2 cos2 (kx − ωt)
2
Potential:
dU = F d` = T (ds − dx)
where d` = ds − dx is the amount by which a small element of the
string is stretched, ds is the stretched length and dx is the
unstretched length.
s 2 " 2 #
∂y 1 ∂y
q
ds = dx2 + dy2 = 1+ dx ≈ 1 + dx
∂x 2 ∂x
1
1
Diagram from http://www.solitaryroad.com, James Miller.
2
1 ∂y
ds − dx = dx
2 ∂x
2
1 ∂y
dU = T dx
2 ∂x
1
= T (Ak cos(kx − ωt))2 dx
2
1
= µω2 A2 cos2 (kx − ωt) dx
2
p
having used v = ω/k and v = T /µ in the last line.
1
dK = µ dx A2 ω2 cos2 (kx − ωt)
2
1
dU = µω2 A2 cos2 (kx − ωt) dx
2
Adding dU + dK gives
dE = µω2 A2 cos2 (kx − ωt) dx
Integrating over one wavelength gives the energy per wavelength:

Zλ
Eλ = µω2 A2 cos2 (kx − ωt) dx
0
2 2λ
= µω A
2
For one wavelength:

1
Eλ = µω2 A2 λ
2
Power averaged over one wavelength:

Eλ 1 λ
P= = µω2 A2
T 2 T
Average power of a wave on a string:
1
P = µω2 A2 v
2
Question
Quick Quiz 16.52 Which of the following, taken by itself, would

be most effective in increasing the rate at which energy is
transferred by a wave traveling along a string?
(A) reducing the linear mass density of the string by one half
(B) doubling the wavelength of the wave
(C) doubling the tension in the string
(D) doubling the amplitude of the wave
2
Question
Quick Quiz 16.52 Which of the following, taken by itself, would

be most effective in increasing the rate at which energy is
transferred by a wave traveling along a string?
(A) reducing the linear mass density of the string by one half
(B) doubling the wavelength of the wave
(C) doubling the tension in the string
(D) doubling the amplitude of the wave ←
2
Interference of Waves
When two wave disturbances interact with one another they can
amplify or cancel out.
Waves of the same frequency that are “in phase” will reinforce,
amplitude will increase; waves that are “out of phase” will cancel
out.
Waves that exist at the same time in the same position in space
add together.
superposition principle
If two or more traveling waves are moving through a medium, the
resultant value of the wave function at any point is the algebraic
sum of the values of the wave functions of the individual waves.
This works because the wave equation we are studying is linear.
This means solutions to the wave equations can be added:
y (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t)
y is the resultant wave function.

y 1 the amplitude
pulses align, y2 is W
Interference the sum of theConstructive
of Waves: individual Interference pu
amplitudes.
When the pulses overlap, the th
bW
b y 1! y 2
wave function is the sum of in
wa
the individual wave functions. ath
aWhen the y 1 crests of the
y 2 two
pulses align, the amplitude is cW
c sum of the individual
the pu
When the pulses y 1! overlap,
y2 the W
amplitudes. th
bwa
bwave function isy 1the sum of
! y2 in
When the pulses nofunctions.
longer Wth
the individual wave
overlap, they have ov
When the crests of not
the been
two
pe
permanently affected
pulses align, the amplitude by theis cW
cthe
interference. in
pu
sum of they individual
b 1! y 2 bth
amplitudes. y 1! y 2
ind
When the pulses no longer W
When the
overlap, crests
they haveofnot
the been
two dov
dpulses align,ythe amplitude W
pe
permanently y 1theis
2affected by c pu
the sum of the individual
cinterference. in
When the crests of the two
Interference pulses align, the
of Waves: amplitude is
Destructive Interference
the difference between
bWhen the pulses overlap, the the
individual yamplitudes.
1! y 2
wave function is the sum y 2 of
athe individual wave functions.
y1
cWhen the crests of the two
pulses align, the
y 1!amplitude
y2 is
the difference
When the pulsesbetween
overlap,thethe
individual
bWhen
wave amplitudes.
function
y 1!isy 2the
the pulses no sum
longerof
the individual
overlap, wavenot
they have functions.
been
cpermanently affected by the
interference.
When the crests
y 1! yof2 the two
bpulses align, the amplitude is
the y 1! y 2between the
difference
When the pulses no longer
y
dindividual
overlap, theyamplitudes.
2 have not been
permanently affected y the
When the crests of the1bytwo
interference.
pulses align, the amplitude is
Superposition of Sine Waves
Consider two sine waves with the same wavelength and amplitude,
but different phases, that interfere.
y1 (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt) y2 (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt + φ)
Add them together to find the resultant wave function, using the
identity:

θ−ψ θ+ψ
sin θ + sin ψ = 2 cos sin
2 2
Then
φ φ
y (x, t) = 2A cos sin(kx − ωt + )
2 2
New amplitude Sine oscillation
y y
Interference of Two Sine Waves (equal wavelength)
b x

φ φ
y (x, t) = 2A cos sin(kx − ωt + )
2 2
f ! 180°
y y
y1
y2
c x
f ! 60°
Dependence on Phase Difference

φ
The amplitude of the resultant wave is A 0 = 2A cos 2 , where φ
is the phase difference.
For what value of φ is A 0 maximized?

Dependence on Phase Difference

φ
The amplitude of the resultant wave is A 0 = 2A cos 2 , where φ
is the phase difference.
For what value of φ is A 0 maximized? φ = 0 or φ = 2π, −2π, 4π,

etc.
The waves are “in phase” and constructively interfere.

rposition and Standing Waves
y The individual waves are in phase

y
and therefore indistinguishable.
a x Constructive interference: the

amplitudes add.
f ! 0°
y1 y2 The individual waves are 180° out

y y
of phase.
b x
Dependence
rposition on
and Standing Waves Phase Difference
y The individual waves are in phase

y
and therefore indistinguishable.
a If φ = π, −π, 3π, −3π, etc. A 0 = 0.

x Destructive interference.
Constructive interference: the
amplitudes add.
f ! 0°
y1 y2 The individual waves are 180° out

y y
of phase.
b x
Destructive interference: the
waves cancel.
f ! 180°
y y This intermediate result is neither
y1
y2 constructive nor destructive.
c x
f ! 60°
Phase Differences
We can count phase differences in terms of wavelengths also.
If two waves have a phase difference of 1 wavelength then φ = 2π.

Constructive interference.
If two waves have a phase difference of half a wavelength then

φ = π. Destructive interference.
Question
Here are four possible phase differences between two identical

waves, expressed in wavelengths:
0.20, 0.45, 0.60, and 0.80.
Rank them according to the amplitude of the resultant wave,

greatest first.
(A) 0.20, 0.45, 0.60, 0.80

(B) 0.80, 0.60, 0.45, 0.20
(C) (0.20 and 0.80), 0.60, 0.45
(D) 0.45, 0.60, (0.20 and 0.80)
1
Halliday, Resnick, Walker, page 427.
Question
Here are four possible phase differences between two identical

waves, expressed in wavelengths:
0.20, 0.45, 0.60, and 0.80.
Rank them according to the amplitude of the resultant wave,

greatest first.
(A) 0.20, 0.45, 0.60, 0.80

(B) 0.80, 0.60, 0.45, 0.20
(C) (0.20 and 0.80), 0.60, 0.45 ←
(D) 0.45, 0.60, (0.20 and 0.80)
1
Halliday, Resnick, Walker, page 427.
16_413-444hr.qxd 26-10-2009 22:12 Page 429
hr.qxd 26-10-2009 22:12 Page 429
Phasors
We can represent this addition3 with a phasor diagram.
Each wave function at point (x, t) is represented by a vector. 16-11 PHA

16-11 PHASORS 42
This projection
Thismatches this matches this
projection
displacementdisplacement
of the dot as of the dot as Zero projection,Zero projection,
the wave moves through
the wave it. through it.
moves zero displacement
zero displacement
y y y y
ω ω
y1 ym1 y
1 ym1
x x
x y1 = 0
y1 = 0
ω
ω
(b)
(a) (b)
3
of sine waves with equal wavelengths
ym1 y1
Phasors x x
This is a snapshot of the Addin

Add the vectors to find the sum.
two phasors for two waves. gives
result
Wave 2, delayed
(d) by φ radians
These are the y2 ym2 ω This is the
projections of projection of
y'
the two phasors. y1 φ y the resultant
hot of the Adding the twom1phasors as vectors
Wave 1 phasor.
or two waves. gives the resultant phasor of the
(e)resultant wave. (f )
Wave 2, delayed
by φ radians Fig. 16-14 (a)–(d) A phasor of magnitude ym1 rotating
ω about an origin at angular s
sents a sinusoidal wave. The phasor’s projection y1 on the vertical axis represents the d
ω ym2
m2 This
of a point is the which the wave passes. (e) A second phasor, also of angular speed v
through
y
nitude yprojection of at a2constanty'mangle f
m2 and rotating φ from the first phasor, represents a second
y'
ym1 phase constant f. (f) The resultant wave is represented by the vector sum y!m of the tw
the resultant
Wave 1 phasor. β
y1 ym1
(f )
f magnitude ym1 rotating about an origin at angular speed v repre-

or’s projection y1 on the vertical axis represents the displacement
InAthe
e passes. (e) diagram
second A 0of=
phasor, also ym0 isspeed
angular thev but
amplitude
of mag- of the resulting wave.
ant angle f from the first phasor, represents a second wave, with a
nt wave is represented by the vector sum y!m of the two phasors.
Example
Two sinusoidal waves y1 (x, t) and y2 (x, t) have the same

wavelength and travel together in the same direction along a
string. Their amplitudes are A1 = 4.0 mm and A2 = 3.0 mm, and
their phase constants are 0 and π/3 rad, respectively.
What are the amplitude A 0 and phase constant φ 0 of the resultant

wave? Also give resultant wave function.
Example


A 0 = 6.1 mm ; φ 0 = 0.44 rad

Example


A 0 = 6.1 mm ; φ 0 = 0.44 rad
y (x, t) = (6.1 mm) sin(kx − ωt + 0.44)

Wave Reflection
Boundaries and Wave Reflection and Transmission
When waves reach the end of their medium, or move from one
medium to another, they can be reflected.
The behavior is different in difference circumstances.
We can describe the different circumstances mathematically using

boundary conditions on our wave function.
These will help us to correctly predict how a wave will reflect or be

transmitted.
Wave Reflection from a fixed end point 16.4 Re
Incident The travelin
pulse without inte
wave is affec
a a pulse trave
Figure 16.13
occurs: the
b pulse moves
Notice th
follows. Whe
an upward f
c Reflected equal-magn
pulse
This downw
Figure
The reflected pulse 16.13 How
is inverted. The does this happen?
reflection Now cons
of a traveling pulse at the fixed that is free
Wave Reflection from a fixed end point
The boundary condition for a fixed end point at position x = 0 is:
y (x = 0, t) = 0
At any time, the point of the string at x = 0 cannot have any

vertical displacement. It is tied to a wall!
The wave function for single pulse on the string does not satisfy
this boundary condition.
y1 (x, t) = f (x − vt)
This pulse will continue in the +x direction forever, past the end of
the string. Makes no sense.
The boundary condition for a fixed end point at position x = 0 is:
y (x = 0, t) = 0
At any time, the point of the string at x = 0 cannot have any

vertical displacement. It is tied to a wall!
The wave function for single pulse on the string does not satisfy
this boundary condition.
y1 (x, t) = f (x − vt)
This pulse will continue in the +x direction forever, past the end of
the string. Makes no sense.
What if we imagine the string continues inside the wall, and there
is a pulse traveling behind the wall in the −x direction?
1
Wall at x = 2.5. Digrams by Michal Fowler http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu
If we allow another wave function:
y2 (x, t) = −f (−x − vt)
the total wave function will satisfy the boundary condition!
y (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t)

y (x, t) = f (x − vt) + [−f (−x − vt)]
y (x = 0, t) = 0
However, −f (−x − vt) corresponds to an inverted wave pulse.

The reflected pulse is inverted.
The reflected pulse is inverted. 16.4 Re
Incident The travelin
pulse without inte
wave is affec
a a pulse trave
Figure 16.13
occurs: the
b pulse moves
Notice th
follows. Whe
an upward f
c Reflected equal-magn
pulse
This downw
Figure 16.13 The reflection Now cons
reflected pulse is inverted, but its
vertically on a sm
Wave shape
Reflection is otherwise
from unchanged.
a freely movable end
timepoint
it is not inve
end of the string
In this case, reflected pulse is not inverted.
the incoming pu
the ring back do
Incident
pulse not inverted and
Finally, consid
a two extremes. In
part undergoes t
ary. For instance
16.15. When a pu
b two strings, part
Reflected
the heavier strin
pulse earlier in the cas
The reflected
c 16.5, we show th
ing to the princ
Figure 16.14 The reflection of reflected pulse a
a traveling pulse at the free end of
Wave Reflection from a freely movable end point
Now we have a different boundary condition.
The slope of the string at the boundary must be zero.

∂y
=0
∂x x=0
This ensures that the string will stay attached to the wall and
there will not be an infinite force on the last tiny bit of string.
To satisfy this boundary condition, imagine there is another pulse

that is upright but moving in the −x direction.
Imagine the free end of the string at x = 2.5. The slope there is
zero at all times.
The new boundary condition is satisfied if y2 = f (−x − vt):
y (x, t) = f (x − vt) + f (−x − vt)

∂y (x, t) ∂f (x − vt) ∂f (−x − vt)
= +
∂x ∂x ∂x

∂y (x, t) ∂f (x − vt) ∂f (x − vt)
= + −
∂x ∂x ∂x

∂y
= 0
∂x x=0
The pulse f (−x − vt) is not inverted.

Transmitted and Reflected Waves at a Boundary
If two ropes of different linear mass densities, µ1 and µ2 are

attached together (under the same tension), an incoming pulse will
be partially transmitted and partially reflected.
The boundary conditions here are different again.
Now the slope of the string at the boundary should be zero and
the displacements to at the boundary must be the same (otherwise
the string breaks).
Transmitted and Reflected Waves at a Boundary
From those boundary conditions it is possible to deduce the

behavior:
µ1 < µ2 µ1 > µ2
16.5 Rate of Energy Transfer by Sinusoidal Waves on Strings
Incident Incident
pulse pulse
a a
The reflected pulse is The reflected pulse is not

inverted and a non-inverted inverted and a transmitted pulse
transmitted pulse moves on moves on the lighter string.
the heavier string.
b b
Figure 16.15 (a) A pulse traveling to the right on a Figure 16.16 (a) A pulse traveling to the right on a
light string approaches the junction with a heavier string. heavy string approaches the junction with a lighter string.
(b) The situation after the pulse reaches the junction. (b) The situation after the pulse reaches the junction.
1
Serway to&Equation
According Jewett,16.18,
pagethe
495.
speed of a wave on a string increases as the
Summary
• energy transfer by a sine wave

• interference
• reflection and transmission
Homework Serway & Jewett:

• (set at end of last lecture) Ch 16, onward from page 499.
OQs: 3, 5, 9; CQs: 1, 5, 9; Probs: 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 19, 23, 29,
41, 43, 53, 59, 60
• Ch 16, onward from page 499. Probs: 33, 35, 61
• Ch 18, onward from page 555. OQs: 9; CQs: 9; Probs: 1, 3,
7, 9, 11

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Waves

May 22, 2017

• wave speed on a string

• the wave equation

• transverse speed and acceleration

• energy transfer by a sine wave

• reflection and transmission

The wave equation:

We derived this for a case of transverse waves (wave on a string)

should describe a propagating wave pulse.

Does it satisfy the wave equation?

should describe a propagating wave pulse.

Does it satisfy the wave equation?

The LHS does equal the RHS!

y (x, t) = f (x − vt) is a solution to the wave equation for any

This is the simplest periodic, continuous wave.

It is the wave that is formed by a (driven) simple harmonic

Recall, the definition of frequency, from period T :

We also define a new quantity.

Quick Quiz 16.21 A sinusoidal wave of frequency f is traveling

What is the wave speed of the second wave?

(A) twice that of the first wave

Quick Quiz 16.21 A sinusoidal wave of frequency f is traveling

What is the wave speed of the second wave?

(A) twice that of the first wave

Quick Quiz 16.21 A sinusoidal wave of frequency f is traveling

What is the wavelength of the second wave?

(A) twice that of the first wave

Quick Quiz 16.21 A sinusoidal wave of frequency f is traveling

What is the wavelength of the second wave?

(A) twice that of the first wave

Quick Quiz 16.21 A sinusoidal wave of frequency f is traveling

What is the amplitude of the second wave?

(A) twice that of the first wave

Quick Quiz 16.21 A sinusoidal wave of frequency f is traveling

What is the amplitude of the second wave?

(A) twice that of the first wave

The point is in simple harmonic

Figure 16.10 One method for

We can find this from the wave function

y (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)

We can find this from the wave function

y (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)

For the transverse acceleration, we just take the derivative again:

vy = −ωA cos(kx − ωt)

The maximum transverse speed of a point P on the string is when

The maximum acceleration occurs when y = A.

Can a wave on a string move with a wave speed that is greater

Can a wave on a string move with a wave speed that is greater

Can the wave speed be equal to the maximum element speed?

Can the wave speed be equal to the maximum element speed?

Can the wave speed be less than vy ,max ?

Can the wave speed be less than vy ,max ?

vy = −ωA cos(kx − ωt)

ay = −ω2 A sin(kx − ωt) = −ω2 y

A wave pulse causes the mass at each point of the string to

At what rate does this transfer happen?

A wave pulse causes the mass at each point of the string to

At what rate does this transfer happen?

Consider the kinetic and potential energies in a small length of

dE = µω2 A2 cos2 (kx − ωt) dx

Integrating over one wavelength gives the energy per wavelength:

For one wavelength: