Applied Psychology Putting Theory Into Practice 2nd Edition

Applied Psychology
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Applied Psychology
Putting Theory into Practice
SECOND EDITION
D. A. Bekerian
A. B. Levey
1
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp
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Foreword
I should say something about my own credentials for writing this Foreword. I have been
involved with applied psychology for much of my career. My PhD project was originally an
applied one, the evaluation of an Adult Reading Efficiency Course. This was a case where an
applied project turned itself into an important theoretical advance, to do with the cognitive
processes involved in word recognition, on the basis of which I designed a two-hour reading
course which was very effective but, alas, I never marketed. So, practice to theory to practice.
I was employed for 22 years at the MRC Applied Psychology Unit where part of our job was
applying psychology. Let me mention a couple of examples from my experience. At the
beginning of my career at the APU, I was asked to work on communication systems for the
Armed Forces. On one occasion, there was a problem with army helicopters where pilots
found they couldn’t handle together the three channels of communication, army air-traffic
control, civilian air traffic control, and army tactical control. The supposition was that it had
something to do with the cognitive limitations of the pilots or with their training. The
answer turned out to be much simpler. All three channels were being presented to the pilots
binaurally and so interfered with each other acoustically. Once they were presented in ste-
reo, the pilots could switch attention according to priorities.
By the time of the second example I was doing a lot of work on human–computer interac-
tion. There was a query from a government department which had just computerized its
operations. There were three rooms involved in the work and there were complaints from
one of them about eye-strain and headaches. We expected the answer to be something to do
with the specific visual conditions of the work in that room. In fact, we could not find any
distinctions between the three rooms so far as the nature of the work was concerned or the
conditions of viewing, though we did believe the claims about eye-strain were genuine.
However, we did find that the supervisor of the room in question was highly authoritarian
and members of his team complained about the lack of consultation on a number of issues.
We also observed a variety of petty squabbles between fellow workers in that room where
the other rooms seemed highly cooperative. We realized we were out of our depth and rec-
ommended that the human relations side of the department have a good look at the mana-
gerial style of the supervisor in question.
With experiences like those behind me, it is not surprising that I responded positively to
Applied Psychology: Putting Theory into Practice. Debra Bekerian and Archie Levey take the
view that applied psychology is something carried out by people with some specialist train-
ing but a considerable mastery of a variety of general psychological techniques. The job of
an applied psychologist is to problem-solve in the public domain, not to trot out a formulaic
solution. The organisational structure of the book is a set of rooms which enclose a set of
real-world contexts with a common goal. Each of the chapters finishes with two scenarios.
These show how psychologists’ expertise is drawn upon, and what effect their input can
have. From the first edition there are chapters concerned with crime investigation, the
courtroom, the working environment, national conflict, the treatment of mental difficulties,
and sport. For the second edition they have added two new rooms which significantly
vi FOREWORD
broaden the scope of the project. ‘The teaching room’ is concerned with the nature of formal
education but breaks the link between that concept and the classroom. Rather, the issues
involved with distance learning are embraced, and the scenarios presented involve the crea-
tion of a learning programme to counteract violent behaviour, and the education of health
professionals in a situation of conflict between the public and private sectors. In these sce-
narios, then, we see how education can be a matter of whole communities. ‘The nature
room’ boldly lays out the way in which psychologists can be concerned in the major issues
of concern for the student generation—care of the environment, the destruction of species,
gender, the role of myths, climate change, the future of the planet itself. We find that movies
and blogs are cited as references. These reach out to the heart of the problems where the
more usual sources are uninformative. The scenarios here are of an appropriate scale and
are described in way guaranteed to engage the reader and stimulate them into discussion.
You are not expected to agree with everything the authors say, but where there is disagree-
ment you would be expected to engage them in proper argument, using psychological prin-
ciples. The psychologists who are notionally the heroines of the scenarios are not always
successful, and the student is encouraged to outdo them.
Applied Psychology: Putting Theory into Practice is a good read. The writing is easy but
well referenced, and the scenarios are gripping; each one is the outline of an episode of a TV
series. You want to know how it ends.
Good applied psychologists are like good clinicians—they are broadly educated and
always know when the time has come to refer the case to someone else. Bekerian and Levey
indicate that the profession could have and should have a lot of responsibility for effecting
change. They portray a profession which is varied and exciting.
Professor John Morton, FRS
Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience
University College, London
Brief contents
Detailed contents ix
Preface to the second edition xii
New to this edition xiii
Preface to the first edition xiv
Acknowledgements xv
PART ONE The transition from theory into practice
1 About this book 3
2 The origins and scope of applied psychology 10

3 Applying theory to practice 31
PART TWO The rooms
4 The crime room 41

5 The court room 79
6 The work room 103

7 The war room 135
8 The treatment room 167

9 The sport room 201
10 The teaching room 237
11 The nature room 277
Glossary 319
Bibliography 331
Index of subjects 344
Index of names 352
Detailed contents
Preface to the second edition xii

New to this edition xiii
Preface to the first edition xiv
Acknowledgements xv
PART ONE The transition from theory into practice
1 About this book 3

Applied research 3
The role of theory 4
The nature of theories 5
The structure of this book 7
The structure of the rooms 7
2 The origins and scope of applied psychology 10

The role of philosophy 10
The eighteenth century: the Age of Enlightenment 14
The conquest of nature 14
Psychology becomes a science 16
The story so far 18
The other face of industrialization 19
The intelligence quotient (IQ) 19
The scope of applied psychology 22
The modern hospital 23
Selected case studies 28
3 Applying theory to practice 31
Content of rooms 31
Major theoretical themes 33
General approaches to applied problems 36
PART TWO The rooms
4 The crime room 41

Crime 41
Traditional topics in the crime room 43
x DETAILED CONTENTS
Collaborations between psychologists and the police 48

Summary of the crime room 55
Scenarios one and two 56
5 The court room 79
Functions of the court 79
Psychological issues involved in the court room 82
Psychology in law 83
Psychology and law 87
The ‘expert’ witness 88
6 The work room 103

The concept of work 103
Early investigations in the work room 105
Recent topics considered in the work room 108
The place of cognitive psychology 113
The problem of stress 115
Organizational psychology 116
7 The war room 135
The nature of conflict 135
Assessment, selection, and training 137
Morale and the fighting spirit 144
Motivation 145
Identification with the primary group 148
8 The treatment room 167

Introduction 167
Modern treatment rooms 168
The psychodynamic orientation 172
Modern psychodynamic models and treatment techniques 176
The humanistic orientation 177
Carl Rogers and the person-centred approach 178
Other humanistic models of treatment 180
9 The sport room 201
The importance of physical activity 201
Traditional topics in the sport room 205
Skills acquisition 207
Motor learning 208
DETAILED CONTENTS xi
Thoughts, feelings, and sport 212

Thoughts and the body 214
Summary and prospect 216
10 The teaching room 237

Learning to be human 237
Modern educational psychology 246
Issues in the modern teaching room 255
11 The nature room 277
Another potted history of human evolution 277
Universals in human behaviour 283
The modern nature room 292
Glossary 319
Bibliography 331
Index of subjects 344
Index of names 352
Preface to the second edition
The second edition sees us make some important additions, particularly in terms of updat-
ing materials already presented and providing two new chapters, ‘The teaching room’ and
‘The nature room’. We felt that it was essential that the book reflected the ever expanding
knowledge base from which applied psychologists now draw their inspiration and guid-
ance. To this end, we have included new information and references in every chapter. The
addition of the two new chapters in part was the direct result of feedback from readers. In
retrospect, it seems obvious that we would want to consider how psychologists operate
within a teaching environment, and true to the earlier chapters we include traditional as
well as less traditional topics that might emerge in that context. The inclusion of ‘The nature
room’ is also the result of feedback from readers, but also due to the dominance of new
global concerns regarding the impact that ecological and social changes are having on the
planet. ‘The nature room’ highlights how important psychology and its application are to
the continued survival of our species.
D.A.B.
A.B.L.
Cambridge, January 2005/2011
New to this edition
The second edition has been greatly expanded and includes:

● Updated chapters and primary references
● Updated scenarios where appropriate
● Several new boxes
● New end-of-chapter questions
● New chapter introductions
In the first edition, we made only occasional references to websites. We cannot overstate
the change in usage of the Internet as a resource for academic work that happened between
the writing of the first and second editions. As such, the reader will see that we have included
many more websites in the new chapters, and have added websites to chapters appearing in
the first edition. We note that websites tend to be unstable, and feel that a more effective way
of accessing the abundance of information on the Internet is by using well-chosen search
terms. The terms that are highlighted in the text in bold or italics can be used for this pur-
pose. Chapters have been updated with new references in the ‘Suggested reading’ list at the
end of each chapter. In addition to new references, we also provide information and related
resources about new topics. An example of this occurs in the ‘court room’, where we provide
the reader with websites that address the new concept of therapeutic jurisprudence. In this
way we hope that the book can continue to be updated, without significantly altering the
content as new areas and findings emerge. Boxes continue to be included throughout the
text; with some used to expand details, and others used to introduce additional material of
interest. New boxes have been added to each chapter, to introduce some of the newer topics
that are included, for example the impact of technology. New end-of-chapter questions
identify potential topics that the reader may find important. The chapter openers support
and reflect the written content. At the end of each chapter we provide two questions related
to each of the scenarios within the chapter, which are designed to encourage the reader to
consider other and potentially wider implications of the work that is discussed. We identify
potential topics that might be discussed in answering these questions. The bibliography
contains all the references cited in the text and also lists other books and articles that we
consider to be important in understanding the field of applied psychology and we recom-
mend them to the reader interested in pursuing the subject further.
Note to the reader

Key concepts—those terms essential to the understanding of the material—are highlighted
throughout the text in either italics or bold type. Those terms that are in italics are defined
in the text, or are words whose meaning is clear from the context. Terms that are explained
in the glossary at the end of the book are given in bold at first mention in each chapter.
Preface to the first edition
The general aim of this book is to provide the reader with a good understanding of how
applied psychologists go about being applied psychologists. We adopt the view, as do many
other people, that in order to do good applied psychology, the psychologist must ground
all interventions firmly in theory. There must be a specific theoretical explanation as to why
psychologists do what they do, suggest what they suggest, and intervene in the way that
they intervene. For these reasons, we make sure that the reader is introduced not only to
the theoretical concepts that are specific to the applied problem, but also to the more gen-
eral psychological concepts that are likely to be relevant. In this regard, this book shares
common features with other texts on applied psychology. However, the departure for this
book is in its organization. We use real-world contexts, rather than the specific training of
the psychologist, to introduce the reader to different ways in which psychologists can apply
theory. We refer to these general classes of world context as rooms, each having different
activities, goals, and, consequently, problems that arise. For example, rather than talk
about forensic psychology, we talk about the Crime Room and the Court Room. We believe
that this has the advantage of focusing the reader’s attention on the most important deter-
minant of applied psychology—namely the real-world problem that the psychologist is
being asked to address. It is the real-world situation that determines what skills and exper-
tise are most helpful, not the psychologist’s training. Each room can be used as a mne-
monic for helping the reader to link mainstream theoretical issues and findings with
practical problems; and each chapter follows the same format, highlighting important
aspects of the applied problem and showing how psychologists have translated theoretical
concepts into practice. We also introduce our readers to questions that encourage them to
consider the broader implications of the applied work. The book is largely about demon-
strating the impact of theory on application, rather than focusing on the impact that
applied work has had on theory. That would be the topic for a different book! Nonetheless,
we stress that applications of psychology direct us to the inadequacies of theories—their
conceptual gaps and where they fail to consider important features. There is no doubt that
through good applied psychology, we are better able to construct theories that help us to
explain and predict human behaviour.
D.A.B.
A.B.L.
Cambridge, January 2005
Acknowledgements
The preparation of these chapters would not have been possible without the help of a num-
ber of friends and colleagues, whose contributions we gratefully acknowledge. At the top
of the list is our editor, Jonathan Crowe, whose expert advice and patient support proved
essential to the project from the beginning. Other patient and considerate editors from
Oxford University Press also deserve our heartfelt thanks, especially during the seemingly
never-ending production of the second edition. Two anonymous reviewers provided valu-
able comments on an earlier version, for which we now thank them; and another set of
reviewers were essential in developing the ideas for the second edition. We also thank
Lotika Singha for her wonderful copy-editing services on the second edition, and Ellie
Kilburn for her delightful art work. Dr Susan Levey kindly brought to bear her very con-
siderable critical acumen on several of the chapters and thereby helped us to improve the
whole. Barbara Alderton generously offered skilled secretarial assistance at a time when it
was most needed. We thank them both. Kevin Symonds, librarian at the Medical Research
Council’s Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit—formerly the Applied Psychology Unit—in
Cambridge, gave freely of his time in helping us to track down obscure references. We are
most grateful to him for his generosity. Ms Audrey Beauchamp saved the day by helping
with references, glossary, and generally with emotional support. Without her efforts, we
would have not made our deadline. We also want to thank Dr Susan Goodrich, who joined
us in many helpful discussions during the planning stages of the first edition of this book.
Finally, we wish to record our gratitude to three generations of students who were enrolled
in the courses in applied psychology (DB) on which the book is based. Their contributions,
in terms of lively arguments, constructive discussions, and occasional misunderstandings,
largely determined the form and content of the book. It is our fond hope that some of them
may eventually find rewarding careers in applied psychology.
Part one
The transition from

theory into practice
1 About this book
Psychology is the study of the behaviour of animate beings, and, fittingly, it is a living,
evolving discipline. No matter what you do for a living or what your interests might
be, psychology and psychologists have made an impact on your life, and will con-
tinue to do so. While there are vast numbers of written references on most of the
specific academic topics in psychology, much less is written on the application of
psychology to people’s everyday lives. There are many individual, published papers
on specific applied problems, but there are far fewer books that summarize themes
in applied research (see Coolican et al. 1996).
Applied research
Applied research has a long history, particularly in the UK. It involves applying theoretical
or academic psychology to real-world situations. The single element that probably distin-
guishes outstanding applied research from more mediocre attempts is the extent to which
the researcher successfully maps the mainstream academic literature onto the real-world
problem. Good applied psychology is based on working hypotheses that evolve directly
from mainstream psychological research. We define a working hypothesis as a preliminary
description of the nature of the problems and the potential underlying factors that are based
on initial observations. Sometimes the underlying factors are easy to identify, and other
times they are more difficult. Once these potential factors are identified, the psychologist
then reviews the available literature, which may include empirical evidence, in order to
identify which theoretical concepts are most helpful in establishing how to proceed.
Importantly, the working hypothesis changes as the psychologist gathers more knowledge
and evidence about the problem. As we shall see, sometimes the psychologist discovers that
their initial working hypothesis was wrong.
Working hypotheses
Working hypotheses should not be confused with informal conjectures or hunches. In fact,
our personal conjectures or hunches about what might be important to consider are not
usually helpful. While personal conjecture—based on sound experience—is unquestiona-
bly important, at least for the person, these hunches do not translate easily into explanations
that can be generalized to different individuals and across different situations. While we
4 1 ABOUT THIS BOOK
may all have hunches, they do not necessarily link to domains of experimental literature, or
bodies of independently accrued knowledge. Working hypotheses are thus more than
hunches; they have clear theoretical arguments underpinning them and they link those
arguments directly to critical features of the real-world problem. As this distinction is essen-
tial, we provide an illustration.
The role of theory

Suppose a psychologist is asked to comment on the best way or ways in which to interview
a witness to a crime. There are four ways in which mainstream theoretical concepts can
direct the working hypotheses with which the psychologist proceeds. First, theoretical con-
cepts help to inform the psychologist about the variables in the interview situation that
should be considered. In this example, any number of variables could be examined: the
colour of the room, seating arrangement, and general environmental comfort; the inter-
personal dynamics between the interviewer and the interviewee; the interview techniques
used by the interviewer. Any one of these might influence behaviour. What is important is
that the psychologist has knowledge of sound theoretical concepts that would help to
explain why any one of these factors can influence behaviour. Selecting those with a theo-
retical basis provides the psychologist with some rationale for choosing the variables in the
first place. We do not mean to imply that the applied situation cannot inform theory, simply
that the decision to use theory generally leads to more efficient research.
Second, theoretical concepts inform the psychologist on how to address the variables that
have been selected. Roughly speaking, the concepts determine the framework for consider-
ing the variables in a particular manner. In our example, a psychologist could rely on con-
cepts derived from cognitive psychology, and focus on how a witness’s confidence in her
memory for details of a crime can be influenced by the interview strategy. Alternatively, the
psychologist could rely on concepts derived from studies of individual differences, and
consider whether certain interview strategies are beneficial or harmful for individuals who
have anxious personalities. While the specific choice of the theoretical concepts may be
unimportant, it is essential that the concepts are well constructed and based on sound
evidence.
Third, theoretical concepts identify for the psychologist the various ways to measure the
variables that they have selected. For example, the psychologist might want to know whether
the interview strategy was beneficial by asking the interviewer and witness how comfortable
each of them felt during the interview. Alternatively, the psychologist might use physiologi-
cal measures such as the galvanic skin response (GSR) to determine whether the witness’s
levels of stress increase or decrease. It is essential that the method of measurement is relevant
to the issues the psychologist wishes to address. Most often this is assured by using measure-
ments that are common within the literature, given the applied problem. The work runs the
risk of being useless, or highly controversial, if no one else agrees on the measurement.
Fourth, mainstream concepts help inform the psychologist about the range of interpreta-
tions that might be placed on behavioural evidence. For example, they may conclude that
when a witness’s stress levels decrease this is better for the outcome of the interview.
Alternatively, it may be concluded that lowered stress levels are harmful for the outcome of
THE NATURE OF THEORIES 5
the interview because the witness is not sufficiently motivated. If there are no other refer-
ences in the literature to the interpretation, there is no way that the psychologist can inte-
grate their findings into the literature. Without such integration, there is little hope for the
results to have any impact. They will be too novel to interpret outside the specific situation
in which the psychologist has operated and cannot be generalized to any other related work
that might have preceded it.
The nature of theories

We need to make an important point. Although we advocate theoretically driven research,
we do not wish to imply that ‘any old theory will do’. As we have already said, theoretical
concepts are usually drawn from existing theories, not from hunches or conjectures. A cen-
tral aspect of science consists of competition between theories, and this has been particularly
true of the life sciences, including psychology. How can we determine that a theory is valid?
Does it give a correct description of events and facts? Can it predict new events and facts?
A considerable body of thought has been devoted to these questions. The extensive literature
that it has generated need not concern us here, but there are two general approaches that
should be considered for our purposes.
The first approach focuses on the ways in which a theory can be disconfirmed; that is, how
a theory can be proven false by facts. The critical element in this approach is that a theory is
only valid if it is capable of being proven false. For obvious reasons, theories do not, in gen-
eral, fly in the face of reality. So, simply to show that a given theory fits the facts does not
necessarily mean that it is true. Rather, there must be some logical mechanism in the theory,
or some body of fact to which it refers, that makes it possible to show that it is false. This is a
delicate point. Of course, we do not seek to disprove the theory in order to show that it was
not valid in the first place; that would be silly. However, the theory must not be protected
from disconfirmation and only theories that lend themselves to being tested, and proven
correct, are valid.
Several interesting consequences flow from this approach. It implies that a particular
theory may need to be tested again and again as new facts emerge. It also implies that in
comparing two competing theories we should look for a special set of facts that will dis-
qualify one of them but not the other. We must set up a so-called crucial experiment, an
experiment for which the two theories make different or opposite predictions. Surprisingly,
this is very difficult to do and the fields of psychology are littered with the broken remnants
of crucial experiments that turned out not to be crucial! The reasons why such difficulties
arise lie beyond the scope of this book. If you are interested you can consult a text on the
scientific method (e.g. Agnew and Pyke 2004).
An absurd example
In order to demonstrate how difficult it may be to devise an experiment to prove that one of
two competing theories is correct, let us give a rather absurd example. Remember that the
point is that while it might be easy to show a theory to be true, it may be very difficult to
prove, indisputably, that it is false.
6 1 ABOUT THIS BOOK
One of the authors (AL) has come to believe that the electrical equipment in his house is
operated by elves. They are small, invisible, good-natured, silent, and helpful. An Elf King
rules them. AL communicates with the Elf King, exclusively, using a number of switches
and buttons. If, for example, AL wants light in his study, he simply flicks a switch on the wall
and the Elf King orders his subjects to run swiftly down a long copper wire leading to a light
bulb. If AL wants music he ‘turns on’ the radio and the Elf King sends his helpers down the
wires leading to the loudspeaker.
Now, the other author (DB) has a competing theory. DB’s theory is based on notions of
electrons and electrical currents—which are as equally invisible and helpful as AL’s elves.
Ask yourself: how can DB prove that AL’s theory is invalid? Flick the light switch and the
light comes on; AL’s theory is confirmed. Turn on the electric oven and it rapidly heats;
theory confirmed. Whatever DB does can be ‘explained’ by AL’s theory of the elves. It is no
use telling AL about electrons, the small, invisible, helpful entities that DB believes in. Their
presence and activity can only be determined by observing the consequences of the actions
you take. What is needed is a crucial experiment. But at this level the only crucial experi-
ment is one which would involve tests that prove that AL’s invisible elves do not exist. But
how? Obviously, there is no feasible way.
An alternative approach
Many psychologists prefer to adopt a second approach to the question of what makes a good
theory because of the difficulty discussed above and other more formal reasons. The second
approach argues that a theory is valid if it is useful. This is the pragmatist’s position, so
named by Alan Baddeley (2001) in his chapter in Psychology in Britain. The pragmatic
approach says that a theory can be regarded as true for practical purposes if it gives an accu-
rate description of the available facts. This approach may seem simplistic at first but it has a
number of advantages. It enables us to isolate theoretical concepts that can be applied to a
particular problem, even if parts of the theory are not universally true. We can call this the
principle of local application and it is an important point to stress. The task of applied psy-
chology is not to test the validity of theories, but to use them. While it is obviously impor-
tant that the theoretical concepts have some empirical integrity, the comprehensive testing
of any theory is the domain of the experimental and theoretical psychologist, not the applied
psychologist. Because of this the pragmatic approach has been the usual practice in applied
settings, and this choice is well justified.
Let us illustrate this with our witness example. Suppose a theory says that people who are
generally anxious will be poorer at reporting details when a certain interview strategy is
used. The theory also predicts that people who are depressed will be better if this same strat-
egy is used. Now, one of our colleagues who is an experimental psychologist conducts an
empirical study and finds that the prediction about anxious people was confirmed, but that
the prediction about depressed people was not confirmed. The theory is obviously only
partially supported. However we, as applied psychologists, might still want to consider
whether to use the strategy or not, when asked to work on a case with an anxious witness. As
we can see, the principle of local application allows us to use what is relevant, and discard
what is irrelevant, for the applied problem.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ROOMS 7
The concepts underlying the issues just reviewed are complex indeed, and our treatment
of them has been intentionally simple. What the reader should remember is that there are
two ways to decide whether a theory is useful for a real-world problem. One way is whether
a theory has been preferentially confirmed by empirical evidence; the other is whether some
aspect of the theory can be used successfully to describe critical features of the problem.
More often than not the applied psychologist will consider those components of a theory
that are really needed, and pay little or no attention to those that are not relevant to the
applied situation.
While applied research was prominent in the latter half of the twentieth century, it
appears that it has lost its appeal as of late. As psychologists spend less time writing about
the ways in which psychology can be applied, the importance of psychology to real-world
problems seems to be growing rather than diminishing. This book intends to redress this
apparent imbalance by giving the reader some idea of how psychology is applied, and might
beapplied, to real-world problems.
The structure of this book

This book identifies everyday problems in which psychologists could or have been asked to
help. We intend to provide the reader with a good idea of who might use a psychologist, how
a psychologist decides which theoretical concepts are relevant, and what a psychologist does
in applying these concepts. We also show how the psychologist’s input was assessed, in
terms of whether their input helped, hindered, or had no impact on the applied problem.
A significant point of departure from other books is that we contend that it is the problem
rather than the psychologist that determines the professional roles that are adopted. Thus,
the book is not structured around the training or academic background of the psychologist,
but rather the real-world situation that the psychologist operates within.
We provide the reader with examples of applied settings that reflect major themes in
mainstream psychological research. In what follows, individual chapters introduce general
real-world settings where psychologists can be used. These real-world settings are depicted
as rooms. So, for example, we have a chapter that is entitled ‘The court room’ (Chapter 5).
In this chapter, the court room is the general class of settings, or real-world situations, where
psychologists apply their skills and knowledge. It is not our aim to explore or describe the
settings as such; neither is it to define all of the possible roles that a psychologist can play in
that setting. Instead we consider specific problems that arise in the real-world court room,
and explore how the psychologist intervened.
The structure of the rooms

Each chapter has a general introduction that provides a brief summary of the many ways in
which psychologists may be or have been involved in the particular real-world room. We
intend these introductions to be a review of the more traditional psychological concepts, and
psychologists, that are associated with the particular room. So, for example, the court room
8 1 ABOUT THIS BOOK
is traditionally associated with topics falling under the heading of forensic psychology and is
traditionally the domain of the forensic and clinical psychologist. While it is not our approach
to define the court room in terms of one specific domain or professional training, we do want
the reader to have this general information about the room. However, once the room has
been introduced, we provide two specific scenarios of how a psychologist has been used that
might diverge from the traditional trend. As you are introduced to each of these rooms, make
a note of your own spontaneous visual imagery. The court room, for example, may suggest
dark, wooden panelling, and an atmosphere of gravity, enhanced by the wigs and robes of the
officials. You will find that these images help you to remember the material.
Five basic questions

We pose the same series of five questions for each scenario we provide. First we ask: What is
the problem? This is an obvious question, as without a clear and comprehensive description
of the problem, any subsequent action that is taken is likely to be incorrect. The second ques-
tion, Why was the psychologist involved?, considers why the psychologist was approached by
the client. The question effectively defines why the client turned to the psychologist for assis-
tance. For example, the psychologist may have been asked to remedy a problem that was
already known to exist. Alternatively, the psychologist may be involved so as to anticipate
where problems might arise. The specific reasons behind the psychologist’s involvement can
have serious consequences. For example, a client may ask a psychologist to address a particu-
lar problem, only for the psychologist to discover that there is a different, more pressing
problem that needs attention. As the examples will demonstrate, the reasons for the psy-
chologist’s involvement are often critical in determining the outcome of any applied research.
Of course, we are all too aware that often the psychologist is not asked to intervene at the
time the problem arises; and that their input comes after the fact. Sometimes, the client
actively ignores the psychologist’s findings! We include examples such as these because they
are important in illustrating how problems might have been avoided had a psychologist
been approached.
The third question, What are the important theoretical concepts?, identifies the theoreti-
cal concepts that might be relevant to the psychologist. As we have argued already, good
applied research is that which allows theoretical concepts to direct it. As such, the question
of theoretical concepts is essential in clarifying the working hypotheses that the psycholo-
gist used. The fourth question, What did the psychologist do?, clearly specifies the manner
in which the psychologist approached the problem, the nature of the interventions that
were introduced, and the type of behavioural evidence that was provided, if any. For exam-
ple, psychologists may conduct preliminary experiments and summarize their results in a
formal written report.
The fifth question, How was the psychologist’s input assessed?, addresses a fundamental
issue. Generally, it is important to demonstrate that the psychological input to the problem
has done something. This question of assessment is perhaps the least clear-cut of all.
Assessment is likely to be influenced by a host of factors, including, political and economic,
as well as psychological. One could argue that an obvious assessment is to see whether the
problem stayed at the same level, went up, or went down. However, as we shall see, many
situations are not quantifiable in that manner.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ROOMS 9
At the end of each chapter, we provide a list of references, including websites, where the
interested reader may find further information. We deliberately include traditional aca-
demic references alongside less traditional ones, for example television programmes and
magazine articles. In this way, the reader is provided with a range of reference sources, some
more accessible to the lay public, others more appropriate for individuals with some back-
ground in psychology or related fields. A general bibliography at the end of the book lists the
works referred to in each chapter, and also includes materials that were not specifically ref-
erenced, but will be of interest to those who may wish to expand their knowledge of applied
psychology.
Additional reading
Readers who wish to pursue in more detail the topics raised throughout this book will find the
following journals and website useful.
Journal of Applied Psychology (founded in 1917)
Journal of Applied Behavioural Science
Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology
Journal of Occupational Psychology
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
The Psychologist
International Association of Applied Psychology: www.iaapsy.org

2 The origins and scope
of applied psychology
In this chapter we explore general issues in the field of applied psychology. We begin
with a brief history of psychology itself before we look at the origins of applied psy-
chology. We look at early interest in the measurement of intelligence, which was one
of the first applications of psychological methods to a real-life problem. In the cur-
rent climate of our more permissive society, it seems odd that the measurement of
intelligence was initially aimed at identifying and weeding out the unfit. In the cen-
tury since then we have come to more humanitarian goals; for example, the work of
Seligman and of Kahneman in measuring quality of life and the sources of happiness.
What does it mean, then, to apply psychology and what is it exactly that is applied?
The answers to these two questions involve us in an examination of the major con-
cepts underlying applied psychology. We then look at the diversity of roles that the
contemporary world offers to applied psychology. We use the modern hospital as an
example of this diversity in which no two institutions are exactly alike. We provide
two case studies, or mini-scenarios, to illustrate the discussion.
The role of philosophy

Human beings need an explanation of the world they live in and of themselves and their
place in it. If scientific explanations are not available they will adopt some other belief sys-
tem. In the ancient world, especially in classical Greece, these belief systems found expres-
sion in the birth of philosophy. Thoughtful men and women began to ask the questions that
we still ponder today: what is the Good Life? why are we here?
Every culture has a set of ideas and beliefs about human nature. This is equally true of
religious systems, including the great religions, where they are used to guide believers to
some form of ideal behaviour. Whether we choose to call these belief systems psychology is
not important. What is important is that the cultures of the developed world now use the
term ‘psychology’ to refer to an approach to the understanding of human nature, based on
scientific principles of observation and measurement, which has led to a wide variety of
applications in the real world. Before looking at these applications it will help our under-
standing to consider briefly the origins and history of modern psychology.
THE ROLE OF PHILOSOPHY 11
In the beginning
Most authorities agree that for the Western world, psychology began with the Greek phi-
losopher Aristotle (384–322 bc). In his essay De anima, ‘Of the Soul’, he outlined a system
of thought dealing with reason, will, imagination, emotion, and memory; in short, the sub-
ject matter of what we now call psychology. In this system the soul, and its properties, was
the agent of mental life and determined the individual’s interactions with the environment.
It is actually not easy to say exactly what Aristotle meant by this term, but we can conveni-
ently think of it as comparable to the entity we now call mind.
One of the properties of the soul was its excitability, the speed with which it responded to
events. Another was its stability, the capacity of the response to endure. The reactions of the
soul were in turn mediated by the action of the bodily humours or fluids, such as blood, bile,
and phlegm, which were regarded throughout the ancient world as the sources of sickness
and health. Aristotle used these properties to define a system of temperaments, which
described what we would now call individual differences or personality. Thus the Sanguine
temperament (ruled by healthy blood), the quick and stable soul, reacts to events immedi-
ately and sustains that reaction. A person of this sort might make a reliable soldier. This was
distinguished from the Choleric temperament (ruled by bile), reacting quickly to events and
then changing quickly—quick to anger and careless of its consequences. Today we might
say that people with this temperament have a short fuse. The Melancholic (literally, ‘black
bile’) temperament was slow to respond but quick to recover, a creature of changing moods,
while the Phlegmatic temperament was not only slow to respond but also slow to recover.
This term is still used to describe people who are not easily perturbed.
Box 2.1 Why bother with history?

To some, history is merely a list of meaningless dates and the names of people who are dead. How
can it help our understanding of anything? There are several answers! We have all been told that
history repeats itself. This implies that by knowing what has changed in the past we may know what
will change in the present and in the future. This also implies that change itself can be predicted from
a reading of history. The textbooks of yesterday are not the textbooks of today and the textbooks of
today are not the textbooks of tomorrow. No matter how seriously we regard our concepts and
theories we know that they will change. Application follows theory—but always at a distance. This
means that when we look at any applied field we are probably looking at the theoretical concepts
that have been well established in the immediate past rather than those that are being formulated
in the present. Imagine that you have decided to see a film that you think will interest you. You arrive
at the cinema only to find that the time you have been given is wrong and the film has been running
for 20 minutes or more. You decide to go in anyway. As you watch the remainder of the film you
formulate explanations for what is happening, based only on your own perceptions, because you do
not know what has preceded it. John is angry with Heather but you don’t know why, so you think of a
reason. The villain seems to be the man with the moustache but you don’t know what he has done.
You build an illusion of understanding, but you will not really understand the film, even at the end,
unless you have seen the beginning. This seems a good analogy of the way in which history helps us
to understand the present. Ebbinghaus, the father of laboratory studies of remembering and
forgetting said of psychology that it has ‘a long past but only a short history’.
12 2 THE ORIGINS AND SCOPE OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
In modern times, this notion of excitability, of the disposition to react, was used by the
Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung in his influential system of analytic psychology. In his case he
came to the idea while watching a family of kittens playing in an orchard (described in his
memoirs; Jung 1963). One of the kittens usually held back, while the others were eager to
explore. This gave rise to Jung’s labels of introvert and extrovert, which formed the basis of
his theory of personality. For the hesitant, introverted kitten, the motto might be to look
before you leap, whereas the more adventurous extrovert kitten would favour the motto to
attack first and then ask questions.
The British psychologist Hans Eysenck also borrowed Aristotle’s properties of the soul,
but acknowledged their source. The property of stability in his system of individual differ-
ences became the dimension of neurotic behaviour, while the property of excitability
became the basis of his dimension of introversion–extroversion. Both of these dimensions
were first established by the factor analysis of large bodies of experimental data. Eysenck
and Jung both advocated the practical application of their temperament systems to real-
world problems; for example in personnel selection and in the treatment of mental illness.
For Aristotle, this was primarily a philosophical system, a way of understanding the world,
not a way of changing it. Applied psychology was not yet ready to take the stage!
Modern origins
Just as most authorities agree on the importance of Aristotle, they also tend to agree that the
modern view of what we define as psychology began to take shape with the French philoso-
pher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1654). As well as a philosopher, this remark-
able man was a soldier who applied his mathematical skills to warfare and an anatomist who
learned from dissection rather than from treatises. As a soldier he was offered the rank of
general, which he refused. As an anatomist he pioneered the use of dissection as a means of
understanding structure. This led him to believe that animal bodies could be regarded as
machines, obeying the same principles as the clockwork figures that were popular in his day.
The attempt to explain all the behaviours of humans and animals by referring them to
observable natural causes was new in a world that was preoccupied largely with faith and
authority, and the new empiricism invited the hostility of the religious authorities. This
sceptical empiricism was new in European thought but it rapidly gained the support of
independent thinkers and become the basis for the developing sciences. These did not then
include psychology, as we shall see, but Descartes’ thinking led to attitudes and methods
that would eventually define our field. We are not meaning to suggest that Descartes was the
only pioneer of the empirical approach. The names of Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes,
William Harvey, David Hume, and many others come to mind. However, it is generally
agreed that Descartes ranks as a major contributor to the development of psychology as a
science. He was often wrong in his conclusions, but he helped to kick-start a whole new way
of looking at the world, the method of empirical observation.
Descartes’ contributions took two quite different forms. First, his mechanistic view of
human and animal behaviour, including his study of reflexes (coughing, sneezing, swallow-
ing, etc.) were peculiarly modern in their approach. His views in this area were not
widely influential during his lifetime. But to view the body as a machine opens the way to
THE ROLE OF PHILOSOPHY 13
Box 2.2 Clockwork mice and other delights

The seventeenth century saw a fascination throughout Europe with clockwork animals and figurines.
Elaborate dioramas were built in which mechanical animals and dolls performed simple repetitive
gestures. The first edition of Descartes’ book, The Treatise of Man (circa 1637; 1972; 1988) contained,
as its frontispiece, an illustration of one such garden in the palace of an aristocrat. The figure of the
clockwork doll so captured the public imagination that it entered into ballet and opera, where a
favourite plot saw the hero falling in love with the prima ballerina only to find that she is merely a
clockwork doll. Thus Descartes was responding to a strong cultural influence when he attempted to
describe the behaviour of animals and humans as mechanisms. His conclusions were often wrong but
they pointed in the direction of what was to become a scientific account of nature.
understanding behaviour in terms of natural forces, rather than in terms of unobserved

properties of the mind. This is very much in accord with modern thinking.
Descartes’ second major contribution was to bequeath to subsequent generations the
mind–body problem, known to philosophers as the Cartesian dualism (see Box 2.4). The
importance, historically, of this problem to philosophy and psychology was enormous. In
addition he defined a notion of the self, the novelty of which he himself did not realize. We
take it for granted now, but in the seventeenth century there was no such concept. Curiously,
these were not regarded by him as major part of his work, which was more concerned with
the study of nature.
Box 2.3 Descartes’ mistakes

Some of Descartes’ errors were quaint. From his dissections he knew the essential anatomy of the
cardiovascular system and he inferred, as others had done, that blood leaves the heart to travel
around the body. William Harvey used this information to guess the circulation of the blood and he
was right. Descartes, knowing that the blood is warm, concluded that the heart is the furnace that
keeps it at this temperature, and that the flow of blood is comparable to the movement of tides. This
implied that the circulation of the blood was simply an ebb and flow governed by the nature of the
fluid. He was also familiar with the principles of distillation and his dissection of lungs convinced him,
correctly, that the blood returns to the heart by way of the lungs. However, he gives an elaborate
description of the blood dripping through the lungs as a distillate would in the condensation
chamber of a still. Given his importance in the history of thought, he can perhaps be excused these
minor errors.
Box 2.4 The mind–body problem

The terms ‘mental’ and ‘physical’ are easily understood in everyday language but understanding the
relation between them is a difficult puzzle. Can the mind bring about events in the body? Does the
body determine the activities of the mind? Philosophers have long disagreed. For Descartes the two
were independent, hence the dualism. He came to this conclusion through the analysis of his own
experience of doubt. In a series of essays, the Mediationes, he explored the possibilities of doubt. ‘If I
doubt that I doubt then I am still in doubt’, he reasoned, and these explorations led him to an
awareness of the self as an independently existing object. The broader concept of mind and body as
separate entities followed. The self, aware only of its own thoughts and capable of a disembodied,
independent existence, is capable of doubt and the capacity to doubt defines the self. This notion of
an independent self, which is central to our contemporary psychology, was new to his peers. Many
solutions to the mind–body problem have been offered that take the problem to a different level
without solving it. In the twentieth century the behaviourists tried to deal with it by simply ignoring it
(Watson 1913). Others have suggested that mind and body act in parallel, sharing every activity
(psychophysical parallelism and psychic determinism). Another notion is that the mind passively
tracks the activities of the body, with no causal status. More recently the notion of the mind as the
software on which the body operates has been popular. It can easily be seen that these notions all
have difficulties of their own. None of them is satisfying and it is safe to conclude that the problems
raised by Descartes have yet to find a solution!
The eighteenth century: the Age of Enlightenment

Descartes lived at the end of an era in which intellectual activity was dominated by author-
ity and by theological concerns having to do with salvation and the inner world. By the
beginning of the next century the intellectual climate had changed and we refer to the
eighteenth century as the Age of Reason or the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this
period that most of the philosophers whose names we revere, the great thinkers of the
European world, were active. Many of their concerns fall in the area that we might now
regard as psychology. These included sensation and perception, the nature of external real-
ity, the nature of truth, and so on. For example, one of the questions that preoccupied
thinkers was the attempt to determine how information about the outside world reaches
the mind. Endless arguments and armchair discussions dissected the nature of sense data
on a purely speculative basis. Today, the answers to at least some of these questions are
emerging in the laboratory.
Part of the philosophical activity of the time concerned what was called moral philoso-
phy. This dealt with the more human concerns of reason, will, conscience, etc., and was
aimed at understanding human nature in its relation to God. The moral philosophers were
not interested in practical applications. Questions about the nature of the universe were
soon to give rise to the discipline of natural philosophy, which would come to include phys-
ics, chemistry, biology and the other natural sciences. Inevitably, this would give rise, in
time, to the enterprise of controlling nature.
The conquest of nature

The nineteenth century can be regarded as the Age of Industrialization. Drawing on the
physical sciences, rapid progress was made in the mastery of the natural environment.
THE CONQUEST OF NATURE 15
The invention of the steam engine and its application to factories and to transport systems
was one of the most spectacular. These achievements were highly visible to the general pub-
lic. Between 1850 and the end of the century, the Hudson River Tunnel and the Brooklyn
Bridge were built in the USA, and the whole of Europe was networked with railway lines. In
1885, British engineers completed the rail tracks that would cross the wilderness of Canada,
a distance of some 5000 miles, and breach the towering Rocky Mountains to join the Pacific
and Atlantic oceans. These were extraordinary achievements.
In addition to these success stories, the governments of the day bolstered scientific pro-
gress in the eyes of the public by sponsoring dramatic exhibitions. In 1851, the Great
Exhibition at Crystal Palace brought exhibits to London from all over the world, demon-
strating the achievements of science. The Eiffel Tower was built in Paris in 1889 as part of
the International Exhibition, which similarly displayed the achievements of science and
exploration. In the USA, the Chicago Exposition attracted huge crowds every four years and
in 1893 was even visited by a delegation from far-off Korea!
These events kindled massive public interest and this interest was paralleled by scientific
achievements in the field of medicine. The tyranny of infectious diseases prior to the eight-
eenth century can hardly be imagined today. Tuberculosis and smallpox claimed millions of
lives, as did the common infections of childhood. Widespread prevalence of the venereal
diseases brought misery to many. However, the germ theory of disease advocated by Louis
Pasteur in France and Robert Koch in Germany during this period (the second half of the
nineteenth century) eventually won the day.
In England, in 1796, Edward Jenner successfully vaccinated against smallpox, without
benefit of the germ theory, but the success of his technique led in part to the development of
adequate theories of infection. Pasteur discovered that by weakening the strength of
microbes they could be injected directly to provoke an immune response, and his treatment
of rabies using this method became a model for other diseases. Paul Erlich, after many
attempts, produced Salvarsan 606, the so-called ‘magic-bullet’ cure for syphilis, in 1909.
This technique was based on the use of selective dyes in the laboratory in order to stain tis-
sues for examination under the microscope. It was the first successful use of chemotherapy,
which relies on the property of some chemical agents to attack only specific tissues. These
and many other accomplishments bore dramatic testimony to the efficacy of the new and
rapidly developing sciences!
Box 2.5 The story of vaccination

In 1774, two decades before Edward Jenner, Benjamin Jesty, an ordinary farmer, used matter from
the udders of a cow infected with cowpox to ‘vaccinate’ his wife and children. He simply scratched
their arms and rubbed in a little of the infected matter. They escaped the ensuing smallpox epidemic
and he was soon persuaded to vaccinate other villagers. His action was based on a widely held folk
view that dairy maids who were exposed to cowpox rarely contracted smallpox. This was not an
application of scientific theory to a practical problem and the germ theory of disease was not
accepted until much later. However, Benjamin Jesty’s story can be seen as an example of the new
spirit of independent enquiry that gave rise to the Age of Enlightenment.
The role of physiology

The success of the physical sciences encouraged scientific interest in life processes and the
disciplines of zoology and botany attracted enthusiastic attention. This was influenced by
the new concept of evolution, at a theoretical rather than a practical level. However, among
the new life sciences, physiology was soon among the most successful. Physiology is the
study of the bodily functions of living organisms and includes the study of respiration,
digestion, excretion, and other life functions in both plants and animals. These studies are
peculiarly suited to the laboratory since they depend on precise measurement and accurate
observation in controlled experiments. The importance of physiology was also partly due to
its relevance to medicine and the fact that the discipline lends itself to practical applications.
Throughout Europe, physiological laboratories flourished. In Spain, Ramon Y Cajal and in
France, Claude Bernard were laying the foundations of a new scientific discipline. These are
merely the names of people who are dead and we do not need to look in detail at their work.
What is important is that they laid the foundations for a new laboratory science.
In Russia however, Ivan Pavlov, whose motto was ‘observe, observe, and then observe’,
was working on the physiology of digestion using dogs as subjects. He was studying the
salivary reflex, and had devised an ingenious method of inserting a small tube into the sali-
vary gland in order to measure accurately, to the last drop, the saliva produced. One meth-
odological problem to be overcome was the fact that the dogs began to salivate as soon as
they saw preparations for the experiment. Pavlov realized the significance of this. His dogs
were learning to salivate in anticipation of the change in their environment. Pavlov real-
ized that this mechanism could provide a means of adaptive response to the environment
that would increase the animal’s chances of survival. This led him to formulate the concept
of the ‘conditioned’ reflex or conditioned response (CR), which became household words
for several decades. We still hear it said that children are ‘conditioned’ to prefer junk food
and that soldiers are conditioned to obey. The concept of the conditioned reflex also
became the basis for one of the most influential learning theories of the twentieth century,
classical conditioning.
Psychology becomes a science

Before the development of physiology, Willhelm Wundt, a German psychologist, had
published the first textbook of psychology in 1874. He called it Foundations of Physiological
Psychology, not because he was studying physiology but to make it clear that he meant
scientific psychology based on observation and experiment. In 1879, in Leipzig, he opened the
first psychological laboratory, where he could apply the techniques of careful observation,
measurement, and experimental method to the study of psychology. Students from all over
the world were attracted to this laboratory and came to study the new methodologies with
Wundt. He is thus generally regarded as the founding father of experimental psychology.
The German philosopher Immanuel Kant had declared earlier in the century that the
progress of the natural sciences—that is of natural philosophy—or the physical sciences,
could not be imitated in the relevant branches of moral philosophy for two reasons. One
was that science requires mathematics and he argued that events in consciousness cannot be
PSYCHOLOGY BECOMES A SCIENCE 17
subjected to mathematical treatment. The other was that science requires experimentation
and he argued that experiments with the mind would not be possible. It is sometimes sug-
gested that this was a further motivation among European scientists to develop and pursue
the new scientific psychology in order to disprove Kant. For the reasons we have already
discussed the general public became interested in the scientific approach to psychology. The
bandwagon had started to roll.
Divided opinions
In the USA, William James, brother of the novelist Henry James, who was professor of psy-
chology at Columbia University, gave his support to the new psychology, but with some
reservations. In 1894 the Psychological Review, which was to become the major theoretical
organ of psychology for many years, was launched with an editorial by Professor G.T. Ladd
entitled ‘Is psychology a science?’ (Ladd 1894). To this William James famously replied:
‘Not yet a science but the hope of a science.’ From the beginning there was a division of
opinion on the issue of how science should be applied. Wundt focused his attention on
observable behaviours. ‘While experiments can find application in the purely psychological
domain,’ he wrote ‘it must nevertheless be admitted that it is primarily the sensory side of
psychic life which accords the widest prospect for experimental investigation.’ Thus many
of his experiments were concerned with simple sensory experience, reaction time, sensory
judgement, reflex movement, and space perception.
For William James these were trivial pursuits and he argued that psychology would not
become truly a science until more could be known about the brain. ‘When the brain acts a
thought occurs,’ he wrote. In 1890 he published his own Principles of Psychology in which he
defined psychology as ‘the science of mental life, looking into our own minds and reporting
what we discover.’
Others also argued that there could be a psychology, based on scientific principles, but
concerned not with observable behaviour but with the workings of the mind. Professor Ladd,
in the article already mentioned (Ladd 1894), enthusiastically described his view of science.
‘I regard psychology as the science which describes and explains the facts of consciousness.
Unravelling the fibres of consciousness, tracing its genesis and growth, generalising the laws
that relate its states together, expounding the conditions of every sort on which the mental
life unfolds itself—this is for me the science of psychology’(original emphasis).
These two positions, and the controversy they imply, have remained with us throughout
the recent history of psychology. The pendulum swings slowly between them. In the early
part of the twentieth century experimental psychology consisted largely of a format in
which the experimenter (E) interacted with the observer (O), the latter being required to
introspect their own feelings, imagery, thoughts, and so on, in response to some form of
stimulation. O observed these reactions and reported them to E. In the middle years, when
behaviour was the focus of interest, and the behaviourist movement flourished, the typical
experiment involved the experimenter (E) but now the subject (S). S was exposed to stimu-
lus situations and E was now the one who observed. With the emphasis on cognitive pro-
cesses and the reintroduction of the mind, or mind–brain, we now have subjects in both
roles and the interest has switched back to mental processes. This movement has been
greatly facilitated by the rapid developments of techniques such as magnetic resonance
Box 2.6 The evolution of the word ‘psychology’

The term psychology, from the Greek, meaning ‘study of the soul’, has had an interesting history.
We have seen that Descartes was interested in the study of the soul and his contemporary William
Harvey, in his anatomical exercises, defined Anthropologie, the study of man, as having three
divisions: Somatologie, the study of the body; Haematologie, the study of the blood; and Psychologie,
the ‘doctrine of the soul’. This preoccupation with the soul continued throughout the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. In 1836 Hamilton referred to psychology as the study of ‘states of mind,
consciousness and the soul’. This preoccupation ran in parallel with the formal disciplines of moral
philosophy. The first use of the term psychology, in something close to our modern meaning,
occurred in a curious book by James Prichard, published in 1845 and entitled The Natural History of
Man. This title was a reflection of a type of book that was very popular at the time, known as natural
histories. These consisted of detailed descriptions, accompanied by engraved illustrations, of every
known animal together with its habits and characteristics. By this time, most parts of the world had
been visited by explorers and Europeans were aware that there was an enormous variety of human
‘species’ scattered throughout the globe. Pritchard’s Natural History gave lavish illustrations of
primitive folk and descriptions of their way of life. He was motivated by a curious concern. If God had
fashioned man in his own image, how could there be so many different shapes, sizes, and colours of
people? Prichard wanted to show that they had all diversified from a single species. As part of his
scholarly effort he refers to psychology as ‘the history of mental faculties’ and he suggests that all
humans share these in common. In 1892 William James, in one of his collective essays (published in
1920), used the term in its modern sense. ‘I wished,’ he wrote ‘by treating psychology like a natural
science, to help her to become one.’ And in 1897 Willhelm Wundt in his Outlines of Psychology
similarly described his work as ‘making psychology an empirical science coordinated with natural
science’ (translated by W. Judd).
imaging (MRI), which allows a much clearer picture of what goes on in the brain. It is dif-
ficult to estimate the extent to which this controversy, or division of interest, is reflected in
applied psychology. It seems probable that the influence of the controversy as such is rela-
tively slight. It might even be suggested that new emphases in cognitive behaviour therapy
(CBT) represent a rapprochement between the two points of view.
The story so far

In summary, we have seen that the recent era of modern psychology—the ‘short history’ of
Ebbinghaus—grew out of the philosophical preoccupations of western Europe and that
these in turn were inherited—’the long story’—from the ancient Greeks. Our modern era
began with the division between natural philosophy, concerned with the nature of the phys-
ical world, and moral philosophy, concerned only with will and reason, conscience, and the
soul. In the nineteenth century the success of the physical sciences in taming nature and of
the biological sciences in promoting advances in medicine attracted the interest of the pub-
lic and led to a near-religious faith in the possibilities of science. The success of the scientific
method, generally, then led from the tenets of moral philosophy to a modern scientific
psychology. Public interest in the achievements of science was at least partly responsible for
the earliest applications of psychology to mental testing and to industrial efficiency.
THE INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ) 19
The other face of industrialization

While we can admire the scientific and technical achievements of the nineteenth century,
there is a downside to the era of industrialization. Families moved from secure rural envi-
ronments to work in urban factories, resulting in widespread social disruption as extended
family ties were lost. There was no system of social welfare and the poor were dependent on
charity, which often was administered by agencies that had repressive moralistic concerns.
In 1859 Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution in the The Origin of Species,
which aroused widespread interest and controversy. It also engendered misunderstand-
ings that had serious social consequences. One of the notions in the theory of evolution is
that of survival of the fittest, which attributes part of the processes of evolution to the suc-
cess of species in adapting to their particular environment. This came to be used as a justi-
fication for class inequalities and the cultivation of a social elite who felt little responsibility
for the so-called lower orders. A mistaken corollary of the theory of evolution was the
notion that everything can evolve to perfection. Just as the engineering achievements of
the early part of the century had led to the taming and perfection of nature, the doctrine of
the perfectibility of man held that the human species could be perfected as well. This led,
among other things, to the movement of eugenics, advocating the compulsory sterilization
of the unfit.
The literature of the period shows an astonishing preoccupation with notions of deca-
dence and debility. This is evident in the novels of such writers as Dostoevsky and Émile
Zola. The Norwegian playwright Hendrick Ibsen dedicated a whole evening in the theatre
to the fate of a boy who has inherited syphilis from a disreputable father. Tuberculosis was
widely regarded as a symptom of decadence and we have the spectacle of bohemian heroes
and heroines ravaged by this disease. In this social climate it is hardly surprising that the first
major attempt to apply scientific psychology to real-world problems was aimed at identify-
ing the unfit and removing them from society.
The intelligence quotient (IQ)

In 1904 the Commissioner for Public Education in Paris formed a committee to advise on
how to identify those children unfit for the classroom and remove them. This was the murky
origin of intelligence testing. Some writers have attempted to sanitize this and claim that the
goal was remedial education, but the brief to the committee was to identify the intellectually
inferior and remove them. One member of the committee was Alfred Binet, a self-taught
psychologist, who developed the concept of IQ that would dominate educational and clinical
psychology for decades. Binet was familiar with the work of Wundt on reaction times in
simple tasks and he used this approach to devise a number of short tasks that could be
administered easily to children, for example, obeying simple instructions, repeating sen-
tences, and arranging blocks in patterns. In 1908 he went a step further and arranged these
tasks in ascending order of difficulty. The test now consisted of administering them in this
order until the child failed a specified number of items.
By testing a large number of children, Binet was able to determine the age at which each
test item could be expected to be passed, and he then proposed an ingenious idea. The age at
which a child passed all of the tests would be referred to as the mental age. This might be
higher or lower than the child’s chronological age. Binet proposed that the simple fraction
mental age divided by chronological age, MA/CA, would provide an index of intellectual
level. The idea was ingenious, and it was intuitively easy to grasp, though it had no real sta-
tistical or empirical foundation. In ordinary language we find it easy to describe a person as
twice as bright as his brother or only half as bright as his sister.
The IQ carried this meaning. A child of 10 years of age who passed tests appropriate for
the 12-year-old child would receive an IQ of 120 and could be regarded simplistically as
20 per cent brighter than his age peers. Similarly, a child of 10 who failed tests above the
8-year-old level would be given an IQ of 80, which could be interpreted as meaning that the
child was 20 per cent less intelligent than his age peers. The notion of the IQ immediately
became popular and the term quickly appeared in daily language. In 1916, in the USA, a
revision of the Binet tests was undertaken by Lewis Terman at Stanford University and this
test was widely used in schools and clinics for several decades.
How stupid is stupid?

Previously, in 1910, the American Association for the Study of the Feeble Minded had
established official guidelines for the definition of stupidity. They proposed three categories,
based on IQ scores. Idiots were those with an IQ less than 20, while those with an IQ between
20 and 49 were labelled imbeciles. They needed one more term, so they chose the word
moron, from the scholarly Greek word for ‘stupid’. Thus a new concept entered into the
language and has been a popular colloquialism ever since! A moron is a person who has an
IQ between 50 and 70. The artificiality of these categories is obvious, and they are no longer
used in practice.
The following quotation from a paper by Leta Hollingworth, a psychologist at Columbia
University, gives a chilling picture of the obsession with mental deficiency or intellectual
inferiority that had inspired the development of the Binet tests. Writing in 1922 she says
that ‘In 1913, one thousand consecutive cases of suspected mental deficiency were tran-
scribed from the clearing house for mental defectives at the post graduate hospital in New
York city. This was a public clinic from which children or adults, if found to be feeble
minded, might be officially committed to appropriate institutions. Individuals of any age,
from any borough of Greater New York, if suspected to be of inadequate intelligence were
admissible to this clinic for mental examination’ (Hollingworth 1922; our emphasis).
Another quotation from the same paper reflects the social preoccupations of the time.
‘From the standpoint of society it is of interest to know that feeble minded girls feed into the
existing social and economic order more conveniently than do boys of the same mental qual-
ity. Extremely stupid girls survive and presumably reproduce their kind more easily than do
extremely stupid boys. The social order is such that survival for the former depends less on
intelligence than it does for the latter’ (Hollingworth 1922). This was an era, in both America
and Europe, of social confidence in the existing order. The First World War would soon dis-
rupt that confidence but we hear in these quotations an attitude that defined the social order
of the day. The notion of identifying the less able was also found in military selection (see ‘The
war room’, Chapter 7) and in industrial psychology, where the emphasis came to be on
improving the work level of the individual workers (see ‘The work room’, Chapter 6).
THE INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ) 21
By 1939, flaws in the statistical concept of IQ led David Wechsler, an American psycholo-
gist working at the Bellevue Hospital in New York, to develop a new series of tests whose
scoring was based on the normal distribution. One of the difficulties with the Binet test was
that the individual items had no coherent relation to each other. Wechsler devised a series
of sub-tests, for example vocabulary, general information, verbal comprehension, and so
on, that made comparison between levels more meaningful, and yielded qualitative sub-test
scores that had diagnostic significance in their own right.
The decline of the IQ

The subsequent history of the concept of intelligence is fascinating but lies well beyond the
scope of this book. Intelligence testing and the concept of intelligence became mired in
controversy in the following decades, for several reasons. Arguments over the nature of
intelligence, whether it is a single ability level or a constellation of several specific abilities,
for example, generated more heat than light. Extremely sophisticated statistical analysis of
psychological tests was undertaken to attempt to define the components of intelligence:
speed, accuracy, strength, and so on. Eventually it was realized that there is in fact no sat-
isfactory definition of intelligence. Is there such a thing as intelligence and if there is what
is it? In the 1960s the death knell of the old school of intelligence testing was sounded
during controversies over claims concerning race and intelligence. Thus a psychologi-
cal concept that began in rather murky origins eventually foundered on equally murky
political considerations.
The foregoing is not intended to suggest that intelligence testing has no place in applied
psychology today. Measures of IQ are good predictors of academic achievement but are
less successful in predicting success in the wider world. As we have seen, the notion that
society can benefit from the identification of the unfit is no longer popular, but the meas-
urement of intellectual ability still has a role to play. For those who are interested in the
details of this story, P.D. Chapman’s (1988) book with an unusual title, Schools as Sorters,
is worth reading.
It should be remembered that there were other positive outcomes from the intelligence-
test movement. The fact that it became a movement rather than a disciplined phalanx of
professional psychology is reflected in the missionary zeal of some of its supporters in the
face of the social and political factors we have noted. On the positive side, the methods of
test construction and standardization gave rise to the psychometric school and were of con-
siderable importance. Using these statistical methods it is possible to make measurements
of attitudes, preferences, and skills that are reliable and valid and have wide application. The
Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMYB), which is published regularly, lists and describes
literally thousands of well-standardized tests for use in a wide variety of situations. The cur-
rent edition (available at www.unl.edu/buros) lists 4000 commercially available tests and
provides critical reviews of half of them.
An interesting footnote refers back to Alfred Binet. In his earliest presentation of the IQ
test he insisted that the examiner must establish rapport with the subject before beginning
the test. This is a French word that is difficult to translate and has been retained in our lan-
guage. Roughly, the dictionary definition equates it with affinity, harmony, and agreement,
among many other definitions. In today’s terminology it probably means that subject and
examiner must be on the same wavelength before a valid test can be undertaken. Alfred
Binet thus tapped into an important principle, independent of the issues surrounding men-
tal ability, one that is central to the application of psychological principles in clinical and
counselling situations.
The scope of applied psychology

We turn now to the present and examine the diversity of roles and activities that make up
applied psychology. First we ask what it means to ‘apply’ psychology. To answer this we
must ask what it is that is applied. We then examine the diversity of roles filled by psycholo-
gists, using the modern hospital as an example. We will illustrate this diversity through brief
case studies looking at some of the roles psychologists have been called on to perform in a
typical hospital setting.
Pure and applied science

What does it mean to apply psychology? In the informal sense we apply a kind of psychol-
ogy whenever we persuade a friend to do something that we want them to do. Parents are
urged to use psychology in dealing with their offspring and the offspring then apply their
own devious versions of psychology to the manipulation of their parents. But, of course, we
are interested here in something more formal. It is customary to make a distinction between
pure and applied (or sometimes theoretical and applied) in most branches of science: theo-
retical physics, pure biology, and so on. The students who study biology with a career in
mind may end up as teachers or professors of their chosen subject, passing on to future
generations the knowledge they have acquired. They are more likely, however, to find
Box 2.7 The knowledge base: an illustration

The knowledge base, generated by pure science, is shared by the corresponding applied science. To
look at a simple illustration: it is well known that girls acquire language skills more rapidly than boys.
This is a simple fact. What concepts help us to understand it? The concept of individual differences is
useful here. Individuals differ in language ability. Individual differences have many potential sources;
in this case one of them is gender. Others include book and magazine readership in the home,
teaching methods in the school, and motivation or interest. A part of the concept of individual
differences is the assumption that their origins can be identified. The techniques required to do this
include those of measurement or scaling. In order to know that one individual is better at language
than another we need to make accurate estimates of language ability. We also need the statistical
expertise that will enable us to make reliable comparisons. Confronted with a practical problem, say,
of how to improve reading skills of young offenders in a prison population, the psychologist would
call on all these elements in attempting to arrive at a solution. Obviously the story is more
complicated than this simple illustration would suggest. But the principle is clear. Applied psychology
draws on the disciplines of pure psychology and shares them. In this process it often happens that the
practical applications give rise to new facts, requiring new concepts and techniques, thereby
extending the scope of both the pure and applied branches of the same discipline.
THE MODERN HOSPITAL 23
employment in some branch of conservation, fisheries, or forestry, where they will apply
the knowledge they have acquired.
This knowledge base has three complementary components: facts, established by obser-
vation and research in the laboratory or in the field; concepts, the theoretical formulations
that make sense of the facts in a wider framework; and techniques, the various special skills
required in their discipline to establish the facts and concepts in an orderly and repeatable
way. In the next chapter we look at some of the major concepts that turn up repeatedly in
applied contexts. Here we will examine some of the techniques that trained psychologists
bring to problems in the real world.
The modern hospital

During the Second World War, psychology proved its usefulness in military hospitals with
the result that after the war, the Veterans Administration (VA) in the USA, the Department
of Veterans’ Affairs (DVA) in Canada, and the National Health Service (NHS) in the UK
began to employ psychologists regularly in their hospitals. The job specifications tended to be
vague, other than that they would work with psychiatrists and social workers to administer
psychological tests. The psychologists themselves often felt that there were more roles that
they could fulfil. They also felt that their employers had hired them without having a very
clear idea of what they were expected to do. Rudolph Ekstein, a psychologist who had studied
with Freud before the war in Vienna, was appointed as the principal training officer for psy-
chology at the then famous Menninger Clinic in Kansas, USA. His advice to psychologists in
training was simple: ‘Make yourself indispensable’. This is exactly what many psychologists
did, defining and fulfilling roles that would make them not only useful but indispensable.
We will use the modern hospital as an example of the wide diversity of roles that come
within the range of applied psychology. Box 2.8 lists the departments, services, and clinics
offered in the directory of a modern, urban, teaching hospital. Virtually every one of these
can use the skills of a psychologist, and jobs are advertised on the Internet that refer specifi-
cally to individual services. It is not surprising therefore that the modern hospital offers
such a diversity of roles.
In this context it is important to differentiate the work of the health psychologist from
that of the clinical psychologist. The latter deal with problems of mental illness, maladjust-
ment, personality disorder, and so on (see ‘The treatment room’, Chapter 8, and ‘The sport
room’, Chapter 9). Health psychologists are concerned with more general health issues,
good practice, effective diagnoses, etc., mainly in the context of physical illness. This new
discipline already supports its own professional journal, Health Psychology Update.
Another recent development is the expansion of specialist hospitals, including the hos-
pice, a special kind of hospital dedicated to the care of patients with terminal illness (con-
trast this with the Hospital for Incurables in the nineteenth century: Abandon hope all ye
who enter here). The hospice movement began in England in the 1960s and has now spread
to many countries. The hospice seems to offer unique opportunities for the development of
new psychological concepts and techniques. Changing practice in life-support techniques
that aim to orchestrate death include the employment of hospital ethicists, who are trained
initially in law, philosophy, or psychology.
Box 2.8 Services, clinics, and departments of the modern hospital

The following list is taken from the directory of a large, urban, teaching hospital. Given the vast array
of functions in the modern hospital it is hardly surprising that psychologists find many diverse roles.
Try to guess which of these services are likely to employ psychologists, and why.
Emergency departments
Administration
Anaesthesia
Breast-screening unit
Cardiology (diseases of the heart and blood vessels)
Diabetes clinic (supervision of diabetic treatment, e.g. insulin intake)
Enterology (diseases of the intestines)
Falls clinic (treatment of falls, usually in the elderly)
Fracture clinic
Gastrology and hepatology (diseases of the stomach and liver)
Genitourinary clinic (diseases of the urinary and genital systems)
Geriatrics (treatment of the elderly)
Gynaecology (diseases of women)
Immunology (diagnosis and treatment of immune deficiencies)
Intensive care (adults)
Intensive care (children)
Medical genetics (management of inherited illness)
Neonatal unit (care of the newborn)
Neurology (diseases of the nervous system)
Neurovascular unit (problems of blood supply to the brain, e.g. strokes)
Obstetrics (management of childbirth)
Oncology (cancer diagnosis and treatment)
Orthopaedic clinic (treatment of bone and joint injuries)
Paediatrics (illnesses of children)
Pain clinic (management of chronic pain)
Personnel (staff administration)
Psychiatry (medical assessment and treatment of mental disorders)
Psychological services
Rehabilitation (follow-up treatment, e.g. after a stroke)
Rheumatology (management of inflammatory joint disease)
Spinal injury clinic
Urology (diseases of the urinary system)
Box 2.9 A voluntary project

Imagine that you have completed your training as a psychologist and are ready to offer yourself for
employment. You find the idea of work in a hospital appealing but you are not certain what sorts of
work will be available. Go to the Internet and use your ingenuity to find some of the answers. Hint: as
a start, log on to your favourite search engine and click the advanced search button. In the window
offering ‘(exact phrase)’ enter the term ‘job application’. In the window offering ‘(all these words)’
enter the words ‘hospital’ and ‘psychologist’. You will be surprised at the number of different job
situations that are open. Use your own experience of the Internet to explore these further.
The theme throughout this book is that the action taken in an applied psychology prob-
lem should be determined by the nature of the situation and not primarily by the expertise
or professional orientation of the individual psychologist. In this section we will look at
some of the skills that can reasonably be expected of a person trained in psychology. It
should be remembered, however, that not every psychologist will have all the skills
described below.
Technical skills in applied psychology

The list of specific skills would include counselling. Reading through the list of services in
Box 2.8 it is easy to imagine how patients in each service could benefit from expert counsel-
ling. As yet, no standard constellation of roles has been established and every hospital has its
own pattern. Counselling services may be confined to patients or may include relatives who
face such problems as unexpected death and bereavement. Staff encounter difficult deci-
sions, including the decision to treat or not to treat, and the problems of life support in ter-
minal illness. In some hospitals, counselling includes these issues.
Hypnosis also has an important place in hospital settings, especially in the management
of pain. Although relatively few psychologists are trained in the technique, it nevertheless
tends to be more or less the preserve of applied psychologists. In addition, psychologists are
expected to have skills in social analysis; that is, in the observation and interpretation of
social situations.
Importantly, in a medical setting, psychologists are very often regarded as experts on
experimental design. It is frequently the experience of a psychologist working in a hospital
setting that medical personnel approach them who want to do research but who need help
with designing their study. The important consideration here is that the psychologist must
be seen as accessible. This will include both the willingness to listen and the avoidance of
technical jargon. Ideally, medical staff must be trained to come for help before beginning the
study, rather than after. This is more likely to happen if the psychologist is seen as approach-
able and helpful. In addition to the design of experiments, psychologists in the hospital
setting are expected to have considerable expertise in statistics and the analysis of data.
Many psychologists have had training in the basic techniques of psychophysiology as well.
In the medical setting they are asked to contribute their knowledge and expertise to the
solution of measurement problems involving bodily functions. For an example, see Case
study one below.
Communication skills
Another interesting area in which psychologists have recently begun to make contributions
is the area of communication. A number of studies over recent years have shown that
patients often do not understand the information given to them by medical staff. There are
many reasons for this. Medical staff tend to take the setting for granted and to forget that the
patient is present on a once-only basis and that everything is unfamiliar. The dialogue
between patient and doctor or patient and nurse may encounter problems of specialized
vocabulary and medical staff are not usually trained in this aspect of communication. Some
research has looked at the quality and nature of dialogue (Gill 1995) with a view to improv-
ing the quality of information transferred. A typical example occurs in the description of
pain. The doctor, ever since student days, has learned to discriminate various constellations
of pain, and to recognize their diagnostic significance. Examples are sharp and stabbing, or
dull and boring, intermittent or acute, and so on. Note that the term boring refers here to a
quality of the pain, seeming to bore into the tissue, not to boredom as such. When the doc-
tor asks the patient about the quality of pain experienced—is it sharp or dull?—the two are
not using a shared vocabulary. In particular, patients for whom English is a second language
complain of this problem. However it is not confined to language problems as such. Patients
are simply not familiar with the appropriate vocabulary.
Questionnaire design
Doctors are trained to look carefully for signs, the things that they can observe, and symp-
toms, the things that the patient tells them. It is with the latter that the problem of vocabu-
lary obviously arises. Apart from sophisticated methodologies for improving dialogue, the
other solution to this problem of communication lies with the psychologist’s expertise in
test construction. A number of questionnaires have been devised to assist patients with the
description of their symptoms. The oldest and best known of these is the General Health
Questionnaire (GHQ), which includes items referring both to physical and to mental prob-
lems (Zigmond and Snaith 1983). Questionnaires dealing specifically with pain include the
Oswestry Back Pain Scale (Fairbanks et al. 1980), the Quebec Back Pain Scale (Koper et al.
1996), and more recently the Roland–Morris Pain Scale (Fairbanks and Roland 2001). Each
of these has been standardized on appropriate populations.
A good way of using questionnaires is to have the patient fill in the items and then go
through their answers with a competent nurse or psychologist who can check whether the
meaning is precisely what the patient intended (Is this what you really mean? Can you
think of a better word to describe what you feel?). The importance of these scales is that
they have been properly constructed and have the necessary validity and reliability for
widespread use.
Scaling
The use of questionnaires raises the important question of scaling methods. Psychologists
are expected to have particular expertise in devising and using a variety of scales. A scale is
simply a device for measuring some quantity in a reliable way. Because psychologists are
required to measure properties that are not straightforward, a number of scaling concepts
have emerged. We may be required to measure the severity of anxiety or tension, the depth
of depression, or simply a person’s ability or aptitude in some skill. The issues involved in
scale construction are complex and lie beyond the scope of this chapter. There are many
good textbooks dealing specifically with scaling methods, for example Van der Ver (1980).
For our present purposes we will look merely at the essentials of scaling.
If you want to measure the length of something, a curtain or a cupboard door, you will
probably use a metre stick. This is the ideal scaling tool because the scale in centimetres has
several desirable properties. Each of the centimetres is the same length throughout the
whole of the scale. Compare this with scores on a maths test where the difference between
two scale points will depend on the difficulty of the items, and will therefore never be exactly
the same. Another advantage of the metre stick is that the scales are proportional. Half the
length of the metre stick yields two equal segments. Suppose you are asked to say on a scale
from 1 to 10 how much you enjoyed a new brand of cola. If your friend rates the drink as 4,
but you rate it as 8, does this necessarily indicate that your rating is twice as favourable as
that of your friend? The simple answer is that it does not. Finally, though it is not obvious,
your metre stick offers a value of zero. Suppose that you are asked to measure the height of
a fence post standing in the ground. If all that is required is the height above ground there is
no problem. Your metre stick begins at zero ground level. However, if you want to replace
the fence post and you need to know its overall length you need to know the length that is
buried under the ground. In this case your metre stick cannot be used and you therefore
have no notion of where zero may lie.
It is not usual for the accomplishments of applied psychology to be recognized outside
the field. However, in 2002 the Nobel Prize in science was awarded to a psychologist, Daniel
Kahneman, for scaling complex preferences relating to the choice of stocks and bonds by
investors under different sorts of favourable and unfavourable conditions. In the words of
the citation: the award was given ‘for having integrated insights from psychology research
Box 2.10 Scale properties: basic concepts

Scales that have all of the properties described above are known as ratio scales, reflecting the fact that
they can measure proportions accurately. Below the ratio scale in level of precision is the scale for
which the units have equal lengths but there is no way of measuring the distance from zero. You use
your metre stick as an interval scale and determine that the length of a fence post above ground is
54 cm. You cannot say whether this is one-third or two-thirds or any proportion of the overall length
because your scale has no zero point. These are called interval scales. Often, in psychological scaling,
it is only possible to assign some sort of rank order; more than or less than. This is often true for
example in measures of preference. You wish to find out which of five brands of coffee is most
preferred. There is no accurate numerical scale, so what you must do is ask your subjects to arrange
the five brands in the order from least preferred to most preferred. By simply assigning the numbers
one to five to each of the brands you produce a simple scale. These are called ordinal scales because
they reflect only the order of preference. The simplest level of scaling is a mere category. Examples
are male/female, old/young, and definitely infected/possibly infected/not infected. For scaling
purposes these are known as nominal scales because they merely name the categories. The
importance of scaling to applied psychology cannot be over-emphasized.
into economic science, especially concerning human judgement and decision-making

under uncertainty’. Interestingly, Kahneman’s work has included careful and ingenious
scaling of hedonic preferences, that is, of the elusive quality of pleasure (see Kahneman and
Tversky 2000).
Selected case studies

The following two case studies illustrate, briefly, some of the points we have discussed. They
are each based on actual cases and they are chosen to represent the situation in which the
psychologist is approached for help with a problem that lies outside their formal job
description.
Case study one: Consciousness under anaesthesia

Modern anaesthetic agents may not induce full coma, that is, loss of consciousness. Some
patients complain of having felt pain or having heard conversations during surgery. Some
patients may sue. The surgeons are entitled to believe, as they make the first incision, that the
patient will feel no pain: no surgeon wants to torture their patient. Yet the American Society
of Anesthesiologists reported in its 1996 newsletter that the incidence of awareness under
anaesthesia can range from 11 to 40 per cent in some circumstances. Depth of coma is very
hard to measure. The early anaesthetics, chloroform and ether, produced easily recogniza-
ble stages as they took effect: (1) euphoria and disinhibition; (2) diminished consciousness
with tendency to struggle; (3) quiet breathing, loss of reflexes; and (4) coma, unresponsive
to stimuli (followed by profound coma and death, if prolonged). Thus they reliably pro-
duced loss of consciousness and freedom from pain. The classical ether stages no longer
apply. A wide range of newer anaesthetics produce potentially a wide range of activity, some
of which may not include loss of consciousness. The anaesthetic triludin used in childbirth,
the so-called twilight sleep, is an example.
One solution would be to monitor reactivity to external stimuli unconnected with the
operation. One of the most important concepts in psychophysiology, the branch of psychol-
ogy dealing with bodily reactions, is that of the orienting response. In humans and animals
any significant or unexpected stimulus produces this response automatically. It is not under
conscious voluntary control and can be used to detect awareness of events. In humans, one
component of the orienting response is sweat-gland activity on the palmar surfaces of the
hands, which can be measured fairly easily.
The anaesthesia department in a large, urban hospital requested two psychologists who
worked in the research department of the hospital to investigate the feasibility of measuring
awareness under anaesthesia (Levey and Goldmann 1986). Normally, non-medical staff are
not welcome in the operating theatre. However, the anaesthetists were able to arrange for
the psychologists to attend regular sessions where the operation of arthroscopy on the knee
joint was being carried out as a standard routine procedure. It was essential that every
patient had the same surgical treatment. With the agreement of the surgeons and anaesthe-
tists, changes in sweat-gland activity were recorded from the palms with the patient’s con-
sent. Notes were made on the recording of specific surgical events (e.g. first incision), of
SELECTED CASE STUDIES 29
comments by operating-theatre personnel, and of responses, if any, to a tape cassette played

to each patient through earphones during the operation. The content of the tape included
the chimes of Big Ben, a barking dog, and comments on current events. In addition, the
patient’s name was spoken from time to time.
The results of this investigation showed that some, but not all, of the patients were pro-
cessing stimuli while under anaesthesia. Responses tended to be made to stimuli that would
be unexpected in an operating theatre. These included the barking dog and Big Ben. Studies
in hypnosis have raised the notion of a hidden observer, who remains aware throughout the
hypnotic session although the subject is not. It is as if the patients were opening their minds
to stimuli that took them by surprise. None of the surgical events provoked responses, prob-
ably because they were expected by the patient. Research in this important area continues
(for a review, see Andrade 1995).
Case study two: Day-case anaesthesia

In the 1980s the pressure to reduce numbers of hospital beds led to day-case treatment for
minor surgery. Patients were lightly anaesthetized during the surgical procedure and then
discharged the same day. Many patients, however, were apprehensive, making them more
difficult to anaesthetize at the shallow levels required. A proportion of all patients could not
be anaesthetized at this level and had to be admitted a second time for conventional inpa-
tient surgery. Two psychologists who had worked previously with anaesthesia were invited
to join a team of surgeons, anaesthetists, and nurses to explore this problem (Goldmann
et al. 1988).
Exploration of the problem with the medical team suggested that an appropriate model
would be to regard patients’ apprehensions concerning anaesthesia and surgery as a type of
phobia. Trials were run using a de-sensitization programme that would usually deal with
phobic anxiety. In this case it was applied to patients awaiting surgery in the day-care unit.
To this was added a simple method of training in self-hypnosis, used by psychologists in
pain clinics, which combines imagery with relaxation. A nurse, at the bedside, instructed
patients in this technique for 20 minutes prior to the surgery. The patients were then left to
practise by themselves while they waited for the surgery. A matched control group of
patients who did not receive this treatment were asked to take part in discussion sessions of
comparable length.
Questionnaire assessment of anxiety levels showed a significant reduction in anxiety for
the treated group but not for the control group, and the quantities of anaesthetic agent
required to maintain anaesthesia in these patients during the surgical procedures was sig-
nificantly reduced. In addition, the proportion of patients tolerating the day-case procedure
increased. The hospital in which the study was carried out now uses these methods routinely
in the management of day-case surgery.
Additional reading
Agnew, N.M. and Pyke, S.W. (2004) Science Game: an Introduction to Research Methods in the
Behavioural Sciences, 7th edn. Oxford University Press, Toronto.
A good, readable overview of research methods and concepts that has been popular for years.
Herrnstein, R.J. and Boring, E.G. (eds) (1966) A Source Book in the History of Psychology. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA.
This is a collection of excerpts from original sources in the history of psychology. The items are
arranged by subject and supported by brief commentaries. York University in Canada maintains
another collection of original sources on the Internet. The website is: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/
The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Vols 1–3. (1988) Translated by J. Cottingham, R. Stoothhoff,
and D. Murdock (Volume 3 includes A. Kenny). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
These volumes provide a comprehensive translation of Descartes’ works.
Watson, R. (1967) Psychology: A prescriptive science. American Psychologist, 22(6), 435–443.

This provides an interesting discussion of the absence of any universally accepted paradigms for the
science of psychology.
www.arachnoid.com/psychology/index.html
This website provides critical evaluations of modern clinical psychology as a science.
http://faculty.rio.edu/rfish/My%20Faculty%20Website/11103%20General%20Psychology/
Chapter%201%20Study%20Guide/Psych%20101,%20Chapter%201%20-%20Outline%20
%28Comprehensive%29.pdf
This PDF file provides an interesting discussion of the science of psychology, focusing on topics such
as the difference between psychology and common sense, the beginnings of modern psychology,
and current major frameworks for discussions of psychological phenomena.
3 Applying theory to
practice
We now introduce the organizational structure for the book, the concept of a room.
A room represents a general class of real-world contexts where there is a common
goal. For example, ‘The crime room’ (Chapter 4) involves contexts that arise in the
course of investigating crime, while ‘The court room’ (Chapter 5) represents situa-
tions that occur in the process of judging whether a crime has been committed. ‘The
work room’ (Chapter 6) looks at the way problems emerging from our working envi-
ronment impact on how we feel, act, and think, while ‘The war room’ (Chapter 7)
summarizes problems that arise regarding national security and during war. ‘The
treatment room’ (Chapter 8) provides the general label for a group of situations that
focus on the treatment of emotional and mental difficulties, in either clinical or non-
clinical populations. ‘The sport room’ (Chapter 9) is the general context for situations
where we engage in physical activities, and shows how psychological concepts
derived from mainstream, empirical research are applied to issues about perfor-
mance and skill learning. ‘The teaching room’ (Chapter 10) discusses situations in
which formal learning might occur, and considers how advancements in technology
have impacted on the very notions of a ‘room’. Many topics discussed in earlier
chapters are re-visited (e.g. learning theories). Finally, ‘The nature room’ (Chapter 11)
provides the context for real-world situations where psychologists are involved in
problems about the environment, and the impact that our species has and continues
to have on natural resources.
Content of rooms
We have organized this book on the basis of real-world settings, which we call rooms. Each
room should be viewed as a label for a general class of naturalistic contexts. For example, we
have the crime room where, as the name suggests, crimes are investigated. This general
context of crime investigation includes the more specific activities of analysing psychologi-
cal evidence at a crime scene, and interviewing an eyewitness in a police station. In each
room we consider the different ways in which psychologists can make an impact, and the
scenarios that we provide illustrate how specific questions and problems are addressed
through the application of psychological theories and findings.
32 3 APPLYING THEORY TO PRACTICE
We believe that our focus on the naturalistic contexts, or rooms, allows us to consider a
broader range of topics than if we were to base our discussions exclusively on the skills of the
psychologist. For example, most texts organize applied psychology around the discipline
and training of psychologists. So, there will be a chapter on forensic psychology, a chapter
on occupational or organizational psychology, a chapter on clinical psychology, and so on.
Without question, this is a perfectly acceptable way of dividing up applied psychology; and,
it has the advantage of mapping directly onto the different professional divisions that are
represented in governing bodies (e.g. see professional divisions of the British Psychological
Society at www.bps.org.uk).
However, the disadvantage is that such classifications obscure the richness and diversity of
issues in the applied problem. So, sometimes, real-world problems will arise out of a forensic
context that do not require the expertise of a forensic psychologist, but rather require the
expertise of a cognitive psychologist. For these reasons, we choose to focus on the general
class of naturalistic contexts, or rooms, and contend that it is the nature of the applied prob-
lem that determines what kind of psychological skills and expertise are most important.
We feel that it is important to note before continuing further that there are many overlaps
between the different rooms; and, sometimes, the rationale of choosing topics for one chap-
ter versus another may not appear obvious to the reader. An example is the discussion we
include in the nature room about light as a deterrent to crime (see Chapter 11). The issue of
deterrents of crime might have just as well been discussed in the context of the crime room,
arguably. Our choice was influenced by the context under which the issue arose. In the case
of light as a deterrent, the context was the use of a public space, and how this space might be
reappropriated for community activities. The context was not crime, per se. As such, we
decided that the discussion was better left in the nature room. The reader can observe, how-
ever, that the distinctions between the topics and the rooms are not always clearly
demarcated.
We start with ‘The crime room’ (Chapter 4), which, as we have stated, illustrates problems
arising in the course of investigations of crime, like how to interview a witness or obtain
confessions from suspects. There is so much media coverage of crime investigations—either
factual or fictional—that the crime room, and the activities of psychologists working therein,
is familiar to most lay people. The next chapter, ‘The court room’ (Chapter 5), follows the
theme of jurisprudence and discusses the important roles psychologists play in courts of law,
both civil and criminal. For example, we question how juries come to understand evidence,
and show how psychologists have aided in better understanding this process. Chapter 6
focuses on problems associated with ‘The work room’. Here the problems concern the work-
ing environment, such as stress management, team building, and personnel selection.
Theoretical explanations that dominate the work room are also found to be important to ‘The
war room’ (Chapter 7), which represents one of the earliest applied contexts in which psy-
chologists made a significant impact. The war room is particularly interesting, focusing as it
does on issues regarding national security, where psychologists have played major advisory
roles. ‘The treatment room’ (Chapter 8) includes issues that arise in the treatment of emo-
tional and mental problems. We include problems that are associated with clinical popula-
tions, such as obsessive-compulsive disorders, as well as those that affect non-clinical
populations, such as sleeplessness. ‘The sport room’ (Chapter 9) focuses on physical activities
and sport, including the roles that psychologists can play in enhancing athletic performance.
MAJOR THEORETICAL THEMES 33
This chapter is interesting in that it combines the classic theories of motor skills—historically
linked to behavioural psychology—with techniques more traditionally associated with the
treatment room, such as counselling and mood enhancement.
‘The teaching room’ (Chapter 10) and ‘The nature room’ (Chapter 11) are new additions.
These have been added because, on reflection, it became clear that both omissions were too
glaring. Interestingly, both rooms have highly diverse topics, and re-introduce the reader to
many of the key concepts and theories that have already been discussed in the earlier chap-
ters. For example, ‘The teaching room’ addresses many of the issues that have been dis-
cussed with traditional learning theories, which were similarly highlighted in other rooms
(see Chapters 8 and 9). At the same time, the chapter introduces the reader to newer frame-
works under which formal learning can be understood (e.g., parallel distributed process-
ing). Importantly, the chapter also considers the critical impact that technology has had on
learning environments. The final chapter, ‘the nature room’ returns to the essential ques-
tions of what it means to be human; and re-visits topics that we have considered before, such
as the effects of the environment on behaviour (as in ‘The work room’, Chapter 6).
Importantly, ‘The nature room’ also gives the reader the opportunity to consider the extent
to which human behaviour is determined by universal, species-specific traits versus culture
and society. This chapter particularly challenges the reader to question their assumptions
about the ‘natural environment’.
We note that our choice of rooms is by no means comprehensive, and we may have omit-
ted issues that the reader feels are more relevant, or intriguing. To this end, we invite the
reader to think of their own list of rooms, and to consider the applied problems that a psy-
chologist might be asked to help resolve.
Major theoretical themes

In the following section we identify the major themes, or theoretical questions, that pervade
all of the rooms we discuss. One theme focuses on how we learn and remember. The second
theme asks about individual differences, such as why some of us make good leaders and oth-
ers do not. Seminal questions fall under this general theme, such as nature versus nurture;
and the differential effects that culture and society have over human behaviour. The third
major theme asks what motivates or drives our behaviour. Motivation is a complex topic and
we use different definitions, from why we do things to how we maintain a level of physical
vigour. The fourth major theme is the impact of emotion on behaviour, and reminds us of the
need to develop multi-level explanations of human behaviour. A fifth theme, and one that
has particular significance to all of the chapters, is the effect that technology has on the ways
in which psychology and psychological theories are applied to real-world situations.
While the rooms and their related activities may be diverse, there are common themes
that link them all. These themes can be formulated into different questions about human
behaviour. First, we have the general question of knowledge acquisition and knowledge
retention, or how we learn and remember. In the laboratory, learning and memory have
been somewhat arbitrarily divided into two separate theoretical and empirical enterprises.
For example, learning studies might measure the number of times (or learning trials) a
person needs to see a list of 20 words, before he or she can recall all 20 words correctly.
In contrast, memory studies would look at how many of the 20 words the person could
recall after a single exposure, and after some delay of minutes, days, or years. While we
acknowledge that the distinction is a traditional one in psychology, for the present purposes
we combine questions of learning with questions of memory.
The question of how we acquire knowledge, and show evidence of retaining it, is one that
is relevant to every room. This is not surprising, as explaining how we learn and remember is
essential to all levels of our being, from the most molecular to the most global. We can ques-
tion how learning occurs at the pre-synaptic site of a neuron, as when we discuss the process
of habituation, which is a very basic form of learning. We can as easily discuss how we learn
what is and what is not socially acceptable in our peer groups. In fact, some psychologists,
such as Steven Kosslyn in his 1980 book Image and Mind, believe that learning and memory
should not be independent fields of study because they represent the basic mental processes
that underlie most of our cognitive abilities. Instead, Kosslyn suggests that we should study
learning and memory in the context of perception, problem solving, and personality. While
we find Kosslyn’s arguments stimulating, we merely use them here to illustrate that learning
and memory are central issues in most, if not all, areas of psychological study.
The importance of understanding learning and memory appears somewhere in each of
the rooms. For example, the crime room introduces naturalistic problems that are clarified
by the theoretical distinctions between intentional and incidental learning (see Chapter 4),
as when an eyewitness to (or victim of) a crime is asked to identify a possible perpetrator
from a line-up. Similarly, investigative profiling raises questions about how criminals learn,
and remember, to execute serial crimes, such as murder or arson. The court room, and its
related problems, may not immediately seem to involve learning or memory. Nonetheless,
we show that explanations regarding attention, learning, and memory are used to introduce
improvements to the jury process. Problems arising in the work room require descriptions
of how people learn and later remember skills as well as information. A good example is the
usefulness of task analyses when a worker is asked to learn a new skill. Basic theoretical
hypotheses regarding how we learn and remember have been highly useful for problems
that arise in the treatment room. For example, some psychologists maintain that mental
health problems, like affective disorders, are the result of improper learning schedules.
Psychological descriptions regarding how we remember traumatic events are central to the
treatment room as well as the war room, as in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disor-
ders and battle fatigue. The sport room also introduces problems that are helped by the
application of learning theory, such as the effects of extended practice on behavioural and
physical skills.
The second major theme can be called individual differences. This concept has a long
history in psychology. Alfred Binet, whom we met in the last chapter as the founder of the
IQ, wrote in 1895 that the examination of individual differences in performance and apti-
tude will be one of the most important ways in which psychology can be applied (Binet and
Henry 1966). No one can dispute the fact that, in the same situation, some people will
behave one way, while other people behave another way. We act differently from each other,
see the world differently, have different attitudes, and have different reactions. For example,
some people will respond to a traumatic event, such as a near-miss car accident, by being
shocked and highly distressed, and engage in a series of worrisome thoughts, like ‘What if
we had been going a little bit faster?’. In contrast, other people will show little reaction and
MAJOR THEORETICAL THEMES 35
appear well adjusted and calm, claiming that ‘a miss is as good as a mile’. The idea that there
are such things as individual differences—factors in our personal make-up—is one way of
explaining the diversity in human behaviour.
The question of individual differences is one that arises time and time again in all of the
rooms we discuss. In fact, in many applied problems, it is more essential to know how the
particular individual in front of you will respond, rather than how some average person
might behave. A classic example is the concept of leadership: are leaders born or are they
made? Such questions are at the core of many problems that arise in both the work room
and the war room, where selecting the incorrect person to be responsible can have serious
consequences. Explanations of individual differences emerge in the crime room, and under-
lie many of the assumptions behind investigative profiling; for example, the assumption
that the criminal leaves his unique psychological fingerprints at the scene of the crime.
Problems associated with athletic training, as discussed in the sport room, must also con-
sider individual differences and how they mediate the success of different training regimes.
Why is it that some people prefer to join in activities that involve team efforts, while others
are happier engaging in physical activities that involve no one else? These questions, and
others like them, fall under the general heading of individual differences.
The third major theme that keeps appearing across the different rooms is motivation.
Motivation is a particularly complex topic. It can be used to describe physical, tangible states
such as vigour and physical exertion, as well as hypothetical constructs like will or intention.
Motivation can be used to explain why we do things, such as the intentions behind our
actions. Motivation can also refer to how willing we are to engage in some behaviour, such as
our motivation to adhere to an exercise programme. We can question a person’s motivation
to commit a crime, and try to link this to the person’s underlying needs. Equally, we can
consider what motivates some people to be a pilot as compared with a soldier, and show how
this can be related to general intelligence. Many applied problems, in many different con-
texts, benefit from the application of psychological explanations of motivation.
Our fourth theme highlights how central our ability to feel, or to emote, is to our exist-
ence; and looks at the effects that our emotions have on our behaviour. Our ability to emote
undoubtedly affects our social interactions, and our emotions can convey important social
signals to those around us. More importantly, our emotional state impacts on our mental
and physical behaviour. Examples from the crime room are easy to find, such as the impact
that emotions can have on a victim’s ability to report on a traumatic event. The problem of
false confessions also requires some discussion of the effects that anxiety and panic can have
on a person’s ability to resist the pressure to confess. Problems in the court room similarly
focus on the impact that emotions have on behaviour, as in the impact of emotive evidence
on the emotions of the jury or the way the anxiety of a witness will affect the way in which
he or she remembers a crime. Explanations about the effects of emotions on behaviour are
relevant to problems arising in the work room, such as the impact that worker satisfaction
can have on productivity. We also consider the impact that fear can have on the behaviour
of the soldier, when we enter the war room. Similarly, problems that arise in the sport room,
such as the effects of performance anxiety, require a description of the impact that our emo-
tional states have on our mental and physical behaviour.
The fifth theme, the impact of technology on humans, is one that has a special place in
modern applied psychology. The creative and imaginative capacity that humans have shown
for making tools is a characteristic that arguably distinguishes humans from the rest of the
animal kingdom. We shall argue (as have others) that the ability humans have to make things
that are then used in a goal-directed fashion, is one of the reasons why civilizations and socie-
ties have advanced (see ‘The nature room’). What is unprecedented, though, is the speed and
rapidity with which advancements in our technology are now being made. The impact of
these technological breakthroughs is present across all of the rooms that we present. For
example, technological advances in the identification of genetic material have altered inex-
tricably the very nature of crime investigation (see Chapter 4). The manner in which a job
candidate applies for employment has changed as a consequence of technology (see Chapter
6). Similarly advances in technology have completely changed the fundamental techniques of
teaching, such that, now, physical locations are no longer required and, in some cases, have
rendered a ‘room’ redundant to the learning environment (see Chapter 10). Technology has
even altered our conception of what is a ‘natural’ environment, as can be seen in the huge
industry behind video games and virtual reality software (see Chapter 11).
These major themes—learning and memory, individual differences, motivation, emo-
tions, and technology—are by no means exhaustive. However, they are themes that have
been prevalent throughout the history of psychology; and still continue to be so today.
Importantly, these themes are major mainstream topics within experimental psychology.
This means that they continue to have a well-established empirical and theoretical base
from which applications to the real world can be made.
General approaches to applied problems

Just as there are many different types of psychologist who can operate in the different rooms,
there is a choice in the range of approaches that a psychologist can adopt when addressing an
applied problem. Very simply, an approach is a way of describing human behaviour, and is
very much defined by the theoretical assumptions and terms that are used, and the methods
through which its proponents amass evidence to support their theoretical explanations.
One general approach is biological, and assumes that all behaviour can be reduced to
explanations that focus on biological processes, such as the neural changes that accompany
habituation to a noxious stimulus. Generally, observable responses, as in changes in bio-
chemical levels, are used to support theoretical ideas; and quantitative measures, for
instance, the mathematical mean of a treatment population, are relied on. Experimental
methods that are particularly suitable for parametric statistics, such as linear regression and
the t test, are the most commonly used ways of obtaining evidence. The biological approach
had very prestigious early proponents, such as Sigmund Freud, and is currently one of the
most dominant approaches. The advent of new technologies that enable precise brain
mapping probably will mean that this approach may soon make obsolete the other
approaches that follow.
The second general approach is the behavioural approach, which seeks to explain how the
person, rather than some physiological portion of the person, behaves. Behaviourists are
interested only in observable responses, so share with their biological colleagues a prefer-
ence for quantitative measures and analyses, and experimental designs that enable factorial
variables to be considered, such as frequency and amount of a reinforcement schedule.
GENERAL APPROACHES TO APPLIED PROBLEMS 37
Classic and operant learning theories are most notable of this approach. Indeed, early verbal
learning theorists such as Ben Underwood and Leo Postman used terms borrowed directly
from the animal literature on conditioning, such as stimulus–response associations, spon-
taneous recovery, and even extinction. Importantly, the behavioural approach has been
very successfully adapted to explain developmental questions regarding the aetiology of
social behaviour, and social learning theories are among the most accessible and adaptable
to the applied context. It has also served as the basis for highly successful treatment inter-
ventions for very debilitating health problems, such as phobias and depression.
The cognitive approach is the third approach, and also relies on experimental method-
ologies, with a long-term bias towards factorial combinations of different variables such as
word frequency and word length. Ulric Neisser first coined the term cognitive psychology
in his seminal 1967 book of the same name. Cognitive psychology frames questions in
terms of information processing. Cognitive psychologists describe the world in terms of
units of information, and ask about basic processes, such as attention and perception.
David Marr’s (1982) theory of perception is one of the most exciting examples of a cogni-
tive approach to perception, with its emphasis on the gradual building up of information
based on progressively more complex analyses of our retinal images. Psychologists adopt-
ing a cognitive approach discuss how information is organized, as in schemas or schematic
processes. Schemas are representational devices that abstract the invariant properties
across the general class of events, as in the schema for eating at restaurants. Mainstream
theories developed from this cognitive approach have proven to be very useful in helping
solve applied problems.
We note that explanations of cognitive operations have recently dominated theories of
learning and memory, for example the working memory model. However, other approaches
can, and have, been used to address questions of learning and memory. Therefore, we
remind the reader that the cognitive approach is bound clearly by descriptions of informa-
tion processing.
The other major approach that is consistent throughout the rooms has as one of its core
principles the assumption of psychic determinism, and is traditionally associated with the
term psychodynamic. As the term implies, the psychodynamic approach assumes that all
behaviour is the expression of some underlying need; and that some of our needs are outside
our conscious understanding. Our needs, be they conscious or not, serve as the basis to
motivate us to behave the way we do. Note that this is the only approach that explicitly con-
siders motivation to be a central explanatory concept. Terms such as drives and needs pro-
vide the basis for explaining all aspects of our behaviour, from our ability to perceive a
situation as dangerous, to our inability to remember a particularly nasty, traumatic event.
Another approach that dominates in many of the rooms is the relatively recent systemic
view of behaviour. Essentially a systemic view posits that all behaviours—be they of
individuals, groups, or societies—are best understood as existing within contexts. These
contexts occur at micro to macro levels, and interact with each other, influencing each other
in systematic ways. No level of behaviour can be understood without contextualizing it; and
without considering the impact of associated levels. The phrase ‘It takes a village to raise a
child’ is a classic example of a systemic approach.
We need to be clear that there are other approaches that, while not dominant in all rooms,
are certainly important in some. The humanist approach is a good example of what we
mean. The roles of the observer and the observed, typical of the other approaches discussed
above, are discarded. Instead, the humanist approach focuses on the person’s unique expe-
rience and its explanations are directed at understanding the conditions that enable the
person to reach some inner potential or achievement. Terms such as phenomenal experi-
ence, or subjective understanding, are used to show the importance of the person’s views
and attitudes. This major theoretical shift is associated with a shift in the type of methodol-
ogy and analysis that is used. With this approach, the quality of the person’s experience is of
interest. So, gross methods of testing large numbers of participants are uninformative.
Instead, single individuals are selected, and more in-depth techniques are used, such as
quasi-structured interviews. Analyses look at the type, rather than amount, of detail. For
example, this approach would want to identify the different themes that occur in a person’s
life. This approach is very popular in some applied problems found in the treatment room,
such as in the treatment of depression.
Whereas this approach has not been as dominant in some areas of psychological study, it
has influenced the development of the social constructivism, of which Kuhn (1970) repre-
sents one of the best-known advocates. Social constructivism challenges the very basis on
which most of experimental psychology rests, through its rejection of logical empiricism
(see Chapter 1). Logical empiricism states that theories are evaluated on the basis of the
observable evidence that can be amassed to support or refute them. In contrast, social con-
structivism suggests that the basis for accepting, or rejecting, any theory has more to do with
the social preferences operating at the time within the discipline, rather than anything else.
Reality is constructed through social concepts that are mutually agreed by the group. In the
case of psychology, these social concepts are represented through the use of paradigms—or
ways of seeing the world in terms of subject and experimenter, and so on. In this way, theo-
ries come and go, not because they are demonstrated to be true, but because of the arbitrary
fashion of the science at the time. While social constructivism has not been accepted whole-
heartedly by many psychologists, it is an important approach to consider.
Additional reading
Anderson, J.R. (1983) The Architecture of Cognition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Fodor, J. (1983) The Modularity of Mind: An Essay on Faculty Psychology. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
These are two classics in the field of cognitive psychology, influential books that have provided the
descriptive framework for the study of mental functions.
Gruneberg, M., Morris, P., and Sykes, R. (eds) (1978) Practical Aspects of Memory. Academic Press,
London.
A useful early collection of applied memory research.
Setiadi, B. Supratiknay, A., Lonner, W., and Poortinga, Y. (eds) (2004). Ongoing Themes in
Psychology and Culture. International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Yogykarta,
Indonesia, Kanisius. The website is: http://ebooks.iaccp.org/ongoing_themes/TOC.htm
This book has a good collection of essays on methods and perspectives in psychology, and is available
online.
Part two
The rooms
4 The crime room
This chapter discusses the different issues that arise when crimes are investigated,
and refers to the general context under which these issues occur as the crime room.
The crime room represents the first stage of our criminal justice system: the stage
of investigation, which is the domain of the police. We show how extensively psy-
chologists are used to help resolve difficulties that arise during the investigation of
crime. We first consider the traditional topics associated with the crime room gener-
ally regarded under the heading of forensic psychology. We then go on to discuss the
different phases that an investigator might go through in the course of conducting an
investigation. We include a discussion of how psychologists have introduced
improvements in procedures for eyewitness line-ups or identification parades, in
procedures for interviewing witnesses, and in the manner in which suspects are
questioned. We also consider the important development that has occurred in the
context of motiveless crimes, in particular the work of those psychologists involved
in investigative or offender profiling. In general, the crime room is an ideal, real-
world context in which the psychologist can successfully apply many mainstream
theoretical concepts. We provide two scenarios that illustrate how important psy-
chological explanations are regarding memory, and the effects of emotion on our
behaviour, when witnesses and victims of violent assaults are interviewed. We also
show how developmental issues, such as the age of the witness or victim, are crucial
in determining the nature of the interview techniques that might be used.
Crime
We start out this chapter by asserting that crime is an inevitable consequence of living in a
civilized society. We suggest that, when enough people live together for a long-enough time,
someone will engage in a social taboo, or behave unlawfully. It may be that criminality is a
natural behaviour, that crime is linked to normal development, out of which most of us
mature; or it may be that crime is restricted to a deviant minority, and is largely the conse-
quence of the debauchery of the society in which it occurs. This debate is still raging, and we
offer no further insight into the matter here. Regardless of the aetiology, we can be assured
that crime, ultimately, exists in every society and every culture.
Crime is, by definition, behaviour that violates social laws or taboos; so, we can only con-
sider what crime is in the context of the culture or society in which the crime occurs.
However, regardless of how we define crime, we find that most cultures share a common
feature when it comes to law enforcement. In most countries, the police investigates crime.
42 4 THE CRIME ROOM
In some countries, police personnel are public servants; in others, they are little more than
extensions of the military arm of a government. Sometimes police tactics are questionable
and highly unethical; other times the police follows fair and transparent procedures. While
we deplore the use of violence and brutality, the exact police tactics are irrelevant for our
purposes here. Our point is that, in most countries, when someone commits a crime, the
society delegates the responsibility of enforcing the law to a specific group of people, gener-
ally the police, which responds by investigating the crime. The police wants to find out who
committed the crime, and wishes to apprehend this person so as to prevent them from
continuing to engage in criminal acts. We group the issues and problems that arise during
the course of an investigation into the general world context, the crime room.
It is the primary job of the police to amass and investigate the facts in order to determine
whether an unlawful act has been committed. To do this, the investigator collects and
reviews evidence, so that when a crime has been committed a charge and arrest can follow.
However, solving crime and apprehending the person(s) responsible are difficult tasks, in
that most criminals do not wish to be caught. In some cases, as with motiveless crimes, the
task becomes even more difficult, as there is little in the way of clues to help the investigator
narrow down their field of search.
Because crime is defined in terms of a person’s behavioural responses, it is not surprising
that psychologists have become an indispensable source of help to investigators. Importantly,
psychologists from virtually all disciplines are now able to provide support to the different
facets of crime investigation. For example, experts on abnormal personality characteristics
have long been essential in understanding the reasons behind why people commit crime;
their impact is still operating in the most modern of techniques, such as offender profiling.
Equally, though, the recent advances in neuropsychology, particularly in the development
of techniques used to monitor brain activity and biochemistry, are also very useful in help-
ing the police understand the effects of closed head injuries on a victim’s ability to report on
an assault. The crime room is one group of applied settings where psychologists are likely to
remain useful for many years to come.
The complexity of crime investigation

We have already stated that crime can only be considered within the particular culture in which
the act takes place. Different cultures have different beliefs, and hence they have different laws,
and social taboos, regarding what is and what is not acceptable social behaviour. For example,
two young people arguing in public may be socially condoned in one culture, whereas it may
be associated with serious and severe punishment in another. Because of the obvious impact
that culture has on crime and law enforcement, societal values must be considered in parallel
with any discussion of crime and its investigation, rather than considered in some post hoc
fashion. This is true for virtually every type of crime we might want to consider.
This means that some elements of the crime room will vary from one culture to another,
in the way that the execution of some crimes clearly varies from one culture to another. For
example, when we consider investigative profiling (see pp. 54–55) we see that the geograph-
ical distances and diversity afforded to a serial rapist in the USA—with its extensive freeway
systems and overuse of cars—is very different from the possibilities that exist for a serial
rapist in England.
TRADITIONAL TOPICS IN THE CRIME ROOM 43
At the same time, though, some elements of the crime room are common regardless of the
culture. For example, it is likely that the developmental age of the child needs to be consid-
ered when deciding on an interview strategy, regardless of whether the child lives in Damascus
or Toronto. Equally, if a person sees an event under poor conditions—such as when visibility
is reduced to half a metre—this will impact on the ability to identify an unknown perpetrator
who was 8 m away, regardless if the crime was committed in Canada or in Mexico.
We focus much more on the common elements of the crime room, rather than empha-
sizing the cultural differences. This is in part due to the fact that we wish to demonstrate
the great success that psychologists have had in applying general psychological principles
to investigations. Nonetheless, we wish to stress that a comprehensive discussion of crime
must include a clear description of the impact of cultural standards, and social taboos.
Traditional topics in the crime room

In this section, we discuss those topics that are traditionally associated with the crime room.
In particular, we spend some time discussing how psychology impacts on the jurisprudence
system generally, although we restrict our attention to only those aspects that are relevant to
crime investigation. We then go on to identify the different steps of an investigation, and
show how concepts from cognitive psychology can be used to describe mental processing
such as hypothesis formation. We also discuss the different roles that psychologists can take
in the crime room, which are clinical, experimental, actuarial, or advisory. Importantly,
these roles are not restricted to the crime room, and will apply to all other rooms.
Issues discussed in the crime room fall under the more general heading of law and psy-
chology. Traditionally, psychologists working within the context of law and psychology
would be considered as criminological, or forensic, psychologists. Most authors agree that
the development of what traditionally is known as criminological or forensic psychology
began in the early twentieth century, with Munsterberg’s book, On the Witness Stand, in
1908 (see Box 4.1). However, it was not until the latter half of the twentieth century, and
particularly since the 1970s, that psychologists have become famous and sometimes notori-
ous players in the justice system.
Haward, in his book Forensic Psychology (1981), provides a good description of a tradi-
tional forensic psychologist. For him, a forensic psychologist is a professional who lends
psychological expertise to the different stages of the criminal justice system. In order to
understand Haward’s definition, we will take a moment to review the three stages of our
criminal justice system. The pre-trial is what concerns us here in the crime room, and
involves all aspects of crime investigation. The second stage is the trial. This stage is domi-
nated by the prosecution system, which, in our system, involves a prosecuting and defend-
ing counsel, a judge, and a set of individuals or jury. The roles of each are clearly defined,
so that it is the job of counsel to present and argue evidence, while it is the job of the jury
to assess the evidence in terms of whether the defendant is guilty, or not guilty, of the
charges. The third stage, sentencing, is when the defendant receives the formal conse-
quences of being found guilty, through sentencing by a judge. Haward suggests that forensic
psychologists can operate at all of these three stages, although it is only the pre-trial phase
that interests us here.
44 4 THE CRIME ROOM
Box 4.1 The satirical trial of Munsterberg

Most modern scholars acknowledge that Otto Munsterberg was one of the first psychologists to
apply psychological principles to the understanding of eyewitness testimony. His essay, On the
Witness Stand (1908), was the subject of a rather tongue-in-cheek article by a well-known lawyer of
the day, J.H. Wigmore (1909). Wigmore describes the trial of Munsterberg, who was allegedly being
sued by a group of lawyers. The lawyers claimed that the psychology professor’s book was endorsing
views that were not only unsubstantiated, but libellous. For example, Munsterberg had allegedly
accused the legal profession of professional neglect, as they failed to use psychological data that
would help to promote more accurate eyewitness accounts. In his defence, Munsterberg’s counsel
said that his client had only wished to draw attention to the fact that psychology, as a science, could
be very helpful, primarily through its explanation of memory, as well as through psychologists’
understanding of motivation and intention of witnesses and suspects. What is so delightful about
Wigmore’s review is that the trial was, in fact, a complete hoax. Munsterberg had never been sued for
his views. However, Wigmore’s article seemed to reflect the views of the legal profession regarding
the use of psychological concepts in legal proceedings.
Another very useful taxonomy for considering the more general area of law and psychol-
ogy comes from Haney (1980), who suggested a threefold classification: psychology in law,
psychology and law, and psychology of law. Psychology in law refers to psychologists pro-
viding expertise during what can be regarded as the normal procedures of the law. One good
example is when counsel or defendant(s) enters pleas of insanity or another mental disor-
der, such as a post-traumatic stress disorder (see ‘The treatment room’, Chapter 8). In these
cases, the psychologist (or psychiatrist) may be asked to provide expert testimony to facili-
tate the court’s decision on the defendant’s psychological or mental state (see ‘The court
room’, Chapter 5). Another example is the selection of jurors. Psychologists may be asked
to provide expert opinion on who might be inappropriate (or appropriate) to serve as a
juror in a case, identifying whether the potential juror would be biased against or in favour
of the prosecution (or defence). When considering psychology in law, it is ‘the legal system
that dominates and . . . dictates the form and application of psychology . . .’ (Haney 1980, p.
170). Psychology simply serves the law. Psychological findings are used to clarify legal
points, rather than change them.
In contrast, psychology and law, Haney’s second classification, is more controversial in
that psychology, its theories and its empirical literature, are used to argue for or against the
‘correctness’ of legal procedures, such as is the case with poor identification parades or
improper interview techniques. Not surprisingly, these situations are potentially controver-
sial because the psychologist’s expertise is used to identify or illustrate where miscarriages of
justice might be occurring in normal legal procedures. When considering psychology and
law, it is the psychologist who attempts to ‘assert power and compel legal change’ (Haney
1980, p. 170). A good example of this is the application of cognitive theories of memory to
conditions of false testimony, or misleading post-event information. We illustrate this in
Scenario one (see pp. 57–68), where we discuss how cognitive theories of episodic memory
can be used to help identify appropriate interview strategies for victims of crime.
Finally, there is psychology of law, a more esoteric subject and one that has received
less attention in the psychological literature. In these circumstances, the focus is on the
development of the law as a social institution, and examines the underlying psychological
principles that contribute to its development, for example ‘why, how and under what cir-
cumstances people obey the law’ (Haney 1980, p. 156). For example, a psychologist may
consider the circumstances under which members of a society decide that a law is unjust,
and display mass civil disobedience. The first two, psychology and law, and psychology in
the law, will be the focus of this and the following chapter, ‘The court room’.
The stages of crime investigation

Psychologists and crime investigators have been associates for a long time and, this collabo-
ration has been immortalized in fiction, from novels to film thrillers (e.g. Conan Doyle’s
arch detective, Sherlock Holmes, and Clarice Starling in Silence of the Lambs). At the pre-
sent time, the police are probably more comfortable in using a psychologist’s skills and
expertise than ever before. It is certainly true that relative to the 1950s, psychologists are
now not only important but also used habitually in many aspects of police investigation. To
better understand the roles that a psychologist might take, it is useful to consider first what
investigators normally do in the course of their work in the crime room.
Most investigators agree that good crime detection involves a series of stages. The
stages are not necessarily described or labelled in the same way across different countries.
Nonetheless, there is a general pattern that emerges in spite of the country in which the
investigation is taking place. Janet Jackson and colleagues (1998) provide a clear and useful
description of this pattern. First, the police must collect evidence (sometimes referred to as
data capture). This includes evidence from the crime scene, any statements from wit-
nesses or victims, and additional information, for example medical evidence or details
about other similar crimes being committed. In the next stage, the investigator analyses the
evidence. This would involve all forensic data, for example genetic testing, as well as careful
Box 4.2 Bio-technology and crime

One of the most significant changes in the manner in which crimes are investigated has come from
the advancement of forensic identification, or DNA forensics. All organisms have DNA sequences
that are unique to the species. Specific patterns differ from individual to individual. In order to
identify potential suspects, scientists will take samples from DNA found at the crime scene and scan
DNA regions (called loci or probes) to create a ‘profile’. This profile will then be compared to the
profile developed from samples from the suspect. It the pattern from the crime sample profiles
matches the suspect’s profile, there is a probability that the suspect contributed to the DNA at the
crime scene. Generally, a match is highly unlikely to be the consequence of chance factors. Still,
the more loci used, the lower the odds that a match will be a false positive. While more probes are
associated with more time and expense, experts suggest that four to six probes should be used. DNA
results are stored in databases and software programs (e.g. CODIS) and can then be used by local,
state/county, and national law enforcement to compare with DNA profiles from other crime scenes
and from known offenders and victims. In addition to the identification of offenders, DNA
identification has been used to help identify victims of the attacks on the World Trade Center,
as well as being instrumental in identifying victims of the Holocaust (the DNA Shoah Project;
(www.ornl.gov/sce/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/forensics.shtml).
46 4 THE CRIME ROOM
consideration and review of non-forensic evidence. Third, the police must derive hypothe-
ses regarding the crime. This will require the use of inferential reasoning to establish a
motive and possible suspect. On the basis of this, the police then set out to apprehend sus-
pects that conform to the hypotheses formed regarding the crime.
Jackson et al. (1998) point out that investigators proceed through these stages in different
orders. They use two distinctions that have become important in discussions of cognitive
processing, bottom-up processing and top-down processing. Some investigators operate
in a bottom-up fashion, relying on the details of the case to help form hypotheses about the
crime. In contrast, others take a more top-down approach. The investigator first considers
higher-level features of the crime, for example links between how the crime was committed
and the characteristics of the victim. Jackson et al. (1998) suggest that some investigators
even adopt a ‘hybrid’ approach, using top-down processes at some points, and bottom-up
analyses at others.
Roles in the investigation of crime

Psychologists can take at least one of four roles during the investigative phase—clinical,
experimental, actuarial, or advisory. These roles are defined in terms of the nature of the
psychologist’s input more than any other defining feature. When a psychologist takes a
clinical role, he or she is likely to adopt a single case-study approach and rely on theories of
personality, both normal and abnormal, as the basis for discussing the psychological or
mental state of an individual (the witness, victim, or defendant) (see Box 4.3). The clinical
role can include the psychologist having one-to-one, in-depth interviews with relevant peo-
ple (e.g. key witnesses, defendants) and conducting standardized tests that are designed to
assess some aspect of the person’s psychological state. The psychologist is likely to rely on
both quantitative data (e.g. the numerical score on a psychometric test for depression) and
Box 4.3 Bottom-up or top-down?

Bottom-up and top-down processing were first introduced as concepts in theories of perception.
Bottom-up processing involves the perceptual system abstracting details from the sensory
environment that then serve to support more sophisticated perceptual processing, like object
recognition. For example, our bottom-up processing identifies that there are three perpendicular
lines, which then allows us to recognize the object and see a triangle. In contrast, top-down
processing is when perception is directed by higher-order hypotheses, which guide the identification
of perceptual details. Steven Palmer (1975) provided an empirical demonstration of this when he
showed the effects of context on the perception of ambiguous objects. Palmer presented participants
with pictures of ambiguous objects. For example, one object could be either a post box or a bread
box, depending upon the context. Palmer showed that when the visual context was a kitchen, more
people ‘identified’ the object as a bread box. However, when the visual context depicted an outdoor
scene, more participants identified the object as a post box. This elegant example shows how easily
object recognition is influenced by higher-level information such as context. We expect to see a
bread box in a kitchen, so we ‘see’ a bread-box when the object is presented within the context of a
kitchen. This clearly illustrates that top-down processing, which is guided by our expectations and
general world knowledge, can distort what we see.
Box 4.4 The clinical approach

We define the clinical role as one where the psychologist focuses on psychological and behavioural
disorders in terms of abnormalities. This role is most often associated with clinical populations, which
we discuss more fully in ‘The treatment room’ (Chapter 8). Clinical populations are often considered
in terms of deviancy, against some normative population. Hence when a psychologist operates in a
clinical role, he or she may be required to use standardized tests to measure some personality
characteristic, in order to assess whether the person has some ‘abnormality’ relative to the statistical
norm. The conceptual basis for understanding these abnormalities will vary according to the
particular therapeutic framework that is adopted. For example, psychoanalytic theories argue
for different levels of awareness and raise questions about the nature of consciousness. The
psychological battle between different levels of the personality, the id, ego, and super-ego
(see Chapter 8, p.185) are believed to be play havoc with our mental state. In contrast, cognitive
behavioural theories stress the importance of beliefs and cognition on emotion and behaviour.
Regardless of the particular theoretical background, psychologist adopting a clinical role are likely to
have some understanding, or expertise, in clinical syndromes, personality disorders, general medical
conditions (e.g. epilepsy, dyslexia), or social and intellectual impairments (learning disorders).
on qualitative data (e.g. general themes observed when answering certain questions in an
interview), when operating in a clinical role. A psychologist might also be asked to describe
possible motives of a perpetrator, as in investigative profiling (pp. 54–55).
An experimental role is when the psychologist gives expert opinion regarding an issue,
based on the empirical or experimental literature. The psychologist may summarize the
current experimental literature and offer an opinion or conclusion; or the psychologist
might be asked to conduct psychology experiments in order to ascertain the extent of a
problem. For example, in cases of trademark infringement, a psychologist might be asked to
determine whether a competing brand has borrowed too extensively from a more popular
brand’s packaging. The psychologist would use theories of perception to identify and
address important issues, for example perceptual similarity in colour, shape, objects dis-
played, and logos. This could be accomplished by running an experiment to determine
whether people suffer any perceptual confusion over the packaging of the two brands.
Depending upon the outcome of the study, the psychologist would offer empirical evidence
and provide an expert opinion on the psychological processes that may underlie perceptual
similarities, so as to warrant a trademark infringement.
Actuarial roles can be seen somewhat in almost direct contrast to the single case study,
in that they often involve the psychologist interpreting and analysing large datasets, for
example official government statistics. For example, suppose a government agency tries out
a procedure designed to reduce the amount of time that an investigator has to do paper-
work. The agency finds that 5500 out of 10,000 investigators report less paperwork, 4000
report no improvement, and 500 claim that their paperwork actually got worse with the
new procedures. Is 5500 a big enough improvement for the agency to announce that is has
developed a wonder procedure? Here is where a psychologist, acting in an actuarial capac-
ity, can be very useful. The psychologist’s expertise is in being able to identify trends in the
data, analyse data with appropriate statistical methods, and provide summary conclusions
based on statistical analyses that might otherwise bewilder the intelligent, but untrained,
48 4 THE CRIME ROOM
professional. Most recent examples have included investigative profiling and, in particular,
geographical profiling which advantageously uses large data sets to determine cognitive
maps of offenders. Cognitive maps are internal representations of geographic and physical
locations that provide spatio-temporal information. Finally, an advisory role is one where
the psychologist directly counsels the professional on the course of action that might be
taken. For example, the psychologist might be asked to advise on how best to interview a
suspect who committed the crime while under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Alternatively,
the psychologist might be asked to give advice on the manner in which questions might be
posed to victims or witnesses who have experienced extensive trauma.
Collaborations between psychologists and the police

In this section we consider some of the most important collaborations between psycholo-
gists and the police. We begin by using Gary Wells’ (1978) definitions of estimator and
system variables. Estimator variables are those features of the investigation over which the
investigator has no control, such as the age of the victim. System variables are features over
which the investigator does have some control, such as where a victim is interviewed. We
then go on to discuss the problem of identification parades, or line-ups, as it is one area
where psychologists have introduced dramatic changes in procedures. We then go on to
discuss the work of Elizabeth Loftus, who has been the most influential, modern psycholo-
gist in the crime room, contributing extensively to questions regarding interview tech-
niques, and the fallibility of memory. Another important collaboration has been through
the application of personality theories, although we treat this topic only briefly here, as it
forms the basis of other chapters. We also consider the recent impact that investigative and
offender profiling has had on criminal investigations, and distinguish between two general
approaches, the clinical approach and the experimental approach.
The psychologist Gary Wells, in 1978, distinguished applied psychological research that
focuses on what he calls estimator variables from research that focuses on system variables.
He suggests that research on system variables has more direct application to the crime set-
ting than research on estimator variables. However, this is likely to be due to the fact that
variables over which the investigator has some control are simply easier to implement
changes for than those over which there is no control. Even so, it is likely that research into
estimator variables, such as the sex of an eyewitness, will have a dramatic impact on crimi-
nal investigation procedures. Most recently, studies combining behavioural and neurologi-
cal methods have suggested that women process emotional information differently from
men, and similarly show better retention of certain kinds of emotional information. If such
data are replicated and verified, these findings will have important implications for the
reliability of eyewitnesses on the basis of the type of crime and the sex of the eyewitness.
One of the prime examples of system-variable research is that done by Wells and his
associates, focusing on the identification line-up or identification parade. The consequences
of mistaken (or false) identification are replete in both real cases of crime and popular lit-
erature and film (e.g. the film, The Fugitive). Regardless of the admonishments about the
fallibility of witnesses, if a witness has positively identified a suspect, the suspect’s chances
of being arrested and questioned by the police increases.
COLLABORATIONS BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGISTS AND THE POLICE 49
Box 4.5 Classes of variables

The distinction between estimator and system variables is useful, as it helps to unify the areas of
forensic interest. Estimator variables refer to features over which the investigator has little or no
control. Examples include viewing conditions for an eyewitness (e.g. the amount of time looking at
a perpetrator), the complexity and seriousness of the crime (e.g. whether the crime was a robbery or
a hit-and-run), individual characteristics of the alleged perpetrator, and the victims and witnesses
(e.g. race, age, and sex). In contrast, system variables are features over which the investigator (and
psychologist) has some control. These include the length of delay between the crime and statements
being taken from witnesses or victims, the structure of questions that are used by interviewers (e.g.
open-ended versus closed), and the suggestiveness of the interview style (e.g. coercive or misleading).
Not surprisingly, investigators have been very interested in developing system variables, as these
variables provide them with at least some control over the conditions under which witnesses and
victims are interviewed. Theories of memory have been particularly influential in helping
investigators develop techniques that improve the accuracy and amount of recall, but that do not
influence the reporting of errors, such as the cognitive interview technique (CIT) of Ed Geiselman
and Ron Fisher (see main text, pp. 57–63).
The problem of identification

The applied psychological work in this area has maintained an outstanding level of theoreti-
cal integrity and quality; it represents psychology and law at its finest. One feature that has
been examined in empirical studies is the instruction given to eyewitnesses prior to the line-
up. Suppose a witness is called in to help in an identification parade. Rightly or wrongly, he
or she may assume two conditions have been satisfied. One is that the police have enough
evidence to organize a line-up; the second is that the police will include a person in the line-
up who they believe might be the offender. Given these assumptions, the witness is likely to
believe that one member of the line-up is the true offender. As Wells points out in his 1988
article, if the witness detects which member of the line-up is the suspect, the witness will be
inclined to select this person. Evidence has shown that any suggestions to witnesses, either
verbal or non-verbal, that the suspect is present in the line-up will significantly increase the
chances of a false identification.
Another factor that influences suspect identification is the structure, or characteristics,
of the line-up itself. Elizabeth Loftus, in her seminal 1979 book, Eyewitness Testimony, in
addition to Wells, points out that the prior knowledge a witness has will interact with poor
identification parades, especially when one member fits the ‘description of the suspect’
more than the others (Loftus 1979). Wells (1988) refers to this as the functional size of the
line-up; and distinguishes between the nominal size of the line-up and its functional size.
The nominal size of the line-up is based on the absolute number of people in the line-up. So,
in a line-up of six people, the likelihood of one particular person being selected is one in six.
In contrast, the functional size of the line-up is based on the number of individuals who
could be wrongly selected by chance. This functional size is estimated by a ‘mock’ group of
witnesses who are given a basic description of the ‘offender’ and asked to pick one member
from a line-up. For example, the witness may know the offender’s physical features, for
example blonde, male, roughly 6 ft tall, and slight of build. So, if only one member of our
50 4 THE CRIME ROOM
Box 4.6 Individual differences and crime

One of the most enduring examples of how psychologist work in the crime room comes from the
work on individual differences. The notion that different people behave in different ways is one that
has fascinated psychologists for many years. There is no other place that their interest has been more
piqued than in the context of the crime room. Essentially, the questions we want answers to include
why some people commit crime and others do not; and why some people commit some types
of crimes while others do not. We deal extensively with this topic later, when we consider ‘The
treatment room’ (Chapter 8), as it is there that the notions of social deviancy can be best understood.
So, for the moment, we merely note that psychologists are vital in helping society to understand why
some people commit crimes. Virtually all approaches in psychology have contributed to this
understanding. For example, work done with men in Sweden examined the effects of both genetic
and environmental factors on criminality (Cloninger et al. 1982). Cloninger et al. concluded that men
who had backgrounds of criminality in both genetic and environmental factors were far more likely
to show criminal behaviour than those who had no history of criminal backgrounds. Equally,
criminality can be explained in terms of social learning theory, whereby the argument is that children
learn to be anti-social and engage in criminality through observing such behaviour in their daily lives.
Support for this position comes from the work done on the effects of violence on young children
(e.g. Osofsky 1995).
line-up with six people matches this description, it is likely that there is a 100% chance that
he will be picked, regardless of his innocence or guilt.
A disturbing example
Wagenaar, in his book 1988 book, Identifying Ivan, provides one of the most dramatic
examples of poor identification procedures. The Nazi war criminal Ivan the Terrible, or
John Demjanjuk, was alleged to be responsible for the deaths of 850,000 people at Treblinka,
Poland, during the Second World War. The entire basis for the case against Demjanjuk was,
exclusively, identification evidence given by some of the survivors of Treblinka, about
35 years after the atrocities were committed.
Wagenaar was asked to act as a defence witness—a task that others had declined due to
the highly sensitive nature of the accusations and the crime. He took as his theme the iden-
tification of Ivan by surviving witnesses, after 35 years; his focus was on the procedures that
were adopted by the prosecutors. As Wagenaar points out in great detail, the procedures of
identification violated ‘rules’ that psychological research stipulates are critical for accurate
eyewitness identification. For example, neither of the prosecutors was trained in the proper
procedures for identification, as defined by Israeli law (Wagenaar 1988). As a consequence,
Israeli laws were violated; for example prosecutors directed witnesses’ attention to specific
pictures of mug-shots, and photospreads containing insufficient numbers of foils. Similarly,
the photospread itself, used to identify Ivan, contained pictures that were not matched to
the suspect’s description. Details that might have indicated the identity of people in the
spread were not removed. Wagenaar rightly argued that the interviewers had introduced
biases, thereby casting doubt on the veracity of the victims’ identification. Wagenaar bravely
demonstrated that, at times, being an applied psychologist has graver consequences than
being theoretical and detached. The morality and ethics of the applied problem are often an
issue for the psychologist.
Developing interview techniques

Another major area of collaboration between psychologists and the police has been in the
context of interview techniques. The more general psychological issues that arise when we
consider interview techniques are explored in more detail below in the two scenarios.
However, we feel that it is important to highlight the contribution that psychologists have
made in the context of misleading, or leading, post-event information. Most psychology
undergraduate textbooks contain numerous references to the work of Elizabeth Loftus. In
her book, Eyewitness Testimony, Loftus (1979) outlines the critical importance of what she
termed ‘post-event information’ (PEI). PEI is any information that a witness receives, or is
exposed to, after an event has occurred. Examples of PEI include a witness rehearsing the
event with other witnesses, the witness being exposed to media coverage of an event, and,
importantly, leading questions posed by interviewers, such as the police. Experimental evi-
dence on PEI has led to major improvements in the manner in which investigators inter-
view witnesses, as we shall see below.
While much of the research on eyewitness testimony has been focused on the unrelia-
bility of memory, some researchers have been more interested in determining whether
eyewitness reports could be made more accurate with the introduction of new techniques.
One technique that has received a considerable amount of attention is hypnosis. The exact
psychological processes behind hypnosis are controversial. Some early practitioners
believed that hypnosis produced an altered state of consciousness, or dissociation. This
notion of dissociation, where one part of the mind gets ‘cut off’ from the other, is popular
with many athletes, who attempt to ignore aches and pains in order to continue their per-
formance, as in long-distance running (see ‘The sport room’, Chapter 9, Scenario two). In
contrast, other practitioners viewed hypnosis as a normal state of consciousness, where the
person’s suggestibility is merely heightened.
The modern view is that promoted by Ernest Hilgard, called the neodissociation theory,
which favours the assumption that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness. Hilgard
referred to the hidden observer, which is that part of the mind still available for processing
information while another part is in a trance-like state. Hilgard gave credibility to the con-
cept of hypnosis when he established his laboratory for hypnosis research at Stanford
University in California in the late 1950s. Most psychologists believe that the process
depends more on the characteristics of the person being hypnotized than the skill of the
person who is doing the hypnotizing! While there is evidence that hypnosis can aid in eye-
witness recall (e.g. Geiselman et al. 1985), there is also evidence to suggest that hypnosis
carries with it some dangers. For example, hypnotized witnesses seem very confident in the
information they recall while hypnotized, regardless of the accuracy of the information (e.g.
Weekes et al. 1992). Since it is well established that juries place more credence on testimony
from confident witnesses and victims (see Wagstaff et al. 1992), this means that hypnotically
induced accounts can carry more weight, even though they might not be more accurate. For
a more recent review of the literature on hypnosis, the reader is advised to refer to the article
by Theodore Barber (2000).
52 4 THE CRIME ROOM
Serial crime and profiling

Most crimes are understood in terms of motive and intent. The motive reflects the reason
for the crime; why someone does something. The motive is that which drives the person,
energizes the person to commit the act. In contrast, the intent is what the person wants to
do, or what consequences the person wants their actions to take. For example, suppose a
long-suffering wife hears of her husband’s most recent affair; distraught over her husband’s
continued fecklessness, she loses her temper while they are arguing and strikes him with a
pan that she has in her hand. The wife’s intent was not to kill her husband; she hit out at him
simply to silence his lies. But, as it happens, her blow is delivered in such a way that her
husband breaks his neck and is killed instantly. The wife goes on the run.
Now, one of the first questions that a crime investigator will ask is about motive: is there
anyone who would want this man dead, or would want to harm this man? By focusing first
on a possible motive, the police immediately narrows down the possible suspects for the
crime. By asking the question, who would have the motive to kill this man?, the police would
eventually be led to the wife, particularly after discovering the details of the husband and
wife’s private lives. Generally, the police assumes that most perpetrators somehow know
their victims, or know of their victims; and, that, when there is a link between the perpetra-
tor and the victim, the motive is easier to establish. In fact, it is the case that in the over-
whelming majority of violent crimes that are committed, although the exact percentages
vary, the victim and the perpetrator either know each other or have some relationship.
However, in a small percentage of cases, there is no obvious link between the perpetrator
and the victim. The victim does not know the perpetrator; the victim seemed to be picked at
random, or haplessly was in the wrong place at the wrong time. The motive for the crime is
not clear. Why, if the victim was unknown to the perpetrator, would the perpetrator commit
the crime on that victim? Criminal investigators refer to these types of cases are motiveless
crimes. These motiveless crimes are immensely difficult for most investigators. Without a
motive, the proverbial ‘anyone’ could be the perpetrator; and anyone is a lot of people.
Forensic evidence is undoubtedly helpful, but often not useful until the police has a suspect
in custody. For example, suppose that we have a motiveless crime, and we have a strand of the
perpetrator’s hair. We do forensic analyses and we discover that the hair is from a woman
with dark hair, possibly Mediterranean descent; we even conduct a DNA analysis. However,
we have over 15,000 women who fit this description. Obviously, interviewing each and
every one, and doing DNA matching, would be costly and ineffective. We must have some
way of narrowing the size of the net, some way of restricting the number of women who
might be our suspect.
It is exactly in these types of cases that psychological concepts are very useful; and, conse-
quently, the motiveless crime represents an ideal place where psychologists can apply basic
principles about behaviour. However, it is these very cases that have served to become a
source of controversy, as there is serious disagreement between professional psychologists
as to how to best proceed. We begin by discussing the area of investigative profiling.
Before discussing the different approaches to investigative profiling, we first want to
identify what all investigative profiling techniques, and profiles, have in common. One
assumption is that of psychic determinism. While we discuss this concept extensively in
Chapter 8, we need to introduce the concept here, as it serves as the basic assumption behind
Box 4.7 Investigative versus offender profiling

Investigative and offender profiles are very useful when it is suspected that a serial criminal is at work.
Serial criminals are those who repeatedly commit the offence, as in the case of serial rape and serial
arson. It is important that we distinguish between investigative profiling and offender profiling, as the
two are very different. We use the term investigative profiling when we refer to a psychologist
operating at investigative stages. There are no suspects apprehended and there may be few leads
as to where to look for suspects. The profiler is asked to develop a structured description of the
perpetrator, particularly in terms of socio-demographic variables, such as age, marital status, history
of employment, and so on. Depending on the profiler’s approach, the profile might include
personality characteristics such as types of leisure activity or other interests. Most profiles would
probably include some idea as to the general geographical area of operation of the perpetrator.
In contrast, offender profiling is when the offender has been captured and, usually, is incarcerated.
The offender has already been sentenced, so there is the assumption that the perpetrator is known to
the investigator. Under these circumstances, the investigator conducts an in-depth analysis of the
offender, including uncovering family background and upbringing, exploring any childhood traumas
that may have contributed to the offender’s behaviour. Performance on standardized tests and
quasi-structured interviews are used to provide some understanding as to why and how the offender
committed the crimes. Investigative and offender profiles offer very different insights into crime and
are useful for different reasons. Consequently, they are not to be confused.
all profiling. In its most simplistic form, psychic determinism assumes that all behaviour is
determined, or motivated, by internal drives, states, or needs. There are any number of dif-
ferent theoretical approaches to discussing the exact nature of these internal drives or needs,
but they do not concern us here. What is important is that investigative profiling is predi-
cated on the belief that the internal states or needs of the individual directly determine why
and how that person commits a crime.
The concept of psychic determinism is particularly useful when we consider serial crimes.
It is assumed that when people repeatedly commit the same offence, or similar offences,
they develop a pattern in their behaviour, a signature to their crime, which directly reflects
their needs, internal states, or motives. Their pattern reflects the unique elements of their
motive to behave in the way that they do. So, the way that you would commit crime will be
slightly different from the way that we would commit the same crime. While different
psychologists will proffer different types of evidence as psychological fingerprints, all inves-
tigative profilers must assume psychic determinism.
The second pervasive feature of investigative profiling is the assumption that there is a
ceiling, or some asymptote, to a criminal’s learning curve, so that, when the person has com-
mitted enough crimes, they will have reached some stable point, where their behaviour no
longer changes. We must make this assumption if we want to believe that there is a stable
behavioural pattern to the criminal’s behaviour to which we can subject our profiling tech-
niques. This is an interesting assumption for a number of reasons, as it flies in the face
of some empirical literature. First, the literature on motor skills suggests that even after
80,000 trials a person is still improving in their performance of quite simple tasks like rolling
a cigarette. So, it is quite likely that even after a good number of crimes, the criminal will
still be learning their ‘trade’! Second, the literature on how we learn complex tasks strongly
54 4 THE CRIME ROOM
suggests that we will learn different components of a complex task at different rates. For
example, a multi-skilled task like driving a car is learned at different levels, in different
stages. Some elements of the skills, such as clutch control, become automatic long before
other elements of the skill, such as reversing around a corner. So, we would expect that a
complex task such as committing a burglary would similarly show different learning rates.
Investigative profiling does not take such things into account, however.
Two approaches to investigative profiling

There are two generally acknowledged approaches to investigative profiling. One approach
is best described as a case-study approach. The individual perpetrator is considered at great
length, identifying personal, social, mental, emotional, and environmental factors that
might be influencing this person’s behavioural patterns. All aspects of the evidence are
considered in detail, and viewed in terms of their potential relations to each other. From
this detailed examination, some hypotheses about why and what led to the behaviour are
formed. The intent of the profile is to provide the motives behind the crimes, the personal
themes that dictate the person’s behaviour. From their detailed analyses, the profiler identi-
fies themes that are important for the person, for example maintaining control of the victim.
Psychologists who adopt this approach generally rely on psychoanalytic frameworks to
explain deviant behaviour, or use theories that are developed from clinical or specialized
populations. For example, this latter approach is reflected in the work of the US Federal
Bureau of Investigation, wherein the profiler attempts to understand the underlying motives
behind the crime.
The second approach is different in terms of the methodology through which it derives its
profile. We will label this second approach as the experimental approach. The experimental
approach relies on as large a database as possible in order to draw conclusions about the
relationship between different elements of a crime, such as the type of victim, type of force
used, and other features at the crime scene. It uses government and crime statistics as its
sources, and then applies statistical analyses to discover whether any particular features of
crimes group together. So, for example, if someone uses a gun in a robbery, how often is that
associated with other features, such as verbally abusing or battering the victim. In the main,
statistical analyses relying on correlations, and family and factor analyses serve as the ways
in which psychologists interpret these huge amounts of data. Through careful analyses
of the relationship between different features of the crime, psychologists hope to identify
the salient characteristics of the criminal, including where they live, what they do for
employment, what hobbies they might have, and so on. In the main, these profilers are less
concerned about the underlying personality motives than they are about identifying real or
tangible variables.
The experimental approach borrows extensively from theoretical concepts derived
mainly through experimental methodologies. In particular, concepts from cognitive
psychology—such as the importance of schemas—have been appropriated to discuss how
elements of the crime reflect the criminal’s internal world. For example, David Canter
(2000), a well-known profiler in the UK, makes good use of the notion that criminals
develop a schema for the crime, including sequences and habitual responses to various
elements of the crime. Canter suggests that, with practice, the criminal’s behaviour becomes
SUMMARY OF THE CRIME ROOM 55
Box 4.8 Profiling serial crimes

Investigative profiling has received a good deal of public attention, particularly through its association
with serial killings. Serial killings are the cause of much public concern and fear, and, understandably,
those cases where profiling has been used have received considerable media coverage. Serial killings
capture our imagination and offer powerful, cultural images to us. Thus we have the idea of a hero, in
the form of a behavioural profiler, Clarice Starling (from The Silence of the Lambs), who combats evil,
as delightfully personified by Hannibal Lecter. In fact, serial killings are often very low-frequency
events, in that most police officers will never investigate a case of serial killing in their career.
However, because they are so rare, and police officers have so little experience, serial killings can
actually go undetected, with the investigator suffering linkage blindness, a term coined by an English
investigator, Rupert Heritage. The investigator does not know the signs of behavioural patterns, due
to a lack of experience with serial crimes. As a consequence, the investigator fails to detect the
pattern. So, while rare, serial assaults can pose a real threat, and obviously provoke extreme reactions
from society when they go undetected!
more and more schematic, driven by their habitual patterns. According to Canter, the crim-
inal leaves behind, through his behaviour, the remnants of his internal schemas.
It is important for us to mention that investigative profiling is suitable only for crimes
wherein the criminal can execute a unique pattern of behaviours. For example, arson is a
good candidate for investigative profiling, in that there are many ways in which to execute
the act, including different types of building, types of incendiary device, and so on. Murder
is another serial crime that lends itself to investigative profiling. There are many ways in
which to unlawfully kill someone, and it is because of the inherent variability in the way this
crime can be committed that makes the crime a suitable candidate for profiling. In contrast,
other types of repeated crime are very poor candidates. For example, car theft is quite often
a serial offence; and, while the type of car may be important to note, there are only so many
ways that people can steal a car; for example, disarming the security systems, breaking a
window, and ‘hot-wiring’.
Many factors influence whether a psychologist is called in to help with an investigation.
One is whether the investigator believes that profiling has much to offer. Some police
investigators feel that profiling essentially involves good detective work, and that an inves-
tigator’s role is not that dissimilar to that of a profiler. Other people argue that profiling
is not the same as investigation; that a good profiler must have an understanding of the
psychological processes behind criminal behaviour. Regardless of the profiler’s orientation,
the profiler has expertise in psychological concepts and the psychological literature that can
uniquely inform a criminal investigation. We do not feel that there is a clear-cut answer, for
criminal behaviour, like so much of the real world, is largely difficult to predict, and many
factors will influence decisions as to how to best investigate a specific incident of crime.
Summary of the crime room

We have discussed the traditional topics associated with the crime room, and also outlined
the various roles that psychologists can play. We have noted that certain collaborations
56 4 THE CRIME ROOM
Box 4.9 Confessions of guilt

There are many important applied issues that need further attention. One notable example is the
understanding of confessions. This area is one in which psychologists and investigators have been
known to have confrontational interactions, as it raises questions regarding police interrogations
and the probative value of confessions. The act of confessing to a crime is one that has grave
consequences for the accused. As Marquita Inman (1981) notes, a confession, once made, is difficult
to retract, and any further protestations of innocence are regarded with disdain and the accused is
often under great pressure to enter a plea of guilty. Inman points out that the act of confessing is a
highly complex one, combining social and psychological elements. For example, it has long been
known that innocent people can be made to confess to crimes, and in some cases may even come
to believe in the confession themselves. There are many ways in which psychologists might explain
this. Conditions of the interview procedure, such as whether the suspect is deprived of sleep, can
lead to temporary states of hysteria and abnormality. Psychoanalytic theory can be used to argue
that guilt anxiety can affect even emotionally stable people, for example subjective feelings of guilt
or sinfulness can merge with intense external accusation during a guilt-oriented interview.
Psychologists using clinical or experimental approaches will be invaluable in helping law enforcement
ensure that the techniques used for investigating crime are fair, just, and based on sound,
psychological evidence.
between psychologists and law enforcement have resulted in vastly improved techniques for
suspect identification and the interviewing of witnesses or victims. We have also considered
briefly the use of psychological principles in investigative and offender profiling. There is no
doubt that in our modern world new kinds of crime are evolving, such as those crimes
involving the Internet. With the advent of information technology, the nature of crime and
the way that it must be investigated had changed so dramatically that the laws are struggling
to keep up with the issues. Similarly, the nature of global conflict, as it exists today, means
that new ground is being broken with international laws, such as the internment and incar-
ceration of insurgents on foreign lands. How crimes are investigated, and how criminals are
treated, is very different from what it was only 20 years ago.
Scenarios one and two

The two scenarios that follow consider examples of system variables, since both look at fac-
tors or variables over which the investigator and the psychologist have some control. While
both scenarios emphasize the problems that arise when interviewing witnesses or victims,
the two scenarios are very different in nature and in the extent of their application. The first
scenario illustrates how psychologists used their expertise to help in the specific case of a
victim who had been seriously assaulted. This scenario relies heavily on the experimental
literature relating to adult memory, and extends cognitive hypotheses about episodic
memory, and the effects that emotion has on memory. This scenario is particularly useful
as it shows how psychologists may need to consider the interaction between estimator
variables—such as the emotional state of the victim—and system variables—such as the
interview technique used.
SCENARIOS ONE AND TWO 57
The second scenario represents another real-world situation where interview techniques
were the focus. However, in the second scenario, the psychologists were asked to review and
assess governmental guidelines proposed for the interviewing of a vulnerable group of vic-
tims and witnesses: children. This second scenario demanded that the psychologists take on
a variety of roles, and required them to use a variety of diverse, empirical methods, includ-
ing qualitative analyses and descriptive statistics. Child development—mental, physical,
emotional, and social—and the effects that trauma can have on a child were particularly
important, as were issues regarding the development of personal memory, and the suggest-
ibility of young children.
Scenario one
The case of the woman jogger
In this first scenario we discuss how serious violent assaults are investigated. Violent assaults
introduce a variable over which the investigator has no control: the level of trauma and
emotional distress of the victim. The emotional state of the victim, which is an estimator
variable, is relevant not only at the time of the interview, but also at the time the crime was
being committed. For example, victims who dissociate during the commission of a crime
may be less likely to report on details than those people who stay focused and ‘present’.
Without question, our emotional reactions greatly impact on our ability to remember
traumatic events.
One of the problems with interviewing victims of violent crime is that these victims often
have gaps in their memory about what happened. There are a number of reasons why this
might occur. For example, extreme states of stress are likely to reduce cognitive resources
that are available at the time of the event, and this affects what a person attends to and how
much they store and later remember. We know that the emotional salience of an object, like
its threat value, will influence whether a victim does or does not attend to it. The phenom-
enon of weapon focus, introduced in 1978 by Brian Clifford and Ray Bull, is the result of an
emotionally salient object, namely the weapon, virtually hijacking the victim’s attention.
Given that the weapon is a threatening element of the environment, the victim is likely to
attend differentially to the weapon and as a consequence will better remember what the
weapon looked like, simply because of its importance. A gun pointed directly in one’s face
will capture the victim’s attention at the expense of other important details, even perhaps
the physical description of the offender!
Stress has a tendency to make the person focus on things related to the threat, and so inci-
dental but important details might go unnoticed. Information may go unreported regarding
things that happened prior to the attack; for example, was there another person who might
have been walking by at the time? Details that are not related to the attack, for example the
address on a pack of matches, may also go unreported. However, we must note that indi-
vidual differences, and pre-morbid traits, such as cognitive style, will also interact with other
variables, so that not all people will react to the same traumatic event in the same way.
Cognitive psychologists have been very influential in applying principles derived from
laboratory studies to real-world investigations. There is no more successful application of
cognitive theory than the cognitive interview technique (CIT) (Geisleman et al. 1985). CIT
has always had the advantage of using very sound, empirically reliable principles. As we
58 4 THE CRIME ROOM
shall see below, the original version was unique from all other attempts at improving inter-
view techniques, by virtue of the fact that it relied on certain empirical findings about events,
or episodic memory that were true across many, if not most, situations.
An American woman, aged 33, was in a rural part of England, visiting her aunt for a holi-
day. She went for a run along a path, near a park, where there was a group of allotments for
people to grow vegetables and flowers. It was about 9.30 a.m. The woman had run about
15 minutes, passing a few people. She stopped for a moment to tie the laces on her trainers.
As she knelt down to tie her shoes, someone grabbed her from behind and threw her to the
ground. Everything else was a blur. All she remembers is that someone attacked her and
tried to tear her clothes off her body. She cannot remember seeing her attacker, although she
has some vague recollection of a man asking her directions just before she was attacked. She
does remember fighting with her attacker and being forced to the ground. There were
bruises over the victim’s limbs and upper body. She thought her attacker hit her with some-
thing, although there was no evidence of any head wounds or other facial injuries. She was
not able to say how long the attack went on, apart from the fact that it ‘seemed like hours’.
According to the victim, the assault was interrupted when a dog and its owner approached.
The victim remembers hearing the dog barking loudly and also remembers hearing some-
one call a name. The victim believes that her attacker became scared and ran off, leaving her
face down on the path. The victim was too scared to turn around immediately. When she
did, the dog owner and the dog were standing next to her asking if there was something
wrong. The victim asked the dog owner to take her home, where she got a change of clothes
before going to report the assault to the police. As a witness, the dog owner gave their details
to the victim.
Once at the police station, the victim agreed to be examined by the police surgeon and
also agreed to a preliminary interview with the lead investigator. The clinical examination
suggested that the colour of the victim’s bruises was more consistent with an assault that
might have occurred within the last 10 days, but certainly not within the last 24 hours. The
investigator interviewed the dog owner, who claimed that no one else had been there when
she approached the victim. The dog owner said that some of the victim’s clothes had been
removed, and that she clearly was distressed and traumatized by the attack.
A male police officer was assigned to lead the investigation. When he first interviewed the
victim, she could not remember very much, and she was clearly more interested in return-
ing to the USA. The investigator was aware that the victim’s memory for the event was
patchy and often unclear: she had only a vague impression of the man who asked for direc-
tions; and she had no memory of her assailant. The victim was also very vague about the
exact details of the assault: she could remember tying her shoes, and was clear about details
that occurred before the attack. However, her memory of the attack itself left much to be
desired. All she could remember was fighting with her attacker and feeling scared that she
was going to die. Her time estimates were also questionable. While the victim felt that the
attack had ‘lasted for hours’, it was clear that the attack only lasted a few minutes, as the dog
owner had found the victim around 10.00 a.m. When the investigator interviewed the vic-
tim for a second time, she failed to report any new information. He was concerned whether
he should proceed any further.
The investigator was aware that the victim’s inability to report on much of the attack
might be a normal reaction to traumatic assault. The investigator had been trained in basic
rape trauma syndrome so he knew that the victim would be going through different emo-
tions as she came to terms with her assault. Consequently, the investigator knew that he
needed to be sensitive in how he was going to interview the victim. For example, he knew
that were he to accidentally express any doubts regarding anything the victim said about the
attack, the victim might interpret this as him disbelieving her. This in turn would signifi-
cantly reduce the victim’s motivation and ability to report on details.
Importantly, the investigator had attended a workshop where psychologists had dis-
cussed the use of memory-enhancing techniques to improve victims’ reports. He was keen
to discover whether his victim would benefit from the use of any of these kinds of tech-
nique. His police training had already included experience with the CIT. He did not regard
himself as an expert in the CIT, however, and was not convinced that he could rely on his
judgement alone.
What was the situation?

Unfortunately, violent crime is not uncommon. The investigator had experience with inter-
viewing victims, and also had a good appreciation of the potential psychological factors that
might be important. As a consequence, the situation was one in which other professionals
in the crime room welcomed the input from a psychologist.
Obviously, the situation required a relatively quick assessment of the major psychological
variables that might be operating. Importantly, this was an ongoing case and it was clear
that the victim was eager to leave the country and return home to her family within the next
day or two. Some action had to be taken. The investigator knew the contact details of the
psychologists who specialized in applied memory problems and contacted them directly.
After an initial meeting, the investigator asked that the psychologists be formally involved
as consultant memory experts in the case.
Why were the psychologists used?

The investigator had two clear objectives that he wanted the psychologists to fulfil. First,
he wanted the psychologists to tell him whether memory-enhancing techniques should be
used with the victim, and, if so, what kinds should be used. Clearly, any suggestions were
obviously restricted by statutory law. For example, hypnosis could not be used, even if
there was unequivocal evidence that proved it was a highly effective technique, as it is not
an acknowledged technique in English courts. Also, the investigator was highly concerned
that the memory-enhancing techniques should not promote a fanciful account from the
victim that contained incorrect information.
The second objective was more problematic. While the investigator did not doubt that
the victim had been attacked, he also had to acknowledge that there was virtually no conclu-
sive forensic evidence that supported anything the victim remembered. Unfortunately, the
victim’s account was very sketchy and incomplete at times. Even more problematic, his
immediate superior officer was not convinced that the victim was telling the truth, and this
put additional pressure on the investigator.
Given these difficult circumstances, the investigator hoped that the psychologists could
help him prove that the victim’s account was truthful. Based on what they knew about mem-
ory, he wanted the psychologists to comment on whether the victim’s account had truthful
characteristics to it.
60 4 THE CRIME ROOM
What psychological concepts were relevant?

The psychologists realized that they could draw on the huge literature that has been amassed
on how people remember events that are highly personal and unpleasant. There were a num-
ber of factors that were obviously important to consider. First, the psychologists had to
understand the more general question of how people remember events. The psychologists
would obviously be guided by the literature on explicit autobiographical memory, as asking
the victim to remember her attack is asking the victim to engage in explicit autobiographical
memory retrieval. In fact, there is a fairly straightforward match between theory and the real
world, which meant that translating theory into practice should be somewhat easier.
The psychologists knew that the investigator specifically wanted to know whether any
memory-enhancing techniques might be useful, and particularly wanted to know about the
appropriateness of the CIT. Geiselman and colleagues (1985) were the original proponents
of CIT. The original CIT, as it has come to be known, relied on techniques that had been
shown to be effective in producing accounts that were more accurate, but without increas-
ing the number of errors. In other words, critically, CIT is based on well-founded principles
regarding how people remember specific events. Four techniques formed the basis of CIT,
and serve to distinguish it from all other types of interview technique that have been devised.
We briefly outline these here.
The first technique can be called context reinstatement. We experience things that
happen in our lives, like going to the cinema, in a specific spatio-temporal context: we go
Box 4.10 Awareness and memory

One of the most exciting developments in memory theory came when psychologists started to
consider the act of remembering, particularly in terms of the person’s awareness and intention. Very
simply, there are different ways in which we remember. The distinctions are in terms of (1) how
aware we are of engaging in the act of remembering, (2) why we are remembering, and (3) what is the
task of remembering. So, for example, suppose a student is taking an exam, and has a series of test
questions that must be answered. The test is designed to assess how well the student has learned the
course materials. The student is fully aware of the fact that they are remembering: they know that
they are retrieving information that they have read in the past, or heard presented in lectures. The
student is also knowingly remembering this course material in the service of answering the test
question. This type of remembering has been called explicit memory or intentional memory; the
task would be described as a direct memory task (Jacoby 1984; Johnson and Hasher 1987). The
memory is explicit because the student is fully aware that they are engaged in retrieving past learned
information. The memory is intentional, as the student is deliberating attempting to engage in the act
of remembering. The task is direct, in that the student knows that the question is directly assessing
their memory for the course materials. In contrast, take the case of someone stopping you for
directions to a famous local landmark. You begin to tell the person directions, when suddenly you
have an image of last Sunday, when you were standing and looking at the very landmark. In this
circumstance, you unintentionally remembered last Sunday, as you were actually in the process
of telling someone directions; no one directly asked you to remember your personal experience,
so the task would be an indirect memory task. The concept of implicit memory has been highly useful
in explaining behavioural dissociations in some clinical populations, such as amnesic syndromes
(e.g. Cermak et al. 1995; see also Roediger and McDermott (1993) for a discussion of implicit
memory in ‘normal human subjects’).
to the cinema at a particular time, on a particular day, to see a particular movie, with par-
ticular people, and so on. When we are asked to remember our trip, we remember a specific
experience, filled with details surrounding the specific place and time. With the technique
of context reinstatement, we are encouraged first to remember details of the context, before
we attempt to report on the event itself. The assumption is that if we remember details of
the context, this will subsequently enable us to better remember details of the event itself.
The logic of this assumption is based on the psychological theories that postulate memory
retrieval, especially free recall, to be one of re-creating event-specific information. There are
many routes to which event-specific information might be accessed; reinstating some of the
contextual cues are assumed to facilitate this process dramatically.
As there is no way of knowing which contextual cues might be the best, CIT suggests that
the person reinstate as much of the original context as they can. So, we would be asked to go
back to the time when we were waiting to get tickets, then imagine that we are going into the
cinema. We would be encouraged to focus on the details, including any sights or sounds,
like other people talking. We would also be asked to recreate our internal mental environ-
ment, such as any thoughts we may have had, as well as any emotions or feelings we might
have been having at the time. Any details that reinstate the original context are considered
to be important.
The technique of context reinstatement, where the person builds a picture of the context,
was actually appropriated by CIT from an earlier technique, which was developed by
Malpass and Devine in 1981, called the guided memory technique. The guided memory
technique directs the person through the event, starting at some point before the incident
up to the critical moments, in a systematic fashion. So, with our cinema example, we might
Box 4.11 The importance of context

One of the best-documented findings in the cognitive literature on memory is known as encoding
specificity. Endel Tulving and Don Thomson (1973) described the principle of encoding specificity,
when they showed that recall was far superior when recall conditions reinstated the original learning
conditions. The general principle is that the more similar the learning and recall contexts are, the
better recall will be. This is similarly referred to as context-dependent memory. A simple example is
provided by Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975), who looked at the effects of encoding
specificity on divers’ recall of words. Divers were first asked to learn a list of words, either on land or
while they were underwater. The divers were then asked to recall the words. Half recalled the words
in the same context under which they were learned; the other half were switched contexts. So, for
those divers who learned the words while under water, half of them would be asked to recall while
under water, while the other half would be asked to recall the list on dry land. Godden and Baddeley
(1975) found that when the learning and recall contexts were the same recall was better, with the
divers recalling roughly 30 per cent more than when the contexts had been switched. The practical
implications of such demonstrations are dramatic. This suggests that when we want an eyewitness to
remember an event, if we take the eyewitness back to the scene of the crime, he or she should recall
more information due to the effects of encoding specificity. This technique of taking people back to
the scene of the crime has been used in many cases of serious crime. Investigators also conduct a
reconstruction of events in the hope that the reinstatement of the contextual features will prompt
someone to remember more about a crime.
62 4 THE CRIME ROOM
be encouraged first to imagine ourselves at the ticket booth, then going into the cinema,
then going to get some refreshments, and so on. This systematic retracing would occur up
to the critical point that someone wanted us to recall.
A second component to CIT is the instruction to say everything, regardless of how
important it is. This instruction is in direct response to the fact that when people talk to the
police they often have some preconceived notions about which details are important to an
investigation. Because of these preconceived notions, people will omit or edit out details
about an event if they believe that these details are unimportant. The only problem with lay
people’s preconceptions is that they are often wrong! In fact, a good investigator is inter-
ested in all details. Good crime investigation involves examining all the facts and then
making inferences. What seems to be an unimportant detail may have great significance
later in an investigation. For these reasons, the person is asked to report everything, regard-
less of whether they think the detail is evidentially valuable or not.
The third technique in CIT asks the person to alter the perspective from which they recall.
In the original CIT this meant, for example, asking the person to imagine that they were
standing in a different part of the room, and then recall the event from that perspective. This
shift in perspective is assumed to introduce new cues that in turn may result in the person
remembering more information. However, there is an obvious problem with this technique.
It introduces a perspective that person did not experience. As a consequence, if the person is
basing recall from a totally imagined perspective they are just as likely to introduce informa-
tion into the account that is incorrect.
Because of these obvious potential problems, the modified CIT dropped this technique.
Instead, the person was asked to change the order of their report. Here, the person would be
asked to report the event from beginning, middle, end, and then reverse the order, recalling
from the end through to the beginning. The person might then be asked to report the event
from the middle, and so on. The assumption behind this technique is again based on the
belief that recall involves accessing event-specific information through cues. When we ask
someone to reverse their order of recall, different cues become available, and so too does
new, correct information. Thus, the technique can improve and promote new information
because the person is forced to consider the event from a different, although experienced,
perspective.
The fourth technique of CIT addresses the complex issue of confidence and memory. In
the context of crime investigation, sometimes people—witness or victims—want to be com-
pletely sure that they are correct in what they are saying. In this way, the person only wants
to report information that they are absolutely confident is correct. What this means, though,
is that often the person fails to report otherwise correct information simply because they do
not feel confident enough in the accuracy of what is being remembered. However, the
memory literature tells us that there is a highly complex relationship between confidence
and memory. While the empirical research is equivocal, the fact still remains that confidence
is not an infallible indicator of whether some piece of information is correct. To this end,
under the original CIT, the person is encouraged to adopt a more lenient confidence level
when reporting details, and to report details even they are unsure about their correctness.
Understandably, psychologists have been more concerned about the issue of witnesses
and victims being confident about otherwise false information. Indeed, as we will see in ‘The
treatment room’ (Chapter 8) Scenario one, the idea that someone can be highly confident
about events that have never happened has served as the focus of debate for topics like
recovered memories. However, it is equally important to remember that in the crime room
the consequence of a person failing to report otherwise correct information can be devastat-
ing to the investigation. Consequently, while there is no question that confidence is not the
best indicator of accuracy, CIT notes that in the real world any information has the potential
to be useful from an investigator’s viewpoint.
It transpires, though, that this fourth technique has had its practical problems, particu-
larly in the context of the court room (see Chapter 5), where cross-examination occurs. If a
defence counsel knows that the victim had been encouraged to report even if unsure, then
counsel can easily discredit the details. Counsel can suggest to the jury that the victim had
been prompted by the investigator to report the information in spite of feeling unsure of its
accuracy. Because juries believe, erroneously, that confidence is a good indicator of accu-
racy, they are likely to discredit any information in which the victim lacks confidence. Due
to these practical problems, the modified CIT encourages people to give multiple reports.
With each new report, the victim is told to forget what she said before, and, using context
reinstatement, remember the event as if it were happening in the present. The assumption
is that repeated recalls give the victim additional opportunities to access new information.
The psychologists in this case were also aware of empirical evidence to suggest that there
were some potentially problematic consequences of using CIT. First, CIT has been known
to increase the number of errors in an account as well as increasing the amount of correct
information. The problem for a real-world investigator is that it is rather difficult to know
what is an error and what is correct information. Further, if an error is introduced into an
account while using such powerful techniques as context reinstatement, the victim may
become highly confident in an otherwise erroneous piece of information. Additionally,
empirical evidence has suggested that CIT should not be used with people who suffer prob-
lems of reality monitoring. Reality monitoring reflects our ability to distinguish between
things that we have actually experienced and things that we imagine we have experienced.
Marcia Johnson and colleagues have been largely responsible for investigating processes
involved in reality monitoring. Their research suggests that the mental state of the person
will strongly influence their ability to distinguish fact from fantasy. So, while CIT is sup-
ported by an impressive amount of experimental and empirical evidence, there are also
some potential problems that can be associated with its use. These would have to be carefully
considered by the psychologists.
The psychologists also knew that the emotional nature of the event, and its personal sig-
nificance to the victim, would be critical variables to understand. Arguably, the victim’s
emotional reaction might be the deciding factor in whether the psychologists recommended
the use of an interview strategy like CIT. The psychologists would need to consider whether
the victim was suffering any traumatic reactions, and would need to consider how any stress
or anxiety would affect the victim’s ability to report on her attack.
Unfortunately, the experimental literature on emotional memories is not consistent.
Generally, the method of study has been to compare people’s memory for emotionally neu-
tral events to events that have some emotional relevance. Some studies have shown that
relative to neutral events, people are less able to recall negative events, and may suffer highly
specific memory problems. An example is the experimental simulation of retrograde amne-
sia, for example as reported by Loftus and Burns (1982). This refers to poorer memory for
64 4 THE CRIME ROOM
Box 4.12 The revised CIT

In addition to the revised CIT including new cognitive instructions, it also advised interviewers to be
careful of interrupting the victim or witness. Allowing the person to talk uninterrupted is considered
to be important for a number of reasons. For example, if the interviewer consistently interrupts a
victim, the victim’s memory processes will be consistently interrupted, making the report disjointed.
The victim will find it more difficult to provide an initial account of what happened. Further, it is
known that oral reporting is more difficult than written reporting, in that the person has to remember
what she has said with an oral report, whereas a written report can be reviewed much more easily
(see Bekerian and Dennett 1990). As a consequence, the modified CIT suggests that the person be
given the opportunity to produce an account that is free from any cues or interruptions. This free
narrative phase—where the victim or witness is invited to tell the interviewer everything that he or
she can remember—has been incorporated in most guidelines for interviewing witnesses and victims.
The revised CIT also argues that the interviewer should take time with the questions, and proceed
very slowly. This slow process, although tiresome, allows the victim or witness time to imagine the
situation as they are reporting it. Importantly, these techniques are indirect and do not intervene
extensively while the victim or witness is reporting. The interviewer is also encouraged to use the
terms and phrases that are reported by the victim or witness so as to be confluent with how they are
remembering.
details that occur immediately before the emotional or unpleasant event. For example, sup-
pose that your friend is driving you to your doctor’s appointment. You are looking out the
window, and you notice that there is an elderly man walking his dog. You turn to tell your
friend something and suddenly you see that a bicyclist has crossed in front of the car and
your friend unavoidably hits the cyclist. If we were to then ask you, ‘What was the elderly
gentleman wearing?’, you might find that your memory for the man’s clothes, or even his
dog, was not clear. Under similar circumstances, a certain percentage of us would have
poorer memory for details that occurred immediately before we witnessed the emotional
event of hitting the cyclist.
However, other researchers have shown that emotional events are better retained than
neutral events. For example, Christianson and Loftus have argued this point, illustrating in
their 1987 article that central details of emotional events are better retained than central
details of non-emotional, or neutral, events. To make matters even more confusing, some
researchers have shown no difference!
The psychologists were also aware that there is an equally impressive body of literature
based on clinical observations suggesting that emotional events may be very difficult to
remember, particularly in the short term. Here, clinical experience—based on single case
studies and extensive qualitative analyses of interviews—suggests that details of emotional
events may be inaccessible for some time after the event occurred. One explanation is pro-
vided by psychoanalytic theories of trauma, which would argue that some people might use
the defence mechanism of repression. Repression is a mechanism by which the unpleasant
memory stays blocked from the person’s conscious awareness. This enables the person to
continue with everyday life, and protects them from the possibility that the painful memory
will ever enter their focal awareness. This view would suggest that the victim in this case
might be motivated to repress her memory of the attack. Certainly, clinical experts argue
that there is substantial evidence to suggest that a victim may not be able to remember the
details of an attack until some time afterwards (see, for example Karon and Widener 1998).
The psychologists were also aware that other factors, such as guilt, might lead the victim
to repress her memory for the assault. There is a substantial literature on the emotional
aftermath of attacks, particularly those of a sexual nature. Judith Herman has written many
excellent books on the topic of trauma and provides comprehensive discussions on the
variety of negative thoughts and feelings that a victim of trauma can experience. One of
Herman’s biggest contributions to the understanding of trauma is her distinction between
type one and type two trauma. Type one trauma is where the person experiences a unique,
highly unpleasant and potentially life-threatening event. Type two trauma is where the
person has experienced extensive, chronic abuse or trauma, such as in cases of incest or
political torture (Herman 1994).
It appeared that the victim in this case was experiencing type one trauma. Victims of this
type of trauma can feel a sense of guilt or responsibility for their attack, in spite of the fact
that this is obviously an irrational belief. The victim may harbour irrational feelings that
they somehow invited or caused the attack, as the thought of being so helpless and out of
control is too terrifying to contemplate. Rather than being able to direct anger against the
attacker, the victim assumes responsibility. The mechanism of repression would be very
successful in helping the victim avoid further feelings of guilt.
Much of the literature on serious assaults suggests that victims of type one trauma can go
through a series of stages. The first stage is one of disbelief and shock, where the victim is
particularly sensitive to any external suggestions. This initial phase can vary and is charac-
terized by fairly poor memory recall. The second phase can be called the acute reaction
phase. Here, the victim may go through a variety of different reactions at different times.
They may experience heightened arousal and be overly vigilant, scanning the environment
for any signs of threat or danger. Alternatively, the victim may experience intrusions, in the
form of either intrusive thoughts or intrusive images. A third common reaction is constric-
tion, where the victim adamantly avoids thinking about the event, experiences feelings of
dissociation (e.g. trance-like states), or denies that anything is wrong. The victim can feel
any number of emotions, such as anxiety, guilt, or fear, and may begin to feel anger towards
the attacker. The victim can experience any or all of these reactions at different times.
Generally, the acute phase will last for up to 12 weeks after the event. Importantly, Janoff-
Bullman (1992) suggests that many of a victim’s firmly held beliefs about the world are seri-
ously challenged when an attack occurs. For example, the beliefs that the world is safe, that
the world is just, and that the world is under the person’s control are all seriously challenged
when one becomes the victim of a serious attack. During the acute phase, the victim becomes
acutely aware that their long-held beliefs about the world are violated, and this naturally
affects the victim’s emotional state.
The third phase can be thought of as an adjustment phase. Here the victim may be ‘getting
on with her life’, and will have introduced major changes, such as a new job, new partner, or
new hair style. Again, the victim may experience many feelings, such as anger or guilt, and
may also engage in reparative thinking, such as counterfactual thinking; for example, ‘If I
had not screamed, then he would have killed me’. These new cognitions are in aid of helping
the victim to better comprehend the event. Some psychologists hold the view that these new
cognitions are also the victim’s way of preventing any similar events from happening in the
66 4 THE CRIME ROOM
future. Importantly, the victim may actively not wish to return to anything that is a reminder
of the negative event. This means that the victim may be very reluctant to talk to anyone,
including the police, about the attack.
The final phase is referred to as assimilation, or failure to assimilate. Here, the victim has
integrated the negative event into their life narrative and is able to return to normal life.
Failure to assimilate can result in the person being haunted by the event, and generally
leaves the victim feeling depressed and hopeless over the future.
Of course, the psychologists in this case also knew that the reactions of the victim at the
time of the event, as well as at the time of the interview with the investigator, would deter-
mine how well she was able to report on details. For example, if the victim had been highly
anxious during her attack—a completely reasonable reaction—she might have avoided
threat-related details, so that her memory for these details would later be poor. Equally, if
the victim responded to the attack by dissociating—such as having feelings that it was hap-
pening to someone else—she would be less likely to have attended to features. At the time of
recall, were the victim to be depressed, then her memory would be poor, as it is a well-
established fact that depression reduces a person’s ability to report on lower-level details.
Thus the psychologists knew that they would have to consider the victim’s emotional reac-
tions very carefully before making any recommendations regarding memory-enhancing
techniques.
Finally, the psychologists had to consider the question of truthfulness. The investigator
had expressed an interest in finding out whether the victim’s accounts had the characteris-
tics of a true account. This was tricky, as the psychologists knew that while there was an
extensive literature on the topic, it was impossible for anyone to say whether someone was
giving a truthful account or not. Even with extensive corroborative evidence to suggest one
way or the other, how could the psychologists ethically consider such a request? The psy-
chologists decided that they would still review the literature on reality assessments. Given
the extensive literature, they decided that they would focus on the methods of the German
psychologists Udo Undeutsch, Max Steller, and Gunther Koenken (e.g. Undeutsch 1982).
This decision was based more on the fact that the psychologists had some familiarity with
these researchers, and also had been involved in workshops with all of these psychologists,
so could rely on them for professional advice if necessary.
The issue that was important here was whether the victim was motivated or willing to
produce a truthful account. The assumption behind the research into this area is that a
truthful account contains characteristics that can distinguish it from an account where the
person is deliberately giving false information. These characteristics form the criteria upon
which the psychologist assesses the account; hence, the approach is often referred to as cri-
teria-based content analysis. For example, one of the characteristics of truthfulness is
that the person will provide contextual information surrounding the incident, and so will
embed the story: ‘I had to go to the dentist early in the afternoon, so I decided to take a
shorter run than I normally would have liked.’ This statement places the event, namely the
run, in a greater context of what the person had to do later in the day. The proponents of
content-based criteria assessment argue that if an account has such detail, the account is
more likely to be a truthful one. Depending on which approach is taken, there are between
19 and 23 different criteria that need to be fulfilled in order for the psychologist to come to
the conclusion that the account is true.
What did the psychologists do?

The psychologists reviewed all of the evidence including all witness and victim statements.
They also asked the investigator to share his feelings about the case and, in particular,
asked the investigator to state what he felt were the weaknesses and strengths in the evi-
dence. This was done so that the psychologists had some idea of where the investigator
might need support. Of course, the psychologists had to be careful that the investigator’s
opinions did not influence their own, as the psychologists were called in to be objective
consultants rather merely to confirm what the investigator thought.
Most critically, the psychologists analysed the victim’s statements. They paid particular
attention to the structure of her accounts—for example, how she told the story—and the
content of her accounts—namely what details she could remember about the attack. The
psychologists also noted other more subjective features, such as the victim’s comments about
how she was feeling at the time of the attack, as well as her motivation to continue with the
investigation. In particular, the psychologists wanted to highlight the ways in which the
victim’s accounts were compatible, or incompatible, with what memory theory might expect.
The psychologists also considered briefly the applicability of any reality-assessment crite-
ria. However, all of the approaches require that the statement be relatively lengthy and one
that contains considerable details. Given that the account was rather short, and also given
the psychologists’ general misgivings about assessment approaches, they were reluctant to
engage in any procedures that might suggest the victim was or was not telling the truth.
Next, the psychologists commented directly on whether CIT would be appropriate. They
pointed out that while it was likely that the victim could report more information, the vic-
tim consistently stated that she could not remember any more than she had already said to
the investigator. The psychologists suggested that the CIT is probably better used with
someone who is actually interested in remembering more information and that it might
be a good idea to find out whether the victim wanted to pursue the case further, or not.
Box 4.13 The problem of memory as a lake

There are some major difficulties with any approach that attempts to analyse the contents of a report
(see Bekerian and Dennett 1993). One is the general metaphor of memory as a repository, or
something that things are put into and taken out of, like a lake. This metaphor assumes that the
interviewer ‘fishes’ information out from this repository. Continuing with our rather simplistic fishing
model of memory, the interview process is viewed as something quite passive. All the interviewer
does is ‘hook’ the information. Once retrieved, the reality-assessment procedures can then examine
the information in an effort to determine whether the account has the requisite characteristics
associated with truthful accounts. While we do not concern ourselves here with the arguments
against such a metaphor, we do suggest that this view leads to an overly simplistic assumption about
how an account is produced. Instead, we suggest that memory, particularly memory for a traumatic
event and memory under police interviewing, is likely to be the result of a combination of factors,
only one of which is the information that the person might be able to retain. These other factors
include the interviewer and how he approaches the person; for example whether he is friendly,
aggressive, or suggestive in his questioning. Similarly, the nature of the interview technique will also
largely restrict what the person produces in her account; for example whether the technique is
structured as questions and answers.
68 4 THE CRIME ROOM
The psychologists suggested that the investigator inform the victim that the evidence she
had provided might be too sparse to pursue the case further, particularly as they did not
currently have a suspect in custody. This gave the victim the option of continuing or not,
and would at least serve to empower her.
The psychologists made all recommendations formally in a written report that was given
to the investigator. The psychologists suggested that the victim be informed that they had
been asked to act as consultants and were willing to discuss any details of their report with
the victim.
How was the psychologists’ input assessed?

Upon receiving the report, the investigator asked to see the psychologists to discuss their
recommendations further. In general, the investigator felt that the psychologists had
confirmed what he suspected were difficulties with the case. The investigator informed the
psychologists that he had approached the victim, and suggested that she should try using
the CIT. However, the victim refused and left the country within the following week.
Importantly, the investigator shared some new information with the psychologists: the
victim had been suffering from depression for a number of years, and was on medication.
The victim had failed to inform the investigator of this, as she had been afraid that such a
disclosure would lead people to disbelieve her allegations. This would have been important
information to know from the outset. The case was never solved.
Scenario two
Interviewing children in cases of alleged child abuse
One of the most disturbing problems that faces all societies today is child abuse. Statistical
assessments of exactly how many children suffer abuse, and what type of abuse they suffer,
are difficult, for obvious reasons. For example, not all cases of child abuse are substantiated,
in that the victim’s allegations may never be proven, and hence the allegation will not be
considered bona fide. Equally, many cases of child abuse are simply not disclosed. Another
difficulty is that we may have clear ideas about what constitutes certain kinds of abuse, such
as sexual abuse, whereas we may find it more difficult to identify when emotional abuse
occurs, in spite of the fact that this form of abuse is arguably the most damaging. While the
statistics vary from city to city, from country to country, and from year to year, what is not
in dispute is that child abuse is an international problem. Children are abused regardless of
the culture, society, or socio-demographics of the individual child; and pursuing allegations
of abuse pose highly specific problems for the investigators. The following scenario is based
on the work of Bekerian and Dennett (1996), who used psychological principles to help
inform investigations of child abuse.
In England, many law enforcers were finding investigations of child abuse to be fraught
with difficulties, particularly in the early 1980s. Importantly, there were a number of public
agencies that shared statutory responsibilities for child protection; for example the social
services and the police. Both had independent power to investigate suspected cases of child
abuse and neither was required to operate in conjunction with the other.
Unfortunately, this independence resulted in the proverbial situation where the left hand
did not know what the right hand was doing. In a relatively short space of time there were a
number of notorious cases where dozens of children were taken from their homes on either
the basis of improper interview techniques or the basis of unsubstantiated forensic evi-
dence. Significantly, these actions were unilateral decisions made by one of the statutory
agencies responsible for investigating child abuse. The newspapers and media referred to
the act as one of ‘abduction’, since the children’s homes were raided in the early morning
hours, much in the way that police would raid criminals’ houses! It was later discovered that
there was insufficient evidence to support the majority of allegations of abuse, and that some
of the children had never made allegations in the first instance. Because of the reaction of the
public—as well as those parents who were not guilty of abuse—the government was forced
to consider how changes might be introduced (Criminal Justice Act 1989/1991). These
changes were formally documented in the Memorandum of Good Practice (MoGP; Criminal
Justice Act 1989/1991), which provided investigators with clear guidelines regarding pro-
cedures for interviewing children who allege abuse.
The guidelines were very specific regarding how interviews should be conducted, what
types of questions should be asked, what details must be included in the interview, and so
on. For example, open-ended questions, such as ‘What happened?’, were preferred to direct
questions, such as ‘Did X do this to you?’, or ‘Did Y do this to you?’. These changes were
introduced so as to protect children from the possible effects of misleading questions and to
maximize the child’s ability to report accurately on any alleged abuse. Critically, the guide-
lines stipulated that children alleging sexual abuse should be given the opportunity to be
interviewed on videotape, if that served in the best interests of the child. The function of the
videotape was two-fold. First, a tape would allow the investigator to obtain a coherent
account and importantly preserve the evidence. Second, the videotape could spare the child
the difficult task of providing evidence-in-chief and the trauma of testifying in court, with
the defendant being present.
The guidelines also strongly urged the two statutory agencies to cooperate with each
other. In particular, any video interviews with children should be conducted co-jointly,
with a representative of each statutory agency being present. This working together was seen
to be a way of preventing the pitfalls of unilateral investigations by either agency. The inter-
viewing of children was no longer the exclusive domain of either statutory agency.
One particular county in England was concerned about whether its practitioners and
police officers were making the transition smoothly. Feedback from the local Crown
Prosecution Service (CPS)— responsible for prosecuting cases—had been rather uncompli-
mentary. The CPS complained about the quality of video interviews, and in particular the
quality of children’s accounts. According to the CPS, the poor prosecution rates of the
county were the direct result of the poor video-interviewing skills of the police and social
services. Interviewers were either not following the guidelines or were not able to work with
each other sufficiently so as to successfully interview the child. Either way, it was either
impossible to sustain the charges or secure prosecution on the basis of what was said in
video interviews.

The situation was a serious real-world problem, in that there are grave consequences to any
investigation of an allegation of child abuse. At the time, co-joint interviewing had just
begun and there were no precedents for the police and social services to work so closely
70 4 THE CRIME ROOM
together. Not surprisingly, there were apparent differences in the approaches of the two
agencies. For example, the two agencies often had different goals and statutory responsibili-
ties. The police was responsible for protecting the child, by virtue of establishing evidence
for or against the commission of a crime. In contrast, social services would be primarily
concerned with establishing what interventions would be in the best interests of the child.
A social worker would be less concerned about establishing whether a crime had been
committed, and more concerned about the child’s overall well-being.
The situation also revealed another problem, and this had to do with experience in con-
ducting formal, evidential interviews. The police officers were trained in interviewing in
accordance with the rules of evidence and felt confident about interviewing, although
admittedly apprehensive about the video procedures and about talking to children. In
contrast, social workers felt better equipped and skilled at talking to children, and not
comfortable with conducting an evidential interview, particularly when their police coun-
terparts were present. Given the differences in statutory responsibilities, skills, and train-
ing, the relationship between professionals from different agencies was not always warm
and friendly.
Adding to these tensions was the fact that CPS firmly placed the responsibility for failures
in prosecution on poor joint investigations. The agencies, however, felt that they had pro-
vided sufficient evidence and were consequently surprised that these cases were not prose-
cuted successfully. Given the serious consequences of failing to protect children who needed
help, the problem was of grave concern to all professionals involved.
Why were the psychologists involved?

Trainers and managers from both statutory agencies approached two psychologists who
had experience in working on investigations of child abuse. In particular, the psychologists
had expertise in applied memory issues, including the effects of trauma on child develop-
ment, and had been involved in early pilot schemes on co-joint training. After a preliminary
meeting, the psychologists agreed on an empirical project that focused on three specific,
applied questions. The first concerned how well interviewers were adhering to guidelines.
This was an essential point to address, as CPS had complained that interviewers disregarded
many of the guidelines.
The second question concerned whether interviewers were applying techniques that
were based on sound, psychological evidence. In particular, the psychologists agreed to
assess the interview techniques in relation to the known academic literature on memory
and child development. This was an essential point to consider, since children have differ-
ent abilities to report on events as they develop. The interviewers needed to demonstrate
that they were sensitive to the different developmental changes that occur across
childhood.
The third question focused on recurrent problems that emerged with either special pop-
ulations or specific age groups. Anecdotal evidence suggested strongly that interviewers
were finding certain children difficult to interview in accordance with the guidelines, par-
ticularly those with learning difficulties. The main reasons for these difficulties seemed to
be that the guidelines were designed to operate with children who have a certain level of
linguistic competency and skill. Interviewers felt that the guidelines were biased against
children with special needs. Unfortunately, these children are particularly vulnerable
to abuse.
The psychologists felt that it was essential to consider their results in relation to the
co-joint training programmes that were currently being offered by the county. For example,
the weaknesses and strengths observed in the video interviews might correspond to gaps in
the content and emphasis of training programmes. Once problem areas were identified,
more in-depth training could be provided.
The project proposal was agreed by all agencies. In addition, the psychologists were asked
to comment on specific interviews, for example, on how a particular interview might have
been improved, or how a given interviewer might improve. This required the psychologists
to consider different methodologies, such as qualitative methods like content or thematic
analyses of interviewer–interviewer–child triads.
What psychological concepts are relevant to the problem?

The psychologists knew that the task of interviewing a child, particularly a child who may
have experienced negative or traumatic events, was highly complex. Any number of differ-
ent approaches, and different conceptual frameworks, would be relevant. For example,
the interview can be construed as a social situation, one where the dynamics between inter-
viewers and child directly affect the nature of any account the child might produce. This
constructivist approach would have us consider all social dynamics between dyads and
triads, such as how the interviewers define their roles in the interviews, how interviewers
delegate responsibilities, and so on. However, other conceptual frameworks would be
equally useful. For example, the concepts regarding a child’s moral and emotional develop-
ment, such as the psychosocial developmental stages described by Jean Piaget, or Erik
Erikson, would also be undoubtedly essential to consider. Theoretical explanations regard-
ing the ways in which adults and children interact, such as the different kinds of parenting
that children might have experienced, would also be highly informative. Finally, the psy-
chologists could look at the cognitive approach, and have at their disposal an impressive
amount of empirical literature.
Given the applied questions, the psychologists decided to restrict their review to the
literature on child development, and focus extensively on memory development. Concepts
related to or impacting on memory development, such as the development of different
emotions, were included to the extent that they were relevant.
The restrictions of the investigative procedures meant that only children above a certain
age would be considered as suitable for further investigation; for example children over the
age of three-and-a-half years. So, the applied situation dictated that the ages of interest
would be between three and 16 years. What particular concepts would be important?
It was clear that the task of interviewing involved explicit remembering. Sometimes the
child would be acting in the capacity of a witness, while at other times the child would be the
victim. Significantly, the guidelines required the child to provide an account that demon-
strated that the child could report on major actors (who) and major actions (what), and
could isolate the event in space and time (where and when). Described in these terms, it was
clear that the literature on the development of event-specific and autobiographical memory
needed to be reviewed carefully.
72 4 THE CRIME ROOM
Box 4.14 The development of human beings

Developmental psychology is concerned with the physical, mental, emotional, and social changes
that occur over our lifetimes. Mental changes include those associated with our ability to perceive
objects, our ability to use language, our ability to solve problems, and our ability to acquire and retain
knowledge. There is still debate over whether certain developmental milestones, such as learning
how to talk, are constrained by critical periods or are better understood in terms of sensitive periods.
Critical periods imply that the child must accomplish the milestone within the developmental period,
or be impaired, or subnormal, in their skills or abilities. The notion of a sensitive period is more
flexible, and implies that certain abilities are easier to acquire during periods where the child is more
receptive, but that the child might still be able to reach the normal milestone at a later date. The most
recent evidence suggests that some abilities once thought of as tied to a specific time period can be
acquired later. For example, postnatal depression was once thought to have irreversibly negative
effects on attachment behaviour. This does not seem to be the case (see Barnes 1998). While most of
the dramatic changes occur during our formative years, from birth to early adulthood, it is certainly
true that we change continuously throughout our lifetimes. Most of the early work on human
development started in the later nineteenth century, and was restricted to the changes occurring in
childhood. G. Stanley Hall, at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, USA, is credited with
establishing the first research centre specifically aimed at understanding child development and is
largely acknowledged as the founder of child psychology. Since the 1950s psychologists have
expanded their interests to include developmental changes that occur across the lifespan, including
changes occurring across advanced old age.
Researchers in child development have provided clear demonstrations of children as

young as 30 months having autobiographical memory recall (see Fivush et al. 1996 in their
chapter on memory development). For example, a child of 30 months can give correct and
highly vivid details about a sequence of actions, and interactions between characters in a
favourite film. However, children as young as this would be highly reliant on prompts and
Box 4.15 The development of memory skills

Just as adults show a distinction between different types of memory, so too does child development.
One of the most interesting findings is the relatively early development of recognition memory as
opposed to recall. Recognition memory is characterized by our ability to identify something, or
someone, as ‘old’ or familiar to us, or ‘new’ or unfamiliar to us. It is clear from the developmental
literature that recognition memory is easily intact by the time the child has developed primary
attachments, for example once the child is eight months old. In fact, some researchers argue that
as early as four months, the infant develops object permanence, meaning that the child is able to
recognize and anticipate the constancy of material objects. For example, suppose you play peek-a-
boo with an infant—you pretend to hide behind a piece of paper, and then emerge from behind.
The child is only able to appreciate this social game because they have object permanence. While
recognition memory is one that develops early in infancy, the same is not true for recall, or verbally
reproductive memory.
external cues in order to provide the extensive amount of information that is required to
prove points of law. Thus, while very young children may be able to report on autobio-
graphical events, they fail to achieve the standards set by law.
The literature suggested a certain consensus regarding the development of explicit,
autobiographical memory. It seemed that most researchers agreed the importance of
language development as a signal for the impending development of autobiographical
memory. For example, Howe and Courage, in their 1997 review article, provide an excel-
lent summary of the empirical evidence, suggesting that the child cannot have autobio-
graphical memory until she has a firm concept of I and me. Their argument is that
autobiographical memory requires the development of self-awareness, both as an objec-
tive and subjective agent; and that this development occurs roughly around the time that
the child develops language competency, for example after 24 months. Thus, it seems
that while a very young child can have vivid memories for personal events, these do not
take the form of autobiographical memories, where the child is aware that they are reflect-
ing on their own past. This type of autobiographical memory—where we knowingly
report on our past—is reliable only after the acquisition and development of language
skills.
The literature was also consistent in suggesting that once the child develops good lan-
guage and pragmatic skills—for some children as young as three years—he or she is easily
able to report on autobiographical events in a manner that can include who, what, and
where. Although the type of details and the amount of information increases with age, the
basic structure of the child’s account is not dramatically different from an adult’s.
Provided the child is interested in the event, and is motivated to recall the event, the man-
ner in which the account is constructed will show a familiar pattern to that demonstrated
by adults.
Nonetheless, there are still very important developmental changes that occur in child-
hood. Most of the evidence shows that accounts from a younger child will lack enriched
details, such as contextual embedding. A younger child will also be unable to reproduce
complex sequences and fail to show any sophisticated understanding of the causal rela-
tionship between two events. Again, much of the research has suggested that the young
child is highly reliant on the adult, or interviewer, to produce structured, narrative accounts
of what happened.
The psychologists in this case were particularly interested in the review provided by Ceci
and Bruck in 1993, who showed unequivocally that young children, say four years old, are
highly susceptible to misleading information and suggestions from adults. Furthermore,
Ceci and Bruc (1993) argued that, once young children had been misled, there was very little
that could be done. For example, suppose a child sees an event and we make a misleading
suggestion about a detail, such as a woman’s hair colour. Before we ask the child to recall
what they saw, we give them a warning, saying, ‘some of the information about the woman’s
hair colour might not be correct. Forget what I said and just remember what you saw.’
While adults and older children are able to use this warning, and avoid the misleading
detail, younger children do not seem to be able to use such a warning. It seems very apparent
that young children, those six years and under, would be particularly susceptible to mislead-
ing suggestions about events that did not happen.
74 4 THE CRIME ROOM
Box 4.16 Doing developmental research

A number of different methods are used by developmental psychologists. Some advocate an
observational approach, where the child is placed in a simulated (or real) situation and their
behaviour is observed. A good example of an observational approach is Mary Ainsworth’s Stranger
Situation (see Bretherton and Main 2000 for a good review). The Stranger Situation involves a mother
and infant in a room. The mother leaves and a stranger enters (modern tests assess the child’s
behaviour at this point). The stranger then leaves and the mother returns. The child’s reaction to the
mother, for example seeking physical contact, is assessed. The other method is an experimental
method where the child is placed in a simulated situation and their behaviour is assessed. A good
example of this is the experiments on the theory of mind. For example, a child is shown a box of
crayons and is asked ‘What do you think is in the box?’ Most children respond with ‘Crayons’. The
child is then shown what actually is in the box, a chocolate bunny. When later asked ‘What did you
think was in the box when I first showed it to you?’, some children will respond ‘The chocolate
bunny’. These children do not show that they have grasped the concept of self as being distinct from
the other. Developmental studies also rely on two general types of design: longitudinal and
cross-sectional. A longitudinal design is one where children are followed throughout their
development, for some time span. So, if we want to know how children develop physical skills
between the ages of two and six, we follow the same child, or children, through their development
and repeatedly test their skills. The cross-sectional design uses cohort ages, and compares children at
different developmental ages. Each has their advantages and disadvantages. The longitudinal
approach better identifies the development of specific children, the cross-sectional approach takes
into account cultural differences that might occur during longitudinal studies.

The psychologists were given access to 44 evidential videotapes conducted across a six-
month time frame. This number was consistent with the number of interviews that had been
used in an earlier government audit at the same time (see Davies et al. 1995). All interviews
were with children who were alleging abuse. The interviews were conducted by a single
agency (police or social services) or were conducted co-jointly. All interviewers were con-
sidered to be mature, in that they had experience in videotaping and more generally in child
abuse investigations. General demographic features of the children and the interviewers
were noted, including age of child, length of interview, sex of interviewer(s), dominant
interviewer, multiple or single accusations, and type of abuse. These data were important in
order to compare the findings with the other empirical studies.
The psychologists did not want to know whether the case had resulted in any arrests, or
whether any subsequent prosecution had been successful. The psychologists felt that this
information would have only biased their conclusions. They decided that a good interview
technique was one where the child was given the best conditions under which to disclose a
crime, in the event that a crime has been committed. A good interview technique would
promote a clear, unprompted account, and, at the same time would not bias the child to
produce false accounts. A good interview technique would balance the need to obtain com-
prehensive information with the certain knowledge that children can be misled into saying
things that did not happen.
They then conducted content analyses on the videotapes. Each tape was first transcribed
and, using a time code, broken into scenes, as defined by general topics that were discussed.
This division of tapes into scenes was first done independently by each of the psychologists,
and then in discussion.
A number of factors were documented. One was how well the interviewer adhered to all
guidelines; for example: Did the interviewer stress the importance of telling the truth to the
child? Did the interviewer tell the child what time it was? Interviewer’s questions were also
documented, in terms of both content and type. For example, content analyses revealed
what topics the interviewer had discussed in an effort to develop rapport.
The behaviour of the child was noted in terms of how responsive the child was regard-
ing different types of questioning. The child’s willingness to engage at different times dur-
ing the interview and with different interviewers was also carefully monitored. In
particular, the psychologists observed how effective the interviewer’s style was in engag-
ing the child. This did not mean that the child needed to make a disclosure. Rather, the
psychologists were concerned about how well the interviewers could interact with the
child. The psychologists also paid attention to any glaring problems or if good practice
was outstanding, as well as any recurring patterns. For example, practical problems some-
times prevented the child from being heard, such as microphone not being in a position
to pick up any of the audio. On average, a 20-minute videotape took 10–12 hours to
analyse satisfactorily.
The psychologists provided individual reports for each tape, and also provided a general
report that outlined more general patterns that emerged across all interviews, children, and
interviewers. In addition to specifically addressing the three research questions, the general
report also provided descriptive statistics regarding features of the interviews, like the aver-
age age of the child, as well as statistics regarding lead interviewers. After highlighting gen-
eral problem areas, the report also made specific recommendations regarding the
improvements that could be made in training and in the supervision of investigators of
child abuse.
The report also compared the findings with respect to the government study that had
been conducted. In fact, the two studies were slightly different in their remit. The govern-
ment audit had a much larger, but less detailed, remit: to look at the investigation, prosecu-
tion, and effects on children. In contrast, the psychologists were asked to look exclusively
at the evidential video, without concern for any other evidence, information, or details
about the case. Therefore, the only true comparisons that could be made were with respect
to the characteristics of the population, for example the ages; and characteristics of the
interview, for example how many social workers conducted the interviews compared with
police officers.

The project and its recommendations were assessed in two different ways. One was based
on the reactions of the interviewers. All practitioners and investigators who had partici-
pated in the project were given the opportunity to meet with the psychologists in order to
give their opinions on any aspect of the project. Uniformly, the practitioners and investi-
gators involved felt that the research provided them with some objective assessment of
76 4 THE CRIME ROOM
their strengths and weaknesses. This was significant to them, as all expressed the great need
to get more direct input, and receive comments on their interview techniques. The practi-
tioners and investigators also commented that the research project had given them the
opportunity to air their views, and this too was sorely needed.
A second, more formal, assessment came, indirectly, through an independent govern-
ment audit of different counties’ training programmes for co-joint investigations. The audit
was designed to assess the extent to which competency criteria in training had been intro-
duced, and also wanted to document any research that had been commissioned by the
county agencies. The main aim of the audit was to inform future government curricula
regarding training for child abuse investigations. A very well-known professor, who was an
expert in the area of applied memory problems, was responsible for leading the audit team.
As part of their larger remit, the audit team reviewed the project, including the recommen-
dations for changes in training, and confirmed that they were compatible with the intended
government curricula.
Importantly, the major recommendations that the psychologists made about training
were implemented by the statutory agencies. All co-joint training came to include a review
of important issues in child development and a review of cognitive theories of memory and
the experimental evidence on event memory. This meant that any investigation of child
abuse would be informed by the best current psychological literature. In this way, the project
could be considered a success, as it helped to encourage professionals to integrate psycho-
logical principles in investigations of child abuse.
Additional reading
Arrigo, B.A. (2000) Introduction to Forensic Psychology: Issues and Consequences in Crime and
Justice. Academic Press, London.
An authoritative recent review of major issues involved in forensic psychology.
Gudjonsson, G. and Haward, L. (1981) Forensic Psychology: a Guide to Practice. Routledge, London.
A comprehensive introduction to forensic psychology and its practices.
Jackson, S. and Bekerian, D.A. (eds) (1997) Offender Profiling: Theory, Research and Practice.
John Wiley, Chichester.
This book is recommended for readers who are particularly interested in offender profiling.
Wells, G.L. and Loftus, E.F. (eds) (1984) Eyewitness Testimony: Psychological Perspectives.
Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
An essential tool for those interested in the problems of eyewitness testimony.
http://agora.stanford.edu/sjls/Issue%20One/fisher&tversky.htm
This offers the reader an opportunity to review recent considerations of the problems with eyewitness
testimony.
www.EzineArticles.com
This is a good website to find general articles about the unreliability of eyewitness testimony.
http://student-guide-to-forensic-psychology.blogspot.com
This website is extremely useful for finding out general topics and programs in forensic psychology.
Questions
Scenario one
1. How might this case help the police officer to improve his general questioning techniques with
victims and witnesses? Topics include transfer effects, learning to learn, generalization curves.
2. What other factors might the psychologists have considered? Topics include the impact of drugs on
memory, techniques used in distinguishing truthful from falsified accounts.
Scenario two
1. What were the benefits of using more than one methodological approach? Topics include distinc-
tions between experimental and qualitative methodologies, general laws of human behaviour,
subjective phenomenological experience.
2. Were there any serious theoretical omissions in the work? Topics include matching the learner
with the learning style, differences in competencies for different professionals, use of longitudinal
studies.
5 The court room
In this chapter we consider psychology’s contribution to the criminal justice system.

We first give some background about the functions and processes of the court. We
then look at a way of categorizing the interface between psychology and the law,
before proceeding to examine a few examples of the way in which psychologists
have influenced criminal procedures. As before, the psychologist can adopt a clini-
cal, experimental, actuarial, or consultant approach, or some combination of these.
The chapter highlights the many and diverse applied roles that psychologists can
adopt within the general context of the court, and the extensive range of empirical
and theoretical psychology that underpins them.
Functions of the court

The functions that the court fulfils, and the processes that it uses to execute its functions, will
shape the nature of the roles that psychologists can play in the court room. Two very differ-
ent systems operate, as we will now illustrate.
Regardless of the country in which it is located, the court room gives the state the
opportunity to accuse an individual of a criminal act (or acts). The state presents evidence
that supports the charges, and the accused or their representative provides evidence to
counter the claims made. Jurisprudence ensures that certain procedures are followed in
order that the due process of law is maintained. However, there are vital differences in
jurisprudence across countries and these differences will influence the characteristics of
the court room. Scotland, for example, allows for the distinction of three verdicts, in con-
trast to England’s guilty and innocent verdicts: innocent of the charges, guilty of the
charges, and not proven.
The adversarial system

There are two general types of justice system that are used in countries of the Western world,
the adversarial system, and the inquisitorial system (see the next section). Adversarial sys-
tems are used, for example, in the USA, the UK, Canada, and Australia. The adversarial
system pits one adversary against the other (i.e. prosecution versus defence). Each side is
required to present evidence to a judge and jury, which generally comprises representative
80 5 THE COURT ROOM
members of the society, or a ‘jury of one’s peers’. The jury are responsible for evaluating the
evidence and returning a verdict. The presumption of innocence (i.e. that the defendant
is innocent until proven guilty) is a consistent feature across all countries that use an adver-
sarial system.
The adversarial system involves a judge who, in the case of a jury trial, serves to assist the
jury with information regarding legal procedures, instructions regarding verdicts, the status
of evidence, and so on. The judge also represents the final decision-maker, as it is they who
determine the sentence of the defendant. The judge can also act as an interpreter of the law
when pronouncing a sentence. While the law provides the rules for society’s conduct, the
courts can execute a degree of discretion when sentencing an individual and thereby help to
shape these rules. The psychologist’s expertise may be invaluable in helping to inform a
judge’s decision making, particularly when questions of recidivism arise (see Jackson and
Bekerian 1997 for more detailed discussions of this point).
The inquisitorial system

An inquisitorial system, as used in most European countries, shares some of the features of
the adversarial system. Evidence regarding the charges is presented to the court (e.g. by
prosecution and defence counsel) as in the adversarial system. However, the court operates
on the assumption of guilt, with the defence responsible for proving the defendant’s inno-
cence. In many cases the defendant is tried without a jury. Instead, a judge (or panel of
judges) evaluates the evidence, determines the verdict, and sentences the defendant. It
should be noted that in certain jurisdictions within the UK the government departs from its
normal system of justice and, unusually, adopts an inquisitorial system. An example of this
was seen in the trials involving terrorism in Northern Ireland.
The type of justice system will help determine the nature of the psychologist’s involve-
ment. For example, in an adversarial system, the psychologist may be asked to provide
expert opinion to either the defence or the prosecution. This raises the possibility that the
psychologist will become a partisan advocate and be inadvertently biased to form conclu-
sions that support the contentions of the counsel requesting their assistance. This is not
Box 5.1 The jury concept

The jury concept arguably has its origins in the Magna Carta, 1215. One article of this charter forbade
the punishment of any free man without the consent of his equals. The intention was to judge the
justice of the punishment, not the guilt or innocence of the accused. This was meant to curtail the
power of the sovereign. The notion of selecting at random a panel of peers and equals, from among
citizens judged to be a comparable group to the accused, was first enshrined in the American
Constitution and became the basis of jury selection in all English-speaking countries. The right of
defence and prosecution to reject unsuitable jurors (i.e. biased jurors) is in effect a judgement of the
issue of comparability. In some cases defendants may opt to be tried by a judge in the absence of a
jury, if they feel that a jury would be swayed by spurious arguments. This is also a right embodied in
the court procedures.
FUNCTIONS OF THE COURT 81
Box 5.2 Historical background of the judicial systems

Both the adversarial and the inquisitorial systems have very ancient roots. The inquisitorial system is
founded on civil law; that is, on a system of laws established by the state and written for all to read.
The civil code in force throughout most of Europe was first put in place by the Emperor Justinian,
known to historians as the Law Giver, in the fourth century ad. His laws derived originally from
Roman law and remained in force throughout the Holy Roman Empire. Later they became the basis
for legal reforms in France under the Emperor Napoleon. As most of Europe eventually fell under his
rule, the Napoleonic Code became the basis of law. In a system based on the concept of civil law the
primary function of the courts is not to ensure that the law is interpreted correctly, but that it is strictly
upheld. The arguments of both defence and prosecution are directed at this outcome. The adversarial
approach derives from common law; that is, from a body of loosely defined ideas of natural justice
and fairness generally accepted by the community. It became the basis of legal process in England,
during the thirteenth century, when Henry II established the first circuit courts, presided over by
itinerant judges whose aim was to clarify and standardize local court practices to conform to the
common law. The ideas invoked in common law are written about, but not usually written down.
Hence, the main function of the courts is to decide how justice has been achieved in the past in
similar cases, and the arguments of both counsels are directed at interpretation of earlier findings or
precedents. Thus the terms inquisitorial and adversarial, and the approaches they represent, can be
seen to originate in profoundly different concepts of law, not merely in differences of procedure.
surprising as the psychologist will be aware that counsel wishes to have the psychologist’s
support or endorsement. This can result in an overstatement, or an over-generalization, of
the psychological findings. Psychological knowledge is rarely as absolute as legal counsel (or
the law) might ideally desire. In contrast, an inquisitorial system affords the psychologist the
opportunity to be appointed as a friend of the court, or amicus curiae. Freed from any alle-
giance to either adversary, the psychologist may thereby be able to provide a more balanced
view of the evidence.
In recognition of these concerns the British government commissioned the Woolf Report
(1996), the recommendations of which have led to new rules of court known as the Civil
Procedure Rules, 1998. Lord Woolf’s objective was ‘to enable the courts to deal with cases
justly’ (Statutory Instruments 1998, no. 3132 (L.17)) by reducing the adversarial nature of
civil proceedings, thereby making litigation fairer, faster, cheaper, and more accessible. In
pursuit of this end, Lord Woolf recommended limiting the scope of expert witnesses in vari-
ous ways. One of the provisions of the new rules is that wherever possible expert witnesses
in civil cases (including psychologists) are to be appointed jointly by both parties. Where
the parties are unable to agree on a witness, the Court can appoint one. The function of the
expert witness is to assist the Court and their duty is therefore clearly to the Court rather
than to the instructing solicitors. Opinions expressed by the expert witness need to be
impartial and objective. Civil cases most frequently employing psychologists at present are
those concerned with compensation for personal injury. For example, a defendant may
claim that they have post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as the result of an accident and
the psychologist is called upon to make a clinical assessment of the validity of this claim,
based on interviews and appropriate tests.
82 5 THE COURT ROOM
Box 5.3 Victim impact statements

A victim impact statement (VIS) is a written or oral statement that affords the victim or their family the
opportunity to voice physical, emotional, psychological, and economic repercussions that the crime
has had on the victim/family, prior to the sentencing of a defendant (Davis and Smith 1994a). VISs are
used by the US federal government and military, as well as 33 of the 38 states that allow the death
penalty (Blume 2003). Forty nine (49) states also allow some sort of victim impact evidence in
non-capital cases (Mullholland 1995). VIS was in part the consequence of the criminal justice system
began affording more rights to victims, while at the same time still protecting the rights of the
defendant (Roland 1989). For example, the use of VIS during the sentencing phase of a trial increased
dramatically since the Victim Rights Movement (Davis and Smith 1994b). One of the major concerns
with the VIS is the issue of whether the procedure compromises the constitutional rights of the
defendant (Luginbuhl and Burkhead 1995). Additionally, the evidence is equivocal as to whether VISs
actually afford any greater satisfaction to the victim (Davis and Smith 1994a).
Psychological issues involved in the court room

Regardless of the justice system, there is extensive overlap in the issues that emerge from the
court room, and we will now consider some of these. We first outline the different stages of
the judicial process that psychologists might be involved with. We then go on to examine
the different approaches that characterize the psychologist’s roles within the court room.
The issues that arise, both theoretical and practical, are traditionally viewed as belonging
to the domain of forensic or criminological psychology. For the student who is particularly
interested, Gisli Gudjonsson and Lionel Haward, both of whom are widely experienced in
the area, have provided a practical review of this branch of psychology (Gudjonsson and
Haward 1981).
Forensic psychology encompasses the pre-trial, trial, and post-trial phases of the judicial
process. The issues involved in pre-trial phase include those concerned with plea-bargaining,
false confessions, and fitness to stand trial. Issues during the actual trial include the nature
of questions used during cross-examination, reliability of witnesses, and jury decision
making. Finally, the post-trial phase introduces issues of sentencing and mitigation, as well
as those concerned with rates of recidivism. As can be seen, these issues arise from a variety
of concerns.
Within the general context of the court room, the psychologist can adopt one or more of
a number of approaches.
1. The clinical approach is when the psychologist gives an expert opinion regarding
normative psychological states (e.g. psychological testing for clinical depression). The
emphasis is on assessment of normality, relative to some standardized measures or set
of theoretical concepts. Abnormal psychology and personality theory will inform the
psychologist acting from a clinical approach.
2. The experimental approach may similarly have the psychologist acting as an expert
witness. However, the issues here will concern the empirical psychological research, or
psychological literature, that pertains to a particular legal procedure. For example, the
PSYCHOLOGY IN LAW 83
psychologist may report empirical data on false memories in order to help inform the
court whether the defendant is falsely confessing to charges as a result of police
procedure, or prosecution coercion.
3. The actuarial approach is valuable in the context of interpreting large data sets and
deriving predictions about behaviour (e.g. the risk of re-offending). Generally, an
actuarial approach requires the psychologist to have expertise in statistical analyses,
particularly those that are relevant to larger data sets (e.g. multiple regression, factor
analyses, analysis of covariance).
4. Finally, psychologists can adopt the consultant approach, where they offer assistance
with decisions regarding evidence, interviews, or selection techniques.
Two of the categories defined by Craig Haney, and discussed in the previous chapter (psy-
chology in law versus psychology and law; Haney 1980), offer a convenient framework within
which to examine the issues arising from the interface between psychology and the law.
Psychology in law
In this section we examine a number of examples of the way in which psychologists contrib-
ute to the judicial process. In the following, we include a consideration of such topics, like
plea-bargaining, false confessions, and risk assessment.
Psychology in law represents those situations where psychologists provide their expertise
as an intrinsic part of the normal procedures of the law itself. For example, the court may
need to be convinced that a defendant is mentally competent to stand trial. The psychologist
may provide the court with an expert opinion, either in the form of formal assessments and
reports (see Scenario two, pp. 95–100) or by presenting their opinion in court as a witness.
Plea-bargaining
One of the most popular topics within the court room that illustrates psychology in law con-
cerns the study of plea-bargaining. Plea-bargaining represents a significant component of
the criminal justice system. The defendant is given the opportunity to enter a plea of guilty in
exchange for some compromise from the prosecution, either in the form of reduced charges,
reduction in the number of counts, or a recommendation for lenient or alternative sentenc-
ing. While it is difficult to estimate accurately the percentage of cases that involve some form
of plea-bargaining, one authoritative study places the figure as high as 90 per cent. On first
inspection, plea-bargaining appears to offer advantages to both defendant and prosecution.
The act of pleading guilty to a crime essentially results in the defendant waiving all rights to a
trial. The defendant is thus allowed to forego the potentially disastrous consequences of a
trial. The prosecution avoids the possibility of defeat, always a potential outcome in any trial,
and, importantly, saves the state the responsibility of paying for costly trial proceedings.
However, legal experts and forensic psychologists have long been concerned about the
dangers involved in plea-bargaining. The major concern centres on the essential require-
ment that the defendant is competent to enter a guilty plea. The question is whether the
defendant rationally enters a plea, or whether the plea is the result of the defendant’s fear,
84 5 THE COURT ROOM
played upon by the prosecution. Most authors stress the importance of examining the cir-
cumstances under which a plea-bargain is made. For example, Arrigo (2000) points out that
a guilty plea may be the result of the defendant wishing to avoid a less-favourable outcome,
rather than a logical, positive decision. Practices of overcharging (i.e. charging the defend-
ant with the maximum number of crimes associated with the defendant’s actions) and over-
recommending (i.e. the suggestion by the prosecution that a more severe sentence will
result) are prevalent in criminal investigations. Such coercive tactics may be sufficient to
frighten the defendant into pleading guilty to the charges.
False confessions
The focus of psychology in law also covers the study of false confessions. The issues here are
conceptually similar to those discussed for plea-bargaining. As before, due process of law
requires that the defendant’s confession is one based on the fact of guilt, rather than coercion.
Gudjonsson (1992) suggests that false confessions must be viewed as an interaction between
individual and situational factors, the latter of which includes the social and cultural con-
texts. Empirical research has focused on identifying individual differences, using both prison
populations and undergraduate populations. Some of the psychological factors that have
been identified include intelligence, anxiety, antisocial personality characteristics, and a pre-
vious history of substance abuse. More recent research by forensic psychologists suggests
that the extent and severity of an individual’s offending will be a further discriminating factor
for people who falsely confess.
False memories
One area of memory research that is particularly relevant to discussions of false confessions
pertains to the study of falsely created memories. Experimental psychologists have examined
Box 5.4 Varieties of false confession

The literature on false confessions suggests that there are three categories of false confession, and
each has different psychological implications. The first represents situations where the defendant
makes a false confession without any obvious external pressure. For example, the person makes
self-incriminating statements in order to protect a loved one. The second classification is a coerced
confession where the person believes in their innocence. The person complies with the pressure to
confess in the hope that a confession will reduce negative, or enhance positive, outcomes (e.g. a
reduced sentence or reduced charges). Under these circumstances, there is a real possibility that the
confession is based on fear rather than a rational decision. The third classification is what some
authorities identify as coerced internalized confession. This is a disturbing state where the individual,
although innocent, comes to believe that they have committed the offence. Individuals with mental
health problems or psychiatric disorders may be particularly sensitive to coerced internalized
confessions. In part, the justice system has recognized this in England through the passing, by
Parliament, of the Bill Achieving Best Evidence with Vulnerable Witnesses and Victims 2001.
PSYCHOLOGY IN LAW 85
the extent to which people can be convinced that something happened to them when in fact
it did not. This research typically involves asking participants to report on a number of per-
sonal or autobiographical events. The experimenter then introduces a false event and asks
the person about it (e.g. ‘tell me about the time that you got lost at the zoo’). Importantly,
the event must be one that fits into the person’s life narrative; that is, is consistent with gen-
eral world knowledge and personal schemas. The event must generally be endorsed by some
authority figure, thereby confirming to the person that the event did indeed happen.
Another aspect of this research methodology is that the person is questioned repeatedly
about the event over a number of recall sessions.
On the whole, the research has consistent results. People start reporting on the event that
never occurred, and provide a range of details in their accounts of it. Thus, a person can be
misled into believing that they experienced, or did something, that did not happen.
Experimental psychologists argue that if, under these relatively innocuous circumstances,
people can be misled into reporting on false events, the chances of this occurring under
conditions of distress (e.g. police interrogation), or other emotionally charged situations
(e.g. counselling, see ‘The treatment room’, Chapter 8), are uncomfortably high.
There are serious caveats that must be placed on any conclusions drawn from experi-
mental research, particularly if one wishes to generalize to real-life conditions of false
confessions. First, not everyone gets misled. Some people are highly resistant to any false
suggestions, regardless of the conditions. This clearly indicates that an examination of
individual differences is absolutely essential. Research on individual differences had a
Box 5.5 How reliable is your memory?

One of the most important distinctions that psychologists make when they discuss episodic or event
memory is the distinction between reproduction and reconstruction. The difference reflects the extent
to which the person’s memory report is distorted by their prior knowledge, or schematic knowledge.
When someone is engaged in the act of reproductive remembering, their memory report is generally
restricted to details that actually occurred in the event, and their intent is to provide an accurate
description of what they can remember of the event. While such remembering can be incorrect, the
nature of the errors is not linked to the person’s schematic knowledge of the event. The classic
empirical examples of reproductive remembering are verbal learning studies, in which nonsense
syllables were used (e.g. Postman and Underwood 1973). Part of the reason that psychologists used
nonsense syllables was to prevent any real-world knowledge, or schematic information, from
contaminating the person’s memory. In contrast, when someone is engaged in the act of
reconstructive memory their memory report is biased by their schematic knowledge. While the
person may want to provide an accurate account, what they know should happen rather than what
actually happened will influence their report. For example, reproductive recall processes are probably
dominating when we attempt to remember exactly what we wrote down on our shopping list that we
accidentally left at home! On the other hand, if we decide to buy something on the basis of our
memory of what we usually need, we are relying on schematic knowledge and are using more
reconstructive recall. Ulrich Neisser (1981, 1984) uses the terms ‘literal recall’ and ‘constructive recall’,
respectively, and concludes that most of our remembering in everyday life is governed by processes
of constructive recall, rather than literal recall.
86 5 THE COURT ROOM
considerable impact on psychological theorizing in the late 1960s and early 1970s and
these studies included measurements of suggestibility, a dimension that is heavily
involved in false-memory phenomena.
Second, not all situations are equally believable, or plausible, as false suggestions. One
factor that may be important is the extent to which the person is confident regarding the
false event, or false information. A good example of this is a study on Bugs Bunny and
Disneyland. The experiment demonstrated that many people could be misled into believing
that they had interacted with Bugs on a visit to Disneyland, in spite of the fact that Bugs
Bunny is a Warner Brothers cartoon character, and hence could not possibly be anywhere
near Disneyland. However, it could be argued that not many people accurately remember
Bug’s affinity with Warner Brothers prior to the suggestion. Thus, the false suggestion that
Bugs belongs to the world of Disney would not conflict with any strong factual memory.
Similarly, provided the person had been to Disneyland, the false information does not con-
tradict their known history. Further, the results suggest that a person’s report on a false
event may contain some correct personal information. This means that the report, while
based on a false event, can nonetheless reflect accurately on a person’s own history.
Assessment of risk
Another prominent example of psychology in law is risk assessment, and how it can be used
to help inform the courts regarding sentencing. It is of obvious importance that sentencing
takes into account the likelihood of an individual repeating the crime, or being a threat to
themselves or society at large. Ideally the court would like to know whether the defendant is
likely to commit the same offence again, or another offence, and when they might be likely
to do so. It is here that a psychologist’s expert opinion can have a huge impact on the severity
of the sentence imposed.
Risk assessment can be based on the clinical approach (i.e. the psychologist’s clinical
experience), the experimental approach (i.e. use of empirical research and literature), or on
the psychologist’s expertise in interpreting data sets that pertain to the crime. For example,
the defendant’s score on a standardized test that is known to be correlated with recidivism
(the actuarial approach) can be used in this way. As is often the case, different experts do not
agree whether one approach is more or less problematic than the other. For example, the
clinical approach is partly based on the psychologist’s professional training and experience
with particular clients. As professional experience is so variable, the psychologist’s opinion
might not be one that is shared by most colleagues.
The actuarial approach is based on interpreting large data sets, and consequently might
appear to have more scientific credibility. However, a number of serious criticisms can be
made. First, the non-psychologist (i.e. the court) does not necessarily find statistical con-
cepts (1999) easy to assimilate into the legal framework. For example, Roesch and colleagues
argue that one of the quintessential differences between law and psychology is in terms of
the concept of certainty versus that of probability. Second, the data are usually based on
psychological tests, which in turn may be criticized. As some of the most common tests rely
on the skill of the examiner (see Scenario two, projective tests, pp. 95–100), they cannot be
regarded as infallible implements. Third, the psychologist bases their opinion on an inter-
pretation of the data which, by definition, is limited to central tendency, or normative values.
PSYCHOLOGY AND LAW 87
This means that the psychologist is basing their opinion of the defendant on what most
people might or might not do. This is not a problem found with clinical approaches. Quite
the contrary, the clinical approach, like the law, considers only those facts relevant to the
specific case in question.
Regardless of their approach, the psychologist can never predict any individual’s behav-
iour with complete certainty. Melton and colleagues (1997) suggest, in their influential text-
book, that the most important issues concern how to make the expert’s opinion more
accurate. There are a number of factors that are likely to be important. The accuracy of risk
assessment will be a function of dynamic, interactive factors, which pertain to the individ-
ual, the justice system, and the individuals operating on behalf of the justice system, as well
as more general social factors, such as religion, culture, and political climate.
Psychology and law

In this section we principally look at psychology’s contribution to helping the court under-
stand that the way in which questions are phrased contributes to the way they are answered.
We have used this example to illustrate the second category of interface between law and
psychology.
The category of psychology and law refers to the psychologist’s role in monitoring legal
processes from outside the system. For example, there are circumstances where their exper-
tise is used to identify potential miscarriages of justice that are occurring as a consequence
of legal procedures. The psychologist still acts as an expert witness; however, the expert
opinion concerns the interaction between psychological processes and legal procedures. In
particular, legal procedures are challenged in terms of whether they have or have not
resulted in any potential biases that could lead to miscarriages of justice. Essentially, issues
emerging under the heading of psychology and law are those designed to challenge legal
rules and procedures, and induce change.
Asking the right question

One of the most interesting areas to develop from psychology and law concerns the experi-
mental work on questioning techniques. Much of the earlier work focused on the tech-
niques adopted by the police while interviewing defendants in custody. More recent
evidence has considered the manner in which witnesses, plaintiffs, and victims are ques-
tioned in the court room during both direct examination (i.e. evidence-in-chief) and cross-
examination. Hovarth et al. (2011) examined the structure of questions used during rape
trials and found that question styles tended to restrict the range of possible responses, and
hence did not promote the most complete, or accurate, accounts from the witness. For
example, ‘Did you have a lot to drink or was this just a normal night out?’ cannot be
answered accurately without adding other alternatives. Too often, in a sensitive interview
situation, the person being questioned is unable to offer the more meaningful alternatives
out of fear, shyness, or embarrassment. This restrictive style of questioning was used with
both complainants and defendants. The authors suggest that more open-ended styles
of questioning should be utilized, particularly by the prosecution. Open-ended styles of
88 5 THE COURT ROOM
questioning, such as ‘How much did you have to drink?’, afford the opportunity to report
evidence without an external bias. With more open-ended questions, the possibility of
evidence remaining relatively uncontaminated is greater. Judgement based on an open-
ended questioning style is obviously better for the legal system, members of society, and
the individuals involved in the case.
Inevitably, Haney’s classifications of psychology in relation to the law are difficult to dis-
tinguish in practice. Nonetheless, the classifications are useful as they serve to unify what
has become a rapidly growing discipline. Research, and the resultant literature on law and
psychology, are growing at astonishing rates, so that some integration and organization of
topics is essential. Similarly, psychologists now play an increasingly significant part in the
court room and this has given rise to an increasing number of roles as they become major
players. It is essential to maintain some way of understanding and integrating what these
diverse roles have in common.
The ‘expert’ witness

In this section we highlight some of the issues that can arise with the psychologist’s role as
an expert witness. In particular, we note the difficulties in defining and accrediting expert-
witness credibility.
Whether a psychologist is regarded as an expert witness depends in part on the justice
system, and in part on the individual judge. For example, courts in the USA admit expert
evidence from cognitive psychologists on memory issues, while English courts are much
less likely to rule that memory issues require expert evidence. In circumstances where a
psychologist does provide an expert opinion, it is essential that the psychologist is, indeed,
an expert. This begs the question of who is an expert, and what are the criteria necessary to
regard oneself as an expert. Standardizing the criteria is a problem that continues to concern
legal professionals, professional organizations, psychologists, and the general public.
Most professional bodies and organizations agree that an expert must have completed
appropriate, formal training in some psychological domain. Various professional bodies,
such as the American Psychological Association (APA) and the British Psychological
Society (BPS), are designated as accrediting bodies for formal training programmes in dif-
ferent divisions of psychology, such as research, clinical, and forensic. To become a char-
tered psychologist with the BPS an applicant must demonstrate that the necessary academic
qualifications have been fulfilled. For those readers who are interested in a career in psy-
chology the appropriate organization’s website will give full information (www.bps.org.uk,
www.apa.org).
The expert psychologist in court has been in a rather unique position, at least in the
English courts. Experts were immune: they could quote research and state an opinion, and,
generally, no one could hold them accountable; they were inviolate. Psychologists enjoyed
this status for roughly four centuries. Now, however, things have changed. A new ruling by
a UK Supreme Court has decided that psychologists are subject to litigation in a civil court
by their clients. In short, they can be sued. The Bill has been the subject of extensive discus-
sion and consultation by the BBPS, so that the profession has been able to comment. Not
surprisingly, the reactions have been mixed (see letters to the editor, The Psychologist, 2011,
THE ‘EXPERT’ WITNESS 89
24(5), 328–239). We can see that there is, of course, both a silver lining and a dark cloud to
this situation.
In terms of the former, civil litigation introduces the notion of accountability in a manner
that most people understand (e.g. money; loss of licensure). This should help to maintain
high standards regarding who and what should be involved in expert testimony. Also, the
focus of the Bill seems to be on establishing the reliability and impartiality of expert testi-
mony. This must be welcomed by the profession as psychology, in particular, has suffered
extensively of late, with the rapid development of ‘pop psychology’ from questionable
experts as ‘Dr Tom’ or ‘Dr Truth’. The less favourable outcome is that the psychologist now
becomes more vulnerable to litigation that may be driven by disgruntled clients and their
families. Given that any psychological evidence is subject to interpretation, the expert wit-
ness could become prey to the emotional distress experienced by clients and families who
feel that ‘justice has not been served’. The potential for this situation should not be ignored,
as most litigation (civil or criminal) has serious consequences; and people have sometimes
irrational responses to the outcomes.
The importance of experience

It is widely acknowledged that qualifications alone are not sufficient for a psychologist to
regard themselves as an expert. Formal knowledge alone cannot replace the practical, or
tacit, knowledge that comes with direct experience. The psychologist should also have
experience. Clearly the experience gained must be relevant to the opinion being proffered.
This is clearly advantageous in situations where the expert psychologist adopts a clinical
approach (see Scenario two, below). One would want the psychologist to have experience
in working with the particular client group, before proffering an expert opinion. Similarly,
Box 5.6 The real problems of expert witnesses

Expert opinion is an issue that raises heated debate among professionals in psychology and in law.
Jurors place far too much emphasis on eyewitness statements, in spite of the fact that the
psychological literature is replete with examples of how poor eyewitness accuracy can be (see Kassin
et al. 1989). Similarly, juries assume that witnesses who are highly confident are also likely to be the
most accurate, again in spite of the evidence from psychological studies. In part, it is precisely
because common sense is not necessarily accurate that expert opinion has become so important. For
example, it is essential that both the judge and jury understand how people can come to believe they
know something, when in fact their so-called knowledge is simply the result of some misleading
post-event suggestions by an interrogator (see Loftus 1979). However, there is an inherent problem
when using expert opinion, particularly within the domain of psychology, and this is that no two
experts will necessarily agree! This is the direct result of the nature of the evidence upon which each
bases their expert opinion. Where there is controversy, it is likely that the evidence is equivocal. So,
some literature suggests that eyewitnesses can be highly reliable under stress, whereas other
literature suggests the opposite (again, see Kassin et al. 1989). The outcome is often a battle between
the experts, where one expert argues against the other’s opinion. This divergence in expert opinion
can have the effect of confusing, rather than aiding, the jury’s understanding of important issues, and
inevitably leads to more complex, lengthy, and expensive trials.
90 5 THE COURT ROOM
one would expect that a psychologist acting as an expert within an experimental approach
could demonstrate adequate research experience and an ability to review the empirical
literature, as demonstrated by the publication of peer-reviewed papers. In the same way, a
psychologist providing expert opinion from an actuarial approach would need to have
experience in conducting, interpreting, and discussing complicated statistical analyses
involving large data sets. In most circumstances where a psychologist is claiming to be an
expert, formal training must be accompanied by relevant practical experience in order for
the claim to be justified.
Both training and experience can be assessed and quantified, so some of the criteria
regarding experts could be reliably specified. However, there is still the problem of decid-
ing who should hold the accrediting power. There are many professional bodies within
psychology, each adopting a slightly different set of criteria for professional accreditation.
The question of whether one accrediting body is better than another is difficult to answer.
Some employers may prefer a particular accrediting body because of historical links.
Importantly, the salaries offered by employers will depend on the nature of the accredita-
tion held by the psychologist. Eventually, the issue of accreditation is likely to require gov-
ernment regulation, given the rate at which psychologists from all disciplines now operate
as experts in the courts.

Scenario one
The use of juries in complex litigation
The literature on juries is a fascinating mixture of topics. Much of the research has used
simulations, based on the use of mock juries, due in part to the restrictions that are placed
on jury research. In England, for example, jurors are prohibited from discussing any aspects
of a trial. Some studies have looked at issues of comprehension and understanding; for
example, the effects of judicial instructions on jury comprehension. Other studies have
focused on the make-up of a jury, identifying factors that might contribute to a juror’s deci-
sion making; for example, the effects of social conformity or the attractiveness of the defend-
ant. Being tried by a jury of one’s peers is assumed to be one of the most steadfast
characteristics of the adversarial system. This scenario challenges this by examining the
effectiveness of peer juries in complicated litigation. The scenario is interesting in that not
only does it directly address the effectiveness of a peer jury, it also involves a group of psy-
chologists rather than a single psychologist. The issues raised in this scenario represent most
of the mainstream areas in cognitive psychology.

The 1980s in England reflected a time in which people, particularly those who had been
educated, were interested in making money fast, in big city deals and share trading (reflected
in films such as Wall Street). Not surprisingly, the occurrence of so-called white-collar
crimes increased in parallel (e.g. corporate fraud, stocks and shares embezzlement).
Significantly, changes in trading and developments in technology meant that white-collar
crimes became highly technical, where money would not only change hands but also change
shape (e.g. stocks, then liquid assets, then overseas bonds, then dot.com businesses, etc.).
Because of the increasing complexity of these types of crimes, investigations and prosecu-
tions were better led by people who had similar training, or expertise in the area; for exam-
ple, elite investigative teams specializing in complicated fraud cases (the Flying Fraud
Squad). While the number of such investigations, and subsequent arrests, continued to
increase, there had been an overwhelming failure to convict successfully in these compli-
cated fraud cases. Not surprisingly, prosecutors were called upon to justify the poor convic-
tion rates. They argued that the police was providing adequate evidence to convict, and that
they, the prosecutors, had presented the evidence clearly. The problem was with the jury.
Much of the evidence in complicated fraud cases required the juror to follow extensive
and complicated ‘money trails’. The evidence was numerical, with graphs, tables, pie charts,
and other types of diagram (e.g. flow diagrams) illustrating the trail of money. Having a
good working knowledge of business and money transactions, and being comfortable with
numbers, could almost be regarded as a necessity. Prosecutors argued that while most jurors
were undoubtedly numerate, few had the background and expertise to comprehend the
evidence. Because the jury failed to understand the evidence, they naturally returned
verdicts of ‘not guilty’.
Why were psychologists involved?

In 1983, Lord Roskill was asked by the UK Lord Chancellor’s Office to form a committee
(the Lord Roskill Fraud Trial Committee), which would address the possibility of replacing
peer juries in cases of complex and complicated fraud, such as corporate fraud. Professionals
from law, psychology, and sociology were asked to participate in a forum to discuss the
various issues raised. The psychologists who were present raised their concerns that the
extent of the jurors’ problem had not been established. The assumption had been that
because jurors could not comprehend the evidence they were returning verdicts of not
guilty. However, the psychologists pointed out that this had not actually been established.
The basis for not-guilty verdicts might or might not have been related to the jury’s under-
standing of the evidence. The committee agreed that this was a basic question that needed
addressing and asked the psychologists to present a research proposal outlining how it
might be examined.
This situation represents a stunning example of psychology and law: a normal feature of
the legal system, jury trials, was being examined. The importance of this situation cannot be
overstated. Juries represent an integral component of the adversarial system. Any sugges-
tion of removing them immediately divides opinion. For example, some legal professionals
identify proposals to replace peer juries with panels of experts (or judges) as a risk to justice
(e.g. Rozenberg 2003). It was clear that any recommendations made by the Roskill
Committee could impact dramatically on the future of the legal system.
What psychological concepts were involved?

As the psychologists were focusing on the jurors’ comprehension and understanding of the
evidence, their general questions concerned the information-processing abilities of jurors,
and whether these might be improved. While the views of some members of the legal
profession may dismiss the jury as old-fashioned or naïve, there is ample evidence to sug-
gest that jurors are competent at, and committed to, making informed and balanced
92 5 THE COURT ROOM
Box 5.7 Juries seen through the eyes of the law

The issues raised in this situation go to the heart of the jury concept. While laymen and philosophers
view the jury as the embodiment of democratic process, the legal profession sometimes sees them in
a different light. Neitzel and colleagues (1999), having reviewed the available literature, offer the
frank suggestion that the law actively mistrusts jurors. They are not alone in this observation. Many
authors, including those within the legal world, have raised doubts about the adequacy of juries in
arriving at the truth. Witness one anonymous American critic, a trial judge, who described juries in
the following unflattering terms: ‘We commonly strive to assemble twelve persons colossally ignorant
of all practical matters, fill their vacuous heads with law which they cannot comprehend, obfuscate
their seldom intellect with testimony which they are incompetent to analyse or unable to remember,
permit partisan lawyers to bewilder them with their meaningless sophistry, then lock them up until
the most obstinate of their number coerce the others into submission or drive them into open revolt.’
While this may somewhat overstate the case, others have found more serious grounds for doubt.
Diamond and Casper (1992), writing in the official journal of the Law Society, criticized the ability of
jurors to understand the testimony of experts. Johnson and Wiggins (1994), also addressing the legal
profession, note that the law seems to dismiss juries, assuming that the average juror is incapable of
understanding the more complicated aspects of litigation.
decisions. In fact, some psychologists argue that the average jury, once appropriately
informed, has exactly the same strengths and weaknesses, and is prone to exactly the same
biases, as any panel of so-called experts, or judges. The entire project involved issues that are
in the mainstream in cognitive psychology, and included attention, learning, and memory.
Arguably, when an individual is confronted with a complex situation they are required to
selectively attend to some aspect of the environment and ignore everything else. This con-
cept of selective attention is central to information processing. Concepts that would be
immediately relevant include hypotheses regarding short-term memory and limited
processing capacity. It has been argued that individuals can become overloaded with infor-
mation, particularly when the information is not familiar.
One possibility was that the jurors were finding it difficult to maintain their focused
attention on evidence, particularly if the evidence required the processing of complicated
arguments, or extensive amounts of statistical or numerical information. Another issue
involved examining how the evidence was being presented to jurors with a view to improv-
Box 5.8 The role of attention

Attention has been one of the most frequently studied areas in cognitive psychology. As a topic,
attention was very dominant in theories emerging during the 1960s and early 1970s with theoretical
arguments surrounding the issue of where the bottleneck in attentional processes occurred.
Methodologies that have been developed from research on attention have been particularly
prominent in empirical work on various clinical disorders, such as anxiety disorders. Because of the
precision of experimental work on attention, it has become a favoured area in which to apply new
developments in the careful study of brain functions, using functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) techniques.
ing the jury’s comprehension and understanding, including knowledge acquisition and
retention (i.e. the ability and opportunity to absorb and retain new information).

There were two stages involved. The first required the psychologists to provide a research
document. The research document would outline a number of things: the questions being
addressed; why these questions were important to the main remit regarding jury trials; how
these questions might inform any recommendations regarding jury trials; and how any
research might proceed. This document required the psychologists to review all empirical
and related psychological literature, and provide details regarding how any empirical inves-
tigations might proceed, including the length of time required to complete the project,
costings, and ‘deliverables’.
The research document was prepared by members of the UK Medical Research Council
(MRC) Applied Psychology Unit who had attended the original forum. It comprised a num-
ber of independent research proposals, each taking an experimental approach. All projects
focused on whether a juror’s understanding and knowledge of complex evidence could be
improved. The separate proposals looked at different aspects of the general issues surround-
ing how juries attend, understand, and remember evidence. Robert Logie, John Duncan,
and Alan Baddeley proposed looking at issues of focal attention (Logie et al. 1986). The
argument was that it was important to establish how long a juror stayed attentive to the
evidence. If a juror lost interest and stopped attending within 10 minutes of the trial pro-
ceedings, they would not be expected to return a verdict of guilty, at least not on the basis of
the evidence.
Debra Bekerian and co-workers (1986) investigated the effect that summaries could have
on a jury’s ability to remember evidence. They also examined whether a juror’s retention of
evidence was in any way related to the verdict they returned. As it is impossible for research-
ers to investigate real juries, all projects involved mock jurors. The work focused on the
ability of individuals to remember different types of evidence that might appear in a fraud
trial. The researchers speculated that jurors find some evidence easier to understand than
others (e.g. evidence regarding the defendant’s personality versus evidence regarding tax-
rebate forms). Because of this, they will find the more familiar evidence easier to remember,
and rely differentially on this information when making judgments of guilt. This implies
that some of the evidence, namely that which the jurors found too difficult to remember,
was not being used to informs the jurors’ decision making.
Such questions focus on concepts regarding the facilitative effects of knowledge struc-
tures on memory and the dangers that may result from utilizing existing knowledge struc-
tures. The investigators also questioned how memory for ‘difficult’ evidence might be
supported. They suggested that summaries which repeat key aspects of the prosecution and
defence’s arguments may enable the juror to remember evidence that otherwise might be
too difficult. The use of summaries relies on the notion that memory will be improved
through repetition, or rehearsal. Repeating information should facilitate the jurors’ ability
to remember evidence over the longer term and this would enable the jurors to utilize more
of the relevant evidence when making their decision of guilt.
Another proposal by Logie and colleagues (1986) focused on selective attention. In par-
ticular, they were concerned with identifying lapses of attention. Lapses of attention occur
94 5 THE COURT ROOM
when the individual cannot focus on the environment and becomes mentally distracted.
The investigators were most concerned with first identifying when these lapses occurred,
and second with whether concentration lapses might be remedied by providing jurors with
breaks. Issues regarding concentration and the mental effort required to process unfamiliar
information were also highly relevant.
Alison Black (1986) focused on the presentation of information and particularly on the
effects that prior knowledge can have on the comprehension of information. One question
posed by her looked directly at the effects of providing jurors with a glossary of terms that
would be used during the course of the trial (Black 1986). One of the major problems with
complicated fraud is the terminology used to describe various actions, or assets (e.g. portfo-
lio development). Failing to understand complicated terms obviously would impair a juror’s
ability to assess the evidence. A glossary would provide the juror with prior knowledge of
terms, and serve as a mnemonic for aiding their comprehension. This manipulation was
derived from theories that suggest that prior knowledge can promote new learning by pro-
viding a structure or basis for the integration of the new knowledge.
More generally, issues of how existing knowledge structures can aid the comprehension
of new information were at the heart of these investigators’ concerns. For example, they
were interested in the differential ease in understanding growth in financial assets, when
this growth was displayed as a numerical table versus a pie chart. They suggested that most
people would find a pie chart, which graphically demonstrates changes in size, easier to
comprehend and remember than a comparison of two numbers. Part of the reason for this
is that perceptual size is perceived and understood at a much earlier developmental age than
numerical size. For example, even young children (e.g. aged 4 or 5) will demonstrate differ-
ences in size in their perceptual depictions. In contrast, a child’s ability to use and under-
stand numbers when depicting quantity develops later (e.g. at ages 7 or 8). The manipulations
considered by Black (1986) rely on assumptions that the ease with which people assimilate
new information will depend largely on their pre-existing knowledge structures and the
extent to which the new information is compatible with them.
How was the input of the psychologists assessed?

The Roskill Committee produced a report in 1986, which recommended that two further
bodies be established. One was the Serious Fraud Office, which has now supervised several
complex fraud trials. Its functions include investigation as well as presentation of new cases
and its staff has experts from a variety of fields, including, interestingly, information tech-
nology, as the psychologists had recommended. The other body is a standing advisory panel
that issues recommendations in the form of working papers. These recommendations have
no force in law but serve to advise the courts.
One of the recommendations is that the Rules of Court should expand and formalize
procedures to assess the competence of juries. This would take the form of questionnaires
designed to determine literacy and numeracy. This is not unique. In France, for example,
all the jurors in jury trials must be able to read and write. What is new, however, is the use
of a questionnaire designed specifically for the purpose. Again, this follows from the find-
ings of the psychologists. Another recommendation has been that judges should have the
authority to set time limits on speeches by both prosecution and defence. This recognizes
Box 5.9 Can comprehension be measured?

Comprehension is defined as the person’s ability to understand information. The manner in which
comprehension is assessed generally involves presenting a person with information, and then, some
short time later, asking the person to make judgements or inferences that are based on the
information they received. Accurate inferences, or judgements, indicate that the person has
successfully comprehended the information. For example, suppose the person is given the
information that Tom is 10 years old and has a younger brother. The person may then be asked to
select from the following: (a) Tom is an only child; (b) Tom has no sisters; (c) Tom has at least one
brother. Given the information, option (c) would indicate accurate comprehension. Note that the
other options, (a) and (b), differ importantly in the quality of information they offer. The first flatly
contradicts the original statement and hence relies only on memory. The second (no sisters) may be
either true or false, as it is neither confirmed nor denied in the original. Its correct rejection therefore
relies on both memory and inference.
the important role of attention, and the hazards of compromising understanding when too
much material is presented at once. They further recommend the use of information tech-
nology in the presentation of evidence in a clear fashion by means of flow charts and dia-
grams presented on computer screens.
Most importantly, from our standpoint, the panel explicitly referred to the contribution
of the psychologists from the Medical Research Council Applied Psychology Unit in recom-
mending that juries be provided before the trial with coherent summaries of both the pros-
ecution and the defence cases in order to provide a framework within which their ability to
understand and remember the evidence would be ‘significantly improved’. Finally, and
most importantly in terms of the judiciary process, the panel has advised that further
research should be commissioned on the ability of juries to understand these cases before
sanctioning the removal of juries in complex fraud trials.
Scenario two
A clinical psychologist in court proceedings
Our next scenario is concerned with the role of the clinical psychologist in a personal injury
court case. Occasions arise that call for the input of a clinician, for example when fitness to
stand trial is questioned, where there is a suspicion of mental illness. In the example to be
dealt with here the problem was more specific. It was not a typical case but it raises some
interesting points.

A 24-year-old warehouse worker, claimed that he was the victim of an accident at work. He
reported that a heavy block and tackle came loose and swung towards him, striking him in
the small of his back. He was knocked to the floor but not otherwise hurt and he resumed
work for the rest of the day. Unfortunately, no one had seen the accident and this was to
become a difficulty. In the course of the following week he gradually developed severe back
96 5 THE COURT ROOM
pain. The pain eventually led him to leave his job and seek the state benefits to which he
was entitled.
Two years passed and the patient remained unable to work. His friends suggested that
he take his case to one of the legal firms advertising help with accident claims, on a no-win,
no-fee basis. He was reluctant to do this initially, believing that if he approached his old
firm they would find him a lighter job within the company. In fact, the personnel office
refused to consider him. In the end therefore, he accepted his friends’ advice and decided
to seek compensation.
The legal team notified his former employers of their intention to sue. This brought a
response, which resulted in a meeting between the two teams. At this meeting it was agreed
that it might be advantageous to both parties if they were to settle out of court. As a condi-
tion of this settlement the patient’s employers asked that the case be referred for a medical
opinion. If the case went to court the expert opinion would be available. The medical spe-
cialist chosen was a neurosurgeon with wide experience of back injuries and their associated
neurological deficits.
The request to the neurosurgeon was that he assessed the extent, severity, and probable
cause of the damage claimed. Routine investigations in such a case include the use of X-ray
and MRI, as well as a thorough physical examination. As the neurosurgeon worked in a
large teaching hospital he was also able to call on the expertise of neuropsychologists.
Neuropsychological assessment is increasingly called for in personal-injury litigation.
Indeed, a recent survey showed that legal referrals to neuropsychological services rank third
in frequency after neurological and psychiatric referrals (Sweet et al. 1996). The rapidly
developing discipline of neuropsychology offers a number of specialized tests. These are
mainly aimed at investigating brain function, however, and in this case were all negative.
They did not include a routine psychological assessment, that is, an exploration of personal
and emotional factors.
The routine surgical investigations showed that the patient had a small nodule on one
of his lumbar vertebrae. This could cause pressure on the afferents to the sciatic nerve and
might account for the pain and limitation of function. However, it was impossible to
judge from the X-ray or MRI scan when the small lesion had occurred. It might have been
caused by the accident or by some earlier injury. Furthermore, because there had been no
witness to the accident, the patient could not prove that he had been hurt in the way he
claimed. As he was seeking damages, the real problem was to determine whether his claim
was genuine.
Back pain is very common, particularly among men, and is one of the most frequent rea-
sons for losing time from work. However, as the perception of pain is purely subjective and
is not necessarily related to tissue damage, diagnosis is often difficult. This is particularly
problematic with back pain, and more than two-thirds of patients with lower back pain have
no observable pathology. Back pain is therefore one of the conditions that are referred to
frequently as contested illnesses, which include chronic fatigue syndrome, myalgic enceph-
alomyelitis, and Gulf War syndrome. In these conditions there is a strong belief on the part
of the patient that they are ill, even though health-care professionals are unable to substanti-
ate the illness. In the present patient’s case, as is all too common, his general practitioner
had made no serious attempt at diagnosis and therefore had not referred him for investiga-
tions. Too often, complaints of back pain as the major symptom are simply referred to
pain-management clinics whose function is to help the patient to develop a range of strate-
gies to manage the perceived pain (see Chapter 8).
Where personal injury is involved, there is always a strong possibility of malingering; that
is, the patient pretending to be ill in order to gain compensation. In this case, the lawyers for
the employers would almost certainly try to argue that the patient was malingering in order
to receive a larger sum of money. The fact that the medical evidence was inconclusive would
be likely to strengthen their argument. The neurosurgeon felt troubled by this, as he had
become interested in this patient. He believed him to be honest and sincere in his claims.
Why was the psychologist involved?

The neurosurgeon was aware that his report might be disadvantageous to the patient. As an
expert witness the neurosurgeon was entitled to offer his opinion that the patient’s claim was
genuine, but he felt uncomfortable about giving this opinion without firm evidence to back
it up. His strong hunch was that the story was true, but he could not support it on the basis
of any evidence. In his exasperation, the neurosurgeon had even considered using a so-
called judgement of Solomon and offering to operate on the young man’s vertebrae. If the
patient accepted the offer it would mean that he was mainly interested in returning to a
normal life. However, if he refused the operation, it would suggest that his overriding inter-
est was in the compensation money! Instead, he decided to discuss the case with one of his
colleagues, a clinical psychologist of several years experience.
Although the surgeon respected his colleague, he was frankly sceptical of the value of psy-
chological tests. However, as they talked they both decided that it would be helpful to see
whether a psychological assessment would clarify the issue of possible malingering. If the
psychologist’s assessment suggested that the patient was not malingering, it would strengthen
the neurosurgeon’s case. The psychologist agreed to undertake the assessment. Note that the
psychologist has not been appointed as an expert witness in his own right, but was acting as
a consultant to the expert witness.
The problem for the psychologist now became one of trying to assess whether the patient’s
account could be believed. Unfortunately, there is no psychological test that will examine
this directly (see ‘The war room’, Chapter 7, for a discussion of the lie detector). In any
event, whatever the results of the psychological assessment they would not clarify the real
problem, viz. whether the alleged accident had actually caused the lesion in the spine.
What psychological concepts are involved?

The first concept that is relevant here is the role of patients’ subjective beliefs about illness
and disability. Ecclestone et al. (1997) studied the explanations of chronic pain offered by
patients and by their health-care professionals. Typically, patients regard the cause of their
condition as originating in the body. Often there is a history of injury that originally resulted
in an episode of acute pain, and the patient sees this as the cause of their chronic pain.
However, the professionals tend to view the development of pain from acute to chronic as a
form of dysfunctional reaction. That is, they believe that, in many of these cases, psychologi-
cal or psychosomatic factors maintain the pain.
Worry may also serve to exacerbate and perpetuate the pain, though the patient sees it as
entirely organic in origin. Modem research methods include discourse analysis, in which the
patient’s detailed description of the condition is examined systematically for clues that there
98 5 THE COURT ROOM
is some hidden awareness of the role of stress, childhood experience of illness, or unusual
sensitivity to stressful activities. These analytic methods have evolved from post-modern
theories and methods, and examine the subtext of patient’s accounts. A full description of
these methods can be found in Rogers (2001). In the case of the present patient the psycho-
logical assessment would look for these factors underlying the complaint.
Another psychological concept of relevance here is that of malingering. The term ‘malin-
gering’ normally refers to fairly uncomplicated attempts to feign illness in order to achieve
some gain. It is said to be common in military situations where personnel hope to be excused
duty (in Army parlance it is called ‘swinging the lead’). It is common among children who
want to avoid school and in undergraduates who want to avoid exams. However, there are
more serious forms, two of which, Ganser syndrome and Munchausen syndrome, will be
described here. In the case of the present patient, the psychologist would need to be aware
of them.
The defining characteristic of Ganser syndrome, at interview or in psychological tests, is a
tendency to give seemingly absurd or silly answers to straightforward questions. An example,
often quoted in the textbooks, is the question, ‘How many legs has a horse?’; answer, ‘three’.
This type of response has been called talking past the point because the answer shows clearly
that the patient understands the question; it is not a cognitive disability as such. The answer
makes sense if it is appreciated that it is a near miss. The question is understood and the
answer is in the correct domain but is incorrect in a silly way. Symptoms may also include
inattention and drowsiness, or conversion symptoms; for example, paralysis or loss of func-
tion and rarely, hallucinations. Ganser syndrome is sometimes called prison psychosis
because it occurs more frequently in prison populations where there is a vested interest in
getting special treatment.
Munchausen syndrome is a class of disorders in which the person deliberately causes ill-
ness or self-injury, but denies that they are doing so. They may genuinely be unaware of
their own actions, even of such bizarre ones as eating rotten matter, inhaling noxious sub-
stances, and so on. There is no clear understanding of this condition and it probably ranges
from fully aware manipulations through to deeply unconscious acts. Recently there have
been accusations of Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP) in which parents are accused
of causing illness in their children. This has disturbing similarities to allegations of child
abuse though they need not concern us here. In the present context the psychologist would
need to consider some milder form of the same underlying psychopathology; the possibility
that the injury in question was self-inflicted. Both of these syndromes are often thought to
reflect a need to avoid responsibility.
Finally, the psychologist would need to consider the possibility of a hysterical disorder.
While not regarded as a form of malingering, hysterical symptoms usually stem from an
unconscious desire for gain, demonstrated in the form of physical symptoms.
What did the psychologist do?

First the psychologist decided what psychological tests to use, if any. A recent five-year sur-
vey of clinical practice in the USA (Holub 1992) found that two-thirds of the settings used
the same set of tests: the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Rorschach inkblot test, Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT), and Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test. There has been no comparable study in the
UK but it seems probable that there would be some overlap in those settings using standard
psychological tests. These five tests are all very well known and together they constitute a test
battery.
The MMPI is designed to measure important aspects of personality. It yields a profile of
subtest scales based on established norms. Such tests, based on statistical concepts of nor-
mality, are called psychometric tests. The MMPI consists of a large number (660) of simple
statements printed on cards (e.g. I enjoy a good party). The subject is asked to sort these
cards into one of three piles: agree, disagree, or don’t know. The subtest scales are formed by
adding up the relevant items. For example the item ‘I am a special agent of God’, would be
unlikely to go into the agree category of a normal person. Several items of this sort would fall
into a scale intended to identify psychotic thinking. The test differs from the WAIS (see
below) in that new subscales can be formed from subsets of the existing items. They should
then be standardized on a sample of normal individuals before being widely used.
The WAIS is another psychometric test. It is a standardized intelligence test containing a
number of subtests that yield an estimate of the examinee’s various cognitive abilities, com-
pared to those measured on a very large normative sample.
In contrast to the psychometric tests are the projective tests. In these tests a series of
ambiguous stimuli is presented to the subject who is asked to interpret them, having been
told that there are no right or wrong answers. These tests rely on the so-called projective
hypothesis, which states that faced with an ambiguous stimulus an individual’s response to
it will be determined by their own needs, tendencies, and ‘psychological organization’. This
intuitive concept was gradually developed in the first part of the twentieth century. It was
given formal status by Lawrence Frank (1948) who attempted to examine and clarify its
implications systematically. Whereas various scores can be derived from tests of this type,
they differ from the psychometric tests in that they aim to produce an overall dynamic
picture of the person’s current functioning rather than a numerical comparison with a
normal sample.
The two best-known projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT. In the
former, the subject is presented with a series of 10 symmetrical inkblots and asked to say
what they resemble. A wide variety of responses is possible, ranging from human or animal
shapes to clouds, maps, and so on. The significance of the responses is assessed through
complex procedures derived from personality theory. An advantage of the Rorschach test is
that deceptive responses are easily recognized as such by a trained and experienced exam-
iner. Although the Rorschach test has generated controversies in the past, a recent review
has justified its use (Donnelly 2003). A full discussion of projective tests lies beyond the
scope of this book but a good overview is offered by Semeneoff (1976).
The other well-known projective test, the TAT, uses pictures of undefined persons or
groups of people in deliberately ambiguous situations. The subject is asked to invent a story
about the picture. There are 30 of these pictures and the usual practice is to select, on the
basis of the subject’s age, gender, and problem areas, a subset of relevant pictures. Rather
than yield an overall picture of the personality, this test is used to identify significant themes
in the subject’s experience, such as anxiety or guilt, and to suggest the areas towards which
they are directed.
Finally, the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test presents the subject with a series of eight
very simple geometric forms that they are asked to copy. This test is sensitive to certain types
100 5 THE COURT ROOM
of brain damage, revealed by errors in copying, and is used as a screening test where there is
reason to suspect cognitive deficit. It is peculiarly sensitive to malingering, since the subject
is tempted to produce abnormal designs that are easily recognized as deceptive.
The MMPI, the principal personality measure in the list above, is self-administered and it
has been claimed that this deprives the examiner of the opportunity to assess the truth of the
answers. This is an obvious disadvantage where the truthfulness of the subject is itself in
doubt. For this reason some examiners use the MMPI as the basis for a searching interview
based on the answers given. However, many of the MMPI items are transparent in the sense
that the subject can easily guess their meaning and intent and thus will provide the
answers that they want the examiner to believe. For example, a statement such as ‘I am often
in pain’, that is intended to get at neurotic or hypochondriacal concerns, would not be
answered truthfully by an individual seeking compensation for injury! It has been suggested
by Gacono and Meloy (1994) that tests having high face validity in this way should always
be avoided where the possibility of malingering is an issue.
The psychologist was trained in the use of the Rorschach test and had considerable breadth
of experience in using it. Indeed, he was widely regarded as an expert. In view of the consid-
erations outlined above, he therefore selected the Rorschach test as the principal tool in his
examination of the patient, supplemented by careful interview and discourse analysis. If the
interview suggested specific worries or concerns he would use the TAT to explore them.
Since the young man’s intelligence was not at issue the WAIS was not used. The psychologist
decided that he would only add the Bender gestalt test if the Rorschach test suggested that the
patient’s responses were deceptive, as it would function as an invitation to deceive.
In summary, the clinical psychologist was applying his experience and skill in psycho-
logical assessment to the specific question asked by the neurosurgeon: ‘In your opinion is
this person likely to be lying?’ He was invoking the hypothesis that if the subject was moti-
vated to deceive, his responses to the inkblots would be deceptive.
The young man readily agreed to a psychological assessment and it could be argued that
his very agreement might support the view that he was honest. He cooperated fully in both
the interview and the inkblot test. The latter showed no evidence of deliberate deception in
the sense of identifying misleading percepts and he was judged to be frank and forthcom-
ing during the interview. The psychologist concluded that there was very little likeli-
hood that his case for compensation was based on deception. He reported the findings to
the neurosurgeon.
How was the psychologist’s input assessed?

The assessment of results in any psychological investigation is usually rather complex. In
this case it was simple. The surgeon, feeling supported by the psychologist’s findings, was
able to give his expert opinion that the patient was making a genuine claim. Furthermore,
he offered to operate on the young man’s back. His offer was accepted without hesitation.
After a brief period on the waiting list, the operation was carried out and the young man was
successfully treated and returned to a normal life. The case was settled out of court and a
costly litigation was avoided. The case described, though not typical, shows how the
approach of applied psychology was useful in the court room, although the case never came
to court.
Additional reading
Fox, D. and Prilleltensky, I. (1997) Critical Psychology: An Introduction. Sage Publications, London.
This book argues that both the theoretical and applied branches of psychology serve to support the
interests of the status quo. It is controversial but very interesting!
Melton, G., Petrila, J., Poythress, N., and Slobgin, C. (1997) Psychological Evaluations for the Court:
A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals and Lawyers. Guilford Press, New York, NY.
A useful source for those interested in issues of mental health as they affect the law.
Melton, G., Petrial, J., Poythress, N., and Slobogin, C. (2007) Psychological Evaluations for the
Courts, 3rd edn. Guilford Press, New York, NY.
This book contains a wealth of information about all aspects of forensic psychology. While it is most
suitable for US litigation, it is nonetheless a wonderful reference source to have.
Roesch, R. Hart, S., and Ogloff, J. (eds) (1999) Psychology and Law: State of the Discipline. Kluwer
Academic, New York, NY.
A good review of recent issues.
Weiner, I. and Hess, A. (eds) (2006) The Handbook of Forensic Psychology, 3rd edn. John Wiley &
Sons, Hobokon, NJ.
This is an excellent reference book.
These three websites introduce the reader to the new area of therapeutic jurisprudence, which is
generally concerned about the law’s impact on defendants’ emotional life and well-being.
www.law.arizona.edu/depts/upr-intjBrucewinick.com, Therapeutic jurisprudence: www.brucewinick.

com/therapeutic-jurisprudence
Harvard Negotiation Law Review, New perspectives in negotiation: a therapeutic jurisprudence

approach: www.hnlr.org/?
Questions
Scenario one
1. What ethical issues arise from the different research findings? Topics include generalization of
research findings using convenience samples, issues regarding the reporting of psychological find-
ings when research is commissioned.
2. What changes in court-room proceedings would you introduce on the basis of the findings? Topics
should include rights of defendants, victims, and advantages and disadvantages of changing the law
and its procedures.
Scenario two
1. What limitations might there be in the psychologist’s use of projective tests? Topics could include
unreliability across individuals, subjective biases of interviewers.
2. What physiological measures would have complemented the psychologist’s approach? Topics
could include galvanic skin responses, lie detector tests, the fallibility of objective measures.
6 The work room
In this chapter we examine the changing trends in the way that psychologists apply
their knowledge and skills to our working environments. We first give some back-
ground into the early studies of the working environment that focused on the work-
ing environment in terms of productivity and efficiency. Two early approaches are
depicted: one, scientific management, which dissected tasks into components, and
two, the human-relations movement, which was more concerned with the attitudes
and feelings of workers. We then see how the progression from the Industrial
Revolution led psychologists to more modern concerns that highlight individual dif-
ferences and group behaviour. In particular, we consider how psychology has been
influential in promoting better selection, performance assessment, and training of
workers. We also consider the importance of psychological investigations on groups
and how groups are formed, operate, and maintained within the work environment.
The chapter illustrates the many areas of psychology that have infiltrated our work-
ing environments. The scenarios show the great diversity in the way that psycholo-
gists can inform and improve our working environments.
The concept of work

For those of us living in Western societies, the concept of work forms a significant part of
everyday life. There are many ways in which we define the notion of work. For example, we
can argue that work involves some amount of sacrifice in order to achieve some desired
outcome, for example exchanging our time and effort for money. Using this definition, we
can contrast work with pleasure. Pleasure is not usually associated with any sacrifice, and we
often seek it for its own sake. Similarly, we can distinguish between work and labour, work
and occupation, or work and profession. However, no single definition can encompass all
aspects of work for all people. As Porteus (1997) has pointed out, the distinction between
work and pleasure, for some individuals, is an anathema, as work is the major source of
pleasure and fulfilment in life.
Regardless of how we define the concept, work and the workplace impact crucially on our
lives. Work influences our attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, feelings, the clothes we wear, and
our physical actions: things that fascinate psychologists. Not surprisingly, therefore, the
workplace has been favoured by psychologists as a venue for exploring some of the most
important aspects of human behaviour.
104 6 THE WORK ROOM
The psychologist’s role

It is essential to remember that psychologists respond and react to the current socioecon-
omic and political environment; and this is clearly demonstrated in the way psychologists
have been involved in the workplace. For example, during the early twentieth century psy-
chologists were encouraged by factory owners to identify physical conditions that increased
production efficiency on the factory floor’s production line. In contrast, the domination of
modern societies by information and information technology has meant that psychologists
consider other factors, such as the mental strain placed on an individual and their psycho-
logical well-being (see Arnold et al. 1995 for further discussion).
Similarly, the political environment in which the psychologist operates will promote dif-
ferent lines of study, simply because different environments afford different opportunities.
For example, war and its atrocities offer the psychologist situations and chances for obser-
vation that are unlikely to be available unless serious ethical violations are committed.
Perversely, much of our psychological knowledge has been gained through observing the
effects of war on individuals, for example post-traumatic stress disorders and battle fatigue
(see ‘The war room’, Chapter 7; see also ‘The treatment room’, Chapter 8). This just serves to
remind us that, whenever psychologists operate in the real world, the real world directs,
dictates, and determines the ways in which the professional psychologist can explore and
explain human behaviour.
In the following we consider how psychologists first examined work and the workplace.
We will then consider the different issues that arise when psychologists focus on the indi-
vidual person as the unit of their study (e.g. occupational psychology), as opposed to when
they focus on larger units of analysis, such as groups or organizations (e.g. organizational
psychology).
Box 6.1 The role of culture

Different national cultures emphasize different aspects or dimensions of work; and national cultural
attitudes are good predictors of work performance. For example, the acceptance of a psychologist in
the workplace was established with greater ease in the USA than in the UK. This difference was in part
due to the increasingly dominant roles that trade unions held in the UK at the beginning of the
twentieth century (Hollway 1991). It is probably fair to say, without involving unnecessary value
judgements, that the British trade unions at this time were more combative and isolationist than their
American brothers. They tended to see any change introduced by management as an infringement of
workers’ rights. A few researchers have examined directly the international differences in the concept
of work. Hofstede (1980) provides highly useful and informative analyses of the different dimensions
or factors that emerge as important indicators of national cultural attitudes towards work (see also
Buchholz 1978). As a consequence, it is essential to remember that much of the theorizing that has
emerged from the psychological study of work reflects Western cultural values; for example the need
for achievement (McClelland et al. 1953).
EARLY INVESTIGATIONS IN THE WORK ROOM 105
Early investigations in the work room

Early investigations of the workplace focused on how to improve the worker’s productivity
and efficiency. Many psychological concepts that emerged from this early work continue to
be dominant today. They include scientific management and the human-relations move-
ment. Scientific management focused on improving workers’ efficiency through analyses
of task components, consideration of individual differences, development of training,
and provision of incentives. The human-relations movement was more concerned with
workers’ attitudes and feelings, and focused on the social aspects of the workplace.
The work room represents one of the earliest, formally documented applications of
psychology to real-world problems, with Munsterberg becoming the first recognized
applied psychologist in the USA. As indicated by the title of his book, Psychology and
Industrial Efficiency (Munsterberg 1913), his interest directly reflected the dominant soci-
oeconomic concerns of the newly industrialized Western world. Industrialization offered
a chance to produce goods on a mass scale as never before. The employer wanted the psy-
chologist to improve work productivity and efficiency within the context of an industrial
environment. Munsterberg was particularly interested in the interaction between the
worker and the job; and accordingly he emphasized the importance of selecting the correct
individual to do the job.
The first time-and-motion studies

This interest in achieving the most efficient and productive workforce is well illustrated by
Taylor (1911) and Gilbreth (1911), who undertook what are known as time-and-motion
studies. Taylor’s interest was to determine the most efficient way of performing tasks, and,
to do this, he systematically broke down each task into small, discrete units. These units
were measured in terms of the time it took to complete them. For example, suppose a
worker was required to affix a badge onto the bonnet of a car. Taylor’s idea was to break
down that task into a series of sub-tasks, each of which contributed to the final goal of affix-
ing the badge securely onto the car. The worker would first have to pick up the badge, make
sure it was free from defects, apply adhesive to the badge, and then place the badge onto the
car so that it was secure, while making sure that no damage occurred to the body or paint-
work. Each of these actions would be timed, and an overall quality rating applied. On the
basis of this type of breakdown of components, Taylor would then be in a position to
instruct the worker how to avoid unnecessary movements that were reducing efficiency
and productivity. Because Taylor’s approach involved the identification and objective
measurement of component behavioural units, his general approach came to be called
scientific management.
Importantly, Taylor did not consider the performance of any worker; rather, he analysed
performance on only those individuals he regarded as good workers. Thus, Taylor identified
the importance of individual differences as factors that affect productivity. He also demon-
strated an understanding that individual differences would require modifications not only
in the work apparatus, but also in the working environment, in order to enhance maximally
the individual’s productivity.
106 6 THE WORK ROOM
The role of incentive

Taylor also considered the importance of incentives: if the workers were motivated by some
incentive, then overall productivity would be higher. The argument rests on the assumption
that people will work harder, more efficiently, or achieve some desired goal, if you provide
them with the right incentive. For example, if each time a worker surpassed a particular,
achievable goal they were given a bonus to their wage packet, the worker would be likely to
want to surpass that goal. This is the reason why sales-driven business organizations are
often commission-based. It is easy to see how the notion of incentives can be viewed under
the more general heading of motivation. As human beings and mammals, when we are
more motivated, we are generally more inclined and more willing to comply with the
demands of the work environment.
When incentives are provided by management, they are regarded as exogenous, in that
they are introduced external to the worker and therefore can be manipulated directly. An
example is the extra bonus given to our worker who surpasses a specified goal. These are to
be contrasted with endogenous incentives, which are considered to be internal to the worker
and therefore cannot be manipulated directly. Endogenous factors are best considered in
the context of theories of psychological needs and goals (see McClelland et al. 1953; Herzberg
1966; Locke 1990 for extended discussions of these concepts). Workers may feel, for exam-
ple, that when they surpass a particular goal, they are achieving their potential. As a conse-
quence they experience feelings of greater self-esteem. Studies on human behaviour suggest
that endogenous incentives can be more powerful incentives than exogenous; for example,
greater self-esteem can be a more powerful incentive than more money (see Katzell and
Thompson 1990).
Two basic approaches

Two distinct approaches to the study of work emerged from Taylor’s seminal studies. The
first attempts to change the person so that they are better able to do the task, or fitting the
worker to the job. This approach focuses on training the worker to perform the task in the
most efficient manner. A modern example would be training an operator to use pop-ups in
performing computer operations. The second approach changes aspects of the job to map
better onto the person, or fitting the job to the worker. Here, differences in performing the
tasks are identified and features of the work environment are changed accordingly.
An early example of fitting the job to the worker is that of Taylor redesigning work tools
in accordance with the height and size of the worker. There are at least two factors that will
contribute to the worker’s ability to operate a piece of equipment, the worker’s height and
the worker’s size. Height will determine the person’s reach, while size in part determines
the person’s overall strength. If a shelf is too high (or too low), the worker will have to
reach; the addition of such unnecessary movements reduces efficiency. Lowering (or rais-
ing) the shelf, in accordance with what is the optimal height for the worker, therefore
improves performance. This would in turn lead to redesigning equipment, as in having
flexible shelf height.
The political context under which psychologists first became interested in the workplace
was the First World War. Government departments, concerned about workers’ health
EARLY INVESTIGATIONS IN THE WORK ROOM 107
Box 6.2 Theories of motivation

The notion of motivation received more attention in the past than today. The topic of motivation was
particularly important in discussions of animal learning (e.g. Hull 1943). Theoretical models depicted
motivation as an energy that can be depleted or stored, with the force behind the energy being the
organism’s need, such as the need to eat, the need to be safe, etc. As a consequence of its need, the
organism is driven—motivated—to achieve and satisfy this need. Increased motivation resulted in
more energy to perform the behaviour. The impact of incentives on behaviour, particularly in the
form of reinforcements, was a core concept in learning theories. Incentives are meant to tap into the
organism’s needs, thereby inducing motivation. For example, in operant conditioning, the organism’s
behaviour is ‘shaped’ using positive outcomes or rewards. Behaviour that approximates the desired
one is reinforced with a reward of food (based on some schedule). Eventually the organism produces
the behaviour that conforms to that which is required. In the 1950s to the late 1960s most psychology
students conditioned laboratory animals to perform some tasks as a function of different
reinforcement schedules. For example, the animal (mainly the proverbial white rat) would be placed
in a Skinner box, which contained a bar. The animal was required to push the bar down, and in return
a food treat would be dispensed. The animal was reinforced on successively closer approximations to
the desired behaviour, thus shaping the new response. Reinforcement theories, and learning theories
in general, continue to be major theoretical frameworks for discussing problems in the work room.
and productivity in ammunition factories, first introduced questions about personnel

selection—getting the right person for the job—and personnel training—training the person
to do the job successfully. After the war the direct involvement of psychologists such as Sir
Frederic Bartlett, and the foundation of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP),
led to the human-relations movement. Its members held that the workers’ feelings and
attitudes were important, as these feelings and attitudes would directly affect productivity
and efficiency.
The Hawthorne studies, conducted between 1924 and 1939, at the Hawthorne Electrical
Plant, are justly famous. Their findings helped to shape the human-relations movement (see
Riggio 2000 for a review). The general goal of theses studies was to establish the relationship
between conditions of the working environment and productivity. However, the studies
reported surprising findings. Although the physical environment, for example the level of
ambient lighting, somewhat affected productivity, the effects were not consistent, and nor
were they necessarily in the anticipated direction. Instead, the more important features of
the environment seemed to be social in nature, for example group cohesiveness and group
norms. The Hawthorne studies are important in that they represent a significant change of
emphasis away from the physical environment, towards the social environment present in
the work room (see Mayo 1933 for a more detailed description).
These traditional approaches to the work room led to two rather distinctive ways in which
work was viewed. On the one hand, there was the scientific-management approach as typi-
fied by Taylor and by Gilbreth. This approach was concerned with dissecting the task into
small, discrete components, training the individual to execute these components in the
most efficient manner, identifying individual factors that contribute to increased produc-
tivity and efficiency, and offering incentives to increase motivation. In contrast, the approach
of the human-relations movement focused on the social aspects of the work environment,
108 6 THE WORK ROOM
Box 6.3 The Hawthorne effect

It is important to note that an unexpected finding from the Hawthorne studies was that the workers’
behaviours seemed to be influenced by the fact that they were being observed. As Schein (1988)
points out, changes to the working environment may have resulted in the workers believing that they
had more freedom, which, in turn, influenced their attitudes towards their work. This effect, whereby
the mere act of observation changes the individual’s behaviour, has come to be known as the
Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect is particularly important, as it is not the result of any
manipulation of the psychologist, and can bias results of observations and experiments in ways that
are unexpected.
stressing such things as group cohesiveness and group norms. While neither approach in
itself could adequately account for workers’ performance, in combination the views provide
a coherent, and comprehensive understanding of many of the most important issues that
arise in the work room.
The suggestion that people can be trained to be more efficient, and that different people
have different requirements, may be obvious in a modern, post-industrial society. However,
at the time of their inception, these ideas were revolutionary. As we will discuss later in this
chapter, training and personnel selection are still major problems that psychologists help to
solve. As such, we must not underestimate the profound influence that people such as
Munsterberg, Taylor, Gilbreth, and Mayo have had on how psychologists function in the
work room.
Recent topics considered in the work room

Attitudes towards work and workers have evolved considerably. However, psychologists still
vary in their unit of study. Some psychologists analyse the behaviour of the individual,
whereas others analyse the behaviour of groups or organizations. Recent popular topics
include personnel selection, training, and development; group behaviour and group norms;
and human factors including ergonomics or human engineering. Because of the importance
of computers and information technology in the modern workplace, human–computer
interactions and user-friendly technology have become important areas of investigation.
Unlike the early twentieth century, it is taken for granted today that workers have atti-
tudes, feelings, and beliefs. Progressively, more and more employers are being held respon-
sible for maintaining workers’ well-being and job satisfaction. In parallel, our modern
societies have come to include more jobs that involve mental skills, for example operating a
computer. However, the theoretical approaches used by early investigators have not been
completely overshadowed. For example, scientific management is still considered as an
essential tool of the occupational psychologist (e.g. Coolican et al. 1996). Learning theory
and reinforcement schedules are still highly valuable in developing training programmes.
However, newer psychological frameworks, particularly those from cognitive psychol-
ogy and mainstream psychology, are more frequently used to understand behaviour in
the workplace.
RECENT TOPICS CONSIDERED IN THE WORK ROOM 109
Personnel psychology
Personnel psychology is concerned that the individual doing the job is well suited to per-
form the requirements of the job. This worker–job matching can be achieved in a number
of ways. Common issues include personnel selection, performance, and assessment, and
personnel training. More recent developments are coaching and mentoring.
Personnel psychology focuses on the individual as the unit of analysis. The assumption is
that work performance will improve when there is a good match between the tasks that are
required to perform the job and the individual performing those tasks. It is a fact that differ-
ent jobs require different skills and abilities, and that individuals differ in their abilities,
skills, and aptitudes. The key to successful worker–job mapping, then, is first to measure
what skills are needed by different jobs and which people have those skills, and then to
match the two. The worker–job matching can be achieved either by fitting the worker to the
job or by fitting the job to the worker. In practice, both approaches are essential, as neither in
isolation can accommodate all of the factors that influence the goodness of fit of the worker–
job match. In practice, fitting the worker to the job includes such things as training people
how to operate machinery or software. In contrast, fitting the job to the worker is more
related to the domain of human factors. For example, we identify what it is in the work
environment that is unhelpful for the individual (e.g. shelf height) and modify that factor to
produce an overall more comfortable fit with the worker (e.g. lowering or raising the shelf).
There are certain prerequisites for having a good worker–job match. These include a good
description of the job and what it entails (task analysis), and a good description of the per-
son who is likely to be best suited to the job (individual qualities and characteristics). Task
analysis requires a comprehensive and accurate analysis of the requirements of the job—the
Box 6.4 Virtual recruitment

The use of technology has impacted substantially on employment and the workforce. One way is the
ever increasing use of machines: manual jobs that once were available have now become almost
non-existent, for example the production lines of the early twentieth century. A relatively benign
example is lift (elevator) operators. At one time, lifts had persons who would operate and help users
get to their destinations. Now, of course, there is no need for such assistance. Similarly, telephone
operators—once essential, particularly for long distance calls—have been replaced by recorded
messages or computer generated ‘vitual operators’. There is little doubt that this type of technological
advancement has had questionable effects: while things have become speedier, more consistent and
less prone to ‘human error’, the availability of jobs to the unskilled workforce has become
decreasingly less and less (e.g. Morgan 2011). Another area where technology has impacted is in job
recruitment, where software systems have essentially replaced some of the stages that used to occur
with a face-to-face recruitment process. For example, software programs are now available that: post
job descriptions, including personal requirements; store curriculum vitae of applicants; assess
potential candidates for critical characteristics; and match the cultural characteristics of the
organization to the candidate in order to provide a ranking of ‘who is the best one’ (e.g. CMATool,
www.cmatool.co.uk. While it is clear that these new recruitment procedures will not overtake
face-to-face contact completely, the advent of online technology has allowed people, and
organizations, unprecedented communication early in the recruitment process.
110 6 THE WORK ROOM
physical, mental, and emotional requirements. This in turn leads to a job specification,
which tells the person what they will be expected to do.
Task analysis
A good task analysis is not easy, and requires the job to be broken down into essential com-
ponent parts, tasks and activities (see Eldridge et al. 1994 for a detailed discussion). Two
different methods can be used to provide essential task analyses. The distinction between
these two methods involves the level of description, and also the ease with which desirable,
individual characteristics can be identified. The goal-oriented method provides general
descriptions of the tasks involved in the job, with the focus being on the task outcomes, or
goals. For example, the general descriptions might be to meet with the public, or to liaise
with multiagency representatives. The alternative, the action-oriented approach, provides
more specific descriptions of the activities involved in achieving the tasks; for example
answering telephone queries or ensuring that post is delivered by 3.00 p.m. The decision to
use one method over another is in part due to the nature of the tasks. Tasks where the goals
can be accomplished in a variety of ways may be better discussed in terms of general fea-
tures, since a specification of the way tasks might be achieved is restrictive. For example,
there are many ways in which a job candidate might be expected to liaise with representa-
tives from other agencies, whereas there are a limited number of ways in which post would
be delivered.
Let us distinguish between these two methods by discussing the job of a university lec-
turer or professor who is required to teach a course. The job of the professor can be described
in two different ways. One focuses on the tasks involved in terms of successful results or
goals; for example, to provide students with scholarly review of the area and to provide stu-
dents with comprehensive understanding of current literature. The other is focused on the
specific actions involved; for example, giving oral lectures on selected topics, providing
written handouts and overheads, being available for students during office hours, and so on.
This latter description arguably can be more easily translated into individual requirements,
or person specification. The job specification, to give oral lectures, can be translated into the
person specification, such as the need to have good communication skills.
As the label implies, personnel psychology is concerned with assessing individuals and
selecting the right person for the job. Research into psychological characteristics, such
as intelligence and personality traits, has had a huge impact on individual recruitment
and selection (see ‘The court room’, Chapter 5, pp. 99–100 for a discussion of personality
tests and projective tests). In particular, standardized psychological tests, which aim to
measure stable, individual characteristics, are regular tools in personnel selection. Many
standardized tests rest on the assumption that people have core characteristics in their
personality that stay constant across different situations and contexts (see also ‘The crime
room’, Chapter 4, pp. 52–55, on criminal profiling). The standardized test is designed to
measure these stable traits, and, as a consequence, helps employers to select people who
have the necessary requirements to do the job.
To be useful, standardized tests should demonstrate satisfactory levels of validity and
reliability. Validity can be loosely defined as a demonstration that the test is actually meas-
uring what it claims to be measuring. For example, if a test claims to measure a person’s
RECENT TOPICS CONSIDERED IN THE WORK ROOM 111
Box 6.5 An alternative view of individual differences

Some psychologists argue that there is little convincing evidence for stable personality characteristics,
and point out how unpredictable the same person can be in different situations (Mischel 1968).
Instead of stable internal characteristics they argue that it is the similarities in the situational demands
in which people find themselves that create apparent stability in behaviour. For example, Lambie and
Marcel (2002) challenge the notion of a unified self, and consider multiple selves. Each different self is
appropriate for and responds to different aspects of the individual’s emotional life; for example,
professional self, mother self, daughter self, etc. (Lambie and Marcel 2002). According to this view,
there are critical features in all everyday situations that dictate the behaviour of the person. Any
consistency in the person’s behaviour is due to the overlap in the features of situations, not to any
stable personality traits. This view has more in common with the existential approach to personality
(see Chapter 8), where the person’s psyche is said to be in a constant state of choice, development,
and change.
ability to fixate rapidly on visual objects, the researcher must be sure that it is not measuring
some other factor, such as colour blindness, that might affect performance. Reliability can
be loosely defined as the stability of the measurement, across time and different testing ses-
sions. A reliable test is one that is not affected by changes in testing situations or contexts.
For example, if a test claims to measure a stable psychological characteristic, such as trait
anxiety, the test should demonstrate consistency, so that the same person scores roughly the
same across different testing sessions. A person who scores high on trait anxiety at time 1
should also score high on trait anxiety at time 2. Note that it is this characteristic of trait
anxiety that distinguishes it from state anxiety, which is expected to vary from situation
to situation.
Training and assessment

Another important aspect of personnel psychology involves training and assessment. In
training, the psychologist is concerned with developing ways in which the individual can be
supported to learn new skills or improve old skills. In assessment, the psychologist focuses
on ways in which the individual can learn to self-assess and monitor their own perfor-
mance. Often the two are related: generally, those skills that are the focus of training are
those that employers want to assess.
There are two approaches to training and assessment. One addresses the needs of the
hypothetical average worker whereas the other addresses the specific needs of the individ-
ual. Many formal training programmes in organizations and institutions take the average-
worker approach to training and assessment. With this approach, the minimum essential
skills, information, and knowledge needed to perform the task(s) are identified and then
presented to all individuals in the same manner. No provision is made for the fact that dif-
ferent people learn in different ways and at different speeds; or that people come to training
with different attitudes, experiences, and abilities. As a consequence, people can leave the
same training with vastly different levels of accomplishment. Because the training has
adopted the average approach, assessment of competency, too, must rely on the principle of
112 6 THE WORK ROOM
the least-common denominator; competency is thus based on the minimum acceptable

level of competence, as defined by the organization or institution.
In recent years, institutions and organizations have been concerned with making assess-
ment procedures more transparent. This has given rise to the notion of training aims, goals,
or outcomes. Aims and goals identify for the person what the intention of the training is
and what the person will be learning; for example, ‘to improve your ability to deal with the
public, we will be teaching you how to engage the audience’. Outcomes typically tell the
person what they will be able to do after the training; for example, ‘you will be able to make
more eye contact with the audience more often’.
The second approach focuses on the specific requirements of the individual. In recent
years, the concepts of coaching and mentoring have emerged as popular models in this tradi-
tion. Coaching and mentoring support the individual by assessing their own individual
strengths and weaknesses, and providing a training that suits that person’s specific require-
ments. Attention is given to the individual’s unique abilities, aptitudes, and skills. Areas of
improvement (goals), and how to assess change (outcomes), are identified in a concrete
fashion. For example, a coach or mentor may be asked to help a person improve communi-
cation skills when delivering formal talks to prospective clients. The person is asked to give
a short talk and a videotape is made. The coach then views the tape with the speaker, noting
the different positive or negative non-verbal signals they were giving; for example, the num-
ber of times the person made eye contact with the audience. Improvement is then moni-
tored in terms of concrete behaviour; for example, the number of times the person looks at
the camera across successive talks.
Learning and individual differences

There are very good reasons why training should be concerned with individual differences.
It is possible that average-worker training courses can create learning environments that are
not only foreign but also hostile to the individual. For example, Satinder Gill (1995) found
that the learning methods preferred by nurses on professional development courses were
those that allowed group discussion, where participants were allowed to exchange personal
experiences. However, these teaching methods were completely unacceptable to doctors
and consultants, who consistently preferred formal, didactic methods of training with little
personal self-disclosure. The problem for large institutions or organizations is that the sheer
number of people who require training and assessment make individual coaching and men-
toring inefficient. At the same time, it is impossible to develop a programme of training that
can accommodate the needs of all individuals and all organizations. Such questions are dif-
ficult to resolve and decisions about training and assessment must ultimately consider con-
venience and financial restrictions.
Nevertheless, mainstream psychological theory has been very influential in helping
organizations come to terms with the problems of training and assessment. For example,
Bandura’s (1969) social learning theory has been one of the single most important influ-
ences in the development of training programmes. This learning theory argues that through
the act of observation, a person learns how to behave and how to act. This passive viewing
of the other is called vicarious observation. Vicarious observation in part forms the basis of
traditional, on-the-job apprenticeships, whereby novice workers are given the opportunity
THE PLACE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 113
to observe and work alongside other experienced, skilled workers. Social learning theory
argues that such vicarious observation can be as powerful as formal training in which the
individual is being taught skills for the job directly.
The place of cognitive psychology

In recent years, developments in cognitive psychology have become progressively influen-
tial in devising training programmes. For example, many cognitive theories assume that the
learner is an active participant in acquiring skills and knowledge (e.g. Gibson 1966). The
person actively searches the environment and selects and responds to its conditions, rather
than being passive, like a sponge, soaking up the available information. This notion of active
learning has been appropriated into training programmes, with the individual actively
engaging with the materials to be learned, as in practical exercises or role plays.
Other imports from cognitive psychology are the distinctions between formal, declara-
tive, or explicit knowledge and tacit, procedural, or implicit knowledge (see Box 6.6). With
formal knowledge, the emphasis is placed on the worker being trained to know what is
required of them; with tacit knowledge, the emphasis is placed on the worker being trained
to know how to perform their skills. A good example is a nurse taking blood from a patient.
The nurse must have formal knowledge regarding the procedures, or must know what to do;
for example, knowing what procedures must be followed before the needle is inserted in the
arm and knowing what to do after the needle is inserted. The nurse similarly must have
procedural knowledge, or know how to do; for example, knowing how to put the needle
into the vein, knowing how much pressure to put on the arm, etc. Arguably, the nurse can-
not satisfactorily do her job unless she is competent in both. Failure in knowing what to do
could endanger the patient. However, failure in knowing how to do the task will result in
pain and discomfort for the patient. Training courses now appreciate the importance of
workers developing sufficient competencies in both formal and tacit knowledge.
It is not surprising that training is an important area for the psychologist’s input. Of
course, as technology has developed, so too have the ways in which we work. Without ques-
tion, the computer has become a dominant feature of many working environments. Because
Box 6.6 Ways of knowing

One of the most important theoretical arguments in cognitive psychology involves the debate over
the nature of knowledge. Knowledge can take different forms, and each form has different
characteristics associated with it. For example, some theorists have distinguished between formal and
tacit knowledge, while others make the distinction between declarative and procedural knowledge
(e.g. Anderson 1983). While the terms differ, as do the specific characteristics, the overall distinction is
between knowing that or knowing what versus knowing how. Formal, or declarative, knowledge
refers to information that can be verbalized, or imparted through formal communication, such as
lectures, papers, etc. In contrast, knowing how is usually associated with tacit or procedural
knowledge. Such knowledge is generally assumed to be difficult to impart through verbal means, and
reflects the person’s ability to know how to do something.
114 6 THE WORK ROOM
of this, psychologists have been forced to consider quite specifically how best to train people
to use computers, and how to make computers easier to use. In response to this, the area of
human–computer interaction has developed into one of the major topics of interest for
psychologists acting within the work environment.
Human–computer interaction
Cognitive psychology and theories of information processing have been highly influential
in dictating the manner in which such investigations occur. A great deal of attention has
been placed on discovering ways in which human–computer interactions could be
improved. The early work, when computers were still in their relative infancy, focused on a
variety of factors, such as text display and means-steps analyses. In the main these early
studies were interested in mapping computer operations onto normal cognitive operations,
so computers could become friendlier to the user. For example, early work provided clear
evidence that people need to be able to see a certain amount of text in order to understand
what they are reading. When the screen displayed too little text, the person was unable to
remember sufficiently what had come before. This resulted in considerably poorer compre-
hension, and meant that they were forced to return to the earlier text, an unnecessary and
cost-ineffective action. This early work had a significant impact on computer design; for
example, the modification of text sizes (e.g. the zoom function).
Barnard and Grudin (1988) provided essential evidence regarding the ease with which
names and icons depicting software functions can be understood by the user. For example,
the term ‘edit’, as a mnemonic to describe a function, is only useful if there is a clear seman-
tic relationship between the term and what the user believes the act of editing to mean. If the
user would not describe the act of changing text as editing, then the mnemonic will prove
difficult to learn.
Box 6.7 Technology and the work room

Technology has had an enormous impact on various aspects of the work room. One example is the
development of Internet-based recruitment services. Internet recruitment has evolved into an
international business. Now, online recruitment affords job seekers and employers much more
flexibility in reviewing potential matches. For example, curriculum vitaes and resumes are posted and
stored online and can be retrieved when an appropriate job position is advertised. Organizations can
buy e-technology that enables them to rank candidates on the basis of preferred characteristics (see
Chapter 10, pp. 257–258, for a discussion of other e-technologies). Career advice is similarly available
in an instant: consultant websites will assess a candidate’s qualities (e.g. in terms of standardized
methods) and then provide specific suggestions for employment opportunities. Technology has also
challenged traditional notions of the ‘work room’. Historically, work involved an individual going
somewhere, to a location or a place. Now, technology has enables many people to work from home,
eradicating the need for a business site that might attract costs through upkeep, heating, electricity,
etc. Even the concept of a ‘meeting’ is radically different because of advances in technology. Meetings
can occur with participants who are thousands of miles apart, and business can be conducted ‘as if’
the person was in the same room.
THE PROBLEM OF STRESS 115
Early computers were often plagued by using terms that bore little resemblance to those
that would be used by the average, non-computer user of language. For example the term
‘stack’, used to identify currently active memory, bears no convincing relation to the ordi-
nary uses of the term. The layperson has no way of knowing that it refers to the sequential
organization of the memory store and hence has no reason to use it.
Other research examined the functions of pictorial instructions, and the use of icons to
specify actions. For example, Barnard and Marcel (1979) were asked by the UK’s Post Office
to provide a pictorial way in which postal workers could be trained to use new equipment.
They found that pictorial instructions were only effective to the extent that they provided a
clear indication of the sequence of actions, the necessary pre-conditions for an action to
occur, and a clear depiction of what the action should produce. Similar attention has been
given to what might be considered the ergonomics of human–computer interactions—the
size of visual display units, workstation layouts, and so on.
The problem of stress

As our views towards work change and what we do evolves, so do the topics that preoccupy
psychologists operating in the work environment. One of the fastest-growing topics is
work-related stress. Regardless of the organization—from governments to the local bank—
employers are progressively more concerned about the cost in terms of time and money of
work-related stress and resultant employee absenteeism, litigation, and premature retire-
ment. Psychologists are becoming more actively involved in assessing the healthy, and
unhealthy, dynamics of the work environment. Work-related stress is likely to be the result of
a combination of two sets of factors. One of these comes from individual differences in resil-
iency; for example, how much outside social support the person has. The other arises from
organizational sources of stress, such as those that are associated with being the professional
and doing the job. Factors that influence an individual’s resilience to stress will be discussed in
more detail when we consider the treatment of stress disorders (see Chapter 9).
Cooper and Marshall (1988) have identified factors that contribute to organizational
stress. These include factors that are intrinsic to the job, as well as roles with the organiza-
tion. For example, factors intrinsic to the job for a police officer include dealing with crime
and the immediate effects of crime on its victims. On the other hand, part of the role of a
police officer is to protect the general public against crime. Arguably, both of these intrinsic
and role factors directly influence the amount of stress experienced by the average police
officer. Cooper and Marshall also classify factors in terms of the organizational culture—
work relationships—and career prospects and development.
For example, the organizational culture of the police is not one that promotes discussion
of anxiety and stress. The police officer is meant to be able to deal with the job and the emo-
tions that go along with the job. As such, the anxiety or stress that a police officer may expe-
rience is in the context of an organization that does not formally recognize the need to deal
with anxiety or stress. All these organizational factors are assumed to interact with external,
non-work-related factors, such as domestic problems, social support, and physical robust-
ness. Together, they determine how well the person responds to the stresses and strains of
everyday working life.
116 6 THE WORK ROOM
Box 6.8 The unemployment crisis

The twenty-first century is seeing financial meltdowns at unprecedented international levels. Reports
seem to occur daily of financial collapse of countries (e.g. in the European Union, such as Ireland), the
demise of well-established institutions (e.g. FannyMae in the USA), and closure of multinational
businesses. Today, people are frightened by the rapidity with which things are changing: life-time
employment—once a given for many generations of workers—no longer is the certainty that it once
was. Without question, the world of work has changed dramatically over the past 30 years. For one,
financial constraints on employers has resulted in what is termed outsourcing: rather than pay for
indirect costs, such as benefits and healthcare, employers use independent contractors rather than
employed personnel, allegedly as this strategy offers some short-term financial relief. As more and
more people are fearful of losing their jobs, they become more distressed. Naturally, this has placed
an enormous financial strain on employers, but not necessarily for obvious reasons. While
absenteeism is partially responsible for the increased costs, more problematic is ‘presenteesism’:
workers show up for work, but because of their reduced capacity, perform suboptimally (e.g. Cooper
2011). Cooper argues that people are so frightened of losing their jobs that they will be reluctant to
take time off, even though their stress levels exceed healthy limits. The decline in economies will
likely to lead to more mental health problems of workers, with stress and substandard performance
becoming salient features of the modern work room.
Organizational psychology
Organizational psychology is concerned with understanding all aspects of groups, from
how individuals form groups and develop group norms, to how groups make decisions.
Groups require people to interact socially. Some social interactions are formal, such as those
designated by job roles, and others are informal, such as those that develop because of com-
mon personal interests. Groups go through stages of development, commonly referred to as
forming, storming, norming and performing. Many things affect how a group develops,
such as leadership and perceived cohesiveness between group members.
Groups are one of the most important aspects of our working environment, and they are
the major focus of interest for what is traditionally called organizational psychology.
Regardless of what we do for our living, our working environment requires us to interact
with people at two different but related levels. One level is the social interaction that comes
from us working in the organization, and represents our formal social interactions. The other
level is the social interaction that results from working with other people in the organization
who have similar interests or opinions, and these represent our informal social interaction.
What we do, and how our job role fits within the formal structure of the organization,
largely determines formal social interactions. Obviously, formal social interactions will be
different depending on the more global structure of the organization or institution. For
example, fire services have a well-defined structure based on levels within a rigid hierarchy.
Because of the nature of the organization, formal social interactions generally acquire an
autocratic style, where people in the lower hierarchy are told exactly what to do by people
higher up in the hierarchy. So, in fire services, fire-fighters are told to do specific job, and are
assigned specific roles, such as operating machinery, entering buildings, and so on. People
who outrank them, such as junior officers, give them orders.
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 117
In contrast, other hierarchical organizations have formal social interactions that are less
autocratic. For example, university departments are hierarchical, in that they have different
levels of seniority, and different roles, tasks, and responsibilities within the department.
Still, the characteristics of the formal social interactions are very different from fire services.
A lecturer will, of course, have some explicit, non-negotiable formal social interactions.
There are yearly assessment exercises, where the lecturer’s line manager, usually someone
senior in title or experience, will consider how the lecturer might develop professionally,
such as to publish more peer-reviewed papers. However, it is highly unlikely that the line
manager would tell the lecturer exactly what paper to write.
Informal social interactions reveal the subgroups that form within the larger organiza-
tion or institution. Subgroups are formed through common interests, and can develop
into friendships outside the work environment. Informal social interactions can have a
massive impact on an individual’s performance. A good example of the power of an infor-
mal social interaction is the office romance, which is notorious for changing the working
environment, not only for the lovers but also for the innocent co-workers who happen to
be bystanders!
The evolving group

Most psychologists agree that groups go through different phases, or stages of development.
Early on, Tuckman (1965) identified four distinct levels in small groups: forming, storming,
norming, and performing. The first stage, forming, establishes the group initially. Forming
requires the individual members of the group to identify their common goals or attitudes
and embark on negotiations with each other. Potential group members must compromise,
so that the group can actually be established. For example, during the forming stage indi-
vidual members may feel that one of the main goals of the group should be to promote bet-
ter general health awareness at work. However, one member may not be concerned with
general health awareness but only with the effects of stress at work. However, rather than
demand that stress at work be the focus, this person will concede, be confluent, in order to
ensure that the group can form.
Storming, as the name implies, is less about compromise and more about the emergence
of conflict between members. Once the group is sufficiently formed—so that the group is
actually established—conflict erupts. Group members can argue over the specific proce-
dures that are to be adopted, or the specific roles that each group member is assigned. For
example, one person in the group may feel that they are particularly well suited to the role
of leader, as they have more experience than the other group members have. However, one
or two group members may dispute this, and a leadership battle will ensue between sub-
groups. While uneasy, storming is an essential stage of group formation, as this is when
group members get some idea about each other’s personalities and behaviours. Conflict is a
vital element in any healthy group; without it, the potential strengths and weaknesses of the
group will not be realized.
Norming involves the group becoming more ordered, with conflicts beginning to get
resolved. During this stage, individual members begin to agree on formal and informal rules
of the group—such as what is acceptable group behaviour and what is not. For example,
suppose most of the group agrees that it will, as a whole, informally support all health claims
118 6 THE WORK ROOM
made by workers, in the first instance. However, suppose one individual member disagrees
and believes that each specific worker’s claim should be viewed separately to see if it merits
support. The group may take explicit sanctions, and the renegade member may be asked to
resign or withdraw from the group. There may also be implicit sanctions. The wayward
individual may fail to receive emails regarding dates of important future meetings.
The final stage is performing. The group becomes a stable unit, and has well-defined char-
acteristics. Individual members operate in conjunction with each other to fulfil the goals of
the group. Individual members do not indulge in inter-personal conflicts, although some
disagreements or differences may never be resolved. The group develops a collective identity,
with individual members knowing what and how to perform their roles within the group.
Cohesion and leadership

Obviously, many factors affect whether a group is successful. One of the more important
factors is group cohesiveness. Some definitions of group cohesiveness put emphasis on the
levels of interaction and compliance among group members (e.g. Coolican et al. 1996, p.
230). More frequent and significant interaction between members promotes better cohe-
siveness. For example, a group will obviously be more cohesive if it conducts regular weekly
three-hour meetings rather than semi-annual one-hour meetings. Groups that are more
cohesive also have group members who are compliant, and go along with the rules.
However, we must remember that group cohesiveness is just a general term for how group
members are like each other. For example, members can be like each other in the way that
they behave. They can act the same, wear similar clothes, or have similar haircuts. Members
can also hold the same beliefs or attitudes. For example, members of an advertising group
are likely to hold similar beliefs and attitudes regarding the importance of their own occu-
pation to the world’s economic growth. Finally, individual members feel the same about
some things. All members of the advertising team feel confident in their abilities and are
highly motivated to acquire large, lucrative accounts.
Significantly, outside threat is potent in increasing group cohesiveness, as is illustrated in
trade union disputes. The improper intervention of management can promote more group
cohesiveness than often was present prior to the intervention, and lead to the us-versus-
them attitudes sometimes verbalized by both sides of a trade union dispute. Intriguingly,
once us/them develops into intransigent positions, only a mediator, an independent person
who facilitates discussion, can resolve the impasse.
Leadership is another factor that influences group cohesiveness and it has captivated psy-
chologists’ attention, for good reasons. The leader can determine the success or failure of a
group, and can unite or divide the group. Psychologists have been interested in understand-
ing different characteristics of leadership and linking these to outcome measures, such as
how group productivity or group satisfaction is affected. For example, the group can select
or choose its own leader, like some political leaders. In contrast, employees are not given
any power in the appointment of their line manager, and an external factor, the organiza-
tion, makes such decisions. It is assumed that when groups select their leaders, group mem-
bers are more satisfied and happier to comply with the demands of the leader. There are
certainly different styles of leadership. Some leaders listen to subordinates’ views, while
others offer little in the way of guidance and allow people to get on with their jobs. Regardless
of a person’s leadership style, a leader can only be assessed in terms of the group members,
and the task of the group. Certain circumstances, like war, may require leadership that is less
democratic and more autocratic, in order to ensure the survival of the group itself (see
Chapter 7, pp. 142–143).
A long-standing debate is whether leaders are born, or made. This is essentially the age-
old debate regarding nature versus nurture. Here, the question is whether a leader is some-
one who has a genetic predisposition to lead, or whether a leader is someone whose
experiences and environment have promoted and facilitated the development of leadership
qualities. Psychologists have similarly debated whether it is the character of the person that
makes a leader, or the actions of the person that make a leader. As with most debates, the
answer seems to be that a leader does have certain qualities—some inherent, others learned
through experience—as well as possessing the ability to execute the tasks required of
a leader.
Summary
We have shown that the early interests of psychologists over a century ago are still as
important in today’s working environments. While the nature of the way we work has
changed, the problems we encounter are the same: how to train people to do the job, how
to select the right person for the job, the importance of good leadership on group morale,
and so on. The work room is somewhat unique in that it offers more possibilities to apply
psychology than any other real-world setting. We have shown that cognitive psychology,
animal psychology, social psychology, personality theories and standardized testing, and
motor and movement psychology have all contributed towards our understanding of our
working environment. Given the amount of time we spend in it and the importance we
place upon it, the work room must continue to be explored by psychologists. The work
room, more than any other, allows us to explore and understand human behaviour, both
of the individual and of the group.

Scenario one
Training interview staff
This first scenario looks at the problem of training (see above, pp. 111–112). As we have
already shown, training can be made to fit the average worker, or, as happens in coaching,
can be made to apply to a specific worker. Regardless of the particular type of training,
generic or individual, there are two general aspects that training must provide. One is that
training must enable the person to do the job: the training must provide sufficient informa-
tion so that the person can actually execute the job in hand. The other is that training must
enable the person to believe that they can do the job. This aspect of training is more con-
cerned with the psychological component of readiness and preparedness for the skills
required of the job. In order to establish that both these aspects are covered in training, there
120 6 THE WORK ROOM
must be some evaluation of the relevance and appropriateness of the training programme.
Evaluation requires two things: an assessment of the objective performance of the worker,
and a subjective assessment of how well the worker feels prepared to do the job. Importantly,
the two are not necessarily correlated. One deals with the person’s actual performance; the
other deals with the person’s feelings regarding their performance, or how well prepared
they feel that they are for the job.
For example, suppose a training programme instructs a worker on how to use a new piece
of software. An objective evaluation of how well the worker performs may be the number of
errors the user makes with the new software. The subjective evaluation will include how well
the worker felt the training programme addressed issues that concerned them, how well the
trainer put across the information, how clear were the instructions for use, and so on. This
distinction between objective and subjective is reminiscent of the Hawthorne studies, which
stress the importance of the psychological robustness of the worker within their environ-
ment, rather than just the performance of the tasks.
It is interesting to consider which aspect of evaluation is more important to an organiza-
tion. While it is important that workers feel they have improved, it is likely that an organiza-
tion will want some objective way to measure this improvement. Should no objective
improvement be noted, the company or organization may decide that the training pro-
gramme is unsuccessful, as is the case in this scenario.
This scenario also illustrates the importance of considering the cognitive components of
a task confronting the worker. Names of the firms involved have been changed in the inter-
est of confidentiality. The working environment is often filled with conflicting and compet-
ing bits of information, as is the case, for example, with air-traffic controllers. Given the
huge amount of changing information that they must process, it becomes essential to train
them to attend to the appropriate pieces of information, and integrate them appropriately,
ignoring some aspects in favour of others. Attending, or not attending, to the wrong piece
of information at the wrong time can result in serious consequences. In this scenario, work-
ers are confronted with a similar problem regarding how to attend to and retain different
bits of information while doing their job.

A market-research company, Atlas Market Research, pitched for a large contract from a
multinational car company, Nukar, to evaluate its recently introduced training programme.
Nukar’s training programme not only focused on customer relations, but was also designed
to promote its new economy car model, which needed to sell well in order for the company
to reach projected targets. The training programme instructed people in a variety of topics
known to influence customer attitudes and relations. For example, conversation is more
effective when the customer feels welcome, and this can be accomplished by using the cus-
tomer’s name regularly, and by making regular eye contact. Nukar wanted to be sure that its
sales team was not only using effective communication devices, but was also promoting the
new model sufficiently.
In response to Nukar’s request for an evaluation, Atlas came up with the novel idea of the
pseudo-shopper. The pseudo-shopper would pose as a real customer, pretending to have
real requirements, but would, in fact, be a stooge for the company. They would report back
on various aspects of their interactions with the sales people. Critically, the pseudo-shopper
Box 6.9 The importance of body language

A substantial part of effective communication involves the role of body language. Here the emphasis
is on the unconscious signals that a person shows through their body movements or facial
expressions. It has long been assumed in psychotherapy that the body has a direct link with both
cognitions and emotions; and that the body movements and facial expressions betray how the
person is really feeling. For example Willhelm Reich, an early disciple of Freud, argued that early
psychological and physical traumas are kept in different parts of the body, such that certain
movements result in deep emotions being felt. The work of Gill and Borchers (2003) on social
gestures within the work context also illustrates how gestures can encourage or discourage help from
co-workers. For example, they have shown that large, vertical movements are used to get a
co-worker’s attention and draw them into the ‘problem space’. These elements of non-verbal
communication are important determinants of human interaction.
could be directed to look out for any specific techniques that had been promoted during
training. Nukar embraced the idea of pseudo-shoppers, and Atlas secured the contract.
Atlas did not have much experience with the concept of pseudo-shoppers, so had not
carefully considered whether the pseudo-shoppers would need much training. After some
discussion, Atlas decided that each pseudo-shopper should be given an information booklet
that specified showrooms, times of visits, and a personal background; for example, whether
the pseudo-shopper was single, had children, used the car for business, and so on. Given
that Nukar was concerned about promoting its new economy car model, each pseudo-
shopper was given specific dialogue to learn, with questions that they had to ask about the
new model. In addition, the pseudo-shoppers were asked to pay attention to a variety of
other factors, such as the general physical condition of the showroom, the type of back-
ground music that was playing, and other details.
Each pseudo-shopper was asked to visit three different showrooms over the course of
three days. In order to reduce costs, the pseudo-shopper was only allowed to make one visit
to each showroom. After each visit, the pseudo-shopper was to fill in a 100-item question-
naire that asked about various aspects of their visit: overall friendliness, number of staff
visible, number of staff wearing name tags, number of times staff made eye-contact, and so
on. The pseudo-shoppers were required to return the information packets, with all ques-
tionnaires completed, at the end of the three days.

Within days it was apparent that something had gone badly wrong. Few of the pseudo-
shoppers had visited the requisite number of showrooms, and even fewer were able to com-
plete the questionnaires. The situation was urgent. Atlas had only a few weeks before the
scheduled meeting with Nukar, at which time they were meant to demonstrate whether or
not Nukar’s training programme was succeeding. Atlas had charged Nukar a very substan-
tial sum of money and it was apparent that if it failed to ‘deliver the goods’, not only would
its contract with Nukar be in serious jeopardy, but its reputation would also suffer. Atlas
could afford neither outcome. With these serious consequences in mind, the market
research team felt that it had little choice but to import some psychological expertise. Atlas
122 6 THE WORK ROOM
contacted a national accrediting body for psychologists, who gave them the telephone num-
ber of a specialist in applied psychology. At the initial meeting with the psychologist, Atlas
outlined the problem. It was clear that Atlas wanted to continue to use pseudo-shoppers,
although it was acknowledged that there were real difficulties. The psychologist asked to see
the completed questionnaires, the information packet given to the pseudo-shoppers, and a
copy of the original contract with Nukar. The psychologist also asked for any comments that
the pseudo-shoppers had made, in order to understand any difficulties that might have
arisen for them.
What concepts might be relevant?

The psychologist realized that a task analysis would provide the best indicators of the prob-
lems confronting the pseudo-shoppers and hence the concepts that might be important to
consider. Having broken down the tasks of the pseudo-shopper into their components, the
psychologist began to identify the problem areas. The pseudo-shoppers had to perform
multiple, complicated tasks. For one, they had to remember to ask certain questions about
the new model, and so had to remember verbatim details of what to say. Importantly, they
also had to remember how the sales persons responded. In addition, they had to attend to a
variety of perceptual features, such as the condition of the showroom, how many cars were
on display, the number of staff wearing name badges, the number of times the sales person
used their first name, and much, much more! Thus the psychologist began to develop a
picture of the problems confronting the pseudo-shoppers. Most had to do with problems
about attending to the correct information, and retaining the information long enough to
fill in the questionnaire.
One concept that is obviously relevant is that of selective attention. This type of attention
can be described in a number of different ways. Gestalt theories of perception discuss the
selection of figure versus ground, while signal-detection theory discusses the identification
of target or signal above noise. The basic ideas are the same. Figures or signals have recog-
nizable properties: they have shape, contours, or regularity in patterns that distinguish them
from the background, and they seem more important to the person, or have more meaning
attached to them. An example is a person sitting in a room, having a conversation with their
friend, when someone suddenly shouts ‘Fire! Get out!’ and a fire alarm goes off. The person
will probably stop talking, regardless of where they are in the conversation, re-direct their
physical orientation, and regard the pending danger from the fire alarm as being more
important than continuing the conversation with their friend. Under circumstances where
the environment is particularly rich, and teeming with differing modalities of sound, smell,
vision, and touch, the level of distraction is greatest and it becomes more difficult to attend
selectively to a single signal or figure. It requires more effort to discriminate between figure
and ground when much is going on. For example, suppose your task is to notice whenever
a particular person’s name is announced over a public address system in a hotel lobby. In
one situation, the hotel lobby is heaving with people coming in and out, delegates for two or
three conventions are checking in, and messages are being regularly broadcast over the
system. In the other situation the hotel lobby is quiet, with only a few staff behind their
desks, and no announcements are being made. It is obvious that one situation is more
enriched and distracting than the other and that the task of hearing the name is more diffi-
cult as a consequence in the first situation. As far as the psychologist was concerned, the task
Box 6.10 Improving your prospective memory

Current literature on prospective memory suggests that prospective tasks can be made easier or
more difficult, depending on the extent to which the person utilizes already existing schematic
structures. For example, assume that you want to remember to pick up your dry cleaning. Research
suggests that if you link this into some existing structure for the day, like picking up the children from
school, it will be easier for you to remember to pick up the dry cleaning. Problems of prospective
memory are frequently experienced by people who have frontal-lobe damage and have been the
basis for important work done on memory aids.
of the pseudo-shopper was like that of the person in a busy hotel lobby. It was apparent to
the psychologist that the pseudo-shoppers needed some form of help in learning how to
make use of selective attention.
The problem would certainly have reduced were the pseudo-shoppers allowed to have
some sort of reminder of the details to which they were meant to attend. However, notes or
memory aids were not allowed as such aids could make staff suspicious and undermine the
pseudo-shoppers’ disguise. As such, the pseudo-shoppers had to remember to attend to
certain bits of information and ignore others, regardless of their personal significance, sali-
ency, and so on. This type of memory, where the person is required to remember to do
something in the future, is referred to as prospective memory. While not yet studied exten-
sively, prospective memory problems are extremely common in everyday situations. For
example, remembering to take one’s pills, or remembering to pick up the dry cleaning, both
reflect prospective memory.
Importantly, the pseudo-shoppers had no prior experience in the type of selective atten-
tion required of them. Evidence from studies on learning illustrates that tasks for which the
learner has little prior experience benefit from practice trials. Practising a musical instru-
ment, for example, allows the person to develop physical skills and competence in the tech-
niques of playing the instrument through sheer repetition. Thus, part of playing the piano
involves being able to move the 10 digits independently of each other and practice enables
the person to become more proficient at this. With more practice, the task requires less
conscious awareness and can be performed implicitly. The pianist has to ‘think less’ about
moving the fingers and the ability becomes more automatic, freeing the player to divert
attention and effort to other tasks. The pianist attends more to the quality of the finger
movements, rather than whether they can produce them in the first instance. The effects of
such practice, whereby the learner engages in learning how to do the task(s), have long been
referred to as warm-up effects, and learning-to-learn effects.
The psychologist felt that the concept of warm-up effects and learning-to-learn would be
important to consider in addressing the problems met by the pseudo-shoppers, since they had
no previous experience of the task and no prior knowledge. In essence, they needed to learn
first how to do the task required of them before going into the showroom. The psychologist felt
that this could be achieved through some form of role play, where each pseudo-shopper could
take on a different role, and get feedback on difficulties they were experiencing.
Another important concept is the nature of the memory task confronting the pseudo-
shoppers, in that the learning is intentional, in contrast to incidental. Intentional learning
124 6 THE WORK ROOM
means that the individual deliberately wishes, or means, to learn and later remember the
information. A good example of this is a consumer who hears an advertisement for a car
loan and decides that the repayment conditions sound reasonable. The person will deliber-
ately want to remember the details, including the telephone number, and so will repeat the
number to themselves while they find a piece of paper on which to write it down. The con-
sumer is deliberately interacting with the materials with the express purpose of wanting to
reproduce the information later. In contrast, incidental learning and memory occur when
the individual interacts with some stimulus, or aspect of the situation, but does not have the
deliberate intention of learning or remembering anything. Advertising campaigns often
rely on incidental learning and memory, although they are unlikely to know this. An exam-
ple of this is seen in promotional advertising in motion pictures. When a particular charac-
ter is seen drinking a brand of soft drink, the consumer is given subtle information regarding
the product, including what type of people use the product, what the consequences of using
the product are, and so on. Later, the consumer will select that brand of soft drink when
having a party, in part because of their exposure to the brand name during the movie.
Exposure through incidental learning can work regardless of whether the person remem-
bers being exposed to the target or not. Subliminal advertising works on the assumption
that people do not need to know that they have been exposed to a target in order for them to
learn about and remember that target later.
Other concepts focus on factors that relate to improving retention; that is, the ability to
reproduce the information after the event. In the case of the pseudo-shoppers, the method
of retention required recognition memory, as well as cued recall. While recognition mem-
ory is generally considered an easier task than recall, both types of memory reporting are
facilitated by rehearsal. This involves the individual repeating the information, and there
are different kinds of rehearsal. Our consumer who wants to remember the telephone num-
ber for a car loan can do so by simply repeating the information. The rehearsal is regarded
as superficial in that the person is not doing anything actively to change the information, or
to relate the information to knowledge they already have. They are simply repeating it so
that they can remember until it is written down. In contrast, if the person remembered the
loan number by relating it to something they already knew, this type of rehearsal would
involve organizing the information and would be considered to be deeper. For example, the
number might be 1019513. The person could remember 10 as the month they were born, 19
as the day they were born, 51 as the year they were born, and 3 as the number of children
they have. While much more complicated than merely repeating the number, this deeper,
organized rehearsal enables the person to remember the information better and longer. The
pseudo-shoppers would be better off if they could use some form of strategy to remember,
as sheer repetitive rehearsals would not work, given the huge amount of information that
they needed to remember.
The psychologist also realized that the pseudo-shoppers had to remember different types
of information, some very specific and some more general. Very specific information
included the number of times a sales person used the their first name; more general infor-
mation regarded how the pseudo-shoppers rated the overall tidiness of the showroom.
Some information is easier to remember than others. For example, imagine that you are
asked to repeat verbatim the words used in an advertisement. It is likely that you will be able
to give a reasonably good idea about the gist of what was said immediately after you see the
Box 6.11 Models of memory

In early information-processing theory, where memory was described in terms of a spatio-temporal
metaphor, rehearsal was thought to result in information being transferred from some short-term
store to a more permanent, longer-term store. However, this view was challenged by theorists who
were concerned with how information was processed rather than merely transferred. One
particularly dominant hypothesis, put forward by Craik and Lockhart (1972), considered the quality of
processing, in terms of levels of processing. For example, information processed in a shallow way
would result in the person retaining superficial, sensory details; for example, the number of syllables
in a word. In contrast, information that was processed on deeper levels would result in the person
retaining semantic, conceptual, or thematic details; for example, whether something was important
or unimportant. A different approach was adopted by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), who were
interested in defining the functions of the short-term memory store. They suggested that this store
serves as a working memory, having limited capacity, which is used to bring together and hold in
temporary storage the information needed to accomplish a particular ongoing task. Such a store
would be a functional unit, independent of the nature of the current task, which might involve
problem solving, learning, comprehension, or other cognitive activities. The working memory model
proved capable of predicting and explaining a wide range of experimental results.
Box 6.12 Strategic or automatic memory?

The psychological literature has distinguished between attributes of an event that are automatically
encoded and learned, from those that require more strategic efforts to be learned (e.g. Schneider and
Shiffrin 1977; Shiffrin and Schneider 1977). For example, familiarity judgements, namely the ability to
distinguish ‘old’ from ‘new’, seem to be the result of the automatic encoding of frequency information
and do not require strategic efforts. This is certainly consistent with most recent evidence from
neuropsychology, which highlights the role that the more primitive systems play in detecting old from
new; for example, hippocampal activity. Equally, the developmental literature points to the finding
that recognition memory develops very early in infancy, in some cases within hours of birth. Such
diverse, converging evidence argues strongly that certain attributes of an event are easy to learn, and
appear to be automatically perceived or hard-wired.
advert and for some while after that. In contrast, it is much less likely that you will be able to
remember the exact words within a few seconds after you see the advert; and it is extremely
unlikely that you will retain the exact words weeks afterwards.

The psychologist felt that one reason the Atlas project was failing so badly was that the
pseudo-shoppers had not been trained to do their job properly. The psychologist believed
that Atlas had failed to do an adequate task analysis of the multiple goals confronting the
pseudo-shoppers and as a consequence had not prepared them adequately in training. For
example, given that they had to fill in a questionnaire, it would be useful to have each
pseudo-shopper familiarize themselves with the details to be remembered. In short, part of
training someone to be a pseudo-shopper should be to make them familiar with the job they
would be doing. If filling in a questionnaire were part of the job, then becoming familiar
126 6 THE WORK ROOM
with the questionnaire would obviously help the pseudo-shopper to do the job more suc-
cessfully. Unfortunately, Atlas’s training programme had largely ignored such task-relevant
details, and this resulted in the pseudo-shoppers being poorly equipped to do the job
at hand.
To this end, the psychologist considered what cognitive requirements were demanded
from the pseudo-shoppers. On the basis of an initial task analysis, the psychologist devel-
oped a modified handbook. The new training handbook explained clearly the different
things that the pseudo-shoppers would be expected to remember, and gave a series of tips
that were intended to help them with their tasks. Suggestions included reviewing the ques-
tionnaire three or four times immediately before going into a showroom, as this would help
them to remember details later. The handbook also discussed potential mnemonics that the
PSs might use to help their memory. For example, the pseudo-shoppers were encouraged to
make each visit to a showroom unique, say by going to showroom one in the morning, and
showroom three in the early afternoon. This would make it easier to remember each visit, as
there would be distinctive features that would distinguish one visit from another. The hand-
book also warned how memory could become less accurate with delay, and encouraged the
pseudo-shoppers to complete the questionnaire as soon after the visit as they could.
The psychologist was especially critical of the format and structure of the questionnaire.
In particular, some of the questions were extremely difficult to answer. For example, the
pseudo-shoppers was asked to specify the exact number of times the staff had used their first
name: the options given were 0, 1, 2, 3, and 10 times or more. The psychologist pointed out
that it would be very difficult for anyone to remember such precise details, and instead pro-
vided some suggestions for more general, easier ratings, like ‘never used my name’, ‘used my
name sometimes’, or ‘used my name extensively’. This more general information would be
as informative and considerably easier to report.
The psychologist also told Atlas that the questionnaire asked for too much information,
and that it would be difficult for anyone to remember so much information correctly. The
easiest and most sensible remedy was to reduce the number of questions on the question-
naire. However, in order to do so, it would be essential to identify what Nukar wanted to
know most about. For example, if Nukar wanted to know whether their staff were friendly,
and that was very important, then a question should be included that asked the pseudo-
shoppers to rate how friendly the staff were, rather than how many times they used a pseudo-
shopper’s first name. Atlas claimed that it would be impossible to go back to Nukar now, as
the company was expecting a final report within the next fiscal term. Going back to Nukar
at this late date, with such essential questions, might not look good. The psychologist could
therefore not proceed further, but did make some suggestions about how the questionnaire
might be streamlined. For example, some questions were repeated for example ‘Were the
staff personable?’ and ‘Were the staff friendly’? These might be subtly different, but not suf-
ficiently enough to warrant both of them being on the questionnaire.
How was the psychologist’s input received?

The psychologist presented a modified handbook and a completed report to Atlas, which
reviewed the pseudo-shopper project and noted the serious problems inherent in the design
of the questionnaire. In the report, the psychologist concluded that the pseudo-shopper
project was largely a disaster, and that Nukar was still not in a position to know about the
behaviour of their staff, the conditions of their showrooms, and so on. Atlas was very dis-
turbed that the psychologist had suggested so many major modifications to the project. The
company was in a difficult position, as Nukar had already contracted out large sums of
money for the pseudo-shopper scheme and were expecting a detailed report outlining the
results of the project. Atlas regarded the psychologist’s input as problematic and refused to
take any further action regarding the pseudo-shopper project.
Nukar discovered, through insider information, that a psychologist had been involved
and contacted the psychologist directly, asking for a copy of the report to Atlas. However,
as the report was formally the property of Atlas, the psychologist could not ethically pro-
vide anything to Nukar. Out of courtesy, the psychologist informed Atlas of Nukar’s
request. Atlas provided Nukar with a report, which, rather than criticizing the pseudo-
shopper project, argued how effective it had been. The psychologist was informed that
their services were no longer required, and given a reminder that the contents of their
report were the property of Atlas and could never be distributed without the company’s
permission.
Scenario two
Evaluating an advertising campaign
In this scenario, we look at the problem of producing a good advertising campaign.
Advertising represents a major way in which companies, organizations, and product pro-
viders communicate with potential consumers. Not surprisingly, psychology has played a
large role in developing ways in which advertising can be most effective. Much of the energy
for this work has come from social psychology; in particular, the study of attitudes. Attitudes
would of course be important in consumer psychology, as it is assumed that our attitudes
towards objects, products, and images will determine the way in which we act, including
what we buy, what we choose to eat, what we choose to wear, and so on.
Because advertising relies on successful communication, the classic issues raised in the
information-processing approach have also received a lot of attention. How much infor-
mation is presented in an advert, how the information is presented, the number of repeti-
tions or exposures to the advert, when the information is presented: all these will have a
major impact on the quality of the communication to the consumer. Advertising campaigns
must consider other factors as well, such as the affective or emotional component. The emo-
tional component must be considered carefully; if the advert is too negative, people will not
attend to it as they will find exposure to the advert too uncomfortable.
The following scenario highlights how difficult it is to develop a good advertising cam-
paign, without considering details such as the nature of the information that is being given,
the manner in which people use the information, and the motivation people might have for
changing their behaviour. As we shall see, advertising campaigns can be helped through a
psychologist’s input, and when no input is given they can often result in a waste of consider-
able sums of money, time, and energy.
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a national media organization that pro-
vides the general public (both nationally and internationally) with radio and television
128 6 THE WORK ROOM
programmes through its sponsorship from government funds and public licences. In the
late 1970s, the BBC announced that it planned to make major changes to the wavelengths
assigned to its four radio channels, BBC Radio 1, 2, 3, and 4. Each channel provides very
different types of programme and each appeals to vastly different audiences. For example,
BBC Radio 1 broadcasts what might be considered as popular music—for example the Top
Twenty—whereas BBC Radio 4’s programmes are concerned with news, current affairs,
radio plays, etc. The BBC had decided that two of the channels (BBC Radio 1 and 3) would
occupy frequency positions on the medium-wave reception band (MW). In order to achieve
this, some confusing changes were to be introduced. BBC Radio 4 would move from MW to
a frequency on long-wave reception (LW) that was occupied by BBC Radio 2. In turn, BBC
Radio 2 would move to the MW position held by BBC Radio 4.
Not surprisingly, the BBC was concerned that the public knew when the changes were to
occur, and what the changes were. Any losses in the listening audience would have serious
financial implications, as listening figures could be used to reduce government subsidies.
Consequently, the BBC decided to introduce a campaign, extending roughly 8–10 weeks
before it intended to introduce the changes. The campaign adopted a so-called saturation
approach: there were repetitive jingles and formal announcements on all of the four radio
channels; flyers were sent to all householders; and newspaper and television advertisements
were taken out. On average, jingles and formal announcements were presented about 10
times during the day’s radio coverage.
Importantly, all of the jingles, announcements, and advertisements referred to the
changes in terms of the new numerical position of the channels; for example that Radio 1
would be moving to 98.5 MW. These numerical frequency values were the only format in
which information about the changes were presented, with one single exception: the adhe-
sive labels that were sent along with flyers. These labels were designed to adhere to radio
dials so as to identify where the new location of each channel would be (radios in the 1970s,
including car radios, were analogue, not digital, and all took the form of spatial dials).
Two psychologists at the then Applied Psychology Unit in Cambridge, UK, were curious
as to the extent to which the campaign was being effective. After a few days they felt, as lis-
teners, that the campaign had had little impact on their memory. Despite being repeatedly
bombarded with advertisements on the radio, neither psychologist could accurately report
what the new numerical frequencies were. Both also experienced a certain amount of annoy-
ance every time one of the catchy jingles was featured. Informal interviews with their col-
leagues confirmed that others were similarly ignoring the campaign, and that a majority had
also found the campaign annoying. The two psychologists therefore decided that they would
examine how effective the campaign actually was to the general public.

The situation had to be viewed as a ‘one-off’: the BBC had decided to change wavelength
frequencies and was unlikely to do so again. Importantly, the campaign was to continue for
only 8–10 weeks, so there was a strict time constraint on any empirical investigation. As the
campaign had only just begun and was still in its first week, the psychologists had to
act promptly if they were to examine the effectiveness of the campaign across the time
it continued.

The scenario represents an intriguing situation, where the client did not request any input;
rather, the psychologists’ involvement was self-motivated. However, it is essential to point
out that, had the BBC requested advice, it is likely that the psychologists were not in any
position to offer any a priori advice. There was little prior research on how people remem-
bered radio channels. Although the psychologists doubted that the listening audience
remembered their favourite radio channel by numerical frequency, they had no evidence to
support their case. Consequently, the psychologists probably could not have advised the
BBC on how to develop the best advertising campaign.
What concepts might be useful?

In order to consider what concepts were important, the psychologists paid close attention
to the details of the advertising campaign. The campaign involved saturation advertising, to
the extent that advertisements were repeated across weekday and weekend programmes.
The psychologists hypothesized that frequency of exposure over the period of weeks would
be an important factor. A total-time hypothesis would suggest that eventually people would
learn the new frequencies simply on the basis of this repetition alone. Given that advertising
was repeated at regular intervals across the day’s programmes, the campaign operated on a
distributed-practice schedule. This approach separates different repetitions, so that the
repetitions occur after some break. Theoretically, distributed practice should be more effec-
tive than massed practice, where repetitions are given in sequence, without any breaks.
Traditionally, for best learning results, people should be given distributed rather than
massed practice.
The psychologists also felt it was important to consider the attitude that people might
have towards the changes. For example, it was important to determine whether listeners
would care about any other channel than their favourite one. As such, they might only be
concerned about where the new Radio 1 would be, rather than where any of the other chan-
nels would be. This attitude would ultimately effect people’s attention as well.
Box 6.13 Ordinary memory for ordinary events

A number of important lines of research have examined how people remember everyday
information. One example is the work of Ley and associates. These investigators were concerned with
how well people remember medical information imparted during doctor–patient visits, and found
that many communication problems arose so that patients often did not have good memories for
their visits (Ley 1978). This work highlighted the importance of well-known psychological principles
such as the serial position effect—that information presented first is well remembered while
information presented later is likely to be forgotten. Wagenaar (1978) investigated retention for
publicly broadcast weather reports and found that people’s memory for weather reports was very
low, in spite of the fact that the information was of high personal significance. He suggested that this
poor retention was because of a lack of higher-order structure, or schema, to the presentation of the
information. These early investigations into learning and retention of everyday information offer
excellent examples of research with ecological validity—that is, research with practical implications
for the real-life environment (see Neisser 1976).
130 6 THE WORK ROOM
How people attended to the campaign was also a serious problem. It would be obviously
difficult for people to learn any new information regarding the changes if they could not
sustain their attention to the advertisements. The psychologists assumed that many listeners
would be performing more than one task while listening to the radio, such as driving a car
or doing household chores. Therefore, it was possible that the competition in the environ-
ment restricted the listener’s attention to the advertising campaign.
The psychologists were also were concerned with how the information was being pre-
sented. New information is easier to learn if it fits into an already existing structure. For
example, consumers associate the colour green with nature. If an advertiser makes the prod-
uct cover of an environmentally friendly soap green in colour, this is relying on an already
existing structure, that green is associated with nature. The problem with radio frequencies
is that no one knew how people were most likely to store and remember the information in
the first instance. This, ultimately, would make learning more difficult, as was demonstrated
in Wagenaar’s (1978) work on memory for weather forecasts.
The psychologists strongly suspected that people do not normally remember radio chan-
nels in terms of their radio frequencies. However, the BBC’s entire campaign largely rested
on the assumption that people remembered numerical frequencies, rather than the posi-
tions of the channels on the radio dial. In fact, it could be argued that any knowledge people
did have regarding the position of radio channels was likely to be highly idiosyncratic and
contextually dependent on the listener’s own radio device.
The psychologists were also concerned about the difficulties people would have in re-
learning information. In its most simple form, listeners had learned to associate radio
channels and wavelength frequencies, for example that Radio 2 went with wavelength B,
which is known as paired associate learning. One possible difficulty in learning the changes
would result from proactive interference, where prior learning interferes with learning
something subsequently. A good example of proactive interference is forgetting where you
parked your car in a regularly used car park. Your memory for where you parked your car
this particular time is overshadowed by all the other times that you’ve parked your car in
the car park. However, the changes the BBC was introducing were even more problematic.
The changes required people to re-pair old associations, so that Radio 2 now went with the
wavelength associated with Radio 4, and vice versa. This re-pairing of associations is
known classically in the verbal learning literature as an A–B, A–Br paradigm. Suppose
Box 6.14 The cocktail party phenomenon

The power of personal significance to grab attention is well illustrated in what is known as the
cocktail party effect, first described by Colin Cherry in 1953. This effect is based on a mundane
observation. A person can be in a very crowded room, such as in a cocktail party, and be totally
absorbed in conversation with someone. Suddenly, one’s attention is re-directed by someone
mentioning their name at the other end of the room. Cherry argued that the personal significance of
one’s name captures attention at the expense of all other information. Much of the early work on
attention was concerned with establishing how this selective, filtered attentional system worked
(e.g. Broadbent 1958).
Box 6.15 Underlying structure in memory

The notion that there are organizational tendencies, or structures, has had a long traditional in
discussions of learning and memory. Bartlett (1932) considered the notion of schemas, which he
borrowed from Sherrington’s (1933) description of neural patterns in the brain. Bartlett argued that
schemas are means through which information is organized habitually. Schemas exert such effective
influence that over time, or in the absence of detailed information, people will report information in
accordance with what is dictated by prior schematic knowledge alone.
you are asked to learn the pairs train–black and dog–queen, but are then asked to re-learn
train–queen and dog–black instead. This paradigm is generally associated with great diffi-
culties in re-learning information, much more so than would be expected from other
forms of interference.

The psychologists assessed the effectiveness of the radio campaign through two question-
naires presented to volunteer subjects from the existing subject panel of the Applied
Psychology Unit. The first questionnaire provided some baseline measure of the extent to
which people knew the current radio positions, and was completed eight weeks after the
campaign had started, and one week before the intended changes were to be made. This
was important if any assessment of the campaign’s effectiveness was to be made. The ques-
tionnaire contained three sets of items. The first asked about people’s listening habits for
each channel. People were also asked to provide a brief description of the nature of the
programmes that they would expect to hear on each of the channels. The last item in this
set asked people to position each of the channels by placing a mark on a drawing that rep-
resented three radio receiver bands (VHF, MW, and LW). Each band provided a middle
position, and two end positions, so as to give the person some scale. People were asked to
write the frequencies under each placement for each of the channels, using the band to
which they normally tuned. For all items they were allowed to respond with ‘Don’t know’
whenever appropriate.
The second set of items asked people about the proposed programme changes. Questions
asked for general and specific descriptions of the intended changes, when the changes were
to occur, and the source of their knowledge about the changes. This latter question pro-
vided alternatives such as formal or informal radio announcements, postal leaflets, televi-
sion commercials, newspaper advertisements, or magazine advertisements. The last
question in this set asked people to indicate the new position for each of the channels. The
format for this was exactly the same as described for the old placements. Again, people
were asked to write the new frequencies beneath their marks. A final set of questions asked
people about any self-imposed memory strategies that they were using to learn the new
positions, and whether they had made any conscious attempt to learn the exact frequencies
of either the old or new channels. Some two to three weeks after the changes were intro-
duced a second questionnaire was distributed. People were asked if they had experienced
any difficulties in learning the new positions; whether they had made any strategic attempt
132 6 THE WORK ROOM
to learn the information; and, importantly, to specify any advertisements, etc. that were
particularly useful in helping them learn the new channel positions.
The results of the first questionnaire showed that most people listened to the radio an
average of two-and-a-half hours daily. Given that they had been tested roughly eight weeks
after the start of the campaign, the average listener answering the questionnaire had been
exposed to more than 1000 radio presentations regarding the changes. All people were
aware of the nature of the changes, and nearly 85 per cent could give the exact date for the
changes. Postal information and radio announcements were cited as the most common
sources for the changes. On the basis of this, the psychologists concluded that the campaign
seemed effective in alerting the public to the changes, and when they would occur.
However, the data from the rest of the questionnaire were not as positive. First, there was
the problem of people’s lack of awareness of the numerical frequencies. Few of the people
could accurately cite the numerical frequencies for the old channels and even fewer could
accurately cite the new numerical frequencies. Given that the psychologists had suspected
that numerical frequencies were not the mode in which people remembered radio posi-
tions, they decided to observe how well people placed their marks on the radio dials. The
accuracy of the marks would correspond to visuo-spatial knowledge the listener had regard-
ing the different channels.
The data were no better. For old channel positions, over half the listeners were unable to
make an estimate, and less than a third were able to give an accurate placement for the best-
known channel. For one of the band frequencies, more than 90 per cent of the people
responded with ‘Don’t know’. The same pattern emerged for knowledge of the new posi-
tions. Over 70 per cent could not provide any estimate of the new positions, with less then a
quarter being accurate about even the most well-subscribed channel. On the basis of these
data, the psychologists concluded that the campaign had largely been ineffective. People
had very poor memory for old radio frequencies and positions, and, by and large, did not
show much evidence of having learnt much from the saturation campaign.
The data from the second questionnaire confirmed these conclusions. Over 70 per cent
of the people reported having great difficulties in remembering the new positions.
Critically, the most helpful aid in remembering the new positions was the adhesive label,
with nearly 50 per cent of people claiming that they were using the adhesive solely to
remind them of the new positions. Thus, the campaign, which had been pursued vigor-
ously over weeks and which had cost a considerable amount of money, was shown to have
spectacularly little effect.
The psychologists delivered their findings to an international conference, and also sub-
mitted their data for publication. They also provided a preliminary report to the BBC.
How was the input assessed?

The psychologists’ findings were peer-reviewed and considered acceptable for publication
in a scientific journal (Bekerian and Baddeley 1980). The work was considered to illustrate
the importance of integrating experimental psychology with real-world problems. The BBC
chose not to respond to any correspondence and in some sense this was understandable.
The psychologists had undoubtedly provided an interesting example of applied psychology.
Equally, however, they had demonstrated that, in spite of considerable effort and money,
the BBC, as an organization, had failed to produce an effective campaign.
Additional reading
Arnold, J. (2011) Career concepts in the 21st century. The Psychologist, 24(2), 104–109.
The short review article provides the reader with new concepts regarding career models and offers
useful citations of the newest research in the area of career management.
Arnold, J. and Cohen, L. (2008) The psychology of careers in industrial-organizational settings: A

critical but appreciative analysis. In Hodgkinson, G. and Ford, J. (eds) Industrial/Organizational
Psychology, vol. 23, pp. 1–44. John Wiley, Chichester.
This is a useful chapter for anyone wishing to understand the evolution of career development and
different suggestions regarding future research in the area.
Hollway, W. (1991) Work Psychology and Organisational Behaviour. Sage, London.

Porteus, M. (1997) Occupational Psychology. Prentice-Hall, London.
Riggio, E. R. (2000) Introduction to Industrial/Organisational Psychology. Prentice-Hall, London.
These three books are among those most frequently cited as references in the field of occupational
and work psychology.
These websites provide information about the relationship between well-being, and the work–life
balance:
www.webmd.com/balance/guide/5-strategies-for-life-balance
www.mayoclinic.com/health/work-life-balance/WL00056
www.authenticpromotion.com/work-life-balance
Questions
Scenario one
1. Was it ethical for the psychologist to withhold his report from the companies who had commis-
sioned the original project? Topics include ethical guidelines for the conducting of research, impact
of funding on research findings, provisions of contractual work.
2. Given the psychologist’s conclusion, how would you devise an organizational training scheme for
employees to know whether they were complying with the requirements of the organization?
Topics include impact of role play on learning, practice effects, rehearsal effects.
Scenario two
1. Why should government agencies consult psychologists before they introduce major changes that
require the general public to learn new information? Topics include eco-systemic methods of inter-
vention, oversight of public agencies, multidisciplinary approaches to public problems.
2. Rather than take a cognitive approach, what other approaches may have been equally fruitful to
consider? Topics include qualitative methods, focus groups.
7 The war room
In this chapter we consider the war room, which includes all topics traditional to the
study of military psychology. Over the centuries tacticians and leaders have consist-
ently used psychological concepts. While the execution of war changes with tech-
nology, many elements of the psychology of war do not. We consider the more
general area of military psychology and discuss how psychology has been applied to
practical problems such as assessment, selection, leadership, motivation, and
morale. We show that the impact of the group is important not only for military
precision, but also to ensure the emotional well-being of the soldier. We provide two
scenarios that highlight very different applications of psychology: the first scenario
illustrates how psychologists have been useful in improving the design of military
machines and reflects how psychology has influenced human–machine interactions;
and the second scenario shows how a psychologist’s scholarly skills were put to use
in a situation involving espionage.
The nature of conflict

In this section we first look briefly at the nature of conflict and conclude that we are an
innately aggressive species. We then look at the distinction between the psychology of war
and military psychology, our own area of interest, before proceeding to a recognition that
the importance of psychological principles to warfare has a very long history.
We start out by concluding that we are a species that engages in violent behaviours against
each other. We assault each other as individuals, and we assault each other as groups,
whether as gangs, tribes, clans, religious groups, or nations. Some scholars argue that the
absence of any other species of hominids is evidence that we, Homo sapiens sapiens, are an
aggressive, combative, social animal—so much so that we wiped out our more docile
‘cousin’ species.
Wars start when we, side A, cannot agree with you, side B, over some issue, and are una-
ble, or unwilling, to use non-aggressive communication to resolve our differences. Once
having decided that aggressive conflict is the way forward, we form strategies, and execute a
plan, or plans, that will, we hope, result in us winning the dispute. Necessary to our success
is, of course, an assessment of risk and loss. We must decide how much we are willing to
sacrifice, how many lives we are willing to lose in order to secure our victory. However,
regardless of the victor, we want to ensure that we have the necessary means to win another
conflict—should the need arise—or, at least, protect and defend what we may have left. We
136 7 THE WAR ROOM
will call the general context in which the planning and development of strategies for conflict
and peace, the war room.
The war room exists in the real world whenever there is a conflict, or a truce, between two
or more identifiable groups of people. For example, a conflict between the armed forces of
different nations and a conflict between two local gangs would both yield some strategy of
aggressive tactics, goals, etc. We shall see that most of the input that psychologists have had
in the war room has been motivated by large, military organizations. Not surprisingly then,
many of the topics we discuss are more clearly relevant to formal military organizations,
like combat psychology and personnel selection. However, some of the topics are relevant
to conflicts and truces, regardless of the sizes of the group, such as the importance of good
morale and the effects of propaganda.
The psychology of war versus military psychology

Before beginning our discussion of some of the more traditional topics found in the war
room, we first need to distinguish between the psychology of war and military psychology.
The psychology of war is concerned with all elements of combat; for example, tactics, per-
formance fatigue, duty rotation, and weapon use. Psychological principles are applied
within the context of a combative environment where casualties are anticipated. Given that
casualties are anticipated, the psychology of war must by necessity include discussions of
highly specific topics. For example, leaders and commanders expect their soldiers in combat
to become desensitized to seeing dead bodies and hearing the cries of the wounded. In some
sense, being among casualties is part of the job and the soldier must somehow become
immune to the emotional effects that this might have. However, seeing one’s best friend die
is likely to have an entirely different effect on the soldier, and may require specialized psy-
chological treatment.
In contrast, military psychology is much more general, and covers aspects of war and
peace. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and the Behavioral Sciences (2001) defines it
as ‘the application of psychological principles and methods to military needs . . . military
psychology is not so much a separate field of psychology, but rather is defined by its area of
application: military personnel and organizations . . .’ (p. 957). For example, military psy-
chology would include the examination of the effects of the combat environment on the
soldier, as well as research regarding the effects of environmental factors that are present in
everyday, non-combat life, such as the effects of having families on base, or the effects of
reassignments.
In this chapter, we discuss issues that are traditionally considered under the general head-
ing of military psychology, which by definition can include factors pertaining to combative
environments.
The historical context of psychology and war

All scholars agree that modern military psychology is lodged firmly in the twentieth cen-
tury, as we discuss below. However, we feel that it is essential to remember that, when we
examine the war room, we are looking at a very old, surprisingly unchanged, real-world
context. While the discipline of psychology may not have emerged until the late nineteenth
ASSESSMENT, SELECTION, AND TRAINING 137
Box 7.1 The intimate relationship between technology and war

Technology has been part of war since war existed. Metal was one of the most important elements of
technology during ancient times, and archaeological findings indicate that armour was found in art
illustrations as used as early as mid-seventh century bce (www.bbb.co.uk/history). Bronze was
eventually replaced with iron, which although more difficult to smelt and work, was by far the
stronger metal. Iron was first formed into chain armour, although by the 1500s it had transformed
into full body suits. Note that as iron was expensive, and many of the resources were of poor quality
(e.g. bog iron), leather and skins were still used as protective gear. Scholars date modern warfare
around 1500, which coincides with the development of gunpowder, and the architectural mastery of
shipbuilding, for example the galleon (e.g. Wright 1965). The technological developments in
explosives, aircrafts, and ships such as submarines transformed the nature of war, particularly in the
twentieth century, culminating in the nuclear bomb (van Creveld 1991). A recent technological
development that has dramatically changed twenty-first century combat is drone warfare. The use of
drones has been argued to reduce the number of casualties and facilitates combat in areas and zones
that otherwise might not be accessible. Unfortunately, the disadvantages include excessive collateral
damage to civilian life, and the relative ease with which anyone can develop crude drones, making
them readily available to any government or terrorist group.
century, the application of psychology to war has been common since the time of the
ancients, and testimonials to this fact abound. There is Sun Tzu (c.500 bc), who considered
open confrontation to be destructive ultimately, and instead advocated strategic manoeu-
vring so that you ‘bend others without coming to conflict’ (The Art of Strategy, p. 12, trans-
lated by R. L. Wing 1997). Sun Tzu argued that central tactical leadership and psychological
manipulation were the elements of success: ‘[good leaders] lure through advantages, and
take control through confusion’ (p. 25). The importance of healthy morale among soldiers
was noted by the Greek mercenary Xenophon two millennia ago: ‘whichever army goes into
battle stronger in soul, their enemies generally cannot withstand them’ (quoted in
Richardson 1978). This point was not lost, centuries later, on Napoleon, who claimed that
‘Morale makes up three quarters of the game—relative balance of manpower accounts only
for the remaining quarter’ (Heidl 1967).
These quotes demonstrate that concepts of tactical leadership, strategic manoeuvres, and
psychological manipulation were as relevant to past generals and leaders as they are to those
operating in the twenty-first century. In this way, many topics pertinent to the war room
remain as important today as they did 2000 years ago, in spite of the obvious changes in
technology, weaponry, and combat practices. We admit that it is beyond the scope of this
chapter to do justice to this fact. Nonetheless, we can still acknowledge that the leaders of
ancient times knew the importance of psychological principles, and used them to secure
victory and maintain peace, just as their modern, military counterparts continue to do.
Assessment, selection, and training

In this section, we consider the related topics of selection, assessment, and training. We look
at the situations in which psychologists have been called on to devise task analyses in order
138 7 THE WAR ROOM
to ensure that the right soldier is selected for the right military task. We then look at how
psychologists helped to discover the differences between good fighters and poor fighters, as
well as identify the characteristics that make good leaders. Finally, we discuss the role psy-
chologists have played in increasing the effectiveness of training. Modifications have
included better opportunities to learn necessary skills and more realistic training pro-
grammes, such as those offered by simulations.
The First World War

The First World War was the starting point for modern military psychology as the Allied
military forces needed fast answers to important questions. For example, there were the
related problems of assessment and selection. Not everybody is equally well suited to join an
army; and once in the army, not everyone is equally well suited to the same job. While these
observations are obvious and probably universally accepted, the military still had the practi-
cal problem of discovering, in an efficient and speedy manner, the recruits who were unfit
for military service. An obvious example was the problem of low intelligence. The military
needed to know which recruits were of such low mental ability that they could not success-
fully engage in training. Another goal was to screen recruits so that the most appropriate
recruits were allocated to each assignment. Yet another challenge was to devise the most
efficient methods for training recruits, which would have to include not only training
recruits to use weapons, but also preparing them for the realities of combat.
Psychologists were asked to help in these matters, to devise reliable and cost-efficient
ways of assessing a recruit’s abilities, to map these abilities to the most appropriate military
job, and to develop effective training programmes. In this way, the First World War pro-
vided psychologists with their first formal opportunity to fit the worker to the job. In fact,
many of the topics that we have already considered in ‘The work room’ (Chapter 6) first
flourished in the context of the war effort, such as the application of task analyses. For
example, the roles of a foot soldier require different physical and mental abilities from the
roles of a vehicle driver. A psychologist’s expertise in task analyses was invaluable. The psy-
chologist could provide a way of identifying the actions that the task required and could
identify the abilities that were needed to perform those actions. In this way, the psychologist
was essential in helping to devise tests that could discriminate those who were unsuitable.
In fact, during the First World War psychologists dominated the business of assessing abil-
ity and aptitude.
Psychological expertise in research design and analysis also proved vital. Psychologists
could devise a series of standard questions to discriminate between those recruits who
would make good fighters and those who would make good pilots. However, without hav-
ing expertise in research design and data analysis, we could not guarantee that our standard-
ized test had any reliability and validity. Further, there was a limit to the extent to which the
psychologist could guarantee an accurate prediction of a recruit’s ability from performance
on a standardized test.
Sir Frederic Bartlett, in Psychology and the Soldier (1927), addressed this issue directly
when he cautioned against over-interpreting a recruit’s fitness to perform a military task on
the basis of his performance on examination tests alone. He concluded that it was relatively
easy to devise tests that identified the unfit; however, it was much more difficult to be
Box 7.2 The beginnings of personnel selection

The earliest psychological studies on job–worker match, personnel selection, and leadership, and the
effects of the physical environment, were in direct response to military questions that arose from
conflicts during the First World War. Robert M. Yerkes, who was then president of the American
Psychological Association, assembled leading psychologists to help in the war effort, in particular to
help with the enormous task of assessing and selecting recruits. Under Yerkes’s guidance, these
psychologists developed a selection programme that assessed the mental suitability of recruits for
different military jobs. The resultant standardized tests, the Army Examinations Alpha, for those
recruits who could read, and the Army Examinations Beta, for those recruits who could not read,
were used to screen about one million recruits. This early work with the military served as the starting
point for many popular areas of psychological inquiry, especially those that are now considered
under the traditional headings of organizational and occupational psychology.
confident in decisions about the ‘fit’ candidate. Bartlett pointed out that examination tests,
whether they measure mental abilities or practical skills, do not reliably take into account
other factors that may have an effect on a recruit’s ability to perform a military task. Bartlett
cited an example where a recruit’s condescending attitude towards his fellow recruits, and his
lack of social cohesion with his primary group, resulted in ‘[his] high intellectual capacity . . .
[being] prevented . . . from finding expression’ (Bartlett 1927, p. 35).
Barlett felt that there were many factors that must be considered if selection and training
are to be effective; among them is the person’s temperament. Temperament does not reflect
a single trait and is determined by a variety of personality factors, such as a person’s ability
to tolerate change and ambiguity, their amicability and popularity, their ease in new situa-
tions, and so on. As Bartlett stated ‘when a man presents himself for entry to any important
social group in his country, the records of his intelligence rating and of his temperamental
make-up ought to be as readily available as his ordinary health records. If these were made
seriously at the proper time, the problems of building and training an efficient army would
be considerably simplified’ (1927, p. 37).
The Second World War

By the time of the Second World War, psychologists were major players in the recruitment,
assessment, selection, and training of military personnel. Not surprisingly, as technological
advances changed the manner in which war was conducted, selection tests had to change,
becoming progressively more sophisticated. This meant that problems of allocation, namely
how to match the recruit to the job, took priority. For example, as artillery equipment
became more complex, the aptitudes and abilities of those who would be controlling them
changed accordingly. Unlike rifles, some of these new weapons, such as anti-aircraft batters
and aircraft guns, required collaborative efforts between groups of individuals. As a conse-
quence, much of the selection and assessment procedures during the Second World War
classified recruits not only on the basis of their ability to learn new tasks, but also in terms of
their ability to work with others, and under stressful situations.
The Second World War also marked a change in the training of recruits. For example,
during the First World War, the major model for training a soldier was through an
140 7 THE WAR ROOM
Box 7.3 Active combat

One of the most important psychological studies that emerged from the Second World War is that of
S. L. A. Marshall, who systematically examined the behaviour of combat troops, in his 1950 book Men
Against Fire. Significantly, Marshall reported that only a small, consistent percentage of fighting
soldiers actually ever fired at the enemy. Depending on the sample of soldiers, this varied from 15 to
30 per cent, with the latter only occurring in exceptional companies. These estimates stayed
surprisingly constant, regardless of the type or length of combat action in question. Generally, if a
man were to pull the trigger, he would do so from the start of his combat experience and continue to
do so until the end. Importantly, the difference between fighters and non-fighters was not their
courage, as the non-fighters were as likely to expose themselves to danger as their counterparts who
pulled the trigger. Marshall’s work highlighted how essential it is to consider the individual soldier’s
psychological make-up.
apprenticeship, or vicarious learning. The novice soldier watched the experienced soldier
and received tuition when necessary. In this way the novice learned what things needed
doing, the sequence of actions required, and so on. This type of learning is compatible with
the notion of on-the-job training, and is effective in that we all learn much of our everyday
skills through social, vicarious learning. However, this type of learning is more likely to be
successful when the person has repeated opportunities to learn, and is not under stress.
Obviously, the conditions of war do not afford either to the newly enlisted recruit.
The psychologist was in an ideal position to provide some advice on how to improve
training. At the forefront of any military training are two goals. One is to equip the recruit
with some mastery of the skills necessary to perform their military duties, and the second is
to prepare the recruit for the conditions of war. Fortunately, many psychological concepts
could be directly translated into military training. For example, the importance of feedback
on performance was introduced in the so-called quick-kill training method. A quick-kill
training method has targets of silhouettes pop up unexpectedly and the soldier has to make
quick decisions as to whether to fire or not. One of the basic principles of learning theory is
that feedback (i.e. knowing how well you perform) improves performance. Applying this
helped to promote target accuracy. When training programmes were reworked to include
sound psychological principles, the recruits had a better opportunity to improve their mili-
tary skills, and to be prepared for some of the conditions of combat.
The Korean War

By the time of the Korean War, there was sufficient evidence to suggest that careful selec-
tion, followed by adequate training, could dramatically improve the effective use of military
resources. In particular, the earlier work of Marshall (1950), who showed that only a pro-
portion of men actually fire against the enemy (see Box 7.3), indicated clearly that the killing
effectiveness of military units could be enhanced dramatically if the appropriate people
were recruited and selected. To this end, much attention was given to identifying those
individuals who had an aptitude, or ability, to be good fighters. While there were a few stud-
ies undertaken, the research conducted by the Human Resource Research Office (HRRO; an
organization that was funded by the Army) is considered the more reliable.
Box 7.4 Task maintenance

A related topic, which still poses one of the most important problems in today’s military operations,
regards skills maintenance. That is, how often does a person need to have a refresher course in order
to maintain their level of skill? This is by no means a straightforward question as the answer requires
at least three things. One, some task analyses must be performed in order to determine the necessary
component skills to complete the task (e.g. to fire a rifle). Two, there would have to be some
breakdown of the differential rates at which these components are learned to a stable level. For
example, aiming accurately to hit your target may be more difficult to learn than pulling the trigger
once you have aimed. Three, there would need to be a similar breakdown of the differential rates at
which these components are forgotten. For example, the skills necessary to aim accurately may
require more practice to maintain than the skills necessary to pull the trigger. Given the increasing
complexity of the skills required to operate technologically advanced weaponry, it is not surprising
that psychologists continue to be vital in the context of military training.
Who makes a good fighter?

Researchers at the HRRO first focused on identifying the two groups of soldiers that they
would be comparing: a good fighter group and a poor fighter group. (Note that this is different
to Marshall’s earlier comparison of fighters versus non-fighters.) The initial assessment of
whether someone was a good or poor fighter was based on verbal reports, commendations,
and first-hand reports from other men. Researchers found that good fighters exposed them-
selves more to enemy fire than poor fighters. However, even when being exposed to the same
amount of fire, a good fighter systematically behaved differently to a poor fighter. They
assumed leadership when necessary (e.g. when the designated leader is not operative), they
engaged in aggressive acts outside the normal role of a leader (e.g. attacking another unit
offensively), or they performed a supporting role (e.g. protecting another injured soldier
while medical help is called). In contrast, poor fighters physically withdrew from engagement
(e.g. when under fire they refused to return fire), psychologically withdrew from engagement
(e.g. obeyed orders only at gun-point), showed signs of mental dissociation (e.g. saw or heard
things that were not there), and became emotionally labile (e.g. trembled and cried).
Soldiers in the two groups were asked to complete roughly 86 psychological tests, and
consistent differences were found. Good fighters scored higher in terms of leadership, as
assessed in terms of poise, spontaneity, extroversion, independence, and freedom from
anxiety. Good fighters were also more likely to engage in adventurous activities or sports
and body-contact games. The researchers noted that differences in masculinity were among
the most significant ones that they found between good and poor fighters.
Good fighters were also more intelligent, although there is a caveat to this. There was
ample documentation that, as a group, combat soldiers were significantly less intelligent than
men in other military branches, a problem that still confronts the Army today. Perhaps
smarter people do their best not to get assigned to the front line! Nonetheless, the researchers
concluded that intelligent combat soldiers made better fighters than their non-intelligent
counterpart. Perhaps related to this, good fighters preferred humour that was witty and
sarcastic rather than simply telling jokes. Finally, good fighters were more emotionally
stable, and less prone to anxiety or depression.
142 7 THE WAR ROOM
Box 7.5 Problems with reliability and validity

Such was the success of these standardized tests that many of them have been applied to other
contexts, such as education and aptitude testing. Nonetheless, we need to be cautious about what we
conclude from this early research. For one, the sheer number of psychological tests employed, and
the possibility of extensive covariability among them, requires us to take a conservative view. For
example, whenever there is a large number of tests, researchers must be concerned with increases in
experiment-wise error rates. Simply put, the more tests we conduct the more likely it is by chance
alone that we will accept a finding as significant when it is not. This problem certainly exists with the
HRRO research, given that more than 80 tests were used. Second, there is the real question of
covariability among the different tests used. For example, the tests used to assess leadership may
have examined factors that were highly correlated with other measures used to assess emotional
stability. Therefore, we may simply be measuring different components of the same factor.
Furthermore, while the data are reliable and consistent, there is no unifying psychological
explanation for the findings. We need to stress this, as the presence or absence of a coherent
psychological explanation is essential to good applied psychological research. Without a unifying
theory, we run the risk of accepting and acting on findings for which we have no real understanding.
We cannot overestimate the importance of the early HRRO findings. Most crucially,
many of the psychological tests identified could be administered before an individual
engaged in combat, and this was highly advantageous to the military. The HRRO data were
also important in helping to refine how soldiers got allocated to assignments. For example,
the proportion of good fighters in a unit, relative to average or poor fighters, could now be
manipulated. This in turn would have an impact on the effectiveness of different military
operations. For these reasons, the research by the HRRO is one of the most important exam-
ples of applying psychology to the war room.
Who makes a good leader?

A related problem to the selection of a good fighter is the problem of selecting a good mili-
tary commander and leader. This problem was particularly acute during the Second World
War, and especially in the UK, where the normal methods of obtaining officer candidates
(i.e. recruiting officers exclusively from public schools) became impractical. Some highly
creative procedures were adopted to determine a candidate’s leadership and command
qualities, such as problem-solving situations rather than standardized question-answering
sessions. These novel procedures included giving candidates real-life scenarios in which no
solutions were obvious and where group cooperation was essential.
One of the most famous examples of a problem scenario is cited by Shelford Bidwell
(1973, p. 112 ff.). The candidates were told that they had to make their way across a shark-
infested river using only an oil drum, a plank, a piece of rope, and a few other tools.
Candidates were observed in terms of how they performed, whether they emerged as lead-
ers, and whether they showed flexibility in their problem solving and united the group’s
efforts. This method of selection proved successful and is still used today.
After the Second World War, psychologists were more directly involved in identifying
the psychological characteristics that made for a good leader and commander. Psychologists
Box 7.6 Are leaders born or made?

The debate between nature and nurture is particularly relevant to a discussion of the selection of
leaders. Are leaders born with the ability to lead, or can we make someone a leader by training them
properly and putting them in the right situations? The question centres around the issue of whether
the characteristics of an individual, be they personality traits, mental abilities, or emotional
intelligence, are determined by genetic influences (i.e. nature), or by environmental and situational
factors (i.e. nurture). As is often the case with psychological debates, there is evidence for both sides
of the debate. Studies with twins are particularly popular in this context as they provide built-in
controls for heredity and environmental factors. Monozygotic twins (i.e. identical twins) who are
reared together show greater similarities on certain traits, like achievement, than dizygotic twins (i.e.
non-identical or fraternal twins), who are reared together. Such data support the view that nature
determines who they will be and how they will act. On the other hand, identical twins who are reared
together show greater similarities in achievement levels than identical twins who are reared apart.
This provides evidence that environmental factors influence the person’s development. The correct
answer is undoubtedly a combination of both.
discovered that a good leader is aggressive and good at problem solving. They communicate
clearly and explain reasons for commands. They demand a high level of performance from
subordinates, explicitly reward good performance, and deal with failure constructively and
without threat. A good leader is also able to mediate and dissipate tension between members
of the group. Finally, good leaders identify the outstanding qualities of their subordinates
and use them to best effect (i.e. assign the most appropriate person to each task).
However, one of the most startling findings to emerge was that non-combat leadership
and combat leadership required different characteristics and abilities. For example, a good
non-combat leader was rigid with respect to rules, athletic, physically imposing, and tactful.
This was not the case with a good combat leader. Highlighting these differences enabled the
military to distinguish between the leaders needed during combat and those who were more
useful during times of peace.
Summary
By the end of the Korean War, assessment, selection, and training were major factors in
determining the combat behaviour of both individual soldiers and their units. In this sec-
tion we have reviewed research on soldiers’ experience in combat zones and shown how
these findings provided the basis for developing more sophisticated selection and training
procedures. We have illustrated how better selection, through the development of standard-
ized tests, allowed the right soldier to be assigned to the right military job. We have also
shown that through better training, soldiers are better equipped to perform their tasks,
thereby ensuring that they are more efficient and effective at their job. Improvements in
training included better identification of the requisite skills that need to be mastered, and
more realistic opportunities to engage in practice, such as in simulations.
This leads us directly to our next topic—the soldier’s morale. Giving more opportunities
to practise skills, and more realistic situations under which to practise, understandably
improves the morale of fighting soldiers and their unit. Training prepares the soldier; and
144 7 THE WAR ROOM
being prepared reduces the soldier’s apprehension and unease about going into combat.
However, the best selection and training in the world is useless if the soldier is unwilling to
fight—has little ‘heart’. The soldier must be willing to sacrifice and endanger himself, and
must be willing to engage in hostile activities when directed to do so or when the situation
demands it. To be truly effective, the soldier must be motivated to fight.
Morale and the fighting spirit

The morale of a soldier is a topic that has long captured the attention of students of military
psychology. Morale is a complex concept and it is not easy to provide a clear-cut definition,
as it is best seen as a combination of related factors. There are both situational and psycho-
logical factors that influence morale and these interact with each other. One of the most
important psychological components is the soldier’s motivation to fight.
While ancient leaders may have appreciated the vital importance of good morale, it has
taken some time for modern military leaders to realize this. For example, leaders of the
nineteenth century considered rigid discipline and routine to be more effective in produc-
ing effective soldiers than positive incentives like the promise of getting a few days leave. In
fact, despite the extensive breakdown in morale after the First World War (notably in
Russian and Austro-Hungarian armies), the formal study of morale did not emerge until
well into the Second World War.
Components of morale
Morale is not an easy concept to define. Part of the difficulty is that it is a psychological term
that covers many levels of explanation. There are physical and situational factors that will
affect a soldier’s morale. For example, if we are fighting in terrain that is highly unfamiliar
and treacherous, and we are outnumbered, we may suffer from low morale simply because
we are at a clear disadvantage relative to our enemy. Similarly, if we are starved of proper
food, or rest, our morale will be lower than the morale of soldiers who are well fed and
physically rested. Physical factors can be environmental, such as the climate, and also insti-
tutional, such as poor tactics and management of supplies to troops.
At the same time, there are internal or psychological factors that contribute to the soldier’s
morale. These, too, are complex as they may be emotional, physical, and mental. Although
the influence of emotions is not always easy to predict, there is clearly an affective or emo-
tional component to morale. For example, we could argue that extreme fear is unlikely to
yield high morale on the battlefield. However, there are many instances where soldiers, out
of sheer fear for their lives and a desire to live, fought the enemy ferociously. Their morale,
and willingness to fight to the death, was supported by their instinct for self-preservation.
Then there is the person’s physical state, or vitality, which will be affected by a number of
things such as sleep loss, fatigue, and arousal levels. These obviously interact with situational
factors and institutional responses from the military. For example, institutional responses
to promote good morale include rest and leave, and appropriate rotations, where limits are
imposed on the length of combat duty that a soldier must serve before he or she receives a
change in duties.
MOTIVATION 145
Box 7.7 Peer-group influence

The work of Asch (1956) is one of the most cited empirical demonstrations of the power of groups on
an individual’s behaviour. Asch’s experiment involved the use of confederates who pretended to be
students in a psychology class, and a naive participant (i.e. a student who was unaware of the purpose
of the experiment). Asch presented two lines, one that was clearly longer than the other, and asked
each student to say if the two lines were equivalent. Each of the six or seven confederate ‘students’
agreed that the lines were of equal length. The last person to be asked was the naive participant. Asch
documented that naive participants were often persuaded to agree with the group’s decision, and
conclude that the two lines were equivalent, in spite of the evidence of their eyes. Although there are
criticisms of this experiment, Asch’s findings nonetheless provide startling evidence for the impact
that the group, and its values, can have on the individual. The military applications of this finding are
important. People can be led into seeing, believing, and behaving a certain way, in spite of what their
senses tell them!
A definition of morale would also need to include some description of mental compo-
nents. We would want to consider cognition generally, such as the soldier’s ability to be
vigilant during a watch, to identify a target correctly, or to remember the correct sequence
of actions when under stress. We would also need to consider what are called the hot cogni-
tions, or beliefs the person holds, since morale is influenced by beliefs. For example, wars
are conducted for reasons, although the ones that are given explicitly are not necessarily the
real reasons for the conflict. Still, if a soldier believes in the reasons, the justness of the cause
for the fight, their motivation will be greater than if they do not believe in the cause. These
beliefs are ‘hot’ because they are ones to which the person ascribes great personal signifi-
cance. Hot beliefs underlie how we feel about ourselves and how we understand the world,
and dictate how we relate to others. Psychologists are all too aware that horrible atrocities
can be committed in the name of extreme feelings of patriotism and religious fervour, when
cognition is at its hottest.
Morale is also influenced by how the individual interacts with the world. In this instance,
group cohesiveness, and feelings of belonging to their primary fighting group, will be
important. Soldiers who are highly committed to the group’s common goal, and have
bonded well with their group, will have higher morale. The power of the relationship
between the individual soldier and his or her group cannot be underestimated as a protec-
tion against the conditions of war, as we shall see.
Motivation
In this section we consider how aggressive combat behaviour can be understood in terms of
innate drives and personality traits. We also consider explanations that view aggressive
behaviour as learned, and explore what incentives or rewards might be useful in motivating
the soldier.
One of the most important aspects of morale is the soldier’s motivation. While morale
and motivation are closely linked, there are important differences. For example, the concept
of morale has been largely restricted to discussions of military environments, and to a lesser
146 7 THE WAR ROOM
extent, working environments (see Chapter 6). In contrast, motivation is a psychological

concept that has been extensively studied by psychologists and has formed a major part of
many theories of animal and human behaviour.
The topic of motivation is so central to the study of psychology as a whole, that we cannot
consider it fully here. Essentially, the question of motivation is the question of why? Why
does the soldier obey commands, why is the soldier willing to fight? The answer depends on
which conflict we choose to examine. For example, Genghis Khan told his troops that ‘The
greatest pleasure in life is to defeat your enemies, to chase them before you, to rob them of
their wealth, to see those dear to them bathed in tears, to ride their horses. . .’ (quoted in
Bidwell 1973, p. 20). This suggests that the opportunity to be aggressive and to pilfer was
sufficient to motivate the ancient soldier. While the modern military may claim to deplore
such glorification, they, too, realize that aggression is a powerful motivator on the
battlefield.
Why are soldiers motivated by aggression?

How can we explain why normally placid individuals are able to commit aggressive acts
when commanded to do so during war? As before, there are many different types of possible
explanation. Biological explanations were originally developed in the context of animal
behaviours. Concepts such as drives and innate tendencies were common. Examples of
drives are feeding, drinking, and some social behaviour, such as hierarchical dominance in
social groups and mating. These explanations focused on the need for the animal to disperse
energy associated with the drive.
Although psychologists continue to study the biological basis for emotions, with the
development of sophisticated technology, psychologists can now examine the physiological
and neurological factors that underlie emotional behaviours such as aggression. For exam-
ple, the limbic system (i.e. the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus) has
been implicated as important for the expression of many basic drives (e.g. hunger, thirst,
and sex) as well as being responsible for the control of emotions like fear and rage.
Similarly, new techniques have helped to describe the function of chemical alterations in
Box 7.8 The origins of aggression

Konrad Lorenz was renowned for developing the study of ethology. Ethologists observe animal
behaviour in an animal’s natural habitat, under natural conditions with little or no intervention.
Ethology is in direct contrast to an experimental methodology, where the psychologist deliberately
manipulates or alters various aspects of the environment in order to observe the effects of these
components on behaviour. Lorenz viewed aggressive behaviour in human beings as an innate drive,
much like our need to eat, sleep, and drink. His description is analogous to the idea of a reservoir,
where drive builds up and the animal needs to release this stored up energy periodically. For Lorenz,
soldiers are motivated to be aggressive because they have an innate drive to do so. Some soldiers have
higher drives than others, or bigger reservoirs, and so are more likely to fight than other soldiers. This
significance of this view to military psychology is enormous, as it suggests that some people are more
aggressive due to their biological make-up and hence would make better soldiers than other people.
MOTIVATION 147
neurotransmitter substances (e.g. adrenaline (also known as epinephrine), γ-aminobutyric

acid (GABA), and glutamate) in emotions such as anxiety, fear, and rage. Such research will
go some way towards helping us to understand the biological basis underlying a soldier’s
motivation to fight. However, there are important ethical issues that need considering. For
example, there is the worrying possibility that we may be in a position, in the near future, to
turn someone into a good fighting machine simply by giving them the appropriate cocktail
of drugs.
Explanations of individual differences in aggression and motivation are also concerned
with inherited components of aggression. For example, the military has long been known to
attract a particular type of personality, one who is more rule-bound, more conservative, and
more inflexible in outlook. That is, the classic authoritarian personality. The authoritarian
personality is more likely to conform to institutional regulations and procedures, more
likely to adapt better to group demands and more likely to be socialized with respect to
training. Interestingly, studies have shown that good commanders are more rigid in terms
of routines and regulations and expect high levels of conformity from their subordinates.
Other explanations propose that aggressive behaviour is a learned characteristic, subject
to the laws of reinforcement, as developed by Skinner and Pavlov. We have already dis-
cussed social learning theory (see Chapter 6), which argues that our social behaviour is
learned. According to such theories, a person will be motivated to fight given the appropri-
ate reinforcement. This leads us to consider what a soldier might regard as incentives or
rewards for fighting.
Internal and external motivators

There are two classes of motivator, internal and external. Internal motivators serve as incen-
tives because of their inherent value to the person. An example of an internal motivator is
the desire for higher self-esteem. Our self-esteem is positively associated with our feelings of
pride and satisfaction in how we act, or how well we behave in a situation. Some psycholo-
gists, like Abraham Maslow, have argued that self-esteem and self-satisfaction are as strong
internal motivators of human behaviour as the most basic of needs, such as hunger or safety
(see ‘The treatment room’, Chapter 8). A soldier who has pride and self-satisfaction in per-
forming his or her duties will have higher self-esteem. This higher self-esteem, in turn,
would be associated with increased motivation.
Examples of external motivators are awards or promotions that a soldier receives, or
group recognition of their performance in combat. The attractiveness of certain external
rewards has changed. Five hundred years ago the prospect of plunder may have been a suf-
ficient incentive for the soldier to fight. Even today, the promise of material gain is sufficient
for some soldiers, as when mercenary fighters are recruited. However, monetary or materi-
alistic gain is not as powerful an external reward to the modern soldier as is external recog-
nition, be it from the military itself, or from the public. A hero’s welcome is a greater
incentive to fight than the promise of more money.
Not surprisingly, most studies show that external rewards, such as peer recognition, self-
pride, or increased autonomy (as in having more recreational leave) can seldom outweigh
internal motivators. Internal rewards have more significance to the individual and are more
intrinsically valuable. Most modern military institutions now recognize that a soldier who
148 7 THE WAR ROOM
Box 7.9 Morale and public support

We should note that the public’s attitudes towards military action affect morale. If there is little public
support, this will have a negative effect on the psychological states of those engaged in military
action. A modern example of this is Vietnam and the impact that the peace movement had on
combat soldiers and veterans returning to the USA. In recent conflicts, unprecedented access to
combat manoeuvres has been given to the media. Modern communications and technology now
ensure that public dissent is transmitted to combat soldiers more rapidly than ever before. This is a
factor that will need to be considered in future conflicts, particularly when public support is lacking.
However, even when the public does support a course of military action, soldiers often feel that they
do not receive the recognition for their actions that they deserve. Military historians note that
soldiers throughout all major conflicts have felt that the public remained largely ignorant of the
conditions and consequences of war. Some studies of the Second World War have shown that
combat soldiers returned home with a sense of being owed some status in the post-war world. More
often than not, these expectations were never realized, leading to feelings of bitterness and betrayal.
is fighting to achieve some internal reward or goal will endure more hardship than will a
soldier who is fighting simply for money, or external recognition.
Identification with the primary group

In this section we discuss how the soldier’s identification with the group influences morale.
We then examine the different psychological roles that individuals must perform in order
to keep combat units effective. Finally, we look at how the individual’s emotional relation-
ships within the group can provide some protection against the horrors of war.
Military historians uniformly note that while beliefs and other motivators are important,
it is often the more intimate feelings of friendship and comradeship that instil the will to
fight. It is the primary group that sets and reinforces standards of behaviour, such as fighting
or following military procedure. At the same time, individuals in the group, such as a
‘buddy’, provide emotional support and companionship during times of stress. Studies
from the Second World War, the Korean War, and Vietnam all confirm the critical function
that friendship plays in supporting the soldier.
A soldier’s feelings of belonging to their group develop as a consequence of many factors.
For example, close spatial proximity and the ability to have intimate conversations with at
least one other trusted comrade will encourage a soldier’s bond to their group. Equally,
more intimate relationships between members of the group, as with buddies, increase group
cohesion, as individual soldiers come to rely on and trust each other more.
Research conducted after the Korean conflict was concerned with understanding the
inter-personal dynamics between members of the same primary fighting units. Anecdotal
evidence often suggested that different members of the group fulfilled different roles. For
example, a soldier might choose to share a night-watch with person A because the person
was a good marksman and was highly dependable under stress. However, the same soldier
might choose person B with whom to go on leave because person B was more likeable and
a closer confidante. Such observations led military psychologists to conclude that different
IDENTIFICATION WITH THE PRIMARY GROUP 149
psychological functions must be fulfilled in order for the group to be effective, and for
group cohesion.
Psychological roles within the combat group

From these anecdotal findings, psychologists began to understand that a good fighting unit
is supported by the quality of the human relationships its individual members have with
each other. For example, the American psychologist, Rodney Clark (1953), identified five
psychological duties that must be fulfilled in order for a combat group to operate. One was
managing the group; for example, ensuring that the supplies and provisions were distrib-
uted equitably. Another was defining and maintaining group norms, which involved mak-
ing sure that all members of the unit were clearly told what was and what was not acceptable
behaviour. This included initiating discussions to resolve conflicts and explicitly stating
what was expected from each member of the group. Modelling was another function that
had to be fulfilled, where senior members operated as role models for junior group mem-
bers. Related to this is the fourth function of teaching. As we have already discussed, teach-
ing through demonstration, or vicarious learning, was one way in which a novice soldier
could learn. The teacher had to be a person who was perceived by the other group members
as having sufficient knowledge to be an expert; the teacher also had to be good at commu-
nication, so that he or she could present the information in a way that other group mem-
bers could understand. Finally, someone had to take responsibility for containing the
emotional conflicts that would inevitably arise between group members. Clark suggested
that this function was more than just being able to listen or sympathize. Rather, this func-
tion seemed to be more akin to therapy. People who served this function had an ability to
sense ‘when an individual’s desires were in conflict with the welfare of the group . . .’ and
helped the individual to ‘adjust his conflicting efforts to harmonize with the squad’s goals’
(Clark 1953, p.47).
We can see that some of the functions are likely to be fulfilled by the formal leader of the
group. For example, managing the group is likely to be done by higher ranks, or those peo-
ple who have organizational responsibilities to perform managerial duties. In contrast, men
from lower ranks are equally likely to fulfil other functions, such as containing emotional
conflict by being someone’s buddy, or teaching a junior soldier how to rest during breaks
in firing.
The emotional consequences of combat

There is no doubt that all soldiers suffer from demoralized feelings and fear at some time.
However, one factor that mediates these negative emotions is the soldier’s bond with their
group. When a soldier feels that he or she belongs to the group, they are better protected
against intense and prolonged combat reactions. It seems as though being with others in the
same boat, even if it is a lousy boat, is some comfort and helps the soldier deal with the emo-
tional consequences of war. In fact, reports of psychiatric breakdowns or combat trauma
were less likely when the soldier felt strongly attached to their primary fighting group. The
group, and the bond it afforded, provided the soldier with some resilience in dealing with
the emotional battering that war inflicts.
150 7 THE WAR ROOM
Of course, there is a negative consequence of being attached to your fighting comrades.

The prospect of your best friend dying or being injured from enemy fire is an entirely real-
istic possibility; and, when this happens, the emotional impact is so considerable that some
soldiers cannot continue, and experience symptoms of combat trauma. There are a variety
of reasons why soldiers suffer combat trauma, and the symptoms are equally varied.
However, we defer discussion of combat trauma here, since the treatments that military
psychiatrists developed for combat trauma have had an enormous impact on the treatment
of trauma in the general population. For this reason, we consider combat trauma and com-
bat psychiatry in ‘The treatment room’.
Summary
We have considered some of the traditional topics that have been central to the applica-
tion of psychology in the war room. We have shown that psychologists were essential in
developing methods of assessment, selection, and allocation and that their involvement
directly affected military campaigns. These early efforts, such as mapping the worker to
the job, served as the basis for much of the later work done in non-military working envi-
ronments (see Chapter 6). We suggested that the questions posed by these early research-
ers in the context of war and combat highlighted debates that are still central to psychology
today, such as the biological basis of emotions and the effects of nature versus nurture.
We illustrated how psychologists used basic principles derived from learning theory, par-
ticularly notions such as reinforcement and incentives, not only to improve training and
performance, but also to sustain the soldier’s morale and motivation. We also considered
how important soldiers’ affiliation to their fighting group is in ensuring well-being and
emotional resilience.

Scenario one
The role of psychoacoustics in the development of auditory warning signals
This first scenario looks at the problem of designing auditory warning signals on aircraft.
This work is derived from a series of studies conducted by Dr Roy Patterson and his research
team. It is an excellent example of applied psychology that combines the field of human
ergonomics, including issues regarding man–machine compatibility, with theories of per-
ception. This scenario illustrates the effectiveness of experimental methodology and design
in addressing questions that have great significance in the context of the war room.
Every military action requires resources, including personnel, and combat tactics reflect
this fact. To ensure their effective use, risk assessments are conducted to determine whether
the benefits of the action outweigh the costs to resources. Human life is simply another
resource in combat and military leaders must ultimately decide what are acceptable losses.
They acknowledge that a certain number of people on both sides will be injured or killed in
order to achieve their objectives. These losses are judged to be acceptable as they are the
unavoidable consequence of combat action. The military feels that it can justify them to the
public, and to the loved ones of those who are lost.
However, military personnel die not only through combat but also through failure or
error on the part of the military (e.g. through so-called ‘friendly fire’). These losses are unac-
ceptable, as they can be avoided or averted. Unacceptable losses pose a serious problem for
military leaders. The public is not as easily swayed into believing that the people who lost
their lives due to the negligence of the military died for ‘a good and just cause’. This scenario
provides an example of how unacceptable losses were reduced through the input of a group
of psychologists. It is an excellent illustration of how psychologists and psychological theo-
ries can directly influence the safety of military personnel through the development of more
user-friendly machines.

After the Korean conflict, war technology became significantly more advanced. The highly
sophisticated technology on board the new helicopters required the crew to assimilate a
considerable amount of diverse information and to perform many tasks at once. That is, the
environment was multimodal, with different sounds, lights, and background noises. The
workload was distributed across all members of the crew, so that the safety and success of
any mission was reliant on a number of people performing different operations in certain
sequences. This meant that it was essential for the crew to communicate information accu-
rately with each other.
Very soon, it became apparent that signals warning of danger (i.e. that required immedi-
ate action) needed to override all other perceptual information. In response to these require-
ments, designers adopted a visual warning system, and this served as a prototype for all
warning systems on certain types of military helicopter up to the mid-1980s. For example,
flashing yellow lights were used to signal that the craft was descending to a dangerously low
height.
Unfortunately, various factors make a visual warning system less than optimal. First con-
sider how we might get people to attend to visual information. We could flood the environ-
ment, as occurs with strobe-lighting effects. Under these conditions, the ambient light is
flashing so dramatically that our attention cannot help but be alerted. Unfortunately, it
would be difficult to read flight-deck instruments accurately if the ambient light was pulsat-
ing! Another way to attract attention is with flashing lights. The rhythmic pulsation of light
is salient, particularly under the light conditions of a flight deck. However, in order for the
signal to capture our attention we need to be facing it. If our back is to the signal, or if we
have our heads down looking at something else, we might not see the signal and this could
lead to disaster.
Next, let us consider what happens during an emergency on a flight deck. As already
mentioned, the members of the flight crew are doing more than one task at any time and this
is particularly the case in an emergency. In psychological terms, they will be parallel pro-
cessing or serial processing (see Box 7.10), will be engaged in a multitask situation, and are
likely to be in a state of heightened alertness and anxiety.
Significantly, the crew will be focusing on other visual information, such as instruments
that need to be monitored. Last but not least, the act of flying itself relies primarily on vision,
and even during night flights most of the flight panel is visual. Thus the crew would be pro-
cessing a huge amount of visual information in the course of their normal duties, let alone
under emergency conditions. A visual warning signal would be in stiff competition with
152 7 THE WAR ROOM
Box 7.10 Serial and parallel processing

The distinction between serial and parallel processing is an important one for psychologists. Many of
the early theories of attention, such as that of Donald Broadbent (1958), argued that people could do
more than one thing at once through rapid serial processing: attention and its processes would be
switched from one task to the other. These types of model suggest that attention can become
‘bottle-necked’, with too much information resulting in only a subset being processed. In contrast,
modern theories of perception and cognition, such as those of Hinton and Anderson (1981) and
Barnard and Teasdale (1991) argue that information is processed in parallel across different
information units. The limitation of the person to do, or attend to, multiple tasks is determined not
only by the amount of information, but also the quality of the information processing involved.
other visual information for the crew’s attention; and this would increase the chances of the
crew not attending to the warning signal in sufficient time to avert disaster. Sadly, this proved
true when a helicopter came down, killing all personnel. It appeared that while the pilots were
looking for landfalls within fog, they had overlooked the flashing yellow light signalling that
the craft had descended dangerously low. Subsequent military investigations concluded that
if the warning signals had been auditory, the accident could have been avoided.
Eager to avoid any future disasters, the military decided to produce an auditory warning
signal that would not fail to dominate attention. They decided to model their warning sys-
tem on the ambulance siren, which cuts through all other traffic sounds and noise by sheer
volume. Importantly, because it uses the auditory modality, a siren does not require the
driver to be oriented to it spatially, so it will not interfere with the act of driving itself, which
is dominated by vision. Given the similarity of the conditions between driving and flying,
the military decided that this type of auditory signal would ensure that the crew could not
ignore the warning. In addition to the visual warning system, new helicopters were there-
fore fitted with auditory signals that would dominate all other perceptual information. For
economic reasons, high-frequency tones were selected for the majority of warning signals,
with the major distinctions between the different signals being their absolute frequency
(pitch) and their intensity (loudness).
Box 7.11 The primitive warning system

Psychologists who study hearing argue that the auditory modality is far superior to the visual
modality as a perceptual warning system. Patterson (1990) points out that hearing is a primitive
warning sense. For example, the sound of our enemy rustling through the foliage will reach us far
faster than the sight of our enemy. Patterson also notes that an auditory warning signal does not
require the pilot’s attention. The pilot can be engaged in another visual task, or can be quietly taking a
rest with their eyes closed; in either case, an auditory warning will be detected. As Patterson clearly
argues, the military should have considered the psychology of hearing and examined how the brain
processes auditory information. If this had been done, it would have been clear that the question was
not whether helicopters should have auditory warning systems, but rather how they could construct
warning sounds that would promote the best and most reliable detection.

The new design, using auditory and visual warnings, solved the problem of the flight crew
ignoring the warning signals. Unfortunately, it introduced new and equally disturbing con-
cerns, and the number of incident reports that cited problems with the new warning system
increased. After a sufficient number of complaints, and near-miss disasters, the military
decided to enlist the help of applied psychologists who were experts in the area of human
hearing. Through collaboration with private companies, government departments, and
research councils, the psychologists agreed to address the flight crews’ complaints. One of
these regarded the level of the auditory warning. Pilots had complained that some of the
warnings were so loud that it was impossible for them to hear anything else, which made
communicating information to each other difficult. Ironically, pilots claimed that often
their first action was to turn off the warning system, so that the flight crew could talk to each
other and find out what the problem was!
A second complaint was that warnings were not always easy to discriminate from other
sounds that shared the same spectral characteristics, such as when turbines or pumps
became worn (see Box 7.12). Members of the crew were uncertain whether the sound they
were hearing was a warning signal, or just a normal part of the background noise of the
aircraft. A third problem was that the warning signal reached its highest intensity immedi-
ately, going from a completely quiet situation to full volume. This had the consistent effect
of startling the pilots so that they could not respond to the situation with composure and
objectivity. When we are startled, our natural reaction is to experience muscular tension
and prepare for an immediate response. The problem is that if a pilot reacts too rapidly, their
reaction is likely to be incorrect because they have insufficient information, which is why
instantaneous reactions are always discouraged in pilot training.
A fourth criticism was that there were too many warning signals. For example, on some
aircraft, there were as many as 15 different auditory warning signals, from those signalling
evacuation procedures to those associated with over-speed problems. Crews therefore had
Box 7.12 The way we hear

We perceive sound as a pattern of changes in the pressure of air. Our hearing system is designed to
tell us about three things: wavelength, amplitude, and location. Wavelength, or frequency, refers to
the time it takes for the sound wave to complete one cycle. This is generally measured in cycles per
second, or Hertz, also known as Hz. Humans are sensitive to frequencies between 30 and 20,000 Hz.
High-frequency sounds, such as screams, have very short cycles, whereas low-frequency sounds,
such as Buddhist chants, have very long cycles. Any complex sound, such as that produced by a
musical instrument, is a combination of many simpler sounds. Each component sound will have a
particular frequency, or cycle, and can be thought of as having spectral characteristics. Amplitude is
the size of the wave, as would be measured as the loudness or intensity of the sound. Sounds of
greater amplitude are louder than sounds of smaller amplitude. Generally, intensity or power is
referred to in decibels or dB. Finally, we are sensitive to the location of the sound as those that are
closer to our ear are processed quicker and received faster by the brain. The ability to utilize
differences in the speed in the processing of auditory information is the basis for the echo-location
used by some species of mammals.
154 7 THE WAR ROOM
difficulty learning which sound signalled which danger. Furthermore, the majority of warn-
ing signals were of high frequency. This was a problem because the human ear is designed
to discriminate between changes in sounds rather than absolute sounds. To compound the
problem even further, when two or more warning signals came on simultaneously, their
combined sound made it difficult for the pilots to recognize the component signals involved.
What psychological concepts are relevant?

Concepts developed from the discipline of psychoacoustics were of obvious relevance. The
study of psychoacoustics combines experimental methodologies developed from psychol-
ogy with an understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the ear, to explain how people
process and perceive auditory information from the environment. In this case, the psy-
chologists felt that the problems were related to some fairly basic theoretical concepts
regarding how people detect patterns of sound, how they learn to associate meaning to pat-
terns of sounds, and how they remember them.
The first problem was to produce a warning sound that would be easily detected above the
background noise of the helicopter. Flying an aircraft is a noisy business with multiple
sounds coming from outside the aircraft as well as the engines and the flight deck itself.
Similar problems have been addressed by psychologists interested in how we single out, and
selectively attend to, one perceptual feature when there are many other things going on in
the environment that are competing for our attention. Although there are many possible
answers, we shall turn to signal detection theory, one of the most familiar explanations to
arise from the work of psychophysics.
Signal detection theory operates on the assumption that people detect a target, in this case
the warning sound, from a background of non-target sounds, as a consequence of two inde-
pendent processes. One process relies on differences between the sensory features of the
target and non-targets, such as the spectral characteristics of the sound (see Box 7.12). The
overlap between the sensory features of the target and the non-target is assessed by d’. This
is a measure of the ratio that reflects the difference between target and background, and
Box 7.13 The classic area of psychophysics

The area of psychoacoustics belongs to the more general area of psychophysics. Psychophysics
attempts to explain the processes of perception through analyses of molecular sensory processing of
the five main sensory systems (i.e. vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste). In particular, discussions
focus on how information from our physical environment is translated, or transduced, into
information that can be understood and processed by our brain. Psychologists interested in
psychophysics would be concerned with descriptions of sensory receptors. They examine how sensory
receptors detect the presence of physical events in the external world, how they convey the
occurrence of physical events to the brain, and how they process this information so that the brain
can receive it. Through the use of experimental methodology, psychophysics provides a level of
explanation that is based around descriptions of sensory receptors and action potentials. This level of
description is different from that provided by more cognitive approaches. For example, a cognitive
theory may not only discuss sensory receptors, but also consider non-sensory aspects involved in
perception, such as the effects that emotion or memory might have on our perceptual abilities.
ranges from zero to one. The smaller the ratio, the more similar the target and background,
and consequently the more difficult it is for us to detect the difference. For example, suppose
you are asked to press a button when you hear speaker A (the target), but not when you hear
speaker B (the non-target). If both of the speakers are men, you will find it more difficult to
distinguish between the two than if speaker A is a woman and speaker B is a man. Part of the
reason for this is that the two male voices share more perceptual features.
The second process has to do with how readily we are able to accept that the sound we are
hearing is the target. This process involves us making a decision and is related to the level of
certainty we have to reach in order to decide that this is the target and not some random
noise. This is measured by beta (β), and is referred to as our criterion. Typically, criteria are
discussed in terms of whether they are lax or strict. For example, suppose we are given the
task of identifying a song by the first four notes of its music—a task commonly used in tel-
evision game shows. If we have a lax criterion, we may decide that we only need two notes
to identify the song. However, if we have a strict criterion, we may want to wait until all four
notes have been played. These decisions have nothing to do with the sensory information
but with how willing we are to accept that we have heard a target, given the amount of infor-
mation we have received.
Regardless of their explanatory framework, the psychologists knew that it was essential
for the perceptual features of the warning signals to be distinctive from the background
sounds of the flight deck and sounds of flying. The original designers had dealt with this
problem by selecting a very high-frequency sound and making it very loud: 100 dB. What
they had failed to take into account was the fact that sounds over 85 dB are generally quite
unpleasant, particularly at high frequency. The psychologists knew that they needed to
examine closely the perceptual features of the warning signals in the context of the environ-
ment under which the crew was operating. Their main focus was how to increase the per-
ceptual distinctiveness of the warning signal. In order to do this, the psychologists would
have to analyse the nature of the competing sensory information on the flight deck, in par-
ticular the spectral characteristics of other sounds common to a flight deck (e.g. engine
noises and rotor-blade sounds).
Analysing the spectral characteristics of the other sounds would also address another
criticism, which was the problem of detecting a meaningful pattern of sound. In psychologi-
cal terms, the problem is how we assign meaning to sensory information. To put it another
way, how do we combine bits of sensory information into whole objects, or patterns? A
good example from the visual modality is the three-lines/triangle. This well-known figure
consists of three straight lines arranged to form the outline of a triangle, but with the corners
not joined. If we ask most people what they see when they look at this figure, they will
respond with ‘a triangle’. However, what are actually present are three disjointed lines. So,
how is it that we are able to see a triangle where none exists? According to Gestalt theory, we
take the sensory information that is present, and then actively impose some organization or
structure on it in order to see something meaningful. We fill in the spatial gaps, and using
our knowledge about objects, and about triangles in particular, impose structure so that the
three lines become a set of lines forming a triangle. Of course, our ability to impose this
organization on the figure is aided by the fact that the three lines are angled in such a way
that is consistent with how they would look as a triangle. According to Gestalt theorists,
the organization inherent in the sensory information and our ability to impose our own
156 7 THE WAR ROOM
organization on the environment allows us to perceive a meaningful object, where, in fact,

there is none.
In the case of auditory information, we associate certain temporal patterns, or rhythms,
with whole units or sets. For example, the sound series, da-da-da, da-da-da, is perceived by
most people as two sets of triplets. In this way, we would use rhythm to indicate a set, or
whole. Unfortunately, the warning signals did not make use of any distinct temporal pat-
terns. Because the sounds comprising the warning signals lacked any inherent structure, the
crew failed to recognize them as a set of sounds that meant something. The psychologists
knew that if the warning signals had contained better structure, such as a recognizable
rhythmic temporal pattern, the crew would have been better able to distinguish this system-
atic pattern from the random patterns of noise and sound around them.
Another issue was that the large number of auditory warnings meant that the pilots were
experiencing perceptual confusion. It became difficult for them to tell whether warning A
or warning K was occurring, and to learn and remember so many different warning signals.
There are two separate issues that the psychologists felt needed considering, and both were
relevant to psychological concepts regarding learning and memory. First, the crew had to
recognize a large number of signals. The psychologists realized that the crew had not been
allowed to learn each signal to a stable level so that they could recognize them automatically
and without hesitation. Furthermore, given that the crew only heard the warning signals
occasionally (i.e. during an emergency) the large number of signals was clearly going to
stretch the crew’s ability to remember them all, particularly during states of high emergency
and stress.
The second problem was that the crew was also required to learn and remember what
each signal meant. Learning to associate two things together is an area that has been studied
extensively by psychologists. One feature that can make learning associations easy or hard
is the extent of class or set similarity. Learning theorists have long argued that, when two or
more sets or patterns are to be learned, the more similar the two sets are, the more difficult
it is to distinguish one from the other. For example, suppose you are learning two lists of
paired-associate items and your task is to remember which list contained a particular pair.
In one, set A, you are presented with a series of word–word pairs, like train–black.
After learning set A, you are asked to learn set B, in which you are presented with a different
series of word–word pairs such as plane–white. If you are then asked to identify whether a
word pair came from set A or set B, you will experience some difficulty, as the two sets share
significant properties. However, if set B has number–word pairs, like 7–blue, your task
would be much easier, as the set similarities would be greatly reduced.
The psychologists could immediately see why this principle needed to be taken into
account. As the majority of signals shared similar properties (e.g. most were high fre-
quency), this made it difficult for the crew to learn and remember the specific association
between signal and emergency condition. The psychologists knew that they needed to find
a set of signals that not only would be easy to learn and remember, but could also be easily
distinguished from each other.

The psychologists devised a research programme whereby observational studies would be
combined with experiments involving flight crew and pilots. For example, the problem of
deciding what was the appropriate level of intensity for warning signals was addressed by
first analysing the spectrum of components of a flight deck, and their corresponding inten-
sity levels. This provided an indication of the level of intensity at which background sounds
were operating, which would have to be surpassed if the warning signal was to be detectable.
Analyses of flight-deck noise also provided critical information about similarities between
the sensory characteristics of the warning signals and other flight-deck noises. This could
provide an initial way of addressing the problem that pilots had in distinguishing the warn-
ing signal pattern from other rhythmic patterns.
Bearing in mind that anything louder than 100 dB would be uncomfortable and distract-
ing, the psychologists plotted background noise on the flight deck. From this, they devel-
oped a model that predicted the appropriate range of intensity levels that would maintain
the distinctiveness of a warning, and still be acceptable to the listener. The psychologists
then conducted experiments with pilots in flight. The pilots were given six different warning
horns and were asked to select the one they felt was the most appropriate. Interestingly, the
pilots selected the warning horns that corresponded to the levels that were predicted by the
psychologists’ model.
The problem of learning and remembering the different warning signals was addressed
by another set of experiments. Naïve listeners were asked to learn and remember a set of
10 auditory warning signals that were drawn from flight decks in aircraft. Some of the warn-
ing signals shared spectral characteristics (i.e. frequencies), some shared similar temporal
characteristics (i.e. rhythm or pulse-repetition rate), whereas others shared both spectral
and temporal characteristics. By varying the type and extent of similarity, psychologists
could advise how to create warning signals that were not only easy to learn, but also easy to
remember.
The data from the naïve listeners proved fascinating. First, the listeners had relatively
little trouble in learning six warning signals. However, once the number of signals
exceeded six, the learning rate declined sharply and listeners found the task much more
difficult. The psychologists knew that these results could not be translated directly to the
flight-deck situation, as they were using naïve listeners who were unaccustomed to the
task of identifying different sounds. However, they felt that these results certainly rein-
forced the view that aircraft with more than 10 warning signals may be putting undue
stress on the flight crew.
Equally informative were the analyses of the types of error that the listeners made. It was
very interesting that the most confusion seemed to occur when there were temporal simi-
larities between the signals. That is, signals with vastly different spectral components but
sharing the same rhythm were often confused. Again, although the psychologists were
aware that they could not apply their results directly to the flight-deck situation, the impor-
tance of rhythmic patterns in the recognition of signals was underlined. Their results clearly
demonstrated that the potential for confusion could be reduced dramatically by introduc-
ing more variation in the temporal patterns of warning signals. On the basis of these data,
the psychologists conducted a subsequent study with helicopter pilots. Pilots were given the
standard set of 10 signals used previously, and a new set of 10 signals that introduced vari-
ability between the temporal patterns of the signal. The data showed that the learning and
retention rates for the newly devised set of signals far exceeded those of the standard set, and
that the confusion rate was much lower.
158 7 THE WAR ROOM
Another problem that the psychologists felt was essential to address related to the time
needed for a warning to reach its full intensity. The psychologists knew that the majority of
warnings came on at full intensity, producing the highly undesirable effect of startling the
crew. The psychologists addressed this problem by developing a model of a prototype warn-
ing sound. The prototype served to identify what might be optimal features in terms of the
onset and offset of a warning, the intensity or loudness of the warning, and its rhythm or
pulse pattern. The prototype was made of a sound pulse with distinct spectral features and a
pulse pattern was used to provide a distinctive rhythm. The pattern of pulses was a basic
grouping of four clustered pulses followed by two, irregularly spaced pulses, which com-
pleted over a few seconds. Each pulse could be manipulated to have different on/off con-
tours; for example, rounded contours meant that the onset and offset of the sound was slow,
and sharp contours reflected abrupt onset and offset.
On the basis of this prototype, the psychologists were able to develop a warning that
could capture the crew’s attention without risking a startle response. They suggested that, in
an emergency situation, the first burst of a warning-sound pattern should be at a relatively
moderate level, one that was audible but would not interfere with any necessary actions that
might be required. The successive bursts of pulses after the initial pulse would quickly
increase in intensity and then recede again slowly as the pulse pattern concluded. The psy-
chologists believed that this envelope of amplitude differences, with its pattern of sudden up
then down, would give the impression of movement, of first moving forward rapidly and
then receding slowly, and that this apparent motion would draw the crew’s attention. The
pattern would then be repeated for a second time, with a gap of a few seconds. In the event
that some action had been taken, the pitch, level, and speed of warning bursts would be
lowered, so as to indicate less urgency, and should be repeated after four or five seconds.
Importantly, gaps in the bursts would allow the crew to communicate with each other. If,
however, no action were taken after the first pattern, successive patterns would be intro-
duced at increasingly higher pitch, intensity, and speed. This would ensure that they would
override any ongoing speech and would demand immediate attention.

This is one example where applied research was not only well received, but also acted on. On
the basis of both the spectral modelling and the behavioural data, the psychologists devised
a set of warning signals that addressed all of the criticisms of the old system. The new, modi-
fied set of warning signals were first tested on flight crews. The results indicated that the new
set substantially increased the chances of the flight crew responding appropriately to emer-
gency situations. The military was delighted with the results and lives were unquestionably
saved as a result of the psychologists’ input.
Scenario two
Assessing the usefulness of lie detectors
Our second scenario has espionage as its backdrop. As the nature of war has changed, so too
has the nature of peace. The end of what was known as the Cold War helped to lessen the
immediate worry of major nuclear conflict between two or more superpowers. However,
while there may have been an overt change in the relationship between traditional opponents,
there was an increase in what might be called covert operations. Covert operations include
such things as special operations, intelligence units, and other techniques of psychological
warfare. These covert operations, as their name implies, are conducted largely outside the
awareness of the general public. To be most effective, they must also be kept secret from our
allies, national partners, and political adversaries.
As we have already discussed, one of the most pressing problems that has consistently
confronted the military is how to select the right person for the right job (see above,
pp. 137–144). Indeed, we saw that this was a problem for virtually every branch of modern
military organizations, from deciding who should be a ground soldier to who should be
leading a battalion of men. A similar, perhaps more pressing problem existed when con-
sidering special operations. Special operations require special skills and abilities. Modern
military leaders realize the seriousness of the problem of selection, and invest considerable
amounts of energy and resources into utilizing standardized tests that would highlight
candidates’ aptitudes, as relevant to the job. For example, suppose we want to select people
to do a special job, such as to infiltrate a counter-insurgency cell. We can assume that there
are going to be certain characteristics, or aptitudes, that will make for better, or poorer,
agents. These might include the person’s general level of anxiety: given the stealthy nature
of the task, we would want people who maintain a level of calm and clear thinking under
pressure. We might also want to select people who show few outward reactions when they
are lying, and select people who are convincing in their false portrayals. It would make
sense for us to devise some means of assessing whether our prospective candidates had
these qualities, and determine how much these qualities affected how well different people
did the job.
This scenario demonstrates how things can go wrong when this approach is not adopted.
It outlines how a government bureau responsible for intelligence and counter-intelligence
ignored the hard-learned lessons of the military. As a consequence, the government was put
in a highly compromising situation, and national security was put at risk.

In the late 1980s the British Civil Service, in consultation with the military, established a
network of counter-intelligence units. One unit, Unit Z, had the task of listening to chatter,
or eavesdropping, on radio communication between members of a known guerrilla organi-
zation, the Freedom Fighters. The Freedom Fighters had been responsible for a few grue-
some attacks on key government buildings in which many casualties occurred. They were
regarded as a serious threat to national security. Unit Z was expected to monitor and collate
all information, and report regularly to the appropriate branch of military intelligence.
Different teams of five listeners, spread over eight-hour shifts, were responsible for main-
taining constant surveillance.
As the team members were civil servants, they were selected for the job on the basis of
their scores on traditional Civil Service tests. These tests are fairly comprehensive examina-
tions that assess general world knowledge, general intellectual competence, as well as gen-
eral reading and comprehension skills. Unfortunately, the traditional Civil Service tests did
not seem to address any traits that might be relevant to tasks involved in counter-intelligence,
such as loyalty, discretion, and the willingness to engage in deception. Provided that
the person had an acceptable level of intellectual competence, and signed the appropriate
160 7 THE WAR ROOM
Box 7.14 Standardized tests and special operations

The tests used by the Civil Service measure general intellectual abilities, but would not be considered
as psychological. This is because the tests had no measure of validity or reliability, and were not
standardized tests. In contrast, the military has made extensive use of standardized psychological tests
in selecting those involved in special operations, such as counter-insurgency operations. For
example, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) has been used to assess
characteristics deemed preferable, or essential, to do a job. These identify such things as propensity
to complain about minor aches and pains, and how concerned the person is about right and wrong.
The ideal candidate would be someone with high pain thresholds and someone who operated more
from pragmatism than from high morals. As outlined by Peter Watson, in his book War on the Mind
(1980), the use of standardized tests has led to further developments in terms of a ‘constellation of
reactions’, which identify a good agent from a poor agent. These included fear of injury, lack of social
responsibility, and uneasiness about the unknown, to name a few.
documents regarding official secrets, they could work at Unit Z, regardless of any other
individual characteristics or personality traits they might possess.
Over the course of a month’s listening sessions, the team pieced together information
that the present government was planning to sell arms illegally to the Freedom Fighters, and
furthermore was engaged in clandestine talks with those directly responsible for the attacks.
The Freedom Fighters, in return, were providing the government with information about a
neighbouring nation, suspected by the international community of developing nuclear
weapons. The reality of the government’s hypocrisy had a significant impact on one mem-
ber of the team, as she had lost someone close in one of the attacks. After much considera-
tion, the team member decided that her only option was to declare what she knew to the
major television networks and national newspapers. A second member of the team, who
found the hypocrisy equally difficult to accept, joined her in revealing the contents of the
communication.
A highly publicized trial ensued where both members of the team were convicted of
breaching national security and sentenced to imprisonment. Not surprisingly, the govern-
ment was concerned on two levels. The first was getting some idea of how many other peo-
ple currently working in counter-intelligence units would be likely to defect in this manner.
The second was putting into place an adequate screening process that would identify appli-
cants who were likely to defect from those who were likely to remain loyal and discrete.
The then head of the bureau of the Civil Service responsible for counter-intelligence units
was an amateur psychologist and had some knowledge about polygraphs (lie-detector tests).
The head decided that all members currently employed in the counter-intelligence units
would be required to take an obligatory polygraph test to determine their loyalty to the
government. On the basis of the results, the employee could be discharged from duties.
Additionally, all new applicants would be required to take a lie-detector test and, if they
failed, they would be prohibited from working in counter-intelligence, if not from the civil
service itself.
The members of the units were appalled at the suggestion. In the first instance, many were
aware that polygraph techniques yield mixed results in criminal and forensic cases, and ques-
tioned the use of such techniques. Further, unit staff were not allowed union membership in
order to prevent them from taking industrial action. This meant that, should any member
be unfairly dismissed as a result of an unreliable test, there would be no means for that per-
son to appeal against the management’s decision. In essence, unit members could be fired
on the basis of a faulty test, and would have no recourse. Faced with these circumstances,
teams across different units began to meet and considered their options, which for the first
time included the possibility of industrial action. The Civil Service was confronted with a
major uprising. Unfortunately, the head was a particularly stubborn woman, and she
refused to be persuaded to give up her idea of using the polygraph.

To prevent a complete breakdown within the branch, junior ministers convinced the head
that she should attempt to find ways of improving the reliability of the polygraph. She
agreed and placed a junior minister in charge of finding an expert. The junior minister con-
tacted a national governing body for psychologists to find an expert psychologist in poly-
graph techniques.
A meeting was then arranged between the psychologist, the head, senior members of the
branch of the Civil Service in question, and the junior minister who had made the initial
enquiries. An agreed agenda was established rapidly. The psychologist’s general objective
was to address the feasibility of polygraph security screening in the intelligence and security
agencies. In particular, the psychologist was charged with providing a summary of the
extant literature, including recommendations and conclusions regarding any future work.
The psychologist also was asked to address the question of whether any research could be
conducted that would highlight how polygraphic techniques could be made more reliable in
the detection of deception, especially with reference to screening. Finally, the psychologist
was asked to provide some indication of the margin of error in polygraph techniques, and
how the techniques could be improved so as to reduce this error.

Not surprisingly, there are many mainstream psychological concepts that could be applied
to this problem. The notion that we can devise a technique that will tell us when someone is
lying and when they are telling the truth makes certain basic assumptions about human
behaviour. The first, and most obvious, is that psychological states are associated or corre-
lated with physiological and physical symptoms. For example, we when get angry we often
experience body heat and our faces turn red. Similarly, in the case of deception, we assume
that the psychological state of lying, or deliberately deceiving, is associated with certain
changes in our physiological reactions.
The scientific discipline that supports the development of such notions is referred to as
psychophysiology. Psychophysiology is concerned with the underlying physiological mecha-
nisms that govern human behaviour. In the case of the polygraph, issues surrounded the
peripheral indices of activity in the autonomic nervous system (ANS), that part of the cen-
tral nervous system that controls unconscious bodily activity. Autonomic activity can be
triggered in at least two ways. Each response has a different pattern. One is triggered by
attentional reactions to novel, unexpected, interesting, or meaningful external events. This
type of response is generally referred to as an orienting reaction (OR), and serves to direct
the person’s attention to what is happening and what is likely to happen next. A good
162 7 THE WAR ROOM
Box 7.15 Physiological changes and emotion

While there is little disagreement that some form of physiological change accompanies our different
emotional states, the question still remains as to whether these physiological changes are unique or
specific to the emotional state we are experiencing. William James (1884) was of the view that each
emotion could be associated with specific bodily changes. In fact, emotion, according to James, was
simply our experience of these different physiological states, so that our emotional reactions were
merely bodily changes in blood pressure and so on. While there is some evidence to support James’
contention that different classes of emotions are associated with different physiological patterns,
there is some doubt as to whether all emotions that we experience can be distinguished on the basis
of their unique bodily processes. In contrast to James, modern cognitive approaches put emphasis on
the interpretative, or attributional nature of our emotional experiences. For example, according to
Teasdale and Barnard (1993) our emotions are, in part, the result of our ability to evaluate our current
bodily states in the context of current goals or needs.
example of this is when we are engrossed in the act of reading and we hear a sudden, loud
noise: generally, we look up in response and orient ourselves in the direction of the sound
because the noise is unexpected and surprising. The OR is measurable through virtually all
bodily systems, from the humble blinking of an eyelid to patterns of heartbeat and breath-
ing. The same type of response can also be elicited when the person is confronted with pain-
ful, emotive, or fear-provoking external events, and serves to prepare the person for either
the fight-or-flight reaction, also known as the defence reaction (DR). A good example, and
one often quoted in psychology textbooks, is proffered by William James in his article ‘What
is an emotion?’ (1884), where he cites the defence reaction we might have were we to
encounter a bear in the countryside! While both OR and DR share similar properties, there
are differences in the patterns of changes that accompany each. This means that when we are
surprised, we exhibit a different pattern of physiological behaviours than when we are
frightened or repulsed.
Once we accept that a DR is associated with particular pattern of change in the ANS, we
can see a theoretical explanation behind how the polygraph might work. Let us assume that
the DR, and its particular pattern of physiological change, is in response to fear, or other
negative emotions. Let us also assume that the act of deception is stressful and hence nega-
tive. Taken together, we see that the polygraph can detect those changes that are related to
the person experiencing a frightening or negative event, which lying while being tested
would be assumed to fulfil!
For everything to work, we would need some baseline measurement of the person’s reac-
tion to what we know are negative events, against which to compare the physiological pat-
terns to questions where we suspect the person may be lying. Every polygraphic technique
assumes that all of us have something to hide. The job of the examiner is to discover these
things about the examinee and use them as the basis for control questions. Importantly, this
is done with the full agreement of the person, so that certain factors, like surprise, can be
ruled out. Control questions will be associated with identifiable changes in the heart, lungs,
and electrodermal system; and these serve as the basis to compare the person’s reactions to
questions where it is suspected that the person is lying.
For example, suppose we want to know whether someone is telling the truth about steal-
ing a car. We would first find out about other known negative events. We might ask the
examinee ‘is there anything you ever stole, no matter how small?’ Once we know these other
negative, autobiographical details, we develop control questions. We know that the event
occurred and we know that when asked the question, if the person answers ‘yes’, he is
responding truthfully. We would then compare the psychophysiological changes that
accompanied the truthful answer with subsequent questions about stealing the car. If the
two are similar, we can conclude that the person is telling the truth.
One of the most crucial elements to the polygraph being an accurate assessment tool is
that the examinee must believe that the polygraph is infallible. In fact, this is an essential
part of the examiner’s job—to convince the person that the polygraph is an accurate and
reliable way to tell whether someone is lying. If the examinee believes that the test is a reli-
able index of whether he or she is being truthful, they are more likely to have detectable
physical reactions to lying, as they assume that the examiner will know anyway! This shows
the strong interaction between cognition, in this case our beliefs, and our emotional
reactions.
Thus far, we have assumed that people’s reactions when lying are uniform, that all of us
respond in the same way, with the same set of patterns of ANS responses. In fact, research
in the early 1950s and 1960s demonstrated clearly that the various peripheral indices of
autonomic activity are poorly correlated (e.g. Lacey et al. 1953; Engel 1960). Further, the
indices tend to be arranged in a pattern that is determined more by the constitution and
previous experience of the individual examinee than the truthfulness of the replies.
Autonomic specificity exists not only between individuals, but also between different situa-
tions. This means that the same person might produce a different pattern of responding
over different situations.
Related to this is the concept of habituation. Habituation refers to the phenomenon
where an individual’s reactivity to an event becomes lessened through learning. Effectively,
the novelty of an event becomes less when the event, or a similar event, is repeated. As the
novelty decreases so too does our reaction to the event. The ANS learns that the event is ‘old’
and is less reactive to it, particularly when the event is associated with neutral, or mildly
noxious, consequences. Habituation, which is one of the most basic types of learning, is as
subject to individual differences as our initial reactivity to novel, negative stimuli.
Importantly, individual differences in reactivity and habituation seem to be governed by
factors that are normally considered to pertain to personality. For example, people who are
labelled as neurotic, either by questionnaire or by clinical examination, are more labile and
show a different pattern of habituation than people who are not identified as neurotic. Other
personality factors known to influence psychophysiological responses include sensation
seeking, suggestibility, and gender. In fact, some psychologists have argued that the diver-
sity of electrodermal responses is itself a personality factor.

The psychologist sought to provide a comprehensive review of all the relevant scientific
literature and research, and to determine its viability and the need for further work. The
psychologist always kept as his point of reference the application of the polygraph to pre-
employment and in-service screening. He first conducted a number of online searches
164 7 THE WAR ROOM
within the open professional and scientific literature. Eliminating materials that were purely
polemical, but retaining commentaries that represented informed opinion, the psychologist
derived a literature base of over 370 papers and articles dealing with scientific aspects of
polygraphy.
He developed three sections to include in his final report. The first section provided a
theoretical and scientific perspective of the field of polygraphy, which was designed to help
the naïve reader understand the issues involved in evaluation. This included a historical
review of the field and outlined guidelines for interpreting any controversial issues that
arose regarding evaluation, such as issues of reliability, accuracy, and validity. The second,
main, section reviewed the literature in sufficient detail so that the reader had a firm appre-
ciation of the types of procedure used in the investigation of the polygraph, and the empiri-
cal sources for any controversies or agreements. The final section dealt with the difficult
question of how to improve on the reliability and accuracy of polygraphic techniques. The
psychologist, by necessity, had to draw on the empirical findings of the scientific literature.
However, this final section contained more of the psychologist’s own, professional opinion,
albeit one that was informed by the scientific literature. This final section also included an
overview of the issues that were raised by the scientific literature.
These three sections formed the bulk of the final report that was presented. In addition, the
final report contained a summary and recommendations on three separate issues. One
regarded whether the government should adopt the polygraph as a reliable and accurate in-
service or pre-employment tool. Another considered whether any research might be usefully
commissioned to determine the validity of techniques for the detection of deception with
specific reference to screening. Finally, a third addressed the extent to which any margins of
error inherent in the techniques could be corrected by improving testing procedures.
On the basis of his review, the psychologist concluded that, as an instrument of detection,
the polygraph lacked sufficient accuracy, and fell short of the standards set by conventional
psychometric tests. He also suggested that any research directed at understanding the causal
mechanisms behind the inaccuracy, or individual differences in reactivity or habituation,
would not be prudent, as such research would require long-term investments and be
unlikely to improve accuracy. However, the psychologist did feel that some efforts could be
made in improving current testing procedures, primarily by examining the effectiveness of
different examiners. He pointed out that much of the discrepancy between laboratory and
field studies seemed to lie in the skill of the examiner.
To this end, the psychologist suggested that research could be usefully applied towards
scientifically examining current practice that existed within an established service, such as an
US federal agency. Through rigorous observation and controlled tests of trained examiners,
such studies could throw light on the processes underlying polygraphy, although no research
could be expected to provide a precise estimate of the practical efficacy of polygraph tech-
niques. In fact, the psychologist’s firm conclusion was that nothing in the polygraph litera-
ture led to the expectation that accuracy of detection could be improved substantially.

The psychologist delivered his report to the head of the branch, who in turn presented the
formal report to the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The Prime Minister, in turn, reported
the conclusions of the study to the House of Commons. The informed decision of the
government was that polygraph techniques are not sufficiently reliable to justify their usage
in assessing or screening for security risk.
Additional reading
Dixon, N.F. (1976) On the Psychology of Military Incompetence. Jonathan Cape, London.
This is a serious and searching attempt to explain, in psychological terms, the frequency of disasters in
the course of military history. The author served in the military for a number of years before training
as a psychologist.
Watson, P. (1980) War on the Mind: the Military Uses and Abuses of Psychology. Penguin Books,
New York, NY.
A careful consideration of the positive and negative aspects of psychology in warfare.
www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_4/roland.html
This is an exceptionally interesting article analyzing the model of war put forward by Quincy Wright,
A. (1965) Study of War, 2 vols. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, revised edition.
Questions
Scenario one
1. Do you think the psychologists had an obligation to report the findings publicly? Why? Topics
include ethics, roles of consultant, privileged information.
2. What specific psychological problems might you expect an air crew to demonstrate after an other-
wise avoidable accident had occurred? Topics include post-traumatic stress disorder, survivor guilt,
effects of trauma on cognition.
Scenario two
1. How did reviewing the literature assist the psychologist in making his recommendations about
the polygraph? Topics include generalization of findings, reliability and validity of measurements,
limitations of applied research.
2. If you were to build a machine that could reliably detect a lie, what behaviours would you want it to
measure? Topics include physiological, psychological and emotional correlates of lying, sensitivity
of measurements, signal detection theory.
8 The treatment room
In this chapter, we consider the treatment room, in which psychologists are called
upon to deal with a variety of mental and emotional conditions. In the treatment
room we find issues that have traditionally been dealt with by clinical psychology,
counselling, therapy, and psychotherapy, although many other disciplines of psy-
chology have proved invaluable. The focus of the chapter is to examine the ways in
which mental and psychological problems have been understood, and see how
modern developments in science and technology have changed the manner in
which Western societies treat conditions of mental illness, neuroses, and other psy-
chological problems. We provide a summary of the different major approaches to
problems of the human psyche, and show how each approach adopts slightly differ-
ent assumptions about human nature and what underlies our psychological states.
There are a great many approaches to treatment and we cannot consider all of them
exhaustively. They fall into two large groups. On the one hand are those methods
and techniques that aim to deepen the client’s understanding of their situation,
believing that greater understanding will lead to greater freedom of action. On the
other hand are the methods and techniques that aim directly to change the behav-
iour, or the attitudes, that trouble the client. The former are often referred to as
insight-oriented therapies, whereas the latter are referred to as action-oriented. In
this chapter we confine our attention to the insight-oriented therapies, leaving the
action-oriented group to be discussed in ‘The sport room’ (Chapter 9), where they
also find application. The two scenarios provide clear examples of how psychologists
from diverse disciplines interact with each other to operate in the treatment room.
The first scenario deals with the issue of false memories and shows how psycholo-
gists from different disciplines clashed over theoretical explanations for recovered
memory behaviour, with serious real-world consequences. The second scenario
examines the problem of insomnia and illustrates how a modern theory of working
memory was applied to develop an effective treatment for sleeplessness.
Introduction
All of us have what we call our good days, or ups, and our bad days, or downs. We associate
our good days with positive moods and emotions, such as happiness, interest, creativity, joy,
or contentment. We experience a certain physical vitality and our social interactions are
satisfying. In contrast, our bad days are associated with darker moods and emotions, such
as anxiety, depression, envy, sadness, or fear. Our physical state may reflect uncomfortable
restlessness or a lack of vigour; and we may have difficulty in relating to others. Our
168 8 THE TREATMENT ROOM
emotional fluctuations are part of what makes us human, and whether we like it or not, we
all have to accept that some days will be better than other days. It is how we come to cope
and understand our bad days that forms part of the basis for the treatment room.
While we may accept that we will have the odd bad day, when we have prolonged mood
swings, or are so distracted that we cannot live in the manner that is acceptable to us, we
want things to change. In fact, many people will enter the treatment room only after they
have exhausted help from family, friends, general medical practitioners, and pastoral carers.
The reason for a person entering the treatment room varies. Some people are referred for-
mally by their medical doctors while others go at the insistence of their spouse or close
friends. However, most people will enter the treatment room for the same reason—they
want to change so that they can become mentally, emotionally, or spiritually healthier, lead
more productive lives, and learn more adaptive ways of being.
The late nineteenth century saw the emergence of a technique that served as the basis for
most modern psychotherapies—a method used by an Austrian physician Josef Breuer
(1842–1925), in his treatment of a young female patient known as Anna O. Anna had what
Breuer referred to as conversion hysteria, which involved a variety of physical symptoms
that had no apparent physical cause. These symptoms included paralysis in her arms and
legs, and mutism, or the inability to speak. Breuer discovered that when he successfully
encouraged Anna to speak of her feelings, at times she would recall what seemed highly
painful childhood memories—memories that she had somehow blocked out—and relived
painful emotions. Once doing so, her physical symptoms dissipated. Breuer associated the
effects of talking with a release of blocked emotional reactions and feelings, and called this
emotional release catharsis. Breuer shared his story of the success of catharsis to his young
friend Sigmund Freud, who, in turn, developed it into a formal system of psychotherapy.
Modern treatment rooms

In this section, we consider modern treatment rooms. We first describe the basic steps usu-
ally involved in assessment and identification of the person’s problem, and how treatment
interventions are selected and reviewed. We then go on to discuss the different major orien-
tations that have emerged from the twentieth century and continue to be dominant today.
We identify two major groups, which can be distinguished in terms of the focus of their
explanation. One offers explanations of underlying biological and genetic factors, while the
other focuses on psychological processes and unresolved conflicts. The first is best described
as a medical or biopsychological approach and is characterized by the use of drugs and other
physical interventions. Examples of the second group include psychoanalytic models,
behavioural and cognitive approaches, and humanistic therapies. Each orientation has dif-
ferent views about mental and emotional health and endorses different techniques in the
treatment of dysfunctional behaviours.
The modern treatment room deals with mental, emotional, and behavioural problems;
and the explanations offered for these problems rely exclusively on natural causes, be they
psychological or physical causes. We distinguish therapies as belonging to two mega-
groups. The first can be called the physical or biological group, where explanations of disor-
ders are discussed in terms of neurological, neurochemical, and genetic or physiological
MODERN TREATMENT ROOMS 169
problems. This group encompasses medical models. Most professionals who adopt the med-
ical model are psychiatrists, who have medical training prior to specializing in mental health
problems. We will therefore not consider them in detail here.
The second is the psychology group, where explanations focus on disturbances in mental
and emotional processes. The psychology group can be further subdivided into two, smaller
groups, which some psychologists refer to as the insight-oriented group and the action-
oriented group. The insight-oriented group focuses on the person gaining a better under-
standing of the underlying causes for the problem by exploring the person’s phenomenal
experience or consciousness (see pp. 175–176). The action-oriented group does not exclude
an examination of underlying psychological conflicts; however, their main interest is chang-
ing the person’s behaviour. Professionals associated with the psychology group include
clinical psychologists, counsellors, counselling psychologists, therapists, and psychothera-
pists. As noted previously, we discuss the action-oriented approaches in ‘The sport room’
(Chapter 9).
A psychologist operating within the treatment room may work with major mental health
issues such as psychoses; equally, the psychologist may be asked to work with problems
such as panic attacks, or other types of neurosis. The distinction between psychoses and
neuroses is not always straightforward, and different authors focus on slightly different fea-
tures. One clear difference is the extent to which the person has a sense of reality and oper-
ates effectively in everyday situations. Generally, people with psychoses have trouble in
maintaining a distinction between reality and fantasy, and in extreme cases are incapable of
successfully operating in the everyday world. An example would be a person who hears
voices coming from their washing machine, ordering them to shave their head. This person
has a distorted appreciation of reality; their experience of the world is fragmented, a blur
between what is real and what is imagined.
In contrast, a person with a neurotic condition can maintain their grasp of reality and
would also be expected to function adequately in everyday situations. For example, a person
Box 8.1 The fragmented life of a schizophrenic

Schizophrenia is a psychotic illness, equally likely to occur in men and women, although the most
recent research suggests that men develop the illness earlier than women across all cultures (for a
detailed analysis of this topic, see Raesaenen et al. 2000). Schizophrenia affects perception,
cognition, emotions, and motor behaviour. The person may have sensory experiences without any
external, sensory stimulation, called hallucinations; for example, hearing voices. Cognition is distorted
in schizophrenia primarily through the operation of delusional belief systems. Delusions are
irrational, in that the person believes in something that contradicts most of the available evidence,
such as a person believing that they are an alien. The emotional symptoms of schizophrenia vary, but
often reflect inappropriate reactions, such as emotional flatness or outbursts of inappropriate
emotional reactions, such as laughing aloud when someone is in need of help. Because of difficulties
in processing and reacting to emotional information, the schizophrenic is often socially impaired, and
fails to have extensive life experiences, which serves to further ostracize them. Motor symptoms have
a similarly negative impact on the schizophrenic’s social life, as the symptoms can include unusual
eye movements (see Wolff and O’Driscoll 1999).
with a phobic condition, such as a fear of spiders, can still function in the everyday world,
holding down a job and having a family, and does not have a generally fragmented view of
reality—except perhaps in relation to spiders. Some authors suggest that neuroses are nor-
mal reactions that somehow have become more intense or more exaggerated.
Stages in the treatment room

Regardless of the orientation, the professional will first perform some sort of assessment of
the type, extent, or nature of the person’s problems—generally referred to as presenting
problems or symptoms. The manner in which an assessment is conducted will depend on
many factors. For example, some professionals use standardized assessment procedures in
order to reach diagnoses of the presenting problems. These diagnoses will be based on clini-
cal observations such as are provided in the diagnostic manuals, the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM), and the International Classification of Diseases
(ICD) of the World Health Organization. Both the DSM and ICD provide a set of discrete
categories of mental, emotional, and behavioural problems. Each disorder is described in
terms of a set of symptoms that must be present in order for a person to receive a diagnosis.
For example, if a person is diagnosed as having post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the
person must demonstrate a set of symptoms that includes heightened anxiety, intrusive
thoughts, avoidance strategies, and emotional re-experiences.
Once an assessment interview has been conducted, the psychologist will identify the
intervention techniques that might be used to treat or alleviate the person’s difficulties. This
can involve some sort of contract with the client or patient, whereby the method of inter-
vention, time of treatment, and area(s) of focus are agreed. It is usual that the psychologist
Box 8.2 Technology and the treatment of anxiety disorders

The theme of technology is one that pervades all of the rooms; and the treatment room is no
exception. One of the most significant examples of changes in treatment approaches has come
through the use of virtual reality therapy (e.g., Wiederhold and Wiederhold 2004; Gorini and Riva
2008). Virtual reality therapy for anxiety disorders relies on technology to produce simulations of the
conditions under which the client experiences the anxiety. Many types of anxiety therapies use some
form of imaginal component or in vivo component (e.g. exposure therapy). The general argument is
that the client learns to reassociate feelings of safety or relaxation with the otherwise anxiety-
provoking stimulus. Essentially, the imaginal component is used to provide the contextual elements
to which new associations can be developed. Proponents of the use of virtual reality claim that there
are distinct advantages over these more traditional methods. For one, the technology affords greater
consistency: the elements of the environment that are associated with the anxiety can be reproduced
faithfully over sessions. For another, contexts that otherwise might be too dangerous to recreate can
be reinstated without worry about physical re-traumatization or harm (e.g. accidents, wars, sexual
assaults). Additionally, the key elements of the situation that are associated with the anxiety can serve
as the focus, with the technology repeatedly reproducing these elements across sessions. As the
technology has advanced, the expense of such systems has reduced, thereby making virtual reality a
more viable option for the mental health practitioner.
MODERN TREATMENT ROOMS 171
Box 8.3 What constitutes a disorder?

Most experts agree that a disorder has three distinct features. First, the disorder has symptoms that
are abnormal, relative to some norm. As this is a statistical concept of average, there are two ways in
which symptoms can be abnormal. One is in terms of the type of behaviour, emotions, or thoughts. If
most people, on average, do not display similar behaviours under similar situations, then the
behaviour is abnormal. An example would be a pedestrian shouting obscenities to passers-by in cars.
Most pedestrians do not display that behaviour in most situations. Symptoms can also be abnormal
in some quantitative sense. For example, the average person is unlikely to wash their hands 40 or 50
times a day, as might happen with some obsessive compulsive disorders. Second, the symptoms must
disrupt normal, everyday functioning. An example is a phobia that prevents a person from leaving her
home, significantly disrupting many everyday activities. Third, psychological disorders may have
some degree of personal distress associated with them. While the person still has insight into their
disorder, they are disturbed and experience other negative emotions. However, obvious exceptions
to this exist, as in those individuals who commit criminal offences, and who show little or no remorse
for their actions.
and the person coming for treatment will review and assess the progress and success of the
intervention programme.
The final stage in the treatment room is, of course, cessation of treatment. When treat-
ment should end is not always easy to define, and what exactly constitutes successful treat-
ment varies with the orientation. Limited research and inconsistent operational definitions
make it difficult to draw any firm conclusions. However, we note here that most of the evi-
dence suggests that the success of any intervention is entirely unrelated to the orientation
used in the treatment room!
An ethical dilemma
Before considering techniques used frequently in modern treatment rooms, there is another
highly controversial issue that we need to at least address. It has to do with the relationship
between the so-called expert, namely the psychologist, and the person coming for treat-
ment, the layperson. There is a peculiar relationship between the psychologist and the lay-
person in the treatment room. The psychologist has specialized knowledge and skills, in the
same way that the ancient shaman did; and critically the layperson coming into the treat-
ment room is likely to be vulnerable and in need of help. This inequality in knowledge and
skill introduces a power imbalance, in favour of the expert.
This power imbalance is associated with an ethical dilemma, as it introduces the possibility
for abuse. The potential for abuse is of real concern to governing bodies of today’s treatment
rooms. In fact, some psychologists, such as Jeffrey Masson, argue that any treatment based
on therapy is inherently unethical, by virtue of the fact that it relies on the inevitable power
imbalance between the expert and the client. While Masson argues an extreme view, we
believe that any psychologist acting as an expert in the treatment room must be highly sensi-
tive to the fact that they are powerful and highly influential, especially when working with
vulnerable people.
Box 8.4 Client choice, a new path?

By far the most common treatment procedure in busy settings is to assign the patient or client to an
available therapist, who chooses a particular treatment. It has often been argued that patients should
be free to choose the therapist and the therapy that they prefer. The argument advanced against this
is that patients and clients do not have sufficient knowledge to make this judgement. Even in private
health settings the choice is rarely left to the ‘customer’. Recently, two Israeli psychologists, Rachel
Lev-Wiesel and Hada Doron, experimented with programmes in which the patient is offered a choice
of therapies and encouraged to choose the one that appeals most, simply on the basis of preference
(Lev-Wiesel and Doron 2004). The therapies offered were unconventional non-verbal methods
(dance, drama, art, diary-keeping, or bibliotherapy), which are based on the view that self-expression
is helpful in resolving personal conflicts. Whether the results would apply across a wider range of
therapies remains to be seen, but their findings indicated that choice of the preferable therapy by the
patient leads to more satisfactory outcomes. The ethical problem hopefully disappears! Indeed, some
of Lev-Wiesel and Doron’s patients attributed therapeutic benefits to the mere act of choosing for
themselves.
The psychodynamic orientation

In this section we consider the psychodynamic orientation, which includes the insight mod-
els of psychoanalysis and other psychodynamic approaches. The psychodynamic orienta-
tion is concerned with explaining disorders and psychological problems in terms of conflicts
between the different levels of an individual’s personality, which largely occur outside of the
person’s immediate awareness. We briefly consider the common assumptions behind some
major models characteristic of this orientation, including Sigmund Freud’s theory of con-
sciousness and personality. We touch briefly on some of the modern psychodynamic theo-
ries and discuss common humanistic techniques that are used in the treatment room.
All psychodynamic models assume that human behaviour, whether normal or abnormal,
is the result of underlying motivations, drives, or instincts associated with different aspects
of our personality. Some of our motives are available to our conscious awareness; others are
not. Unfortunately, the different bits of our personality, and their respective motives, are
not always in agreement and conflicts erupt. Our internal war leads us to experience a
breakdown in our insight. The psychodynamic orientation offers a way of better identifying
and understanding these conflicts. This is achieved largely through the process of analysis
and interpretation, where the symbolic content of our behaviours, dreams, thoughts, and
language are uncovered, interpreted, and understood. Because of the emphasis on analysis,
the psychodynamic orientation is an example of insight therapy.
The models of treatment that fall under the psychodynamic heading have in common
the following assumptions. The first is that our behaviour is determined by psychological
motives, drives, or desires, as we have already said. This is often referred to as psychic
determinism (see Box 8.5). A second assumption is that our consciousness is along a
continuum of awareness to unawareness. Much of what motivates our behaviour is
assumed to occur outside our conscious awareness. Thus we are likely to be aware of only
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC ORIENTATION 173
Box 8.5 Psychic determinism and the understanding of behaviour

Psychic determinism is one of the major assumptions behind psychodynamic approaches. It argues
that every aspect of our behaviour, which includes thoughts, images, feelings, and actions, is
influenced by or linked to a related internal state. The term used to describe this internal state differs
with different, specific models. Sigmund Freud referred to drive or instinct, whereas Alfred Adler
considered motivation to compete. The link between the behaviour and internal state may be direct,
and the person may be conscious of the link. For example, you may be aware that you are hungry as
you stop off at the food shop to pick up a sandwich. Equally, the links may be indirect and outside the
person’s awareness or understanding. For example, you may discover that you have eaten a whole
bag of peanuts without ever realizing that you were hungry. Importantly because of their emphasis
on motivation, psychodynamic models simultaneously consider the nature of personality—which
makes them unique among all other orientations. The reason is straightforward: someone must have
the motivation, and that requires some discussion of the individual, and their personality. In the
context of the treatment room, it is the person’s inability to have insight or understand the motivation
behind their behaviour that results in problems.
some of the motives behind what we think, feel, and do. Treatments developed from a
psychodynamic orientation operate to broaden our awareness, and attempt to bring what
is outside our awareness into our awareness. A third assumption is that our early personal
experiences greatly influence not only our adult personality, but also the habitual ways in
which we interact with the world. Consequently, early experiences will often be the focus
of therapeutic attention. A fourth assumption is that the therapist, or professional, is the
only one, in the first instance, who can help us understand the symbolic content of our
behaviour. It is the therapist’s interpretation and skills in identifying patterns that serves
as the basis for reaching greater insight. Importantly, this introduces the power imbal-
ance that we have already mentioned in the relationship between therapist and the person
seeking treatment.
Sigmund Freud and early psychoanalysis

It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss even a minuscule amount of Sigmund Freud’s
work on the human psyche. We have had difficulty in deciding which of Freud’s significant
contributions we should highlight, and which we should ignore. We note that Freud had a
similarly high regard for himself, expressing on numerous occasions that he was one of the
three most important contributors to Western science, along with Copernicus and Darwin!
In any eventuality, we cannot do justice to the impact of Freud’s work. Instead, we discuss
some of his original concepts that have found their place in either colloquial expressions or
have been appropriated by professionals from other orientations.
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) held that all mental behaviour had naturalistic causes, and
would eventually be understood in terms of physiological explanations. However, he also
realized that medical knowledge was not sufficiently advanced at the time, so he focused on
mental constructs. Freud’s primary interest was to understand hysterias, and he already knew
of the success of the technique of hypnosis, wherein the patient was put in a semi-trance-like
state. However, he was particularly fascinated by the work of Breuer (see above, p. 168), as
Breuer’s work seemed to point to the importance of the content of what the patient reported
while under hypnosis. Freud reasoned that the positive effects of hypnosis reported by Breuer
were the direct result of the patient recalling a traumatic memory, rather than being in a
hypnotic state per se.
The concept of catharsis allowed Freud to draw a causal link between the mind and the
body. Somehow, mental processes were the underlying causes of physical symptoms. To
further explore this link, Freud abandoned hypnosis in favour of a new technique, free
association. In free association, the patient is encouraged to say aloud any thoughts or
images that come to mind, without worrying about whether these thoughts or images make
sense. Indeed, there would often appear to be no obvious connection between the various
thoughts or images that the patient was reporting, and the patient’s presenting symptoms.
However, as Freud believed that all behaviour was determined by mental events, the absence
of an obvious relationship between the patient’s problems and the contents of their free
association did not deter him. Quite the contrary; through long and careful analyses, Freud
would eventually discover a pattern.
Often, the process of free association would result in the patient recalling a previously
forgotten traumatic event, one that the patient seemingly had banished from their con-
scious awareness. Freud referred to this mechanism as repression, where a patient could
completely block the memory from consciousness, acting as if they had amnesia for the
event. However, after recalling the repressed memory, the patient felt some relief. This led
Freud to posit his theory of consciousness and personality, where unpleasant thoughts and
experiences are actively pushed away from our conscious awareness, and reside, instead, at
hidden, lower levels.
Sources of the Freudian model

Two other factors also greatly biased Freud’s thinking. One was his preferred method of
study, and the other was the patient population he treated. Although Freud was well edu-
cated in experimental methodologies, he was first and foremost a clinician. Because of
this, his preferred method for studying human behaviour was the case study. As we have
shown in Chapter 1, the case study relies on the clinical observations of a single person,
which may include in-depth documentation of family and personal history, personal
abilities, as well as repeated observations across different time periods, and for varying
lengths of time. While the case-study method provides an ideal opportunity to examine
specific factors such as individual differences to a much greater extent, it can suffer from
a lack of generality. This means that conclusions drawn about the relationship between
mental problems and personal history may be relevant only to the specific patient being
observed, rather than reflecting a general trend that is found in most of the population.
We suggest, as do many others, that Freud’s conclusions suffer from the fact that they
were not based on sufficiently large numbers to make the sweeping generalizations that he
wished to proclaim.
The second factor that biased Freud’s thinking was the type of cases in which he was
involved. Freud mainly treated middle-class women suffering from hysterias, within the
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC ORIENTATION 175
historical and cultural context of a sexually repressed society. Importantly, many of Freud’s
patients recalled childhood memories that were sexual in nature, and in which they impli-
cated family members or family friends as abusers. We discuss the implications of this for
Freud below, in Scenario one. For the moment we note that because of the sexual nature of
many of his patients’ recovered memories, Freud assumed that much of what motivates our
behaviour is sexual energy. This assumption was abandoned by most of the psychodynamic
models that emerged subsequently.
On the basis of his clinical observations and analyses, Freud concluded that human con-
sciousness was divided into the conscious and the subconscious, the latter of which he further
divided into the pre-conscious and the unconscious. Related to these levels of consciousness
were different levels of the personality, including ego, super-ego, and id. Freud’s view of
consciousness is topographical, in that some information is up in consciousness, while
other information is down in the unconscious. It is also spatial, in that he assumed that the
size of the unconscious was much larger and contained more than either the pre-conscious
or conscious.
We discuss all of these concepts at greater length in Scenario one. For the moment we
note that Freud believed that the contents of the unconscious, and the associated drives of
the id, are forcibly kept out of conscious awareness by defence mechanisms used by the ego,
such as repression. According to Freud, we are constantly in conflict, trying to prevent any
of our unconscious thoughts or images from entering our awareness because they are too
threatening, too dangerous, or too traumatic. When this conflict becomes unmanageable,
the ego can no longer prevent unconscious contents from entering consciousness and men-
tal disorders occur.
However, even under normal circumstances, our ego’s defence mechanisms are imper-
fect, and can never completely shut out the contents of the unconscious. Consequently, our
unwanted and undesirable thoughts sometimes seep into our conscious awareness. These
thoughts can enter our consciousness directly, but more often they will intrude in some
converted, symbolical form, as in day and night dreams.
Box 8.6 Hysterias and other mysteries

Hysterias posed a particularly interesting problem for professionals like Freud. Hysterias were defined
as disorders where the patient would report physical symptoms for which there would be no physical
basis. A good example is that of glove anaesthesia. With glove anaesthesia, the patient reports a loss of
feeling and sensation in the hand, below the wrist and involving the entire hand, as if they were
wearing a glove. While much less was known about the workings of the body, there was sufficient
understanding of neurology to know that this condition was essentially impossible from a
neurological point of view. Any damage that affected the neural connections in the hand would
follow the pattern of nerve distribution in discrete segments. If no such patterned loss of sensation
were demonstrated, the professionals could reasonably conclude that glove anaesthesia was not the
result of any physical trauma. While common during Freud’s time, hysterias are virtually unheard of in
modern treatment rooms, reflecting the effects that society’s attitudes have on the nature of mental
disorders.
Box 8.7 Freudian slips and other parapraxes

Freud believed that evidence for the unconscious directly intruding into consciousness came from
parapraxes, which include everyday errors and slips of the tongue, still known today as Freudian slips.
He believed that all behaviour was motivated and that nothing occurred randomly. Thus, when a
person did make an error—either in terms of their actions or their speech—Freud assumed that it was
the contents of the unconscious slipping through the net of the defence mechanisms into conscious
awareness. For example, in a well-known television sitcom, one of the main characters, Ross, is
getting married. As he repeats his vows at the church, he says the name of his previous girlfriend,
Rachel, rather than saying the bride’s name, Emily. This Freudian slip was interpreted as showing that
the character still harboured feelings for his old girlfriend, feelings of which he was unaware.
Intriguingly, Freud was sometimes reluctant to apply these arguments to his own behaviour. For
example, while attending a conference, instead of going to the location where he would be attending
lectures, Freud ‘found’ himself in the red light district. He regarded this as a mere mistake rather than
the operation of his unconscious. Even after he had made the same mistake three times, Freud still
refused to believe that his behaviour was motivated by any underlying drives and described it in his
paper as an example of the ‘uncanny’!
Modern psychodynamic models and

treatment techniques
Freud’s theories are responsible for the development of many other psychodynamic theo-
ries, particularly after the publication of his book, The Ego and the Id, in 1923. There are the
works of the neo-Freudians, which include the writings of Jung, Anna Freud, and Adler;
and then there are the theories of the non-Freudians, which include Horney, Erikson,
Winnicott, and Bowlby. We cannot do justice to any of them any more than we have done
justice to Freud’s teachings.
All of these subsequent theories share the assumption of psychic determinism and stress
the importance of early experiences in influencing the person’s development. The major
differences occur in terms of what is regarded as the basis for motivation. For example, in
Carl Jung’s view, the ultimate goal for a person is to achieve individuation, whereby the
person strives, generally unsuccessfully, for a unification of the conscious with the uncon-
scious. Importantly, Jung believed in the importance of the collective unconscious—where
we, as human beings, share universal themes and images that are biologically based rather
than based on experience. For Adler, another neo-Freudian, love, friendships, and a strong
commitment to society motivate a healthy person. In contrast, Karen Horney discusses the
child’s need for security and the anxiety that is associated with this need; and focuses on
early relationships in an effort to understand how the person characteristically deals with
other people in intimate relationships.
While the type of treatment technique that is used by different psychodynamic models
varies, interpretation is still the most common technique. The professional interprets the
symbolic or latent meaning behind the client’s behaviours in an effort to enhance the cli-
ent’s insight into the nature of their problems. So, for example, you may be asked to free
associate and you suddenly have thoughts about a house you once wanted to buy but did
not. The psychodynamic professional will interpret the symbolic meaning of this house, in
THE HUMANISTIC ORIENTATION 177
the context of other images and thoughts that you have reported; for example, how the
house represents your unfulfilled desires that you have never realized.
Objections to the psychodynamic model

Psychodynamic models are often criticized on two grounds. First, as interpretation is the
major mode of treatment, this introduces the possibility that the same patient can be ana-
lysed very differently by different therapists. So, you could go to one therapist and be told
that your problems stem from source X, while another therapist will tell you that your prob-
lems stem from source Y. Thus, there seems to be an arbitrary nature to the interpretation.
Second, there is the issue of prediction. Few of the psychodynamic models actually provide
predictions about behaviour, a requisite that is valued in other disciplines of psychology.
Thus, while Freud could explain and understand most of human behaviour, he was never
able to predict whether a certain individual would, or would not, demonstrate a particular
type of unhealthy behaviour. However, this criticism is not actually relevant to Freud’s con-
tributions, in our opinion. We believe Freud is better viewed as providing a framework for
understanding the human psyche; a framework, by definition, cannot be falsified.
We conclude our discussion by pointing out that the psychodynamic orientation is fatal-
istic. From a psychodynamic perspective, our intra-psychic conflict is inevitable and we are
all fated to suffer conflict for most of our lives. If that were not bad enough, our past experi-
ences influence the conflicts we have and limit the way in which we can react. Furthermore,
most of our conflicts occur outside awareness and we are incapable of explaining our own
behaviour—we need an analyst to help us interpret what is going on! The best we can do is
to learn how to better cope with our psychic strife, through careful analysis. In part, it was
this somewhat pessimistic view of the human condition that led to the development of a
different group of insight therapies, known collectively as the humanistic orientation.
The humanistic orientation

In this section, we consider the humanistic orientation, which rejects notions of uncon-
scious drives in favour of more positive views about the psyche. Models under this orienta-
tion assume that the human psyche is essentially good and that much of behaviour is under
our conscious control, or under our will. While negative, early experiences still have a place
in explaining a person’s problems, and any blocks resulting from them can be removed and
overcome. We review the major proponents of this approach, including Carl Rogers, who is
largely responsible for the development of the core conditions of counselling.
Like the psychodynamic orientation, the humanistic orientation is an example of the
insight therapies, where the ultimate goal of treatment is to enhance the person’s under-
standing and awareness of, or insight into, their behaviour. However, beyond this similar-
ity, they have very little in common. The humanistic orientation is much more optimistic
and positive. It highlights the role of personal choice and heralds the importance of uphold-
ing the person’s subjective experience. As such, humanism is in direct contrast to the psy-
chodynamic orientation, where treatment is predicated on the assumption that the person’s
conscious experience reflects the operation of defence mechanisms such as repression, and,
accordingly, should be discarded.
Basic assumptions
Two assumptions underlie all models associated with the humanist orientation. The first is
that the individual’s subjective experience of the world, or phenomenal experience, is the key
to understanding all behaviour. This assumption uniquely distinguishes the humanistic ori-
entation from all others. All of us have their own view of the world, their own way of under-
standing what is important in life. Humanistic models are concerned with accepting our
phenomenal experience and personal meaning of the world. This has the immediate effect
of making the person who enters the treatment room an equal partner in the therapeutic
relationship. Such egalitarianism is reflected in the use of the word client rather than patient,
the latter of which is used in both biopsychological and psychodynamic models.
For the humanist, the client’s difficulties arise when they adopt behaviours that are incon-
sistent or incongruent with who they actually are. This distinction has been called the differ-
ence between the ideal self and the actual self. Treatment involves helping the person to
value and trust their own experiences and conscious awareness—to be who you are rather
than who you should be. In essence, treatment is about the person having congruence
between their ideal and actual selves. Not surprisingly, treatment is directed by the client’s
needs rather than the therapist’s interpretations or perceptions.
The second basic assumption is that our behaviour has an element of wilfulness, or choice.
We have control over what we do and say, how we react and feel, rather than being enslaved
by either past experiences or present drives and instincts. From a humanistic perspective,
part of treatment is to help us to regain our free will and choice. Again, this is in direct con-
trast to both biopsychological and psychodynamic orientations, which assume that our
behaviour is governed and programmed by our genetics and physiology, and by our bio-
logical and psychological needs, drives, and instincts.
Carl Rogers and the person-centred approach

Of all the models that have developed from the humanistic orientation, that proposed by
Carl Rogers is one of the most influential. His approach, developed in the 1950s, is known
as client-centred or person-centred therapy. Rogers considered human behaviour to be
motivated by higher-level needs, needs to do with mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects
of living. Rogers referred to the source of these higher-level motives as the actualizing
tendency. According to Rogers, the actualizing tendency enables us to be curious and learn
more about our world, and allows us to value things such as beauty, friendship, and love.
Rogers believed that the actualizing tendency promotes healthy development and that a
person who is sensitive to—‘in touch with’—this energy will flourish.
Rogers also believed that each of us has a unique experience, or view, of the world. He
referred to this as the person’s phenomenal field. Importantly, Rogers believed that our
phenomenal field was determined not only by what actually was happening but also by what
we believed to be happening. While our perceptions are undoubtedly influenced by the
external world, Rogers argued strongly that our perceptions are also based on our own
biased interpretations, or values. We have already considered this when we discussed the
concept of top-down processing (see Chapter 4, p. 46). Rogers acknowledges the influence
CARL ROGERS AND THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH 179
Box 8.8 The ever-changing self of the 1960s

While Rogers maintained his view of a fluid self in the 1950s, the notion that there was stability in
personality dominated psychology until the 1960s. The stable self is consistent across situations,
which is why we are able to say that we are a caring person, or a fun-loving person. These aspects of
our personality do not change over time or, if they do, change only very slowly and after extreme
stress. However, Walter Mischel (1968) challenged this dominant view. According to Mischel, if stable
personality traits are the reason why we behave in the way that we do, then there should be strong
consistency across behaviours that are supposed to reflect the same trait. For example, if you are an
optimistic person, then you should score high on a test that assesses optimism and also have a
tendency to behave in an optimistic way, seeing a glass as half full rather than half empty. However,
Mischel noted that different behaviours, alleged to reflect the same aspect of the stable self, were at
best only modestly correlated, and rarely accounted for more than 10 per cent of the explanatory
variability in behaviour! This meant that other factors, such as the situation, were responsible in
determining why the person behaved in the way that they did. Mischel provided strong evidence to
suggest that the importance of a stable self was inadequate at best, and misleading at worst.
of top-down processing when he states, ‘We live by a perceptual “map”, which is never real-
ity itself’ (Rogers 1951, p. 485). For Rogers, when our perceptions are guided more by our
past, or by our expectations, rather than by our current needs and our actualizing tendency,
things go awry for us.
As no two people will view the same external event in exactly the same way, they will not
share the same phenomenal field. However, there may be some overlap. Such overlap might
occur if people share similar beliefs about the world, or hold values of the world that are
similar. For example, suppose you and another person witness a small puppy being beaten
and, simultaneously, you both intervene to protect the defenceless animal. Because of your
shared belief that it is unacceptable to beat small animals, you both perceive the situation in
a similar fashion and react similarly.
When the phenomenal fields are sufficiently different, difficulties can arise. For example,
imagine that you are feeling a bit sensitive about your recent decision to get a startling new
haircut. Your friend enters the room and questions your decision to change your image,
saying that they are not sure whether they like your new look or not. What your friend per-
ceives as showing an interest in your looks is interpreted by you as being critical and just
confirming that your decision was a bad one. This shows how a lack of understanding of the
other’s perceptions can result in problems. Rogers argued that such differences can be mini-
mized if people use empathy, and attempt to understand the perceptions and beliefs of oth-
ers. To this end, he advocated treatment that relies on empathy between therapist and
client.
One of the most important aspects of Rogers’s thinking was his notion of the self, in
which he distinguished the ideal self and the actual self. Rogers regarded the self as some-
thing that is constantly changing, and ever developing. In this sense, Rogers is different
from other theorists using the concept of self, where the implication is that there is some
stable, core aspect to the person that does not change across situations, or across time. For
him, the self is constantly changing and, for health, the self needs to be guided by the actual-
izing tendency, rather than beliefs about what should or should not be.
Treatment in person-centred models

Rogers was responsible for defining what have come to be known as the core conditions of
counselling. These are adopted by most humanists, and even find some favour with profes-
sionals using other approaches. These conditions are defined in terms of what the client
needs in order to achieve congruence between ideal and actual selves, what Rogers called the
conditions of growth for a healthy individual. As long as the professional in the treatment
room ensures conditions of growth, the client will develop in a manner that achieves health
and well-being. When these conditions are absent, the client experiences feelings which
result in a mismatch between ideal and actual selves.
One of the central conditions for growth is unconditional positive regard. Unconditional
positive regard is achieved when the professional conveys to the client that they are accept-
able just as they are. The professional respects the client, without the client having the need
to change, and avoids judging or evaluating the client. Instead, the focus is on accepting and
supporting the client. In part, unconditional positive regard means the professional avoids
making suggestions or problem solving, as these would introduce the therapist’s phenom-
enal experience and meaning of the world. A second core condition is that the professional
is empathic, and is willing to adopt the viewpoint and world models of the client. The profes-
sional avoids his or her own interpretation and instead allows the client to act as the guide.
This is supported through the technique of reflecting back to the client, where the profes-
sional ensures that they have understood the client’s meaning by rephrasing or repeating
what the client has said.
The third core condition for growth is achieved through the professional being genuine,
or congruent with their own feelings, and communicating these feelings to the client, be
they positive or negative. Whereas this may seem slightly at odds with unconditional posi-
tive regard, in practice the two techniques complement each other. For example, if you, the
professional, are sad that a client has made the choice to leave their job, you might say, ‘I am
feeling sad that you have made that choice because I wanted you to stay. And, I support you
to make the decision that you want to make.’ In this way, you are genuine, or congruent,
with your own views, and yet you demonstrate to your client that you are willing to accept
their choice, unconditionally.
Other humanistic models of treatment

Two other well-known humanistic models are Gestalt therapy and existential psychology.
The Gestalt approach was championed primarily through the writings of Fritz and Laura
Perls, Ralph Hefferline, and Paul Goodman, with authors such as Walter Kempler introduc-
ing Gestalt principles into family therapy. Gestalt relies on theories of perception advocated
by German psychologists such as Koehler, who argued that perception is an active process,
in which people impose structure on their environment so as to produce a figure and
ground. The figure is something that you are consciously aware of and attending to, that to
which you focally attend, such as the words on this page. In contrast, the ground is what is
going on outside your focal awareness, which might be your tactile sensations of touching
the page. The figure is that which is most related to your current interests, needs, and goals.
OTHER HUMANISTIC MODELS OF TREATMENT 181
So, while reading this page, if you heard someone shout ‘fire!’, the fire exit would become the
figure to which you would give your undivided focal attention!
Like other humanistic approaches, Gestaltists believe in the concepts of behaviour being
driven by needs, in the importance of the person’s genuine or actual self, and in the concept
of choice. Gestalt believes that we have needs that direct our behaviour, and that our health
is contingent on us getting our needs fulfilled and interacting with our environment in a
way that is good for us. However, when our needs are consistently thwarted or we are pre-
vented from being who we are, we get stuck in a cycle of old behaviours—called unfinished
business. We are stifled and cannot grow; we develop a false self and suffer from anxieties,
depression, and malaise. Our behaviour becomes dysfunctional because we are imposing
these old, unfulfilled needs onto the present, thereby preventing us from being in the here
and now. Importantly, we do this without awareness, so that it is our unconscious state that
is dictating what we are doing. Gestalt treatments involve supporting the client to be aware
of when they are imposing old needs onto the present. Like Rogers, the intention is to sup-
port the person to be authentic, in the here and now, and base their choices on the present,
rather than the past. Gestaltists stress that we are all responsible for our actions, and that,
through awareness and choice, we can determine the manner in which live.
The existentialist approach

Existentialism manages to combine the essential pessimism of psychodynamic approaches by
asserting that death and suffering are inevitable, with the optimism of Rogers with its empha-
sis on the importance of finding meaning in one’s life. The existential approach in psycho-
therapy grew out of the popularity of the existential movement in philosophy in Europe after
the Second World War. Existentialism as a philosophy had been influential in Europe, espe-
cially in France and Germany, for more than a century. Its themes centred on the analysis of
being: being-in-itself and being-in-the-world. The latter refers to the state of being fully
engaged with the real world in every moment of existence. This was a rather serious and mel-
ancholy philosophy that assumed a popular form among students and intellectuals who had
experienced the war and its aftermath in Europe. Rollo May, an American psychologist, and
his colleagues, introduced these ideas to the English-speaking world as an approach to under-
standing therapy (May 1953, 1969, 1983; May et al. 1958). The therapeutic process becomes
one of understanding the client’s personal situation and the goal of therapy is to ‘help the
patient recognize and experience his own existence’ (p. 79, our italics). Being is defined as the
individual’s pattern of possibilities; non-being is taken to be the failure to realize them. In a
later book, May emphasized that existential therapy is not a system of techniques, unlike, for
example, Gestalt therapy. Therapy is a means of comprehending what it is to be the client and
the role of the therapist is first to know and understand the client (May 1983).
Viktor Frankl promotes this approach in his 1992 book, Man’s Search for Meaning. He
argues that human malaise is the result of us failing to find meaning in a life that is essen-
tially bound by sorrow and loss. Frankl’s emphasis on finding meaning parallels the central
importance of subjective meaning in other humanistic approaches. However, unlike Rogers
or other humanists, Frankl disputes the existence of any consistent themes in life, as nothing
transcends the here and now. Each minute of our lives affords us with a new opportunity to
make choices and create whatever it is we want to be, and want the world to be.
It will be clear from the foregoing that this form of therapy is not for amateurs. Its con-
cepts are difficult to define and difficult to understand. However, death and the search for
meaning in an uncaring world are both essential parts of life. The existential approach
reminds us all that we are responsible for creating the reactions and interpretations that we
have of our world; and, that the journey of self-discovery continues until our last breath.

Scenario one
The debate over recovered memories
In this scenario we focus on a debate that threatened to tear apart the different disciplines of
psychology, the debate over recovered memories. The phenomena of recovered memories
involve highly controversial issues, including questions about the nature of consciousness,
the relationship between emotions and cognition, and the influence that treatment tech-
niques can have on people undergoing professional help. The modern debate began under
the most difficult of circumstances, where adults were accusing their parents of physical and
sexual abuse when they were children. The pattern seemed to be that recovery occurred after
the person had experienced some form of cathartic experience, resulting in the previously
forgotten memories becoming accessible to conscious reporting. This cathartic experience
could be the result of some insight gained through therapy, self-help books, or support
groups; or through television and media coverage. Clinicians and other professionals with
clinical experience could understand easily how such recovery might take place.
Understandably, those parents who believed themselves to be innocent of the charges
attempted to enlist support from whatever expert they could, and found experimental psy-
chologists eager to provide their services. In particular, support for parents came from cog-
nitive psychologists, who had no experience of clinical conditions, but thoroughly
understood the mechanisms of memory and forgetting from empirical evidence. For them,
the nature of the evidence cited by clinicians was dubious. The debate over recovered mem-
ories of sexual abuse began.
From the context of the treatment room, the debate over recovered memories of sexual
abuse finds early study in the writings of Sigmund Freud. He observed that patients suffer-
ing from hysteria often recovered previously forgotten memories of childhood sexual abuse.
Importantly, as patients had no memory for these traumatic events prior to this, Freud was
able to use his notions of defence mechanisms to account for the prolonged and extended
amnesia. Given the number of patients who recovered such memories, Freud initially con-
cluded that sexual abuse of children was far more prominent that anyone had expected, and
crossed over boundaries such as socioeconomic status. However, he later retracted these
ideas and argued instead that recovered memories were not real, but were the fabrications
that emerged from the desires of the unconscious, id energy.
It is this point—the truthfulness or accuracy of recovered memories—that really forms the
basis for the debate. Unfortunately, the debate instead became distracted and focused on two
other questions. One, could someone who experienced childhood sexual abuse have pro-
longed amnesia for that event, only to later recover it? Two, could someone be led into
reporting a detailed account of an event that either did not occur or did not occur in the way
it was being reported? The dispute turned into a fierce conflict between two polarized camps
of psychologists, each side accusing the other’s evidence and methods of study as wrong.
Sadly, the debate over recovered memories of sexual abuse resulted in a considerable amount
of slandering of professional reputations, and the ruination of many families and lives.
The modern debate over recovered memory started in an inauspicious manner in the
USA. A couple, both of whom were well-known and highly respected psychologists, were
accused by their adult daughter of sexually abusing her and of colluding to keep the abuse a
secret. The daughter, who was also a psychologist, used the opportunity of giving a paper at
a large national psychology conference to make her allegations, so the accusations were very
public. In her allegations, she claimed that she had recovered these memories after a long
period of amnesia. She offered a coherent psychological explanation as to why she had failed
to remember the events over the years; and also what had served to trigger their recovery.
Not surprisingly, the parents were startled at these allegations, in part because they denied
their authenticity.
In the parents’ view, their daughter had been misled into remembering traumatic events,
which, in fact, were fabrications. These ‘false’ memories were the result of their daughter’s
venturing into therapy. The parents argued that somehow their daughter had been exposed
to unscrupulous therapeutic techniques that had convinced her that she had experienced
abuse. The parents vowed to clear their names. They set up a society for other parents who
similarly claimed to have been falsely accused of sexual abuse by their children, calling it the
False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF). Many other accused parents reported a simi-
lar pattern, where their adult children had never remembered memories of abuse, until
coming into contact with therapists, support groups, or media coverage on other cases of
recovered memories. By the mid-1990s, the FMSF had received over 7000 enquiries, with
hundreds of parents reporting that their children were taking civil and in some cases crimi-
nal actions against them.
Given that both sides—the accused and the accuser—were psychologists, it was no sur-
prise that each drafted psychological evidence to support their claims. While overly simplis-
tic, the division was essentially between experimentalists and clinicians. The former argued
that memory was fallible and people were gullible, and that no rigorous scientific demon-
stration of any memory mechanism existed that could account for the prolonged and com-
plete amnesia, and then recovery of traumatic memories. The latter argued that people
forgot trauma because they wanted to avoid bad feelings and that some form of repression,
albeit not the original Freudian notion, was not only frequently observed, but was also to be
expected in cases of trauma and traumatic, sexual abuse. A nasty battle ensued, and the
debate escalated to the point where it threatened the unity of psychology as a whole.
While this battle raged in the USA, a similar rift was emerging in the UK. Adult children
were alleging that their ageing parents had abused them during childhood and, in response,
parents formed a society, called the British False Memory Society (BFMS). Like its American
counterpart, the BFMS was designed to support parents who felt that they had been falsely
accused, and it soon logged hundreds of enquiries. The founders of the BFMS, in an effort
to make some impact on the debate, approached the national governing body for profes-
sional psychologists, the British Psychological Society (BPS), and asked the organization to
take some action. The BFMS wanted the governing body to provide some guidance regard-
ing professional practice, offer a review of the recent evidence regarding the prevalence of
recovered memories, and assess any empirical evidence that might help to support or refute
the claim that memory recovery was possible. The BFMS had collected data from the people
who contacted them, and the data were offered freely for inspection.
The BPS responded positively, and agreed that a group of professional psychologists,
each with expertise in areas that were pertinent to the question of recovered memories,
would form as a working party to investigate the phenomena of recovered memories. The
BPS appointed a chair for the working party, who, in turn, was responsible for appointing
other members of the group. The working party was given the remit to review the empiri-
cal evidence, assess the impact that the phenomena of recovered memories was having
nationally, identify any therapeutic techniques that were associated with recovered mem-
ories, and make general recommendations that could be used to guide professional
practice.

This was a very delicate position for the BPS and, in particular, for the members of the work-
ing party. On the one hand, the BPS needed to respond appropriately to the request from
the BFMS. Failure to respond would easily be interpreted as suspicious, and understandably
so. On the other hand, the governing body itself had not seemed to be interested in initiating
a formal inquiry, and with good reason. Everyone knew that the situation in the USA was
making enemies out of the different disciplines in psychology. The animosity that had
grown between psychologists was something that the BPS wished to avoid. The members of
the working party had similar concerns. They were motivated to produce the most objective
and accurate report that they could, and yet they were well aware that the topic was highly
controversial and that someone, somewhere, would be likely to take umbrage with any con-
clusions they drew.

A group of five psychologists were selected by the chair in order to provide a range of exper-
tise that would be relevant to the remit of the working party. It was obvious that the mem-
bers of the working party should be experts in their fields, and they should also provide a
sufficient diversity of interests and breadth of experience and knowledge. As a consequence,
the make-up of the working party reflected the necessity to have experts in trauma, and in
memory, who understood and could evaluate both experimental and clinical evidence. For
example, the working party needed to be able to evaluate empirical investigations into
trauma and any research on related concepts like repression. It similarly needed to under-
stand and assess evidence from clinical observations and be able to assess the general treat-
ment techniques that are commonly employed in the treatment of trauma. In addition, an
expert in ‘normal’ adult memory was also important, so that any phenomena that might be
evaluated could be done so along some continuum from abnormal to normal. The working
party also needed some expertise in memory development, again with the expert having
some appreciation of both experimental and clinical methodologies. This was considered
essential because the majority of allegations that adults were making were about childhood
sexual abuse. As such, it became critical to understand how a child’s memory develops and,
importantly, how cognitive, emotional, and social development would constrain what an
adult would be later able to report.
What concepts are relevant?

Many of the concepts that are relevant involve questions about how people remember trau-
matic events. Of course, one of the central concepts on which the entire debate is focused is
the notion of the defence mechanism, repression. Because repression is so central, we will
take some time to discuss how repression first came into the literature. To do this, we need
to consider Freud’s notions of the different levels of consciousness, and how these relate to
different aspects of the personality.
At the uppermost level is what Freud called consciousness, or our immediate, focal aware-
ness. Consciousness is associated with that which we can immediately report, such as what
we are thinking at a particular moment—what William James called the ‘stream of con-
sciousness’. At a lower level is the subconscious, which Freud further divided into the pre-
conscious and the unconscious. The pre-conscious is characterized by thoughts, images, and
feelings which are not immediately in our awareness, but which we can summon into con-
sciousness, should we so wish. For example, being able to remember something you did
yesterday is illustrating how pre-conscious thoughts and memories can be made conscious
through the act of intentional remembering. Beneath the pre-conscious is the unconscious.
The unconscious harbours our deepest needs and drives, and are generally kept undisclosed
as we interact with the world, and for good reason, as we now see.
The different levels of consciousness are associated with different levels of the psyche or
personality. At the conscious and pre-conscious levels is the ego, that aspect of the personal-
ity that is most observable to the outside world, and serves as the person’s sense of self. Our
ego is responsible for directly dealing with societal demands and everyday experiences and,
consequently, is governed by the constraints of the real world.
The ego mediates between two other aspects of the psyche, the super-ego and the id. The
super-ego is the aspect of the psyche that is governed by societal norms and other types of
social introjections or rules that would be expected to be passed down by one’s society,
culture, or family. As the super-ego contains motivation for conforming to social norms
and social values, it often is referred to as the conscience of the self—that which is responsi-
ble for the person knowing the difference between what is right and what is wrong. Freud
assumed that the contents of the super-ego were available to the pre-conscious state.
At the other extreme is the id. In contrast to the super-ego, the id recognizes no rules, is
unconstrained, and has no regard for right or wrong. The id is motivated entirely by basic
innate drives, like sexuality and aggression. Freud considered the id and its drives to be the
fundamental motives behind all human behaviour. He believed that humans are like any
other animal. According to Freud, we have innate drives that direct our behaviour towards
that which is pleasurable and direct us away from that which is not pleasurable. Drives are
associated with psychic energy, which builds up into tension if not expressed, and the id is
motivated to reduce this tension. As children, we are allowed to express our id unhampered
and without fear of prejudice. For example, if we are hungry, we are allowed to cry and
scream out our demands, until our wish is fulfilled. We do not take into account whether
our demands are reasonable or appropriate. As we become older, we are forced by society to
Box 8.9 The defence mechanisms and the ego

Freud coined the term defence mechanisms to refer to the ways in which the ego protects itself
against the onslaught of the id and the unconscious. The major defence mechanisms include
repression, projection, displacement, identification, regression, sublimation, rationalization, denial, and
reaction formation. Projection involves me putting on to you those feelings or thoughts that are too
undesirable for me to consciously accept. So I cannot bear to accept that I am angry because I was
punished for showing any signs of aggression or anger as a child. When I am feeling unhappy about
something you have said to me, I project my anger onto you and accuse you of being unfriendly to
me. Projection allows me to experience angry sensations or feelings, but I simply attribute them to
you. Denial is a way for us to reduce our anxiety, when our unacceptable thoughts or desires creep
into our conscious awareness. While repression is a mechanism that blocks undesirable thoughts
from consciousness, denial is a refusal to acknowledge that you have the undesirable characteristic.
For example, suppose I am an alcoholic. I deny this and label myself instead as a social drinker. In
denial, the undesirable behaviour, my drinking, is still present for all to see; it is me who refuses to
acknowledge that my behaviour is undesirable. Thus, I am in denial. All defence mechanisms are
designed to help the ego with the intra-psychic conflict.
thwart the immediate gratification of our basic drives. We are severely constrained by how
we should or should not behave—the domain of the super-ego. The demands of our id
become less acceptable as we mature into adults. As a consequence, those thoughts, feelings,
or memories that are strongly linked to our id generally get repressed and are forced to
reside in our unconscious.
However, there is a constant, ongoing battle between these different aspects of our psy-
che. Because our id is only concerned with reducing the tension from our basic drives, it is
in direct conflict with our super-ego, which is constantly constraining the expression of any
behaviour that might be deemed unsociable, or inappropriate. This conflict is mediated by
our ego, which attempts to maintain some type of balance between the two by resolving the
conflict, relying on defence mechanisms to prevent most of the contents of the unconscious
from ever surfacing.
For example, suppose you are walking along and you find a wallet that is stuffed with
cash. Each aspect of your personality will respond differently to that situation. Your id may
respond to the situation in a manner that is self-serving, being motivated to take the money
as it affords many pleasurable things, such as paying off your long-standing bank loan. In
contrast, your super-ego will respond to the situation in terms of whether it is right to take
the money, motivating you to act in a manner that would be most acceptable to society—
which probably would mean handing the wallet back to its owner. Your ego will respond to
the reality of the situation. You become aware that there are people staring at you as you
ponder your decision, and that that the chances of someone having seen you pick up the
wallet and look through it are very high. Your ego may decide to resolve the conflict by
conforming to the demands of your super-ego, and you return the wallet to its rightful
owner.
What is so intriguing is that Freud’s arguments can be used both for and against the sug-
gestion that recovered memories are reliable. For example, suppose there is a woman, aged
42 years, who has been feeling very depressed for the past few years. She manages to get
enough energy to plan a party for her daughter’s twelfth birthday. On the day of the festivi-
ties, the woman suddenly has a vivid image of a traumatic sexual assault that occurred when
she was 12 years old, which happened after she had blown out the candles on her birthday
cake. Importantly, the woman has had absolutely no memory of the event, and can barely
believe that what she is remembering is real. Suddenly, fragments of memories start flood-
ing back into her consciousness.
Freud offers an easy explanation as to how this might happen. The concept of repression
of trauma, where the painful memory is kept out of consciousness, explains how a person
could have amnesia for such an extended period of time. However, the memory might still
break through into consciousness, since the defence mechanism of repression cannot
always block out the trauma. The person may have been reminiscing, in her pre-conscious,
of what happened to her when she was 12 years old, thus thrusting the otherwise forgotten
memory closer to consciousness. What eventually triggered her memory was seeing her
daughter’s birthday cake.
Equally, though, Freud offers an explanation as to why this memory is false. Arguably, the
allegations may express unconscious desires, sexual desires that are too threatening to
acknowledge, and so have been converted into daydreams or fantasies, which the woman
inaccurately believes are true. It seems that both proponents and opponents for the accu-
racy of recovered memories are able to call on Freud’s views!
Importantly, contemporaries of Freud independently noted the phenomena of recovered
memories. Pierre Janet studied hysteria, and, again like Freud, he found that many patients
recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse after some period of amnesia. Janet (1892)
coined the phrase ‘phobias of memory’ to account for the amnesia. He argued that people
who suffered such trauma developed resultant phobia or anxiety about remembering the
event. The person was too frightened to revisit the event, for fear that the act of remember-
ing would reinstate such painful emotions that they would be too overcome. This phobia
resulted in the person experiencing a form of amnesia—a classic symptom of avoidance—
whereby the memory was made unavailable for recollection. However, it would continue to
intrude into the person’s consciousness as an invasive thought, due to the unresolved psy-
chic conflict that had been created through the act of repressing it. Janet believed that the
only way that the person could rid themselves of the effects of their trauma was to remember
the event, for example under hypnosis, thereby releasing the psychic tension.
Importantly, many people since Freud and Janet have documented the occurrence of
recovery during treatment. One of the most important contributions was made by Harvey
and Herman in 1994, who illustrated that clients recovering memories of childhood trau-
mas show vastly different phenomenal awareness of the past, and that recovery itself is a
highly complicated process. For example, some clients always remember the trauma, but
recover some new details that they had previously forgotten. Other clients have some idea
that they had experienced abuse, but had no firm memories about any specific incidents.
A third group had complete and total amnesia for the traumatic event(s), as shall be dis-
cussed below.
Other concepts that are relevant focus on the types of treatment that are used not only in
the treatment of trauma but also more generally. For example, hypnosis is a technique that
is used widely by practitioners following certain orientations, for example psychodynamic,
to help the person release feelings or thoughts that are usually repressed and kept outside
the consciousness. However, research points to some negative consequences of hypnosis, in

particular that the technique can increase the susceptibility of the person. Most of us have
seen the sort of entertainment where people who have been hypnotized engage in whatever
bizarre behaviours the hypnotist suggests. Under hypnosis, the person can be led to believe
things that are not true. As a technique, then, hypnosis would be highly dangerous for those
individuals who, seeking help from a professional, were in an emotionally vulnerable and
suggestible state.
Related to the type of technique used is the extent to which therapists rely on their own
interpretation of behaviour in order to draw conclusions about the underlying causes for
their client’s behaviours. While this need not necessarily pose problems, interpretations are
contentious. For example, suppose we have a client who gags every time she brushes her
teeth. Importantly, the client wants to know why she gags and she does not have any insight
into what is causing her behaviour. We, the therapist, decide that her gagging is the result of
her being sexually abused, in this case, being forced to have oral sex. Our client has no
memory, whatsoever, of any abuse. We maintain that she has repressed this memory from
her consciousness, but that her body, instead, has remembered and this memory comes out
in her behaviour. Even if we did not use Freud, there are other theoretical arguments that
could support our interpretation. For example, we could argue that our client has an
implicit memory for her abuse, but no explicit memory. However, the facts about our cli-
ent gagging are that she had a fish-bone stuck in her throat when she was 18 months old.
While she did indeed maintain some sort of body, or implicit memory, our interpretation of
the causes for her behaviour was wide of the mark. While this example may seem far-
fetched, the facts are that some therapists did draw such conclusions, arguing that if some-
one gagged when brushing their teeth, that was a sign that they had been abused!
Other concepts that needed to be considered are those we have already discussed in an
earlier chapter on eyewitness testimony (see ‘The crime room’, Chapter 4). One of the most
relevant here is the effects of misleading information. The early studies of Elizabeth Loftus
Box 8.10 Combat trauma and the talking cures

Much of what we know about trauma developed from the treatment of combat trauma—a topic that
we briefly discussed in ‘The war room’ (Chapter 7). Abram Kardiner, an American psychiatrist, noted
that the use of terms such as hysteria, although an accurate diagnosis of war neurosis, did not provide
the soldier with a sympathetic position from which to start treatment (Kardiner and Spiegel 1947). In
fact, he considered the use of such terms to be so pejorative that it prevented society, medicine, and
the military from seeing how the soldiers were victims of, rather than responsible for, their trauma.
His early efforts served as the basis for future clinical analyses of trauma syndromes. Importantly,
Kardiner developed the talking cure, which stemmed from his experiences with Freudian analysis. He
regarded the symptoms of hysteria as the result of repression of painful memories. In his treatment,
soldiers were encouraged to relive traumatic memories, and re-experience all the feelings associated
with these memories. It was through this catharsis that the soldier was cured. Kardiner and his
colleagues used various techniques, such as hypnosis, to access the traumatic memories. Modern
talking cures for the treatment of trauma take their point of departure from these early treatment
techniques.
already conclusively established that people could report false events as well as false details.
Hyman and Billings (1998) provided even further evidence of this more directly, in a won-
derful series of experiments. They showed how easily some people are misled into believing
that false memories were true. They used certain important conditions to convince people.
First, Hyman and Billings told the participants that the memory had been confirmed as true
by their parents. This meant that participants were already biased to accept the false infor-
mation as true. Next, the researchers introduced events that had some true elements to
them, by finding out some true personal details of the person’s life. For example, suppose
you had an Aunt Sarah, and you had been to a family wedding where she was present.
Hyman and Billing would suggest that your mother had said that you spilled a punch bowl
over your Aunt Sarah at a family wedding. The misleading, false detail is the action, spilling
the punch bowl over Aunt Sarah; the true details are first that you have an Aunt Sarah, and
second that you were both at the family wedding. Whereas most participants denied having
any experience of the false event the first time the suggestion was made, some proportion
gradually began to accept it as true, and began to produce accounts of what had happened!
The significance of Hyman and Billings’ studies is obvious. The therapist will have some
knowledge and accurate details about the client’s personal life. The therapist will also have a
certain amount of power over the client, to the extent that the client will believe that the
therapist is acting in their best interests. Added to this is the fact that the person is likely to
want some sort of explanation for their behaviour. With techniques where the therapist
requires the client to accept the interpretation, a vulnerable person is highly susceptible to
the importation of false information.
The modern debate over recovered memories of sexual abuse also needs to be considered
within the context of the social and historical perspectives under which it arose. A good
discussion of the socio-historical perspective is provided by Tim Dalgleish and Nicola
Morant, in Representations of Child Sexual Abuse: a Brief Psychosocial History and
Commentary (2001). Not coincidentally, allegations of sexual abuse grew in parallel with
the popularity of self-help books regarding survivors of sexual abuse and the simultaneous
increase in general media coverage of sexual abuse. In part, the debate was the result of a
core shift in societal attitudes regarding sexual abuse. In particular, society and profession-
als became more willing to acknowledge that sexual abuse occurs. Once society was more
able to accept that sexual abuse occurred, the public as well as professionals provided the
atmosphere for victims to make their allegations heard. Prior to this, victims were being
forced to suffer in silence. Slowly, more and more people were disclosing histories of abuse.

The members of the working party decided that they would each take some aspect of the
remit and provide the major input into that section of the report. For example, one of the
remits was to review the available evidence from the empirical and experimental literature.
Members of the working party were assigned different topics, such as misleading informa-
tion or research on trauma, and would provide the chair with draft comments to be circu-
lated to the entire working party.
Other members of the working party were responsible for determining the types of treat-
ment technique that were currently being used and also review evidence from clinical
observations of recovered memories. It seemed essential that the practice and beliefs of
working practitioners in the BPS were surveyed; to this end, a preliminary questionnaire
was devised that addressed some important issues. For example, some questions asked
about the frequency that practitioners experienced recovered memories, and also the extent
to which the practitioner believed such memories to be true. In addition, the working party
sought any evidence that had been brought to bear elsewhere in the world, be it the USA or
Europe.
The working party also considered it essential to review any evidence that had been col-
lected by the BFMS. Accordingly, two members asked to visit the then headquarters, and
were given complete access to all notes, documentation, correspondence, and tapes that had
been submitted to the BFMS. A review of this documentation might shed some light on any
patterns and consistencies that emerged across different allegations, and also give an idea as
to some of the socio-demographic variables that might be at work, such as gender or age.
The working party eventually prepared and submitted a final report to be published on
behalf of the BPS. As was required from the remit, the report included details regarding BPS
practitioners’ views on recovered memories of sexual abuse, including how frequently cli-
ents recovered memories, and the extent to which these memories were viewed as correct.
The report provided some arguments regarding how recovered memories might come
about, and discussed the memory literature from the standpoint of evidence for and against
the concept of repression. The report also concluded that the problem of false memories was
not as great as it appeared to be in the USA, although it acknowledged the difficulty and pain
for those families in which such allegations had been made. In addition, the report sug-
gested that while the BFMS had indeed some valuable information regarding its members,
the quality of the evidence was inconsistent and not suitable for scientific purposes. Finally,
recommendations regarding good and bad practice, particularly in the context of sexual
abuse, were provided.
Most interestingly, perhaps, is the fact that the report from the BPS working party reached
the same conclusions as the report produced by its counterparts in America. One, it is pos-
sible, in some cases, for people to recover traumatic childhood memories after prolonged
amnesia. Two, memory is malleable and cannot be made fallible, especially if certain tech-
niques are used with vulnerable individuals. Not surprisingly, the same techniques were
highlighted as being dangerous.
How was the psychologists’ input received?

The report produced completely divided reactions. The BPS felt that the working party had
provided an objective and considered report, one that attempted to address the critical
issues rather than add fuel to an already overheated debate. Various members of the work-
ing party were asked to contribute to debates on radio and provide expert opinion in jour-
nalistic reporting.
However, there were some people who did not rate the report quite so highly. Many pro-
fessionals dismissed the report of the working party, accusing it of being unprofessional,
unreliable, inaccurate, and biased. The highly renowned experimental psychologist,
Professor L. Weiskrantz, regarded the working party’s efforts at addressing the scientific
issues as feeble and misguided, concluding that ‘The working party . . . would have per-
formed a much more useful function . . . if it had simply started and stopped with [the pro-
fessional guidelines]’ (1995, p. 8). The report was similarly criticized by professional journals
such as The Therapist, which claimed that ‘The British Psychological Society needs its head
examined’. Even more disturbing for the members of the working party was the fact
that parents and families who had been accused often sent disturbing and in some cases
threatening letters. These letters regularly criticized the report of the working party for not
giving any consideration to the great distress that is caused when false accusations are made.
To these people, the working party was often perceived as engaged in professional negli-
gence at its worst. These conflicting reactions illustrate how divisive and controversial the
topic of recovered memories had become.
Scenario two
Applying the theory of working memory to insomnia
This next scenario, based on the work of Levey et al. (1991), illustrates how theoretical ideas
in cognitive psychology can be applied to a range of important real-world problems in the
treatment room. Many times, cognitive theories will have broad application to clinical con-
ditions, particularly when these conditions have a strong cognitive component to them. Not
infrequently, psychologists wish to validate some part of their theory by applying it to a
real-world clinical problem, since that will enable them to assess the strength of their ideas
under circumstances that might be difficult to duplicate in the laboratory. There is a sense in
which a theory gains in strength if it can be seen to apply to practical problems in the every-
day world. This is as true in psychology as it is in physics and chemistry.
When, as in this scenario, we have a theoretical idea in search of a real-world problem, the
driving force behind finding the most appropriate match is the topics that are addressed by
the theory. We first identify what the theory addresses and what the major theoretical con-
cepts are; we then look for a real-world problem for which these concepts might be relevant.
For example, if we have a theory about how people behave when engaged in communal
activities, we might look at the real-world situation of a restaurant, and see whether our
theoretical ideas are relevant to any problems that arise.
Such was the case here, where we consider the application of the theory of working mem-
ory (WM) to the condition of insomnia. The theory of working memory proposed a new
and different way of understanding how we retain information for short periods of time. All
of us have had the experience of repeating a telephone number over and over, rehearsing it,
until such time as we can write it down and then promptly eject it from our conscious
awareness. According to WM theory, we are able to do this because of the operation of a set
of systems that help us to keep information central to our current goals, until such time as
we no longer need it. As we will see below, laboratory studies have demonstrated how these
systems operate and, importantly, for the present purposes, how these systems can be
disrupted.
After WM theory had amassed an impressive amount of evidence in its favour, other
psychologists, working with clinical conditions, felt that the WM theory had great potential,
particularly in its application to problems involving repetitive, intrusive thoughts. One of
these conditions is insomnia, where people often report an over-active mind, with thoughts
constantly circulating in their heads. The psychologists reasoned that if the findings from
laboratory studies were extrapolated, they could produce an important technique that
would reduce, if not eliminate, at least some of the cognitive symptoms of insomnia. This
scenario illustrates how important experimental research can be in helping to find solutions
for a common and disabling problem. It is also an excellent example of how mainstream
psychological findings can be successfully translated into effective intervention techniques
for the treatment room.
One of the most exciting consequences of working in a research environment is that your
colleagues often provide you with ideas about your own work that you would otherwise not
consider. Such was the case with the Medical Research Council’s then Applied Psychology
Unit in Cambridge, UK. A number of psychologists, each specialists in their own field,
worked in parallel and in conjunction with each other on developing psychological theories
that could be applied to real-world problems. Theoretical ideas and empirical evidence
emerging from one line of inquiry could often be directly relevant to another, seemingly
unrelated line of inquiry.
A clear example of this productive cross-fertilization of ideas came about through a
discussion between colleagues after a theoretical seminar on what was then a new theory
of short-term memory. The theory addressed issues that are still of great interest to
psychologists—the nature of memory and its differing functions. We give a brief sum-
mary of the memory theory first, as it formed the contents of the seminar, and served as
the basis for the resulting discussions between psychologists.
Psychologists interested in studying memory prior to the 1960s had exclusively regarded
memory as a unitary storage system. Association theory held that the main mechanism for
remembering anything is the process of forming mental associations. Temporal contiguity,
things co-occurring in time, was regarded as the basis for most learning. Thus, if we are
shown A followed by B enough times, we learn and remember that A and B go together.
A single memory store served as the container for all our associations.
However, by the 1960s, a change in attitudes was apparent. While memory was still
regarded as spatio-temporal, that is something that we put things into and get things out of,
memory was no longer seen as a unitary store. Memory had different stores, and different
stages. Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed one of the most influential of these
models in 1968.
The Atkinson and Shiffrin model had three memory stores. These stores differed in terms
of the length of time they maintained information, the type of information to which they
were most sensitive, and their size. The early sensory store—there were two, one for sight
and one for sound—maintained relatively unprocessed sensory information only for a very
short time. A good example is to look at any object close to you, for a few seconds, then close
your eyes. You should be able to see an after-image that lasts only a matter of half a second
or so, before it starts to fade. This after-image is held in what Atkinson and Shiffrin called
the iconic store. The echoic store, associated with sound, maintains information for slightly
longer, along the order of a few seconds. Through the process of selective attention, sensory
information is passed on to a short-term memory store, which is sensitive to the auditory
modality. short-term memory serves two functions. It supports processes like reasoning
and comprehension—both of which are necessary for ongoing communication—providing
some sort of working memory space. It also provides us with a temporary store for informa-
tion waiting to enter long-term memory. Through rehearsal, we maintain information in
short-term memory, although its capacity is limited. George Miller is renowned for coining
the phrase, the ‘magical number seven, plus or minus two’, which is assessed as our memory
span, in tests such as digit-span tests. After sufficient rehearsal, information gets transferred
to our long-term memory, which is limitless in its capacity and retains information
indefinitely.
However, evidence from research conducted with patients who had brain damage posed
problems for multi-stage models. For example, some patients had normal long-term learn-
ing but demonstrated an impaired memory span, limited to one of two items. In contrast,
other patients had highly impaired abilities to make new associations but had relatively
normal performance on other types of short-term memory tasks. If a single, short-term
memory was the means through which all information was passed on to the long-term
store, then how could a patient with short-term memory problems still show normal long-
term learning? Similarly, if short-term memory is responsible for tasks such as reasoning
and speech comprehension, how could a patient show deficits in learning and not show
deficits in other short-term memory tasks, for example reasoning tasks? Clearly, multiple
stage models were inadequate.
In 1974, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch provided a way of addressing such data,
challenging the notion of a single short-term memory system. Instead of a single system
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed a tripartite system of working memory (WM), con-
sisting of a central executive, and two slave systems, the articulatory or phonological loop
and the visuospatial scratchpad. The central executive operates like the manager of mental
attention and energy, prioritizing information in terms of its relevance to current goals,
and shunting information to and from the more permanent, long-term memory store. It
is also responsible for complex mental operations, such as reasoning and comprehension.
The two slave systems are simply responsible for maintaining information that is identi-
fied by the central executive as supporting current tasks. The phonological loop keeps
speech-based information recycled while the scratchpad keeps visual and imaginal infor-
mation active.
Research had shown that the slave systems can be disrupted. In the case of the phonologi-
cal loop, this can be done by articulatory suppression, such as asking a person to repeat the
word ‘the’ over and over again. This prevents subvocal rehearsal, and impedes any visually
presented information from being registered in the phonological store. For example, sup-
pose we ask people to remember a series of numbers—0, 15, 32, 56, 22, 38, 99, 47, 12, 65—
and at the same time require them to repeat the word ‘the’ three to four times a second.
What we find is that people remember less, as they are prevented from rehearsing the
numbers.
Now, let us return to the seminar. It was clear that WM theory was relevant to clinical
populations with memory problems, such as people with head injuries. However, the psy-
chologists leading the seminar were interested in soliciting opinion from their colleagues
as to whether WM theory might be useful in the context of other clinical phenomena. One
member of the audience, a classical learning theorist who had extensive experience in
clinical settings, suggested that the concept of the phonological loop could be highly use-
ful for clinical conditions that have intrusive, persistent, and unwanted thoughts in their
set of symptoms. According to the WM theory, such intrusive thoughts would be recycled
in the phonological loop. Anything that could disrupt the loop and block this recycling
should similarly be able to disrupt and block the occurrence of the unwanted intrusive
thought.
The learning theorist identified several conditions that were of immediate relevance,
including obsessive-compulsive disorders, depression, general anxiety disorders, bereave-
ment syndrome, and insomnia. While most were unsuitable for study because of their com-
plexity, insomnia had a relatively circumscribed set of symptoms. Additionally, the learning
theorist was particularly interested in insomnia, for a number of reasons. For one, insomnia
is a serious and common problem, with many people experiencing difficulties in getting to
sleep and staying asleep. For another, recycled thoughts are one of the most frequent com-
plaints from people. Sufferers complain that their thoughts ‘keep going round and round’,
that they cannot stop their mind from going over things, in some cases worrying about
things. The learning theorist could see how WM would directly link this to the phonological
loop, thus highlighting the type of interventions that might be helpful. Last, but certainly
not least, the learning theorist had a personal interest in the topic: he, too, was someone who
experienced disturbed sleep patterns. After thorough discussions, the learning theorist and
his colleagues agreed that they would extrapolate the theory of WM to discover whether a
more cognitive intervention for insomnia might be developed.
What is the situation?

This situation can be described as one where a theory went in search of a problem and, hap-
pily, found a good one. However, we must stress that the attempt to translate the WM the-
ory into cognitive interventions for insomnia represented a real departure from typical
approaches to insomnia. For example, most interventions for insomnia were behavioural
rather than cognitive in nature. Thus, people would be taught to use self-relaxation, such as
imaging a peaceful scene, or would be taught to use a form of stimulus control. With stimu-
lus control, the person would associate the bed and bedroom exclusively with sleep, so that
if they could not sleep, they would get up and go into another room. Some cognitive
approaches to the problem of sleeplessness had been attempted, but these were more con-
cerned with sleep attitudes, such as changing attributions of tiredness to one’s current men-
tal state rather than to the lack of a good night’s sleep. Importantly, the extrapolation of WM
theory represented a new direction, as it focused directly on one of the major cognitive
symptoms of insomnia.

It is obvious that many of the concepts that the psychologists needed to consider involve
our understanding of why and how we sleep. Sleep needs to be considered in terms of bio-
logical, psychological, environmental, as well as social factors. Like all mammals, we have
adapted our cycle of activity and inactivity in what is called a circadian rhythm. Our circa-
dian rhythm is based on an approximate 24-hour cycle, where our physiological functions,
including body temperature and mental alertness, fluctuate in lows and highs. Our brain,
in particular the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), which are located in the hypothalamus,
regulates our circadian rhythms. The SCN have a link with the pineal gland, which is
responsible for producing the relaxing hormone melatonin. During the day, SCN neurons
are active and decrease the pineal gland’s output of melatonin, resulting in raised body
temperature, mental alertness, and physical energy. During the evening, SCN neurons are
inactive, allowing levels of melatonin to raise, which promotes us feeling relaxed and
sleepy.
While our circadian rhythm is biological, it is sensitive to external stimuli and also subject
to individual differences. External stimuli, like the environmental cues of day and night,
help keep the SCN on track. In part, this is why people who work night shifts have such dif-
ficulty in adjusting their sleep patterns to accommodate their work schedule. Part of the
problem is that the artificial light in which most night workers operate is too weak to alter
the circadian rhythm. Individual differences are often described in terms of whether a per-
son is a morning person or early bird, or an evening person or night owl. As their name
suggests, those people who are early birds show peaks in body temperature and brain activ-
ity at earlier points in the morning than do night owls.
While there are many disorders of our sleep–wake cycle, probably the most common is
insomnia. However, insomnia is not all that easy to define. It is one of the few disorders
where the diagnosis is made by the patient rather than the medical practitioner. So, we go to
the doctor complaining that we are not sleeping well; the doctor, in turn, has no evidence to
suggest this is, or is not, true apart from our phenomenal reporting. Without the use of
experimental techniques, available only in a sleep laboratory, it is often impossible to deter-
mine how serious the patient’s condition actually is.
While we have all experienced a sleepless night, this does not constitute insomnia.
Insomnia is chronic and persistent, and is linked to three aspects of sleep. There is sleep-
onset delay, which measures the amount of time it takes for you to fall to sleep. Then there
is wakefulness, referring to disturbances in sleep, such as periods of you waking from sleep.
Finally, there is sleep length, constituting the amount of time you sleep in a single session.
Many insomniacs complain that there have extended sleep-onset delay, fail to stay in a sleep
state for long, and get too little sleep overall.
Although sleep undoubtedly performs some significant biological function, the research
suggests that sleep deprivation, unless chronic and extended over time, does not affect our
body very significantly. Many of our brain functions continue when we are awake or asleep,
such as those that support our vital functions such as breathing, so any restorative time can-
not be contingent on our level of consciousness. In fact, James Horne, in his book Why We
Box 8.11 Our natural sleep–wake cycle

Suppose that you are living in conditions where you did not have environmental cues like day and
night, such as being on a submarine or in a space station. What would happen to your biological
clock? Much research has been done on this topic and the findings are consistent. In the absence of
any environmental cues, our biological clocks, or circadian rhythms, begin to stretch, falling into what
are called free-running rhythms. The sleep–wake cycle in free-running rhythms is longer than the
average 24-hour cycle. Early studies suggested that people would drift into 25-hour sleep–wake
cycles (Webb and Agnew 1974), while more recent studies suggest that the average cycle is only 24.2
hours (Hillman et al. 1994). While this extra time may not seem significant, some authors suggest
that, if we followed our free-running rhythms for only a few months, we would rise at noon and not
be ready for sleep until midnight! Our natural tendency is to lengthen the sleep–wake cycle, called
phase delay. This explains why it is easier for most travellers to cope with time differences when
travelling west: travelling west stretches the sleep–wake cycle, which is more in line with our
free-running rhythm.
Box 8.12 The stages of sleep

Sleep studies monitor the activity of the cortex in order to identify the different stages of sleep.
Although this is technically described as an electrocorticogram, the term, electroencephalograph, or
EEG, has instead become the norm. Sleep studies have identified four stages of sleep, which are
distinguished by the associated brain patterns. As sleep progresses, our brain waves become slower,
as measured by wave frequency, and are greater in height, as measured by amplitude. Stage 1 sleep is
associated with a light sleep, from which we can be easily awoken, and we may experience dreams or
vivid images and show sudden body jerks. Stage 2 is a deeper sleep, with our muscles and breathing
becoming more relaxed. It is much more difficult to wake from Stage 2. Stage 3 is an even deeper
sleep, until we reach Stage 4, where we are very relaxed, our brain waves reach their slowest, and
activity in some parts of our brain decreases dramatically. Researchers suggest that, within 60–90
minutes, we go through a cycle of stages, 1–2–3–4–3–2, followed by what is called rapid eye
movement, or REM. In REM sleep our brain patterns are very similar to our waking, alert state of
consciousness. It is during REM sleep that we have our most vivid dreams.
Sleep (1988), suggests that only our cerebral cortex seems affected by sleep deprivation, with
the rest of our body being relatively unperturbed, and even the cerebrum can withstand one
sleepless night.
Unfortunately, most insomniacs believe that their sleeplessness does affect their physical
health. While this belief, in itself, may not be dangerous, it is coupled with the fact that
insomniacs are not very accurate in their assessments of their sleep patterns. Horne (1988)
summarizes the findings of a study undertaken by the US Institute of Medicine. This study
reported that insomniacs get about six hours of sleep a night, with most going to sleep
within 20–30 minutes, and most having relatively short periods of wakefulness within their
sleeping period. This suggests that some insomniacs are actually getting a relatively good
night’s sleep, and that most have sleeping patterns that would not be expected to harm their
health. For this reason, sleep workers prefer to use the term sleep dissatisfaction, since the
only persons who can decide whether the patients are getting enough sleep are the patients
themselves.
Whether insomniacs’ descriptions are accurate or not, the fact remains that we expect to
get a good night’s sleep and when we do not, our health can suffer. This has less to do with
the biological need for sleep, and much more to do with beliefs we hold about sleep. As a
consequence, sleep researchers are very sensitive to distinguish between sleepiness, which is
the result of disturbed sleep, and tiredness, which is generally the result of sleep
dissatisfaction.
We have already given quite a bit of background to WM theory, but will briefly focus on
the most relevant concept to the current scenario, the phonological loop. Again, the loop is
a slave system that maintains information that has been prioritized by the central executive.
Because it is sensitive to speech, the loop is easily disturbed, for example, by articulatory
suppression in the form of repeating a meaningless sound, such as ‘the’.
The psychologists reasoned that unwanted thoughts would be recycled in the phonologi-
cal loop. Importantly, these thoughts would activate the central executive, which, rather
than concentrate on the current goal of falling to sleep or getting back to sleep, would
become occupied with tasks such as deriving meaning from the thoughts. In this way,
unwanted thoughts, embodied as inner speech, would pre-empt attention or mental energy,
at the expense of sleep. However, if the thoughts were blocked, the central executive would
be free to allocate attention towards the onset or return of sleep.

The psychologists were aware that articulatory suppression should not be too demanding;
and that the suppression material also needed to be innocuous so as not to be too arousing.
Another serious issue was the rate at which repetition would occur. Suppose we ask a person
to repeat the word ‘the’. Obviously, the rate at which the person repeats ‘the’ needs to be care-
fully considered. If it is too slow, then the person will easily be able to switch from saying ‘the’
and having a thought. If the rate is too fast, however, the process of suppression is arousing
itself, and hence self-defeating. After a series of informal observations, the psychologists
developed what they believed to be a practical intervention technique based on articulatory
suppression. They then embarked on a single case study in order to provide a preliminary,
but controlled and quantitative, investigation of the effectiveness of suppression.
An obvious concern was to select a participant who would be easily recognized as an
insomniac. To this end, the psychologists used the six criteria that are commonly regarded
in the literature as being necessary for a diagnosis of insomnia. They found a 38-year-old
translator, who had had from insomnia for approximately 16 years. The translator had
sleep-onset and sleep-maintenance problems every night, but the patterns were variable. He
sometimes took 20 minutes to get to sleep and other times 120 minutes. Additionally, he
woke roughly twice a night, staying awake anywhere between 15–60 minutes. Importantly,
the psychologists could not find any reason for being concerned about his diet, any sleep-
incompatible activities in the bedroom (like watching television), or other environmental
factors. He also made some use of stimulus-control strategies, for example not going to bed
unless he was ready for sleep.
The psychologists first did a functional analysis of the translator’s sleep patterns in order
to get an idea of his unwanted thoughts. For example, they asked him to keep a diary of the
difficulties he experienced, so that they could assess what types of thought intruded and at
what point. Sleep-onset difficulties were associated with the translator first becoming physi-
cally restless and then having uncontrollable thoughts and increased mental arousal. The
thoughts were usually related to trivial planning, like deciding to buy a record, and were
disturbing because he had little control over them. Sleep-maintenance problems were dif-
ferent. Once awake, he reported first having intrusive thoughts, generally taking the form of
relatively incoherent worries; these thoughts were then associated with his feeling physi-
cally restless.
In order to compare suppression to more established techniques, the psychologists
devised a treatment with four phases, with a new component in the treatment being intro-
duced each week. A daily sleep diary was used to measure sleep onset and sleep mainte-
nance. Measures of pre- and post-treatment sleep patterns were also taken. Pretreatment
assessment was a baseline measure of the translator sleep patterns, taken one week before
any treatment began. Post-treatment measures were assessed for four weeks after treatment
had finished.
Treatment consisted of a four-phase design, based on standard treatment procedures used
with insomnia. During phase one, sleep-hygiene rules and stimulus-control instructions
were given. For example, the translator was not allowed coffee after a certain time, was to go
bed only when sleepy and get out of bed if he could not sleep, was to wake at the same time
every morning, and was to keep a sleep diary. Given he had good sleep hygiene prior to the
treatment, he was easily able to comply with these rules. Phase two introduced progressive
muscular relaxation techniques. For example, the translator was asked to imagine relaxing
his body in a gradual and progressive manner, starting from the fingers on his left hand,
then his upper arm, and so on. Phase three, called forward planning, instructed him to set
aside a time each evening when he would anticipate and set aside potentially intrusive
thoughts. He was asked to identify any potentially intrusive worries, to make any necessary
decisions and then to set the thoughts aside. He was told that if any of these thoughts
occurred in bed, he should remind himself that they had already been dealt with and that
there was no need to think about them further. Phase four introduced articulatory suppres-
sion. The translator was instructed that, if he had any intrusive thoughts, to control the
thoughts by repeating the syllable ‘the’ to himself, pacing it in a non-regular manner. The
advantage of using the neutral syllable ‘the’ is that it does not lead anywhere. There is no
likelihood that the wakeful victim will be led into further disrupting thought streams.
At the end of this phase the psychologists then analysed the sleep diaries. They found that
although there was some improvement in sleep onset, the main effect seemed to be in terms
of number of awakenings. The translator reported significantly fewer awakenings as com-
pared to his baseline measure for phases two, three, and four, which showed no difference.
This suggested that articulatory suppression was no more effective in maintaining sleep
than muscular relaxation or forward planning. However, further analyses showed that there
seemed to be an interaction: forward control seemed more effective in promoting shorter
sleep onset, whereas articulatory suppression seemed more effective in lengthening sleep
maintenance. Interestingly, these analyses were confirmed by the translator’s own observa-
tions. When asked, he said that of the four treatment methods he found forward control
most effective for getting to sleep; when asked which of the four treatments he found most
effective for sleep maintenance, he cited articulatory suppression.
The psychologists explained why articulatory suppression was more effective in sleep
maintenance in terms of the difference in the quality of intrusive thoughts. Intrusive
thoughts that occur in the middle of the night, during awakenings, are likely to be less
coherent than those that disturb sleep onset. This is in part because they occur in a state of
drowsiness and greater physical relaxation than those thoughts that intrude before sleep. As
such, these thoughts would not demand much attention from the central executive, as they
are less focused and less goal-oriented. Because of this, thoughts that occur during awaken-
ings are more likely to be susceptible to the effects of interference from articulatory suppres-
sion, in that suppression acts to remove the thoughts from the speech buffer, without placing
any extra cognitive load on the person.

It was clear that the treatment devised by the psychologists was useful to the translator.
While he had already been aware of sleep hygiene and also had some knowledge of progres-
sive muscular relaxation, he did find that forward planning and articulatory suppression
were useful tools. Importantly, the psychologists were able to establish that articulatory
suppression provided at least a beneficial, incremental solution to the problems of insom-
nia. This single case study led to further sleep clinics, where people were instructed in the
use of the four treatment phases. Advertisements in local papers invited people experienc-
ing insomnia to take part in experimental treatment sessions. The same procedures were
used that had been used with the translator. However, this was done on a group basis, ena-
bling the participants to discuss their responses and compare notes for the benefit of the
psychologists. The principal advantage of this approach, in terms of methodology, was that
it enabled the investigators to eliminate any effects of the order of treatment. The final con-
clusion of the study was that articulatory suppression, by interrupting the unwanted cycle
of thoughts typical of insomnia, offers the promise of an effective treatment.
Additional reading
Arkowitz, A. and Lillienfield, S. (2006) Psychotherapy on trial. Scientific American April.
This article explores the empirically supported therapies (ESTs) and reviews criticisms of the approach,
including questions regarding the soundness of the research, the absence of treatment plans based
on individual needs, and the preference of symptom reduction over treatment of dispositions and
vulnerabilities.
Seligman, M.E.P. (2002) Authentic Happiness. Free Press, New York, NY.
This influential book by a well-known theorist is an excellent example of the new positive approach to
mental health.
Teasdale, J. and Barnard, P.J. (1993) Affect Cognition and Change. Erlbaum, Hove.
This pioneering book offers an integrated framework for the application of cognitive principles to the
understanding of mental illness.
Williams, J.M.G., Watts, F., MacLeod, C., and Matthews, A. (1997) Cognitive Psychology and
Emotional Disorders. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
This is a very popular text highlighting major issues in the practical application of cognitive concepts
to emotional problems.
www.ModernPsychoanalysis.org
This website is a very useful source for recent articles on psychoanalysis, professional questions, and
education.
Questions
Scenario one
1. What evidence do you think the working party should have considered, but failed to do so? Topics
include collateral information, historical accuracy of therapy accounts, and validity of retrospective
accounts; subjective biases in research.
2. To what extent should psychologists be used to give expert evidence on recovered memories?
Topics include equivocal nature of psychological data, nature of expert evidence, biases introduced
by the inquisitorial system.
Scenario two
1. What are the advantages of using a psychological approach to the problem, rather than a biological
approach? Topics include psychological theory in applied work; generalization of treatment
effects.
2. What would be the advantages of combining a biological approach with a psychological one? Topics
include holistic approaches, intensity and time course of treatment effects, outcome measures.
9 The sport room
Here we introduce the sport room, in which we consider how psychology has been
applied to one of the most essential, and least-studied, aspects of human behaviour:
our need for recreational, physical activities. The sport room combines many of the
topics and issues that we have already considered in earlier chapters. We discuss
some traditional distinctions between different classes of physical activity such as
exercise and fitness versus athletics and sporting game. We also consider some fac-
tors that determine how much and what type of physical activity we choose, and
when we choose to do it. We consider questions of motor control and the acquisition
of motor skills and we discuss more recent interests in the interaction between men-
tal and physical states. We identify the major themes that emerge in the modern
sport room, and highlight links between mainstream psychological theory, for exam-
ple in explaining complex skill learning. We also highlight the significance of the
social aspects of sport, and illustrate how important sport is for group bonding and
for developing social cooperation. The two scenarios in this chapter show how main-
stream psychological concepts have been appropriated to address common prob-
lems in the sport room. The first scenario shows how techniques developed to treat
phobias and other anxiety disorders have been modified to help performance anxi-
ety. The second scenario concerns how psychological techniques have been applied
successfully to problems of pain management in sporting injuries.
The importance of physical activity

Our enthusiasm for physical, recreational activities has been formally documented since the
time of the ancient Greeks, who held the unshakeable belief that a healthy body would lead
to a healthy mind. Since the Greeks had no doubt that the state of a person’s mind would be
reflected in the state of that person’s body, and vice versa, it is not surprising that psycho-
logical principles were at the core of their attempts to promote excellence in physical ability.
For example, they emphasized the importance of mental and emotional control in main-
taining a focused attitude. And they used the modern technique of imaging, by which ath-
letes were encouraged to imagine performing physical movements, in order to enhance
performance and skill. The ancient Greeks knew that if they wanted to promote health and
well-being in their athletes, they would need to incorporate mental—that is, psychological—
techniques into their training programmes.
202 9 THE SPORT ROOM
Such was the emphasis on a physically healthy body that the Greeks venerated their
athletes. Religious games, which combined athletic competition and festivities, were a
dominant feature of the culture. Tradition has it that the first Olympic games were held in
776 bc, and thereafter every four years at the important sanctuaries of Olympia and
Delphi. These sporting events—which of course led to our modern Olympic competi-
tions—were held in so much regard that the plebes, or common people, would celebrate
their athletes’ victories as their own personal victories, and be similarly crushed when
their athletes were defeated.
Other ancient civilizations also tied physical activity to religion. For example, the Olmec
society, one of the greatest ancient civilizations located in the region of Mexico’s Gulf
Coast, held formal, ritual ballgames as early as 600 bc. These early games were conducted
between two teams and played on a rectangular court with a rubber ball. We should point
out that Olmec’s ball games had more to do with pure ritual than with sport as we have
come to know it today. For example, the games required that a team player be sacrificed as
the penalty for losing!
Whereas it is obvious that much has changed since the time of these ancient civiliza-
tions, our need for recreational, physical activity has remained. Nor has our identification
and fascination with athletes waned. We live in modern societies where we are encour-
aged to take part in physical activity and exercise, and are encouraged to support our
athletes and teams in international and national sporting events. The situations and
circumstances under which psychologists study such phenomena is the domain of the
sport room.
Physical activity and science

The sport room provides opportunities to apply many of the mainstream psychological
theories and findings that we have discussed in earlier chapters. Yet, we note that the sport
room is not regarded as an important area of study in many general psychology textbooks
(the same could be said of the war room!). For example, topics relevant to the sport room
are often restricted to a few pages, and under the more general heading of health psychol-
ogy; for example, the benefits of keeping fit on mental health.
Some psychologists feel that little is gained by integrating topics in the sport room
with those of mainstream psychology. They argue instead that the sport room better
belongs under the rubric of a sport science. Sport science would combine a number of
different disciplines, including medicine, physiology, and psychology. For example,
sport scientists would study functional anatomy and biomechanics of sport perfor-
mance, such as the analysis of specific muscle groups that are used to perform certain
actions. Answers to psychological questions would be expected to address issues raised
by the other disciplines within sport science. For example, a psychologist working within
this sport science might be prompted to discover how our personality types affect
the kinds of physical activity in which we engage. This finding, in turn, would have has
serious implications for any medical treatments of cardiac patients that might involve
regular, supervised exercise.
The argument is that psychologists working under the rubric of a sport science should
develop theoretical questions specific to sport science. For example, general personality
THE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 203
Box 9.1 The legacy of the Greeks

The Olympic Games were reputedly modelled on a race run between Hercules and his brothers,
under the watchful eyes of the gods in the fields of Olympia. This led to the four-year tradition, or
Olympiad, where men from all over the Greek world competed for glory for their region, town, or
area. Athletes would train in a gymnasium, in the nude, where they would receive weeks of
specialized training. Women were forbidden attendance at the Games, not out of modesty or
prudery, but due to the fact that Olympia was dedicated to the honour of the ruler of the gods, Zeus,
and was therefore exclusive to men. The arts and sport were inextricably linked in the Games, with
poets dedicating work to the newly crowned winners, and sculptors creating statues to
commemorate the victors. One of the most interesting stories is how the marathon came to be
regarded as the pinnacle of the Olympiad events. It is alleged that in 490 bc a messenger, Phillippides,
ran without stopping the 41 km distance from the city of Marathon to Athens. He brought the news
that the Greeks had successfully defeated the Persians, in spite of the fact that the Persian had heavily
outnumbered the local forces. The dominance of Greece over her enemies was associated with the
marathon thereafter, and it was accorded the highest place at the ancient games. The games were
held for over 1100 years, although they were no given no historical significance until the late
nineteenth century, when a team of archaeologists from Germany unearthed the remains of the
ancient Olympian site.
theories that might be used to explain the effects of personality on choices of social tasks
would not be considered applicable; only theories that were developed exclusively to con-
sider tasks involving physical routines involving gross exercise would be relevant.
Advocates for this separatist approach also challenge the relevance of empirical investiga-
tions in sport psychology to psychology more generally. For example, many sport psychol-
ogy programmes are aimed at athletes of superior ability. These athletes, by virtue of the
amount of practice in which they engage and their degree of commitment, are qualitatively
different from the average person. Consequently, any empirical findings regarding the
effects of training programmes on physical skills are likely to be applicable only to these very
elite and not to the average person. This leads some psychologists to conclude that the
empirical answers emerging from the sport room do not inform general psychological the-
ory in any significant way.
Physical activity and psychology

While we can see the logic behind the above arguments, we do not agree. For one, many of
the major theoretical approaches of general psychology are already successfully applied to
the sport room. The behaviourist approach is adopted when basic principles of classical
conditioning are used to reduce anxiety before competition, as in progressive relaxation
(see ‘The treatment room’, Chapter 8, Scenario two). Social learning theories have been used
to explain how children and young people develop attitudes towards physical activity, and
physical fitness. They can also explain how cultural attitudes might be successfully modified,
through the use of advertisements and changes in school curricula.
Cognitive approaches are reflected in the use of establishing goal-oriented training
regimes, and breaking down skills learning into manageable component parts. For example,
the higher goal, serving an ace at tennis, can be broken down into smaller, more manage-
able parts, such as throwing the ball up. Athletes are encouraged to focus on the smaller
components until they can perform them with little effort and little variability. Once these
lower-level skills are mastered, the person can then build on them. Other techniques that
are borrowed from the cognitive approach identify the habitual way in which an athlete
perceives the environment, also known as perceptual type or perceptual bias. Our percep-
tual bias will determine what type of training is most effective. For example, some people
are vivid visual imagers, and can create, maintain, and even manipulate a visual picture in
their head or their mind’s eye. If you are a good visual imager, you are better using a train-
ing technique that has you imagine that you are performing some skill, in addition to phys-
ically practising the skill.
Differential psychology, or the study of individual differences, is also well represented.
For example, important questions in the sport room include how personality factors and
gender differences influence physical activity. One line of research has examined the extent
to which women who engage in competitive sports are oriented towards, or away from,
traditional feminine sex roles, as defined in standardized tests such as the BEM Sex Role
Inventory (1974). Thus, general psychological approaches are already underlying much of
what we examine in the sport room.
The psychological approach

Another reason for keeping the sport room under the general umbrella of psychology is that
the levels of description used in mainstream theories are exactly the same as those operating
in the sport room. Levels of description relate to the unit of analysis that we choose to exam-
ine and explain. Some authors use the terms molar and molecular, while others prefer
macro and micro. Molar or macro levels of explanation include discussions of societal or
cultural factors, as well as large-group factors. For example, examining the impact of organ-
izational policies on physical fitness by providing in-house gyms and sporting facilities is
looking at the molar level. Included here too could be the effects of smaller groups, such as
the effects of team morale on winning or losing in competition.
The molecular or micro level deals with the individual. We can discuss the individual as
a biological organism, and talk in terms of physical and neuronal models of motor skill and
proprioceptive feedback. For example, simulation of motor schema is one of the most excit-
ing areas of study in artificial intelligence and robotics, as in the case in the development of
‘intelligent’ robots. The molecular level is also represented by psychological theories, for
example those of Jean Piaget, a developmental psychologist. Piaget regarded the child’s suc-
cessful acquisition of primitive, early motor schemas, such as sucking the thumb, to be the
building blocks for all other schematic, mental representations of knowledge.
The sport room also addresses many of the core topics in psychology, such as how we
allocate our attention when we perform complicated tasks, what the effects of practice are
on our behaviour, and how our emotions and thoughts influence how we behave and per-
form. For example, the serious problem of aggressive behaviour in sport, and the hostility
that can erupt between team members, represents an important area of research, both theo-
retically as well as practically. For all these reasons, we consider that it is essential to house
the sport room in general, mainstream psychological theory and research.
TRADITIONAL TOPICS IN THE SPORT ROOM 205
Box 9.2 Traditional gender roles and other social constraints

One of the earliest social rules that we learn as children surrounds the differences in gender roles.
Gender is more than just being assigned male or female genitalia. Gender encompasses characteristic
psychological traits as well as behavioural patterns. For example, we expect little boys in our culture
to act in a particularly boisterous manner whereas we expect little girls to be more delicate and social
in their interactions. Men, in turn, are said to have difficulty in expressing how they feel, while women
traditionally express themselves. Developmental psychologists suggest that our knowledge of gender
emerges at roughly 4 or 5 years of age, where we are able to tell the difference between what
‘daddies do’ and what ‘mummies do’. In Western cultures, the gender roles that are traditionally
regarded as masculine are acquired sooner than those associated with traditional feminine roles. By
the time the child is 6 or 7, she will have gender constancy, be able to answer correctly the question
‘Will you be a girl when you grow up?’. This demonstrates that the child knows that her gender is
constant across development. Obviously, social ideologies and rituals largely determine gender roles
and traits. However, there are other influences. David Buss believes that men and women ‘have faced
different adaptive problems over human evolutionary history’ (1995, p. 164). There is also growing
evidence that physiological factors, such as hormonal differences, play a large part in gender
behaviour (Collaer and Hines 1995). Similarly, some studies have suggested that men and women
differ in brain development and have different brain structures dominant; for example, differences in
hemispheric lateralization (Springer and Deutsch 1998; see ‘The nature room’, Chapter 11).
Traditional topics in the sport room

Here we consider topics that have continued to dominate interest in the sport room. We first
define the different terms that are used, distinguishing sport from exercise and keep-fit activ-
ities, all of which are part of the general category of recreational physical activities. We use
empirical findings from studies looking at motor control to illustrate how explanations of
motor behaviour can be derived from mainstream hypotheses about attention and con-
sciousness. For example, we show how the notions of automatic and strategic processing
provide a description of the effects of practice. We also discuss the relationship between body
and mind, and consider the interaction between our physical states and our mental health.
Exercise
Most authors make a distinction between physical activity, exercise, and sport. Physical
activity is often defined as bodily movements that are produced by the skeletal muscles
which result in some energy being expended, and in which the person is voluntarily engaged.
This definition would include both running a 28-mile marathon and vacuuming the house!
In order to distinguish utilitarian activity, like vacuuming, from running the marathon,
psychologists further identify habitual physical activity, which is associated with other gen-
eral, leisure-time activities, such as going to the cinema.
Habitual physical activities include exercise and sport. Exercise is goal-oriented, struc-
tured, and planned. For example, we go to the gym in order to achieve something, be it a
better body or improved fitness. This is not restricted to the somewhat rarefied conditions
of a gymnasium. Even when we bicycle to work, we are still goal-oriented, although there is
an element of utility involved in cycling to work that is not apparent when we get on a
stationary bicycle in a gym. Exercise is structured, in that it generally involves us making
repetitive body movements, for instance lifting weights in sets of 10 lifts. Finally, exercise is
planned: we set aside time to go to the gym, or to go cycling.
Sport
In contrast, the term sport has a clear social component to its execution—some competitor
has to be present, somewhere. We note the definition provided by Stuart Biddle and Nanette
Mutrie, in their 1991 book, Psychology of Physical Activity and Exercise, where sport is ‘rule
governed, structured and competitive and involves gross motor movement characterized
by physical strategy, prowess and chance . . . ‘ (1991, p. 8). However, we modify this defini-
tion so as to include skilled motor movement that is practised.
Modern applications of psychology to the sport room can be traced back to the late nine-
teenth century and, in particular, to the work of Triplett, although he did not identify him-
self in any way as a sport psychologist. Triplett observed that cyclists produced faster times
when they were paced against either a machine or another cyclist. Triplett reasoned that the
pacing machine and the other cyclist provided an incentive to the athlete, the incentive to
win. Thus, the presence of another sparked a competitive drive that in turn resulted in better
performance. The beneficial effect that spectators, audiences, and other competitors can
have on performance is known as social facilitation.
Whereas there are a few notable exceptions, such as Coleman Griffith’s early work in the
USA in the late 1920s and early 1930s, psychologists in North America and Europe showed
little interest in the sport room until the late 1960s. This was in direct contrast to the Soviet
Union, where formal research was initiated after the end of the Second World War, in such
places as the Research Institute of Physical Culture, Leningrad. In fact, many authors suggest
Box 9.3 Personality and sport

The relationship between personality and habitual physical activity has become an important subject
of research. For example, why is it that some of us can adhere dedicatedly to an exercise regime,
while others of us fail after only a few weeks? Such questions have been addressed through concepts
like self-motivation (see Dishman 1982). While the findings have been mixed, there does seem to be
some relationship between people who are high in self-motivation and adherence to a long-term
exercise regime. This would support the belief that there is a type of person who is more likely to
maintain a habit of physical activity. Maehr and Braskamp (1986) have developed what they call
personal investment theory to explain individual differences in adherence and drop-out rates for
physical exercise. Personal investment theory combines elements that are familiar in mainstream
psychological work. For example, physical activities and exercise are said to have some personal
meaning to us. Our choice of physical activity, be it judo or Pilates, football or tennis, illustrates things
about us. This includes our personal incentives or what we hope to gain, our sense of self, or who we
believe we are. The choice also reflects our perceptions about our own limitations. More recent
research has highlighted the importance of intrinsic motivation—a concept we discussed in ‘The work
room’ (Chapter 6)—in promoting exercise adherence (Ryan et al. 1997).
SKILLS ACQUISITION 207
that the USA and Europe were relative latecomers in realizing the relationship between
mental well-being and physical activity.
Skills acquisition
We include here the topics of motor learning, or how we learn to perform sequences of
actions, and motor control, or how we make progressive improvements in performing these
sequences. The theories developed to address these questions rely heavily on distinctions
that we have made already regarding levels of consciousness and different types of process-
ing. First we define what we mean by skill.
As the name implies, skill represents something more than just an ability to perform a
sequence of physical actions. Fortunately, there has been extensive discussion of how skill
should be defined and, to this end, we can refer to any number of definitions that have been
provided. An often-quoted, early definition is provided by Guthrie: ‘[skill is] the ability to
bring about some end result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of energy, or of
time and energy’ (1952, p. 92). Guthrie’s definition focuses on three particular aspects of
skill: that it has an identifiable outcome, that it requires minimal energy, and that it requires
a minimal expenditure of time.
Sir Frederic Bartlett emphasized the relaxed nature of a skilled performance: ‘What is
impressive is the absence of any appearance of hurrying in [performing the constituent
movements]. . . . There is not jerkiness or snatching, no obvious racing to catch up on one
part and forced sauntering to make up in another’ (1947, p. 72). Bartlett, too, stresses the
effortless nature of a skilled performance. A more recent definition provided by Sharp in
1992 focuses on more cognitive features, such as the fact that skills are goal-directed and
that they are the product of information processing that combines input from the nervous
system and the kinaesthetic system.
Varieties of skill
Psychologists also make distinctions between closed skills and open skills. The distinction is
based on a number of features, including the predictability of the environment. With closed
skills, the environmental features are relatively constant and do not change dramatically.
Examples of closed skills include diving, gymnastics, and putting the shot. In contrast, open
skills have environments that are unpredictable and changing, such as ball sports like foot-
ball or rugby.
Other features are used to distinguish closed and open skills, such as the nature and role
of feedback in improving skill. For example, a closed skill such as diving is largely concerned
with knowledge of performance. Knowledge of performance is information about how the
dive was conducted; for example, what position the diver’s hands were in at the time of
contact with the water. In contrast, in an open skill like tennis, knowledge of outcome is also
vital. Knowledge of outcome includes such information as where the ball landed, or the
speed at which the player served the ball to his or her opponent.
Of course, once we start to examine the different sports, we can see that there are many
ways in which sports can differ, and that the differences between closed and open skills are
complicated. Take, for example, playing football. Football does not only have an unpredict-
able environment; it is also performed under pressured conditions, where actions must
occur rapidly, and has a certain type of mental effort involved, such as requiring the athlete
to ‘read the game’ and patterns of play. In contrast, diving may be performed under tense
conditions, but the actions can be planned and executed at the pace of the performer and,
while there is undoubtedly mental effort and focusing of attention, the diver has no game
plan to consider.
Skilled performance
Some psychologists contend that there cannot ever be a single, all-encompassing definition
of skilled performance. For example, Abernethy et al. (1998) rightly point out why a uni-
form definition is unlikely. First, the characteristics that distinguish a skilled performance
from a less-skilled performance are not the same across different sports. For example, we
have already shown that an open skill, such as playing football, has different skilled compo-
nents than a closed skill, like diving. This means that being an expert in one requires a dif-
ferent set of skills than being an expert in the other. Second, perceptual motor skill is very
context-specific, just as cognitive skill is context-specific. So, just because you are good at
remembering names does not mean that you are good at remembering people’s conversa-
tions. In the exact same way, just because you are good at cricket does not mean that you will
be good at playing baseball.
In fact, there seems to be very little transfer of skill from one sport to another, such that
an expert in one sport is likely to be at a beginner’s level of skill in another sport. This is true
even if the two sports share similar sub-components. For example, suppose you are an
expert tennis player; you would not expect to be at the same level of skill if someone asked
you for a game of badminton. As Abernethy et al. (1998) so neatly conclude, the most con-
sistent thing about skill is that it defies any attempts at providing a single definition outside
a highly constrained and specific context.
Motor learning
When we begin to learn motor movements we go through three distinct phases. Psychologists
who explain these phases in terms of information-processing approaches rely heavily on the
distinctions between levels of consciousness, and also distinctions in the nature of the
knowledge that underlies our performance.
The first phase has been described as the cognitive phase. Because the learner is new to the
task, they must first understand, learn, and then remember the goals of the activities, and
how to perform the actions. Generally, all efforts are highly intentional and deliberate, and
the learner relies on declarative knowledge. For example, the learner may use sub-vocal
reminders, such as ‘remember to throw the ball high enough over your head’. This early
phase is where more general warm-up effects occur and the extent of improvement in per-
formance is generally the greatest in this first phase.
The second phase is characterized as more of an associative phase, where the learner is
now concerned with improving performance, rather than acquiring the rudimentary skills.
MOTOR LEARNING 209
The knowledge base is now more procedural, in that the person knows how to do the skill.
Their knowledge about how to hold a racket may no longer be available as a verbal descrip-
tion, but rather is stored in some body memory, and can be recognized by body postures. In
the associative phase, the performer is focusing on improving performance in more subtle
ways. Some authors suggest that this phase can last for weeks or months. Improvements
made during this phase are less dramatic.
The third phase is the autonomous phase. This is characterized by the person being able
to perform the physical aspects of the task with little effort, to the extent that the perfor-
mance is automatic. At this phase, the performer can direct all attention away from the
actual motor components, and concentrate instead on other elements, such as artistic inter-
pretation of movement sequences in ice-skating.
The characteristics of skilled performance

Once acquired, our skilled behaviour shows certain characteristics. We refer back to
Bartlett’s description of the effortlessness of a skilled performance, the fluidity of the move-
ments. We consider this below, when we reintroduce the distinction between automatic
versus strategic processing (see Chapter 8, Scenario two).
Essentially, effortlessness comes from a combination of appropriate feedback schedules,
along with consistent and regular practice. First we consider the effects of feedback. Feedback
provides the performer with information about various aspects of their performance. The
general consensus is that feedback is a function of sensory information that is related to the
execution of movement(s). Feedback can be intrinsic or extrinsic to producing the movement.
Intrinsic feedback is what occurs when you actually perform an action, such as the sensations
you might have in your hand, arm and shoulder when you hit a ball with a tennis racket.
Extrinsic feedback is not contingent on producing the movement, but on its evaluation, such
as receiving comments from your coach on how you looked as you were completing your dive.
Psychologists highlight how feedback should be viewed in terms of quality, quantity, and
timing. Quality refers to the level of detail of the feedback, and this must be related to the
skill of the performer. For example, knowledge of performance, such as feedback on how to
do something is more important for the novice. Knowledge of performance influences tech-
nical aspects of skill, such as how well someone performs a gymnastic manoeuvre.
Knowledge of outcome, such as whether your feet were too close to the edge of the mat, is
better used after the novice has learned the rudimentary skill to perform the manoeuvre.
Quantity of feedback is essential how much—where you tell someone how poorly they per-
formed on all aspects of the manoeuvre, or whether you focus on one aspect at a time.
Timing is when the feedback is given. This varies depending on many things, but generally
it can be classified in terms of whether the feedback is given at the time the performer is
executing the action, such as split-times for runners, or at the end of the performance, such
as at the end of a dive.
Skill and practice

Explanations of how practice effects our performance reintroduce distinctions among levels
of consciousness. Here, we focus on the distinction between having to think about doing
something, or strategic processing, versus automatic processing, which requires a minimal

amount of our attention and mental energy. We have already considered this extensively in
‘The treatment room’, in our discussion of working memory (see Chapter 8, Scenario two).
One of the most elegant demonstrations of the effects of practice is discussed by McLeod
and colleagues (1985) in their work on the effects of practice in finely timed actions; for
example, hitting a ball with a wooden bat. McLeod et al. point out that one of the most adap-
tive things we do is time our actions to correspond to approaching objects. For example,
when we want to cross the road we wish to avoid collision with oncoming traffic, and we
time our movements so as to avoid collision. Alternatively, if we wish to pick up an object,
such as a cup, or make contact with another object, such as hitting a ball with a bat, we time
our actions so that we do collide with the object. As we see, McLeod et al.’s study of finely
timed actions has application to the real world in general, and an obvious application to the
sport room.
McLeod et al. reasoned that the manner in which we time our actions to coincide with
approaching objects is achieved through highly specific operations. They discuss this in
terms of information encapsulation, a concept that was first introduced by Fodor in his
1983 book, The Modularity of Mind. Very simply, Fodor argues that certain types of cogni-
tive process are unfazed by external influences, and these are processes that are informa-
tionally encapsulated. Information encapsulation means that some action can be performed
on the basis of highly specific input with virtually no recourse to general, cognitive compu-
tational resources.
Information encapsulation is very similar to the notions of automatic processing of
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) that we have discussed previously. Atkinson and Shiffrin
argued that when a connection, like the temporal association between a stimulus and a
response, is practised sufficiently, the processing that is required to generate the response
Box 9.4 Consciousness and psychological theory

The concept of consciousness has been one that has come and gone, and come again, into
prominence in psychological theories. Early psychologists, such as William James and John Watson,
were explicit in their rejection of the concept as a suitable topic of study. James believed that
consciousness was a non-entity, ‘a mere echo, the faint rumour left behind by the disappearing ‘soul’
upon the air of philosophy’ (1904, p. 477). Watson was less poetic: ‘The time seems to have come
when psychology must discard all references to consciousness’ (1913, p. 163). Indeed, even into the
1970s, psychologists seemed to feel that they had to defend consciousness as a construct worthy of
study. At that time psychologists did not see the need for a comprehensive theory of mental
processing to address consciousness (see Natsoulas 1978). Today, interest is focusing on how we
define consciousness. Lambie and Marcel (2002), for example, offer an analysis of consciousness that
puts at the centre the way in which we experience our own emotions rather than the way we
perceive the outside world. This is viewed from two levels: our direct subjective experience, namely
feeling the emotion, and our awareness of that experience. Similarly, developments in brain imaging
have extended the study of consciousness to entirely new levels, with findings suggesting that the
differential activation of certain brain centres is associated with different levels of our conscious
experience. In these days it would be unusual for modern general textbooks on psychology not to
have a major section devoted to the study of consciousness, if not entire chapters.
MOTOR LEARNING 211
when the stimulus is presented stops demanding general computational resources. In

essence, we do not need to think about executing the motor response, we behave as if the
action is second nature to us. For example, a skilled typist can translate the spoken word into
motor movements without any effort, such as when a secretary is typing a letter from dicta-
tion. This property of being automatic, of not requiring central executive resources, is effec-
tively what Fodor regards as information encapsulation.
McLeod et al. (1985) suggest that with extensive practice, motor skill becomes automatic,
or becomes informationally encapsulated. Admittedly, the suggestion that there is a link
between practice and automaticity, or information encapsulation, is not particularly novel.
However, what is novel in McLeod et al.’s work is how they chose to demonstrate that prac-
tice creates information encapsulation. Most other authors choose to examine the effects of
practice on motor skill in terms of attentional demands. A classic design used to this end is
the dual-task situation. In a dual-task situation, people are asked to perform two tasks
simultaneously. With extensive practice there is a noticeable decrease in the extent to which
the two tasks interfere with each other. Our example of the skilled typist is shows how, with
practice, two separate tasks can be performed without any interference. Other psychologists
have tried to explain the effects of practice on average speed, such as how fast it takes some-
one to execute the task with extensive practice.
What McLeod et al. did instead was to examine more specific characteristics of task per-
formance and, in particular, variability in producing the response. They argue that the effect
of practice is that a particular motor sequence becomes less variable, as assessed by the
standard deviation, or distribution, of the responses. The standard deviation indicates the
average deviation between each response. McLeod et al. demonstrated that with practice,
the standard deviation—the average difference between responses—becomes significantly
less.
Let us take a very simple example to illustrate. Suppose that we ask people to tap after they
hear a warning signal, such as a bell. Our behavioural measure is how soon after hearing the
bell that the person taps. We notice that over the first five times, the person taps quite vari-
ably. For example, the first tap is 850 ms (milliseconds) after the bell; the second tap is
600 ms; the third tap is 450 ms; the fourth tap is 700 ms; and the fifth tap is 250 ms. We can
see that over the five trials, the range of response times is large, between 250 and 800 m, and
that there is at least a 100 ms difference between the two closest response times. However,
after we give the person 100 more trials, the range in responses is considerably lower. When
we select another five trials, we see that the person’s range of response times is between 250
and 275 ms and that there is never more than a 75 ms difference between any two responses.
We can easily see that, after practice, the person has become less variable in the time it takes
them to respond to the bell. According to McLeod et al. this reduced temporal variability is
one of the significant results of extensive practice.
The relevance of this to finer sport performance is obvious. With practice, the process of
executing a motor response sequence is gradually taken over by more and more specific
automatic processes. In this way, practice frees the general mental resources, allowing the
athlete to focus on other aspects of their performance. So, once the tennis player has per-
fected the motor sequence responsible for a return volley, they can direct their mental effort
to executing a strategy of proactive, offensive manoeuvres, such as hitting from the front or
the back of the court.
Box 9.5 Technology and sports

Technology has long had a presence in the sport room. There are three general areas where
technology and sport coincide: equipment, health, and instruction. Technological advancements in
equipment include the manufacturing of new materials (e.g. for footballs, helmets) as well as
instruments for monitoring competitive performance. For example, instant replay enables referees to
review activities on the pitch or court, and allows for fairer judgements of otherwise questionable
situations, at least in principle. Considerable changes in technology have not made instant replays
look archaic, however, as is seen with radio frequency identification technology (or RFID). RFID
transmits the exact coordinates of the ball, the player, the speed, even the force of impact in games
such as rugby. Off the field, high-speed machines enable the athlete to know the exact trajectory,
direction, and speed of the ball (be it a golf ball or a volleyball) and support precise practising
regimes. Advances in nutrition have also changed the way in which athletes train. For example, sports
nutrition includes topics such as pre-event eating, training, and performance recovery, with athletes
now being able to access the ‘ABCs to get you started on the path to winning’ (www.sports_nutrition.
htm; www.jissn.com/articles). Technology has also made a huge impact on instruction. Virtual sports
simulators now exist with high-speed machine vision cameras that can track exact trajectories,
direction, and speeds, of golf balls to volleyballs. Even more impressive is the new state of the art
apparel being developed by researchers in the Netherlands (Haphic sports garment). This new
generation of apparel can sense all movements of the athlete. Areas of improvement are isolated
through vibrations, which help to improve posture, target key muscles groups and helps to maintain
speed and performance levels. Technology has even changed spectator experience: three-
dimensional technology is now being used to broadcast football and hockey, and allows the fan to
experience the sport in ways that previously have been unimaginable.
Thoughts, feelings, and sport

In this section we focus on the link between our mental and bodily states. The topics that are
relevant here have already been discussed in the context of other rooms. For example, we
will look at how the concept of motivation is central to a wide range of topics, from exercise
adherence to sport performance and training. We illustrate the strong relationship between
thoughts and performance; for example, in learned optimism. We also consider the effects
that emotions can have on performance, for example aggression and sport.
We started this chapter by reminding ourselves that the ancient Greeks believed in the
relationship between good mental attitudes and producing superior athletic performance.
Here we examine further how our mental and emotional states influence our physical per-
formance. We delay the discussion of the effects that negative emotions and thoughts can
have on performance until Scenario one (pp. 217–225), where we consider in detail the
effects of performance anxiety and how relaxation and other mental techniques are used to
combat it.
Motivation
The concept of motivation is one of the major themes throughout all of the rooms that we
have considered. Because of its complexity, motivation is difficult to define. For example,
THOUGHTS, FEELINGS, AND SPORT 213
motivation in some contexts refers to why we act in a particular way, for example why some
people turn to crime and others do not. We have already alluded to the strong possibility
that our personality, or individual differences, influences our choice of sport, for example
whether we like tennis or rowing. This definition of motivation is also useful when we con-
sider why some people partake in physical activity, such as exercise, and why other people
largely prefer to remain sedentary, and in some instances develop into couch potatoes who
have little interest in maintaining any regular form of physical activity. Another definition
of motivation is closer to that which we introduced in ‘The war room’ (Chapter 7), where we
considered the goal-directed nature of behaviour, and the application of energy—both
physical and mental—in achieving this goal. Regardless of the particular definition or theo-
retical explanation, motivation is a serious part of training and coaching.
One of the major problems in coaching and training is to motivate the athlete to perform.
Often, the athlete must ignore physical pain (see Scenario two, pp. 225–228), as well as other
distractions, such as family and social life. From this perspective, we are talking about moti-
vation as if it reflects the athlete’s willingness to engage in the physical sport—the extent to
which the athlete chooses to approach or avoid the situation. Added to this is some type of
intensity or amount: sometimes athletes are very willing and eager, others times they are
disinterested and detached.
Another way to consider motivation is developed from looking at what the person hopes
to achieve by participating in the sport. Some psychologists refer to this in terms of the per-
son’s goal orientation. Some people engage in the sport because they have the desire to learn
Box 9.6 Exercise and the health of a nation

One of the most pressing problems that confronts many Western, and Eastern European, societies
today is that people are taking less physical exercise as a matter of course in their everyday lives.
There is no question that our personal lives—relative to only 50 years ago—are more reliant on
machines and automated devices, such as cars, and our work lives have become more reliant on
automated devices that require little physical exertion on our part, such as computers and
workstations. As a consequence, we are now experiencing, at unprecedented levels, health problems
that are directly related to our lack of physical exercise, such as obesity. These health problems are
costly, regardless of the public or private nature of healthcare. People take days off sick when they
have health problems and this, in itself, introduces a huge financial burden to the national, regional,
and local economy. We have already discussed how psychologists have been useful in helping to
identify those people who commit to—and maintain—an exercise regime, and those who do not.
Equally important is the research that looks specifically at how exercise improves our overall health.
This has been formally addressed by the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) in its 1992
position statement. In this report, the ISSP clearly identify areas where research has consistently
shown how exercise benefits psychological functioning. For example, there is a positive relationship
between exercise and self-esteem, and there are increases in reports of positive mood following
exercise. Importantly, the positive effects of physical activity occur across all time periods of
development, from young adulthood to old age. Further, there are indications that physical activity is
associated with greater levels of energy in other domains of the person’s life, such as a person’s
economic productivity. From any government’s perspective, a fit population of citizens yields wealth
and prosperity.
and become more competent in their skill, and are less concerned with whether they win or
lose. These individuals are called task-oriented, as they are primarily concerned with becom-
ing competent in their skill. In contrast, other people participate in sport for the competitive
component—whether it be direct, as in a 1000 m race, or indirect, as in competition diving.
For these people, the reason they engage in the sport is that they want to win, to beat some-
one else. These people are called ego-involved. They are concerned with showing their supe-
rior competence relative to another. We can see how these concepts are related to those we
discussed in ‘The work room’ (Chapter 6), and ‘The treatment room’ (Chapter 8), regarding
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. For example, intrinsic motivation might be more tied to
task-oriented individuals, who are more concerned about personal development rather
than outcomes relative to others.
Other explanations of motivation focus on the social aspects of sport. Team sports offer
us the chance to involve ourselves with a group, and promote our feelings of belonging to
the group. As we have already discussed, when we feel we belong to a group, we can experi-
ence higher self-esteem. Equally, the group can offer us the possibility of social support in
times of emotional need or distress. For people who join in sport for the social interaction,
it is neither competence in skill nor achievement relative to another that is their motivation.
The motivation is to be with others, and even perhaps to have some fun.
A person’s motivation for engaging in sport has very serious implications for training
and coaching. For example, suppose someone is motivated to learn, to achieve a greater
competence in their skill. If the environment, and particularly the coaching and training
environment, fails to provide feedback that monitors and assesses changes and improve-
ments in performance, this person may become demoralized and demotivated. In contrast,
suppose that someone engages in the sporting activity because they want to have fun, or
because they enjoy being with other people. Too much emphasis on the outcome—such as
overtly demanding people to play to win—may defeat the purpose of engaging in the sport,
and result in the person withdrawing.
Thoughts and the body

One of the most interesting questions that has developed from studies in the sport room is
why some teams, and some individuals, seem to be winners, while others seem to be unable
to break their losing streak. This question is similar, in many ways, to the questions we
asked in ‘The treatment room’ (Chapter 8) regarding why some people never get depressed,
and some people regularly do. We have already considered this in terms of attributional
style and the development of learned helplessness, which was pioneered by Martin
Seligman in the 1970s. Presently, Seligman (1998) has developed the complementary
notion to learned helplessness, learned optimism. Because learned optimism is essentially
the opposite of learned helplessness, the explanatory style associated with optimism
reflects this. Positive attributions and evaluations are used to explain events that happen to
the individual, so that the person becomes optimistic in mood, and hence is in a better
mental framework for success.
For example, suppose that a team has lost its last two matches. There are a number of ways
in which the team might explain and try to understand what is underlying this recent
THOUGHTS AND THE BODY 215
Box 9.7 Mascots and other charms

Our irrational beliefs—like our rational ones—influence how we perform, particularly in competition.
One of the most peculiar, but endearing, rituals is the function that a mascot serves. While it may not
be immediately apparent, our use of mascots can be traced back to the ancient practice of invoking
spirits, or good luck, through charms and talismans. The charm, such as the tikis carried by the
Maoris, seemed to provide a supernatural advantage to the athlete. They would have the gods’
blessing, much in the same way that armies invoked divine support before going into battle.
Historians note that the use of charms, like talismans, declined dramatically by the seventeenth
century, largely due to the increased formalization of rules regarding sporting events. Nonetheless,
the remnants of our ancient beliefs in the importance of external forces is apparent, although not as
blatantly. For example, athletes often identify an article, or articles, of clothing that they believe are
lucky, such as a pair of shoes, a jersey, or an armband. The athlete may be genuinely disturbed, and
their performance affected, if they is prevented from wearing their lucky item. While the athlete is
aware, at some level, that the belief is irrational, they are nonetheless unable to relax. Teams use
mascots—which are generally animals—as a means of enthusing fans, who in turn motivate the team.
pattern. The team members could believe that their poor performance is due to the superior
abilities of their opponents; and that, they are, in effect, out of their league. Alternatively,
they could believe that their poor performance is due to the fact that they have been less
focused and need to practise together on certain aspects of the game. These different expla-
nations will yield different emotional reactions, which in turn will influence performance.
According to Seligman, the team’s explanatory style will determine whether it successfully
wins its upcoming game. Seligman believes that the psychologist can teach individuals and
teams to change their explanations, which will teach them to change their mood.
Cognitive skills
Cognitive psychology has been very successfully applied to the sport room, and no other
place demonstrates this as well as in the application of mental skills in training and coach-
ing. In their 1998 chapter, ‘Mental skills training in sport’, Daniel Gould and Nicole
Darmarjian provide an excellent review of the general area of mental skills in training. They
cite data from studies where elite athletes and coaches were asked to rate how important
different mental skills are in promoting good performance. Mental skills included those that
were performance-related as well as non-performance-related. Examples of performance-
related skills are arousal regulation, where athletes are instructed how to control their
arousal so that they are neither under- nor over-aroused. Another example of performance-
related skills is the control of concentration and attention, where the athlete is taught how
to focus on a single goal, or aspect of their performance, without any distraction. This type
of mental strategy requires the athlete to learn how to silence unrelated thought; for exam-
ple, how to inhibit disturbing thoughts from the articulatory loop in working memory (see
Chapter 8, pp. 196–197). Non-performance-related skills include interpersonal skills and
communication, and conflict management such as when there are disputes between team
members or athletes and coaching staff.
Box 9.8 Arousal and the elusive happy medium

One of the first findings that psychology students are taught is the relationship between arousal levels
and performance. One of the earliest theories used to explain the effects that arousal level has on our
ability to execute a task is the Yerkes–Dodson Inverted U Theory of Arousal (Yerkes and Dodson
1908). This theory is very simplistic, and asserts that levels of arousal are associated with different
levels of performance. At low levels of arousal, performance is sub-average, since the person is not
sufficiently driven to achieve. However, at extremely high levels of arousal, the person similarly
performs poorly, but this time because their arousal levels are too high, and interfere with the
execution of action. Ideally, the athlete should strive to reach moderate levels of arousal, where they
are sufficiently energized but not so aroused so as to disrupt performance. This inverted U concept—
where too low and too high are suboptimal—has not been supported in subsequent studies.
However, it fits with our phenomenal experience in that, if we are too anxious or too aroused, we do
not perform well.
Gould and Darmarjian (1998) review studies showing that athletes and coaches give
similar ratings. According to the empirical research, both groups rate performance-related
mental skills as far more important than non-performance-related skills. For example,
visualization—where the athlete is required to imagine performing actions—and attention-
focusing are rated as among the most important skills. Stress management and relaxation,
both of which will be discussed in detail in Scenario one, below, are also highly rated by
both. When similar studies have been conducted with sport psychologists, the findings are
similar. Performance-related skills are always rated as more important, with visualization
and stress management being rated as highly valuable.
However, studies that have looked at youth sport coaches and administrators have shown
that these groups rate non-performance measures as more important than do elite athletes
and coaches. So, for example, youth sport coaches rate communication with team members
as more important than visualization techniques. The reason for the difference in ratings
may be due to differences in the perceived motivation for engaging in sport. For elite ath-
letes and coaches, motivations are likely to reflect desires to win, or personal excellence,
particularly given the financial gains that can be accrued. In contrast, youth coaches and
administrators are far more likely to appreciate the other benefits of sport, including
improvement in interpersonal skills and general problem-solving resources.
Summary and prospect

We have considered some of the more traditional topics that are found in the sport room.
In particular, we highlight the fact that many of the concepts that we considered were ones
that have been already introduced. These main themes include how we learn, how our
behaviour is influenced by our motivation, and how our thoughts and beliefs influence the
way we perform. We have argued that because the sport room provides the context for dis-
cussing many of the important, mainstream theories in psychology, the sport room is one
of the most enriched environments in which a psychologist can operate.
The sport room has been an essential part of human society for millennia. However, our
modern societies have resulted in significant changes in our normal levels of physical
activity, and, for some of us, these changes have been deleterious to our general physical
health. Because of the obvious consequences that lifestyle choices have on the public as a
whole, we believe that the sport room is going to continue to grow into a highly popular
context in which to apply psychological theories. For example, the significant increase in
childhood obesity is likely to prompt further research into the influence that individual
differences have on our changing attitudes towards physical, recreational activities. It is
also likely to promote research that examines more seriously how to best change the atti-
tudes of a whole generation of people, so that, like the ancient Greeks, we have a nation of
healthy minds and bodies.
We also note that, historically, the physical superiority of a nation can be used as a tool
for asserting the superiority of a political ideology. Those nations who dominate and excel
in physical competitions are somehow regarded as the ideal to which lesser nations should
aspire. Because so much is at stake, the use of performance-enhancing drugs has become
more and more commonplace. This raises serious ethical questions regarding training
regimes as well as the use of drug enhancements, including the excessive use of vitamins
and artificially developed performance enhancements. Psychologists must take some
responsibility in addressing such issues and directing any debates surrounding their
discussion.

The following two scenarios highlight problems in the modern sport room that psycholo-
gists regularly assist in solving. The first scenario focuses on the problem of performance
anxiety in athletes, particularly in the context of competitive sporting events. The scenario
shows how techniques used in the treatment of phobias and anxiety related disorders have
been easily applied to help athletes overcome setbacks in confidence. Our second scenario
illustrates the use of psychological techniques, such as mental re-evaluation and focusing, in
the context of pain management and injury. Pain management requires a multi-level
approach, primarily because our experience of pain is highly complex. While there is an
obvious physical component there is also an equally powerful psychological and subjective
component. Rehabilitation techniques must focus on both components to be successful and
the scenario amply demonstrates this.
Scenario one
Loss of confidence in a professional athlete
In this scenario we consider how psychological stress, physical strain, and poor perfor-
mance can undermine the will and ability of an athlete to compete. Many psychologists who
work in the context of the sport room believe that it is not the best athlete who will win a
competition, but rather the athlete who is the best prepared. Preparation can be thought of
in terms of physical and psychological levels. Obviously, the athlete must be physically pre-
pared and must have a certain level of fitness. This would include prior training, in order to
ensure appropriate strength and endurance, as well as physical condition on the day of the
competition. The characteristics of the athlete, including their general level of fitness, his-
tory of injury, and age, will influence the training programme. It is likely that most athletes
benefit from strength and power development. However, the nature of the sport will largely
determine the relative objectives and perceived value in being strong or fast. This stands to
reason, as the skills and abilities necessary to win in a 10,000 m race are different from those
that are necessary to win a 400 m hurdle race. What is very interesting, however, is that
prejudices exist and some myths have been built up surrounding the benefits or disadvan-
tages of different types of training. For example, some athletes believe that overemphasizing
strength will result in a loss of speed, in spite of the fact that there is no empirical evidence
to support this belief.
In parallel with one’s physical state, an athlete must be prepared psychologically. This
mental preparation can take many forms. Part of mental preparation is directing attention
and mental resources appropriately. The athlete must be sufficiently flexible so that they can
direct their attention to consider factors that are important, but not so flexible for irrelevan-
cies to get in the way of performing. So, a tennis player may need to be able to note certain
external features, like the pattern of mistakes that her opponent is showing, but not be dis-
tracted by other external features, such as crowd noises. Similarly, the athlete must be suf-
ficiently focused so that she attends to that which is most important at the moment, but not
be so focused so that she ignores other critical signals. Again, we use our tennis player as an
example. We would want her to be able to attend to features of her performance that are
immediately relevant, such as returning a volley, but not be so focused so that she fails to
notice that her opponent has changed positions on the court.
One of the most essential ways in which an athlete prepares for competition is through
his or her ability to control nervousness and tension. Competition is always going to be a
stressful situation and it would be unnatural if an athlete did not experience some nerves.
Indeed, we have already argued that some theories of arousal, such as the Yerkes–Dodson
theory (see Box 9.8), require a moderate level of arousal in order for an athlete to produce
a good performance. However, sometimes an athlete’s anxiety levels increase so much that
their thoughts and emotional reactions start to focus on failure. The ultimate consequence
of this is that the athlete underachieves. Their underachievement in performance in turn
reinforces negative thoughts and emotions regarding self-ability, and the athlete can
become locked in an iterative cycle of negative thoughts, feelings, lowered motivation, and
poor performance.
In this scenario, we describe this very situation. A highly accomplished female athlete,
Xena, entered a very important international sporting event. She currently held the world
record for the two track events in which she would be competing. Xena was in excellent
physical condition and had not had any injuries. Her practice times were very good and she
was consistent in her form and speed. Importantly, the competition was not particularly
difficult. The only other athlete who could possibly challenge Xena was not competing as she
had failed a recent drugs test and was disallowed. This meant that Xena was the highest-
ranked athlete who was competing, and expected to win both of her events without too
much effort.
Xena’s coach knew that this competition was critical in Xena’s career, and that the finan-
cial consequences for her could be lucrative. The coach did not want to press Xena too
much, as this might cause her some unnecessary concern, and yet he saw no reason why he
should not encourage her to ‘win, win, win!’ The media shared her coach’s enthusiasm.
Everyone, from the crowd to the presenters and her coach assumed that Xena would emerge
victorious.
At the start of the first event, the weather was unusually hot, and there had been two inci-
dents of unruly and rude crowd behaviour, which disturbed most of the competitors,
including Xena. Whereas Xena made a good start to her race, something seemed to happen
suddenly and she stumbled. Xena managed to prevent herself from falling, but she was
unable to regain her stride. Minutes later, she appeared to pull a muscle and collapsed in a
heap, in tears and in pain. She seemed to be unable physically to raise herself from the
ground, and she had to be helped by two onlookers. Xena was devastated by her failure to
finish the race. However, Xena decided that she had regained enough composure and con-
fidence to compete in the second event. Shortly after beginning of the second race, Xena
stopped and again failed to complete the race.
While some people in the crowd were sympathetic, others were not and felt that Xena had
let them down. Similarly many of the media presenters felt that Xena should have tried to
finish the second event. Xena’s coach was particularly concerned that her failure to com-
plete two races would not only result in a blow to Xena’s performance later that season, but
also have dire financial consequences. Xena began to complain of general feelings of anxiety
and despair, and these symptoms persisted for a few weeks, and prevented Xena from train-
ing. In fact, every time that Xena even imagined competing, she began to experience extreme
feelings of anxiety and fear, including breathlessness and rapid, pounding heart beats. Both
Xena and her coach agreed that she should enlist the support of a psychologist.
Her coach contacted a governing body for psychologists and they were recommended a
psychologist. This psychologist had a mixture of backgrounds and experience with different
methods of study. The psychologist had experience in mental health settings, in hospitals,
and was also an expert in behavioural techniques used to address general anxiety disorders.

The situation could potentially result in serious consequences, as Xena was a professional
athlete, and her career would necessarily be damaged should she be unable to compete. Both
Xena and her coach felt that she was would be able to regain her confidence, but needed
some psychological techniques that she could use, and which importantly would show
results sooner rather than later. This meant that whatever type of psychological input they
might receive, it had to be one that demonstrated its effectiveness over the short term, and
could be used again was the problem to re-emerge.

Both Xena and her coach wanted the psychologist to identify the problem and, more impor-
tantly, provide them with a way of fixing the problem. As time was short, they also wanted
no more than five or six sessions with the psychologist. It is clear that the objectives of Xena
and her coach were action-oriented (see Chapter 8). Whereas Xena was interested in why
she was experiencing such a breakdown in her performance, she was more interested in cor-
recting her behaviour, rather than discovering any special insight into her personality. The
psychologist immediately recognized this and felt that the approach would be compatible
with the goals of treatment. It was agreed that Xena would be seen for six sessions, with a
view to better understanding what prompted her anxiety attacks and how she might best
control them.

The psychologist obviously needed to consider evidence regarding anxiety and its relation-
ship to behaviour. Anxiety can be defined as the subjective experience of mental apprehen-
sion that is accompanied by increased physiological symptoms that include emotional
feelings. The psychologist knew that anxiety affects all aspects of behaviour, from physical
agility to feelings and thoughts. For example, anxiety can be associated with changes in
mental abilities, such as a decreased ability in problem solving or an inability to concentrate.
This would be very deleterious to competition, as the athlete must be able to filter out all
irrelevant external and internal thoughts, feelings, and images.
Anxiety also has obvious effects on mood, like increases in feelings of agitation, or feel-
ings of fearfulness. Because of the close interaction between mood and physical agility,
increased negative mood is associated with tension and unnecessary muscular activity, such
as looking around at one’s competitors. Equally, anxiety has a strong effect on thoughts,
with the thoughts generally being intrusive, in that they are difficult to ignore as well as
unwanted and negative. Importantly, intrusive thoughts associated with anxiety are either
future-oriented or past-oriented, but they are rarely present-oriented. Future-oriented
thoughts are those that focus on the future, such as counterfactual thinking; ‘if, then . . .’. For
example, the athlete might be thinking, ‘if I don’t get a good start, then it will be difficult for
me to get into my stride . . .’. Past-oriented thoughts focus on a past event, such as ‘if I had
only trained more last week, I would not be feeling so nervous now . . .’. It is obvious that the
negative tone of these thoughts will impair the athlete’s performance: the athlete becomes
tenser with negative thoughts; this tension, in turn, serves to support the maintenance of
negative thoughts, and so on. Thus, an iterative cycle of mood-thought-mood becomes
established. There is another consequence to cognitive distortions such as these. Critically,
the athlete is distracted from the present, and cannot appropriately attend and monitor
those elements of the environment that are crucial for a good performance. This mental
distraction inevitably results in the athlete underachieving.
The psychologist knew that a large part of an athlete’s performance is mental preparation.
This includes concentration or focusing, visual imaging, arousal control, emotional control,
and positive self-talk (see Scenario two, below). All these were undoubtedly important to
consider. However, the psychologist suspected that the underlying problem was the result
of an inappropriate, negative association between some of the aspects of Xena’s mental
preparation—such as thoughts or images—and her overly aroused, emotional state, most
specifically her high levels of anxiety. Proponents of classic association theory have exten-
sively studied how an inappropriate association between an external event and an emo-
tional response might be modified. The psychologist was particularly interested in the work
done on counterconditioning, as it has been shown to be very effective in breaking inap-
propriate stimulus– response associations, especially when the person is suffering from
either a fear or anxiety response.
Counterconditioning finds its beginnings in the work of Mary Cover Jones (Jones 1924),
who was a student of the behaviourist John B. Watson. Jones worked with a young child
Box 9.9 Mood profiles and the elite athlete

Whereas it is intuitive that our mood will affect how well we perform, there have been systematic
studies that have tried to isolate the type of mood profile, or mood patterns, that are associated with
successful sport performance. The work that is cited most regularly is that of Morgan (1985), who
identified that successful athletes had more generally positive mental health than the average
person, and that a positive mental attitude was closely linked with positive outcomes in
performance. He developed what is known as the iceberg profile of mood states for successful
athletes. The effect is called this because of the way Morgan chose to depict the data on a graph,
and not for any more mysterious reason! Morgan compared athletes with people from the general
population on six mood states: tension, depression, anger, vigour, fatigue, and confusion. What he
found was that athletes scored lower on all measures, except for vigour, which they scored higher
than the general population (the higher scoring on vigour represents the peak of the iceberg). While
Morgan found support for his notions, later research has shown that not all successful athletes
conform to the iceberg profile.
who had an intense fear of rabbits. She first brought the child and the rabbit (then in a cage)
together in a room, while at the same time giving the child some sweets. The first encounter
was stressful for the child, and Jones kept the rabbit’s cage at a considerably distance from
the child. However, over a series of months, Jones would bring the cage slightly closer at
each encounter, all the while giving the child sweets. Eventually, the child was not only una-
fraid of the rabbit but wanted to pet and stroke the animal. This illustrated countercondi-
tioning: the once-feared stimulus, the rabbit, was reconditioned in the presence of a positive
stimulus, the sweets. Of course, Jones warned that this procedure needed to be done very
slowly, lest the child became fearful of the sweets!
The relevance of classic counterconditioning seemed obvious to the psychologist. Xena
had somehow developed an inappropriate association between with her anxiety and her
ability to compete. The psychologist would have to use techniques that broke the associa-
tion, so that Xena did not become anxious when thinking or imaging herself competing.
Importantly, such techniques suited Xena’s preference for taking an action-oriented
approach to her problem, rather than an insight-oriented approach. The techniques advo-
cated by the psychologist did not require Xena to explore any underlying, unconscious pro-
cesses that might be contributing to her current difficulties.
Related to this is the fact that current memories and thoughts will directly determine the
person’s current emotional state, which in turn serves to enhance the retrieval and recall of
mood congruent memories. This is a very robust experimental finding and is confirmed
through clinical observations as well. Mood-congruent effects are very debilitating, and can
affect the contents of working memory, misdirect attentional processes, and generally ham-
per the person’s motivation, interest, and activity level. There has been extensive theorizing
regarding the reiterative, negative cycle that can exist between thoughts (images and memo-
ries), mood, and physical states, as has been elegantly discussed by John Teasdale and Philip
Barnard in their book Affect and Cognition (1993). The psychologist was particularly inter-
ested in approaches similar to those taken by Teasdale and Barnard, as such multilevel mod-
els directly linked cognition, emotion, and bodily states, in an interactive manner.
The psychologist was also interested in reviewing the literature on personality style.
While it is virtually impossible to make any predictions about an athlete’s performance
from their personality type, the available research suggests that most professional athletes
are extroverts rather than introverts. This finding seems somewhat intuitive, given the con-
struct of extroversion–introversion. The argument is that introverts experience high levels
of arousal, and as a consequence they shy away from those activities that would promote
increases in their levels of arousal. As professional competition creates higher arousal levels
in all athletes, it is an event that in which introverts would be less inclined to participate
voluntarily, as they would find it physically and mentally uncomfortable and distressing.
However, personality type is not the only factor in determining an athlete’s success, and
there are some world-class athletes who are introverts. It may be that these athletes are suc-
cessful because they have developed adequate mechanisms for controlling any unwanted
increases in their arousal levels in sporting-competition environments. Taken together,
although the findings were equivocal, the psychologist still felt it important to consider
Xena’s more general personality traits in the context of standardized tests.

The psychologist asked Xena to first recount the conditions of the first event, including
external and internal factors. External factors would be the weather conditions, as well as
any comments made by other people. Internal factors would be whether Xena felt energetic,
what kinds of thoughts was she having, and so on. The psychologist realized that something
must have precipitated Xena’s reaction, and it was important to discover what that was.
The psychologist discovered that Xena had at first been task-oriented. She had not been
concerned about winning the competition. Instead, she had wanted to concentrate on her
performance, and stay focused on performing as well as she could. It became very clear to
the psychologist that Xena’s coach had been responsible for changing her focus away from
the task, and directed her to the outcome of the races. As a consequence, Xena became more
concerned about future events and, consequently, less focused on the race itself.
The psychologist knew that he would have to desensitize Xena, in that he needed to break
the association of her thoughts of competing with her feelings of anxiety. The psychologist
relied on the technique of systematic desensitization, as developed from classic association
theory. Systematic desensitization is based on the assumption that the person can relearn
how to associate a pleasant, relaxed state with a stimulus that previously was associated with
fear, anxiety, or panic. Slowly, and through systematic steps, the feared stimulus is intro-
duced, through what is known as an anxiety hierarchy. To establish an anxiety hierarchy,
the client is asked to rate how frightening different stimuli are, on a scale from 0 to 100. For
example, if you are frightened of spiders, your anxiety hierarchy might consist of the follow-
ing: thinking about a spider, an anxiety rating of 5; holding a picture of a spider, rating of 10;
sitting beside a dead spider, rating of 30; having a spider walk on your arm, rating of 70;
having a spider crawl on your face, rating of 100. The psychologist introduces the lowest
level of the hierarchy and does not proceed until you are able to associate your relaxed state
with that stimulus. Again, from our example, we would first have you think about a spider;
once you were able to maintain your relaxed response, we would then ask you to hold a
picture of a spider, and so on. In this way, you would be reconditioned to experience a
relaxed response, rather than your phobic one.
Box 9.10 Personality, the brain, and sport

Hans Eysenck provided an interesting theory that seems well suited to account for the general finding
that most professional athletes are extroverts in nature (see Nideffer 1989). Eysenck, like Raymond
Cattell (1943), believed that the structure of personality could be described in terms of factors, or
features, that in combination produced individual behaviour, attitudes, and feelings. Based on his
study of 700 patients with neurotic disorders, Eysenck proposed three major personality
dimensions—neuroticism, extroversion, and psychoticism—which he measured in his general
personality test, the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). Whereas there is a huge literature on the EPI,
we focus only on the factors of extroversion and neuroticism, as these have been applied consistently
in the context of the sport room. Eysenck suggested that there is a physiological basis underlying
scores on the EPI. Specifically, he argued that people who are introverts experience higher average
(or chronic) levels of cortical activity than do extroverts. Further he argued that people who score
higher on neuroticism also have greater activity in the visceral brain—which includes those brain
centres associated with the evaluation of pain (see Scenario two). Taken together, Eysenck would
predict that successful athletes are likely to be extroverts and score low on neuroticism. This means
that these individuals would have lower arousal levels, suitable for the highly charged environment of
competition, and would have fewer physiological symptoms associated with injury and general stress,
which, again, would render them more suitable for competition.
The psychologist first established whether Xena had good mental, visual images, or
whether she preferred more verbal modes, such as thoughts. Xena had relied extensively on
her good ability to form and manipulate visual images in all of her professional training and
so the psychologist ensured that he described the anxiety hierarchy in terms of visual images.
The psychologist presented an anxiety hierarchy that involved Xena first imaging herself
looking at a calendar at the date of an upcoming competition. He deliberately selected an
action that he and Xena knew was easy, giving her not only incentive but also some practice
at the task of relaxation. The psychologist knew that it was essential that Xena’s performance
routines or rituals were included in the hierarchy. Performance rituals and routines are
those things that an athlete does before a competition, such as focusing on one’s lane, moni-
toring breathing, totally concentrating on the starting signal, and so on. These performance
routines are a critical component of any athlete’s performance, and they must be executed
almost automatically. The psychologist gradually developed images so that, at the peak of
the anxiety hierarchy, he had Xena imaging herself feeling the reaction of her muscles, and
her arm and leg movements as she reached the target of finishing the race. The psychologist
made sure that Xena could maintain a stable level of relaxation at each phase, before encour-
aging her to go to the next step in the hierarchy.
The psychologist also felt that Xena could use imagery to create a more positive view of
herself and her ability to perform. Psychologists working in the sport room distinguish
between different types, such as body rehearsal, mastery rehearsal, coping rehearsal, and
time projection. The psychologist had already incorporated body rehearsal in the anxiety
hierarchy: he had asked Xena to imagine how specific muscles felt at different points in a
race. The psychologist felt that emotive imagery would also be very useful. With emotive
imagery, the athlete is asked to imagine (or recall) scenes where she has felt pride, such as
the feelings of pride when some past goal had been achieved; for example, remembering a
Box 9.11 Learning how to relax

Most of us have a relatively intuitive understanding of why it is important for us to relax, although
there are huge individual differences in how successful we are in doing so. However, our inherent
ability to relax can become noticeably impaired after a stressful event(s). This is the same with
professional athletes. Psychologists typically rely on three types of relaxation methods: progressive
muscle relaxation (PMR), autogenic training, and biofeedback. PMR requires the person to learn how
to focus on individual muscle groups involved in the activity and, importantly, how to distinguish
between the build up and then release of tension. This technique is particularly useful in treating
pain (see Scenario two). Autogenic training involves the person using self-suggestions, focusing, and
positive imagery. Self-suggestions might be ‘I am feeling alright; nothing is wrong with me’. Focusing
requires the person to remove all negative thoughts from consciousness, and direct all attention to
the feeling of physical relaxation, such as focusing on sensations of warmth and physical solidity (see
Gendlin 1978). Positive mental images are those associated with pleasant, soothing reactions, such
as quiet parks, still lakes, and so on. Biofeedback is a technique that requires the person to learn
how to detect subtle changes in body functions, such as temperature adjustment, heart rate, and
breathing. This can be achieved through the use of electromyography or galvanic skin responses
(see Chapter 1, p. 4).
particular race where she reached a new personal best in her finishing time. The goal is to
evoke positive feelings that, in turn, support the athlete to maintain a positive self-view. This
technique is clearly based on one of the most robust findings from the experimental litera-
ture, mood congruent effects (see above).
The psychologist also decided that it would be helpful to determine Xena’s more general
personality traits; and asked her to complete the EPI (see Box 9.10). The psychologist hoped
that the scores on the EPI would help him to make more general suggestions about how
Xena might protect herself from any future occurrences of anxiety, and also how her overall
preparation for competition might be improved. Interestingly, Xena did not fit the
predicted profile for an athlete, as she scored high on introversion and neuroticism. The
psychologist felt that Xena probably needed to reconsider her preparation routines,
particularly in light of the fact that she had suffered such extreme anxiety reactions.
Box 9.12 Pavlov, dogs, and the idea of association

Classical conditioning, as developed by the Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, serves as one of the
earliest modern theories regarding how we learn. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS), such as food, elicits a reflexive, or unconditioned response (UCR), from an animal,
such as salivating. If we repeatedly pair the food with another neutral stimulus, say a light, the neutral
stimulus becomes associated to the UCS, so that, when we present just the light alone, the animal will
salivate. According to Pavlov, what has happened is that the association between the unconditioned
stimulus and the neutral stimulus is learned, so that the animal responds to the neutral stimulus as if it
was the food. Through conditioning, the once neutral stimulus becomes powerful enough to produce
the behaviour. In classical conditioning terms, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus
(CS) and the animal’s response becomes the conditioned response (CR).
While realizing that he might be treading on sensitive areas, the psychologist was also
concerned about the level of pressure that Xena was under, not only from the media and
general public, but also from her coach. The psychologist felt that Xena had been respond-
ing to unrealistic goals and that this needed to be addressed directly. The psychologist
believed that Xena needed to reframe her goals and use some cognitive restructuring to
regain a more balanced view of competing and the necessity to win. He felt that Xena had
problems acquiescing to her own fallibility, and found it very difficult to acknowledge that,
sometimes, even the greatest of athletes experience emotional trauma and performance
anxiety.

The use of systematic desensitization had its desired effect in that eight weeks after com-
mencing with her treatment, Xena successfully ran a marathon and came second. In gen-
eral, Xena felt that the psychologist had certainly helped her overcome her feelings of
performance anxiety and she was completely satisfied with that aspect of her treatment.
However, neither Xena nor her coach felt that the psychologist’s suggestions regarding her
preparation routines were useful. There were a number of reasons why they rejected the
psychologist’s advice. The main reason was that the psychologist based his suggestions on
Xena’s scoring high on introversion and neuroticism. While the psychologist had attempted
to explain the concepts clearly to both Xena and her coach, he had failed to rid both of them
of their layperson’s view of what introversion and neuroticism was. To them, Xena was not
neurotic and nor was she particularly shy or overly aroused. As such, the psychologist failed
to convince them of the need to re-examine Xena’s preparation routines. Further, Xena had
been a highly successful athlete and, apart from her recent bout of anxiety and panic attacks,
she had never failed to do well. Given that, neither Xena nor her coach felt that her prepara-
tion routines needed to be altered. The psychologist’s suggestions that Xena needed to
reconsider her goals, and put less pressure on herself, were similarly greeted with disdain,
and were ignored.
Scenario two
Pain control and the story of Chuck
In this scenario, we focus on pain and how we manage it. Not surprisingly, pain is a topic
that is well documented in the context of the sport room, as any time we exert ourselves
physically we increase the chances of suffering an injury—a sufficient condition albeit
not necessary condition for pain. The psychology of pain has fascinated researchers, and
this is not surprising: pain is something that we all feel, regardless of our nationality,
racial background, gender, or age. There is a general consensus that our ability to experi-
ence pain as a negative state is advantageous to our survival as a species. From an evolu-
tionary perspective, we have two complementary systems involving the central nervous
system that enable us to respond quickly to threatening or dangerous stimuli. The first is
the reflex system, which enables us to move away rapidly from any noxious and poten-
tially dangerous stimulus. Our reflexes are governed nociceptive neurons, which are sen-
sory neurons that transmit information regarding tissue damage (along with heat-sensitive
neurons). This information is then sent to interneurons, which in turn send information
to motor neurons. Motor neurons transmit a signal to the muscle which, once received,
enables action to be taken. For example, when we accidentally prick our finger with some-
thing sharp, we withdraw our hand without thinking. This is the action of our reflex sys-
tem. It is relatively local in that all this occurs without recourse to any information being
sent to our brain.
Second to the reflex system is the pain system. Nociceptive neurons transmit signals to
interneurons that project information up the spinal cord to the brain (or directly to cranial
nerves). Our brain is responsible for providing the emotional and motivational components
of pain. The hypothalamus and septum, as well as the amygdala, are all likely to be heavily
involved in the evaluative components of pain. Information to the amygdala can also arrive
via the thalamus, which provides basic information about sensory properties of stimuli—
sometimes called the sensory switchboard. Given we experience pain as a negative emo-
tional state, we use pain to learn important lessons about what is, and what is not, safe in our
environment. We form memories and use these memories to avoid similar experiences in
the future. Pain can also motivate us to take action, as when we change our body posture in
response to having the feeling of pins and needles in a leg we have sat on for too long. We
might also be motivated to solicit help if we are in enough pain, such as when we go to a
chiropractor or physiotherapist for acute or chronic back pain.
From what we have said, we might conclude that pain is the result of the activity of a
particular type of neuron—the nociceptive neuron—which itself requires some direct tissue
damage. However, things are not that simple. Even with substantial tissue damage, some
people will experience little pain, if any. Conversely, some people do feel pain even after
their physical injuries have healed. In the same way, surgical techniques used to control pain
by severing connections and pathways between neurons do not always work: sometimes the
pain returns. These findings serve to highlight the major role that our evaluative, psycho-
logical processes have in determining our experiences of pain.
Since there exists this imperfect relationship between neural activity and phenomenal
experience of pain, some theory was needed that could integrate the findings. Gate theory is
one such attempt. A very simplified version of gate theory suggests that nociceptive neurons
have synaptic connections with specific sites in the spinal cord, called T-cells. The activation
of a T-cell, as when the cell reaches threshold, results in our experiencing pain. However,
there is a gate which can block any signals from reaching the T-cell. Thus, even when a noci-
ceptive neuron has sufficient activation to excite the T-cell, if the gate is closed, we do not
experience pain. Only when the gate is open can the nociceptive neuron excite a T-cell. Not
surprisingly, gate theory postulates that brain processes can influence whether the gate is
closed or open. Presumably, this would explain why, under hypnosis, people are able to go
through otherwise painful operations without the use of any anaesthetics. Beliefs, such as
those imparted through hypnosis, prevent the gate from opening, and hence prevent the
person from experiencing any pain.
Without question, our experience of pain is the result of a variety of processes that inter-
act with each other. We need to consider the physical and biological components of pain
and injury. We need to question the mental and evaluative components that influence our
experience of pain, such as how we label a certain physical sensation as unpleasant or pain-
ful. Equally, we must have some idea of the social components behind our experience of
pain. We must remember that while pain reflects a universal human condition, how we feel
pain and how we express pain is influenced by our culture. The following scenario is a
wonderful illustration of how this multifactorial view of pain gets applied into the real
world when a psychologist is asked to help someone after an injury.
Chuck, aged 37, had recently divorced after 15 years of marriage. The break-up of his
marriage had been particularly acrimonious and there had been vigorous disputes over cus-
todial rights to his children. He had little enthusiasm or motivation, and was becoming
more of a social recluse; his work was suffering as well. Once separated from his wife and
family, Chuck got into some bad habits, such as eating fast foods, drinking two or three bot-
tles of wine most evenings, and smoking in excess of 20 cigarettes a day. As a consequence,
he was decidedly overweight and unfit. This had the unfortunate effect of making him more
depressed, and he experienced very low self-esteem and feelings of hopelessness and despair.
Chuck went to his doctor who diagnosed depression and stress. However, rather than pre-
scribing a drug treatment, the doctor was more interested in adopting a psychosocial model
for Chuck’s depression. The doctor first suggested that Chuck might wish to talk to a profes-
sional, such as a counsellor or clinical psychologist. However, Chuck’s experiences in mar-
riage counselling had soured him against any forms of talking therapy and he refused
categorically to take that course of action. The doctor decided that he and Chuck could
better approach the problem by finding something that would enhance Chuck’s self-esteem,
such as a hobby or leisure activity.
Chuck had a keen interest in sport as a younger man. In fact, he would have pursued a
professional career were it not for a serious injury to his right ankle during a football match.
Even though he had refrained from any sports for over 10 years, Chuck discussed the pos-
sibility of taking up sport again with his doctor, as part of his treatment for his depression.
To this end, Chuck joined a fitness club and put his name down on a squash ladder, where
each player would knock out another until only one champion remained.
Over the next 10 months, Chuck began to get some real enjoyment from his squash games
and became an accomplished player. He lost weight, and had more interest in keeping him-
self healthy. He noticed that the club was advertising for people to take part in a squash
competition held by fitness clubs across the region, where members of different clubs were
pitted against each other. Chuck decided that entering the competition would be another
way of improving his self-image and contribute to his growing self-esteem. He was highly
motivated, and was determined that nothing would stop him participating. Chuck began
working on a daily basis with a personal trainer from the fitness club. The trainer made a
number of suggestions about how Chuck could develop more stamina and strength through
weight training, and Chuck had followed the exercise regime meticulously. However, dur-
ing one session, Chuck turned on his right ankle and had a very bad sprain, tearing many
ligaments and muscles.
The doctor told Chuck that he would probably not be able to take any rigorous physical
exercise for at least 12 weeks. To make matters worse, the doctor said that the recovery from
the current sprain would probably be further delayed because of the previous, old injury. It
was highly likely that Chuck would need some form of physiotherapy in order to gain rela-
tively complete use of his right ankle and foot. The doctor was honest with Chuck that his
rehabilitation would be difficult, but was essential.
The time frame for Chuck’s enforced rest coincided with the squash tournament; how-
ever, he refused to succumb to his depression. Although he began to gain weight, Chuck
decided he had to maintain a positive approach to things and came to regard his upcoming
physiotherapy as a silver lining to the cloud. After six weeks, Chuck started physiotherapy,
but discovered that he was experiencing severe pain and began to dread going to the clinic
for his treatment sessions. Chuck began to worry that he would not be able to achieve the
complete recovery for which he had so hoped. Rather than wait until the situation became
unbearable, Chuck visited his doctor, and both agreed that, while he was not nearly as
depressed as he was some months ago, he did need to enlist some professional help. Once
again, the doctor suggested counselling, and once again Chuck refused categorically to
countenance the idea. The doctor suggested that an alternative might be to enlist the sup-
port of a psychologist who specialized in rehabilitation after injury; as it happened, the doc-
tor had details of one such psychologist, who worked with professional and amateur athletes.
Chuck contacted her and agreed to meet.

The client, Chuck, was having difficulty in dealing with his pain when completing his physi-
cal treatment protocol. This not only represented a daily, distressing situation. His overall,
general health, both physical and mental, relied on him being able to continue with his
rehabilitation. The link between his current physical state and his emotional state could
render him highly vulnerable to depression again. While the client was not in danger of any
serious mental-health problems at the moment, he was certainly becoming less able to deal
with the amount of stress surrounding his injury. Some specific measures to help him
needed to be in place relatively quickly, prior to his next treatment session.

At the initial meeting with the psychologist, Chuck was very clear about the type of help he
wanted. He knew that he was injured and he knew he needed to continue with his rehabilita-
tion. He was also very clear that he would only consider certain types of practical and effec-
tive ways of dealing with his pain. For example, he had no interest in any talking therapies.
For Chuck, the problem was that he was in considerable pain and he wanted practical ways
of managing it independently of others. The psychologist agreed that she would provide
Chuck with psychological techniques that could better equip him to cope with his pain.
During their initial meeting, the psychologist also was able to ask Chuck about vital infor-
mation about regarding his physical and mental history.
What concepts are relevant?

The psychologist first decided to adopt a version of the model of sports injury that had been
suggested by Andersen and Williams in 1988, in an effort to identify theoretical factors that
might be important. Andersen and Williams suggested that the occurrence of sports inju-
ries is a function of a core stress response, which itself is affected by the sport situation, his-
tory of stressors, personality, coping resources, and any interventions that might be
introduced. The psychologist adapted this model and decided that she would consider each
of the so-called precursor factors in turn.
One obvious consideration was the history of psychological stressors that the person has
experienced. For example, there has been a consistent finding that there is a positive associa-
tion between major life experiences, such as divorce or bereavement, and occurrence of
injury. This association is particularly noted in high-contact sports, like rugby or American
football, although the same relationship has been shown to exist in other sports as well.
Similarly, stressors in daily life, such as difficulties at work or with finances, can also place as
great a strain on the person as can their previous history of physical injury. This latter point,
namely whether the person has had a physical injury before, was of obvious relevance to
this case.
Another general class of factors that the psychologist would have to address was indi-
vidual differences. One of the most extensively studied is personality type. For example,
considerable research has looked at the effects that personality can have in predicting injury
occurrence. Unfortunately, the literature has been unable to provide unequivocal, reliable
demonstrations of the specific personality factors that mediate, and how those factors oper-
ate. To further complicate the situation, some psychologists have even suggested that differ-
ent types of injury, such as sprains versus broken bones, are likely to be associated with
different personality variables.
Researchers, using Cattell’s 16 PF (Personality Factor) Questionnaire, have shown that
scores on some factors are associated with injury occurrence. For example, athletes who are
tender-minded and reserved (factors I and A, respectively) are more prone to injury than
athletes who score closer to the tougher-minded and outgoing factors. This may be because
those who are reserved are perceived as weaker and more aggressively attacked by oppo-
nents. Self-esteem has also been implicated, with people who score lower on measures of
general self-esteem being more injury prone.
Personality type has also been extensively studied as a mediating variable in understand-
ing pain perception and pain threshold. Research suggests that people who are regarded as
high on neuroticism have greater tendency to experience anxiety and depression. Because
these people are more sensitive to changes in arousal levels and physical sensations, they are
more likely to report higher levels of pain discomfort. This seems to be the case in terms of
clinical observations as well as in experimental conditions. In the latter, administrations of
painful stimuli such as cold or heat are controlled and the person’s rated unpleasantness, or
so-called pain experience, is monitored. Under controlled circumstances, people who score
higher on neuroticism report more distress and can endure shorter periods of the unpleas-
ant stimuli. This suggests that people who have neurotic tendencies might overreact to an
injury and experience greater levels of discomfort and pain.
In contrast, people who can be described as having optimistic dispositions report less
pain. This optimistic type of explanatory style is generally associated with internal, stable,
and global attributions for positive outcomes and external, unstable, and specific attribu-
tions for negative outcomes (see Seligman’s book on learned optimism, 1998, for a detailed
account). Simply put, people who are optimistic about life—who see the glass as half full—
and who believe that they have some control over positive events and outcomes are less
likely to experience pain.
The psychologist also knew that the general beliefs that a person holds about treatment
influence the manner and extent to which that person feels pain. A classic demonstration of
the effects that beliefs can have on pain perception is known as the placebo effect. Placebos
are bogus treatments that have no medicinal value but are nonetheless thought by the
patient to be helpful. In an early study on the placebo effect, Henry Beecher, in 1959, showed
how powerful beliefs could be in regard to pain perception. Beecher gave either a placebo or
a morphine injection to patients with postoperative pain. Importantly, all the patients
believed that they were receiving a painkiller. Whereas more of the patients receiving the
morphine injection reported relief (67 per cent), over 40 per cent of the patients receiving
the placebo reported comparable levels of relief! Medical evidence has shown that the pla-
cebo effect can be even more dramatic, with some studies reporting that 100 per cent of the
participants given placebo treatments claim pain relief.
The psychologist also knew that there were important individual differences in the bio-
logical factors that influence and mediate the way that people experience pain. She was
aware of the research conducted by John-Kar Zubieta and colleagues in 2001, which was a
landmark study on the action of brain endorphins on pain perception. Endorphins are
internally produced analgesics that act in a similar fashion to opiates: they operate by
inhibiting the action of neurotransmitters that are involved in the transmission of pain
impulses from the spinal cord to the brain. What Zubieta and colleagues showed was how
this action takes place. Participants were given a painful injection and asked to rate their
perception of pain every 15 seconds. Prior to the injection, the participants were given a
radioactive form of an endorphin. Brain scans showed that the greatest endorphin activity
occurred within several brain areas, including the thalamus, the amygdala, and a sensory
area of the cortex. Both the thalamus and amygdala are important in the pain perception.
As the endorphins surged, participants reported a decrease in sensory and emotional expe-
riences of pain.
Another important finding reported by Zubieta et al. was that people differed in the pain
that they experienced, in spite of the fact that they had received exactly the same painful
stimulation. The differences in reported pain were associated with two factors. One was the
number of opioid receptors that were available for endorphins. Those people with fewer
opioid receptors reported more pain. Two, people differed in their ability to release their
own endorphins. Not surprisingly, people who produced higher levels of endorphins
reported less-painful experiences. Subsequent research has highlighted even further the
relationship between psychological and biological factors. For example, work conducted at
the Karolinska Institute in Sweden has shown that a positive belief about a placebo treat-
ment results in the brain releasing endorphins to reduce the pain. Such research served to
remind the psychologist that some aspects of pain perception would be biologically deter-
mined and that these factors needed to be kept in mind.
The psychologist was also aware that there were specific cognitive strategies that had
been used to deal with pain, and that these should be considered. Two types of strategy are
most often discussed, and these are referred to as dissociative and associative strategies. As
the name implies, dissociative strategies attempt to divert attention away from the painful
stimulus, and direct attention instead to aspects of the environment—either internal or
external—that are less arousing. A good example is the technique of pinching someone on
their hand just before they are to receive an injection. The pinch serves to distract them from
the pain of the injection. Alternatively, the act of focusing on a positive visual image can
serve to distract attention from the pain. In contrast, associative techniques require the
person to focus on the pain in a detached but interested manner, without recourse to any
evaluation of good or bad. The person would be asked to direct all focal attention to the
painful area, but consider it descriptively rather than evaluating its valence, for example
consider whether the pain is sharp or dull, rather than good or bad.
Motivational factors would also be critical to consider, and to this end the psychologist
relied on the discussions provided by Heil in his 1993 book, The Psychology of Sports Injury.
In his book, Heil stipulates the following as important: goal setting, relaxation, imagery,
Box 9.13 Pain, gender, and culture

Gender is a factor that continuously emerges as significant in influencing all aspects of human
behaviour. This is similarly true in the case of our experience of pain. There are differences, and the
differences usually indicate that women are more tolerant, have higher thresholds, and deal better
with pain than men do. The evidence for this comes from a variety of sources. For example, Professor
Mari Botti, Deakin University, Australia, reports on a study where she tested pain thresholds for
100 men and women who had undergone heart surgery (Botti 2004). The participants had to describe
the severity of their pain some three days after they had undergone surgery. From a physical point of
view, both men and women would be expected to have roughly the same levels of pain within the
first 24 hours after surgery. However, there were marked differences in the way that men and women
coped with their pain. On average, women needed lower doses of painkillers and took drugs to
relieve pain for a shorter period of time than did men. There are a number of explanations that can
account this difference. One explanation is that men and women have different perceptions of what
is painful. Women may simply have higher thresholds. Alternatively, it could be that men have
different ways of expressing their pain than do women; women may have more effective ways of
dealing with it. However, there are also important cultural differences. The experience of childbirth is
a good example. Whereas this event is generally regarded as a painful experience in Western cultures,
in other cultures some women show essentially no distress. Indeed, Kroeber (1948) noted that in
some cultures the man would get into bed and begin to groan as if in great pain, while the woman
calmly gave birth to the child.
positive self-talk, and social support. Goal setting is concerned with the treatment protocol,
and requires the person to set realistic, specific, and measurable goals, both in terms of the
short and longer term. These goals must be evaluated regularly and reviewed daily by the
injured person. Relaxation can be accomplished through PMR, autogenic training, and bio-
feedback (see Box 9.11). Body rehearsal is a type of imaging that is particularly useful in
overcoming pain. This, and the more detailed mastery imaging, first requires the person to
be given detailed information about the consequence of the internal injuries. In mastery
imaging, these detailed are highly graphic and the person is given extensive descriptions
regarding how specific muscles, tendons, and bones may actually look. After this, the person
is given equally detailed information about the rehabilitation process, and how this is affect-
ing the internal soft tissue, etc. The person is asked to imagine the rehabilitation process as
it might happen internally, and is always focused on a positive outcome of rehabilitation—
never setbacks or problems. Time projection is another technique that the psychologist
considered potentially useful. In this technique, the person is asked to imagine themselves
in the future, having them picture in their mind’s eye themselves in two or four weeks’ time.
This is based on the concept that positive thoughts and images will enhance the person’s
current mood state, and help to alleviate the painful experience.
Positive self-talk similarly relies on the relationship between cognition, emotions, and
physical states. Importantly, positive self-talk is about active problem solving: this requires
the person to consider various situations, or difficulties, and how they might overcome
them. This, too, reflects some form of cognitive restructuring, insofar as the person learns
how to replace negative, irrational thoughts and images, which are based on the current
experiences of pain, with positive action. This further serves to enhance the person’s feelings
of control, which is another aspect of pain management. The importance of an optimistic
explanatory style has already been noted. In this case, empowering the person, through
some cognitive restructuring and problem-solving methods, enables the person to fight
feelings of helplessness.
In addition to all individual factors, the social support system of the person has also been
identified as a mediating factor in pain perception and pain management. Generally, the
research has shown that people who are supported through a strong social network and who
are able to turn to others for advice, support, and help, report less suffering and manage pain
better than those people who are socially isolated. Social cohesion and social belonging are
also positively associated with pain management and the effect seems to occur for both men
and women.
While the psychologist had little difficulty in generating possible theoretical concepts that
might be important, she had some concerns over the limitations of the underlying model
that she was adopting. The model of sports injury that she was using was essential linear. She
was assuming that she could isolate the specific factors that might help her client and address
those through different techniques. However, the psychologist knew that recent trends in
psychology were suggesting that other explanatory frameworks might be more fruitful. One
such framework is called systems theory.
Systems theory has been advocated by a number of psychologists—among them Norbert
Weiner and more recently Robert Jervis—and represents a very different methodological
approach to the traditional methods associated with experimental psychology. The contrast
is best understood in terms of the classic Gestalt premise, that the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts. With traditional experimental psychology—and the theories associated with
it—psychologists control the environment in an effort to study separately the individual fac-
tors that make up a complex behaviour. Through statistical analyses, the different compo-
nents are reconstituted. Suppose we take a complex behaviour, like an athlete’s reaction to a
sport injury. We can divide this task into a number of different, independent factors, like the
type of sport, the athlete’s history of stressors, the athlete’s personality types, level of experi-
ence, and so on. Traditional, empirical methods examine the separate effects of these factors,
through controlled experiments. So, what we might do is to look at personality types, by ask-
ing the athlete to complete a standardized questionnaire and seeing how this might relate to
their reported experience of pain. Of course, in this experiment we would be controlling—or
ignoring—many of the other factors that would be expected to influence our athlete’s pain
perception, such as current levels of fatigue, recent life events, and so on. We would conduct
experiments for each of the factors believed to be important and then integrate our findings,
generally through our theoretical hypotheses. In this way, psychologists reduce the real world
to its constituent parts, and then somehow put all the parts back together again.
In contrast, a systems-theory approach suggests that there are emerging properties that
come from the interaction of all these factors—and these are not the same as combining the
factors. The whole does not equal the sum of its parts; the whole is something entirely differ-
ent altogether. Thus, according to systems theory, psychologists cannot put all the parts
back again—much in the same way as Humpty Dumpty! Certainly, personality type might
be associated with history of stressors. However, they combine in an entirely novel way once
placed in the context of the entire system. The psychologist knew that, from a systems-theory
approach, her attempt to explain her client’s perception of pain, and consequently her
attempts to alleviate it, might be misguided.
Box 9.14 Positive and negative feedback in the system

Because the emphasis is on the emerging, or emergent, properties of the system, the systems-theory
approach is less likely to predict how the system will act, and more likely to describe the relative
relationships amongst the various factors. Nonetheless, there are a few concepts on which there is
general consensus. For example, most theorists agree that the system—which in the case of human
beings means the person—is able to operate through two processes of feedback, negative feedback and
positive feedback. Negative feedback serves to keep the system stable, and is used to maintain the
current state. Generally, negative feedback involves minor but consistent adjustments. For example,
suppose we want to kick a ball in the direction of a goal post, between two points A and B. We use
negative feedback to keep the ball on its trajectory, such as making small adjustments for uneven
surfaces or objects that need to be avoided. Positive feedback serves to upset the system and introduces
change, by amplifying disturbances. For example, in response to an unforeseen challenge from our
opponent, we may kick the ball in the opposite direction to the one we had been pursuing. We may
overreact, though, and kick the ball too far away for our team mate to intercept. This unanticipated
consequence illustrates how positive feedback can result in an outcome that is not predictable from our
original action or intention. For a systems-theory perspective, a complex behaviour, like pain, is beyond
our scope to anticipate. All we can hope to achieve is a better understanding of those factors that are
important to address and how they might act relative to each other.

There were two general ways the psychologist felt that she could help Chuck. One was to
provide Chuck with information about his injury and his rehabilitation. The other was to
help with motivational aspects of his rehabilitation. Motivational components included set-
ting appropriate goals, imagery, and relaxation techniques, and positive self-talk, as in self
instructions for dealing with his pain during his rehabilitation treatment.
As a first step, the psychologist found out how much information the doctor had given
Chuck regarding the injury and the rehabilitation process. While the doctor had provided
Chuck with some information, the psychologist felt that Chuck would benefit from more
highly detailed information. To this end, the psychologist relied on a list of factors stipu-
lated by Heil in 1993 as being effective in promoting a comprehensive injury-management
programme, and provided Chuck with some injury guidelines. These included describing
the injured area anatomically, any changes caused by the injury, and differentiation of
benign pain from dangerous pain. These guidelines also included information about antici-
pated timetables for treatment and any plateaus in improvement, methods of assessing
readiness to play, and how to maintain and support the rehabilitation process so as to reduce
the possibility of a future occurrence of injury.
As a further support to the injury guidelines, the psychologist also suggested that Chuck
might need to speak to someone who is professionally trained as a counsellor, if his levels of
depression worsened. The psychologist took great care in explaining to Chuck that injury
and rehabilitation were emotional processes, and that it was essential that Chuck air his
negative feelings and views. While the psychologist was a good listener, and was prepared to
support Chuck to maintain a positive attitude during rehabilitation, she was concerned that
Chuck may have depressive tendencies. In the event that his depression became acute,
Chuck would be advised to see a professional who had the adequate experience or training
to support him in dealing directly with his depression.
The psychologist anticipated that motivational techniques would be very important in
helping Chuck manage his pain. This was particularly true, as it appeared that Chuck was an
independent type of person, who had little daily social support from others. The psycholo-
gist decided to focus particularly on positive-self talk, and developed a self-instruction
training to deal for Chuck’s visits to the clinic for treatment. The training involved four
phases. The first supported any negative thoughts or sensations that Chuck might have
before he went to the clinic. This could be called the preparation for the stressor, where the
stressor is the treatment. The psychologist suggested how Chuck might combat any negative
feelings or sensations with more positive thoughts on preparing for the treatment. For
example, any negative thinking could be replaced by a more positive, preparative thought:
‘In order to get better, I have to go through this’; or, ‘I know that this treatment isn’t going
to be easy, but I know I have to learn how to cope with it’. The next stage involved experienc-
ing the stressor, namely having the treatment. This stage was most likely to be the one asso-
ciated with pain, so it was important that Chuck focus on thoughts and feelings that were
associated with his well-being and relaxation. The psychologists reminded Chuck to restruc-
ture his evaluation of the pain, and consider the pain as something constructive to his reha-
bilitation process. She also encouraged him to create a positive, internal dialogue, where he
reminded himself that he was in control and to continue to take deep, relaxing breaths.
The psychologist taught Chuck the difference between dissociative and associative tech-
niques. She further suggested that Chuck might use dissociative techniques if his pain was
not too intense; for example, he could image a pleasant scene and distract himself away from
his pain. However, should his pain get too extreme, he was to use associative techniques; for
example, focus on the pain more objectively, as something that involved the stretching and
lengthening of certain tendons and ligaments.
The psychologist knew that, even with the best techniques possible, Chuck’s pain during
treatment might still be overwhelming. The psychologist provided Chuck with ways in which
he could encourage himself to keep his concentration and stay on track. She suggested that he
might first decide how great his pain was, on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 was as low as he had
ever felt, and 10 was as high as he had ever felt. In this way, Chuck could establish how painful
his experiences were in the context of the history of his injury. Next, he could tell himself that,
while the pain might be high, he had felt this bad before and importantly, has methods of deal-
ing with it, such as breathing deeply and relaxing his body by dropping his shoulders.
The final stage involved Chuck reflecting on what had happened during treatment and
how he dealt with his pain. The point here would be to allow Chuck to evaluate his efforts
objectively. This would mean identifying what did and did not work for him; and, associat-
ing any positive techniques to his own efforts and achievements. For example, if he remem-
bered that a particular dissociative technique was useful in reducing his pain perception, he
would note that for future use. This would enable Chuck to build up schematic memories of
positive techniques, and importantly, more specific memories in terms of when and how
the techniques were most successfully used. Equally, techniques that were unsuccessful
should be similarly evaluated, although the psychologist warned Chuck against being criti-
cal and negative about his failures. For example, if he was unable to use a breathing tech-
nique successfully, Chuck should examine what precisely went wrong, and how he could
learn from his unfruitful attempt.
The psychologist also felt that she needed to address Chuck’s emotional problems, and
the fact that his social support system may be contributing to the difficulties he was experi-
encing. In particular, she stressed how major life stressors, such as divorce, have a negative
influence on people’s experience of pain, and how important social support was in helping
the person to manage their pain. The psychologist suggested that Chuck might consider
going to a counsellor, even if for a short time, to make sure that he did not have unresolved,
underlying feelings that might be contributing to his overall stress levels.

Chuck was very happy with both the injury guidelines and the self-instruction techniques
that the psychologist had given him. He felt that he could get more control over his pain,
and also began to believe that he would regain full use of his ankle, and return to sport. He
decided that he would did not need any further help from the psychologist, and also felt
optimistic that even if he could not avoid another injury in the future, he certainly knew of
ways of dealing with any pain, and subsequent treatment he might need. He did not agree
with the psychologist’s suggestions about seeking counselling, and did not pursue that
course of action.
Additional reading
Psychology of Sport and Exercise.
This is the official journal of the European Federation of Sport Psychology, and contains many good
quality research articles and review papers on sport psychology.
Biddle, S. and Mutrie, N. (1991) Psychology of Physical Exercise and Activity: a Health-Related
Perspective. Springer-Verlag, London.
A good review of how and why people undertake difficult physical activities.
Elliott, B. and Mester, J. (eds) (1998) Training in Sport: Applying Sport Science. John Wiley & Sons,
Chichester.
This is a very useful collection of articles focusing on the important issues in sport and athletics.
Questions
Scenario one
1. Is it healthy to have the extensive public and media pressure on athletes to perform well in competi-
tion? Why? Topics include projection, identification, empowerment, self-care, need for role models.
2. Suppose there were a treatment that would enable you to erase all of Xena’s negative memories
about competing and completely eliminate her anxiety. Do you think this treatment is ethical?
Topics include social control, emotional processing of negative events, action-oriented versus
emotional-oriented strategies for coping with stress.
Scenario two
1. Do you think that the psychologist needed to address the underlying psychological problems that
Chuck was showing? Topics include psychic determinism, alleviation of symptoms, insight- versus
action-oriented therapies.
2. If there was a treatment that could offer a pain-free existence, would you advocate using the treat-
ment in all cases that someone had pain? Why? Topics include ethics of medical intervention, strate-
gies for coping with stress, social injustice.
10 The teaching room
This chapter introduces the ‘teaching room’, a class of real-world contexts that
arguably has the most extensive application of psychological theories of all the
rooms. The teaching room will require the reader to return to many theories and
concepts that have already been presented in other rooms and scenarios. We focus
our attention in this chapter on areas not yet fully addressed, such as theories regard-
ing teaching methods and learning environments. To this end, we review major
classes of theories of development, and consider how learning across one’s lifetime
now extends from in utero to advanced old age. We will repeatedly emphasize that
the teaching room, just like the war room, obliges us to consider the musings of
philosophers and ancient writers; thus we will devote some time to a discussion of
how ancient ideas have permeated modern thoughts and educational policies. We
stress that the importance placed on the acquisition of a formal education is not a
modern phenomenon. Quite the contrary, it is one that has existed since the time of
the earliest civilizations. We then consider the modern teaching room, and identify
some more current demands that are being placed on psychologists. The scenarios
reflect traditional aspects of the teaching room as well as the newly developed tech-
nologies and concepts that have revolutionized psychologists’ roles and skills.
Learning to be human
Homo sapiens sapiens gives birth to altricial young (so do rats, who have contributed
substantially to the development of the modern teaching room, as we shall see). The newly
born human is completely helpless and requires an extensive period of development before
adult-like traits and characteristic are observed. In contrast, other animals are precocial,
meaning that they are much more mobile and hence capable of fending for themselves very
soon after birth; they still rely on their parents, but to a much lesser extent than human
babies. Some birds, like ducks, are a good example, as well some ungulates, such as horses.
Then there are those species that are regarded as superprecocial, for example the Megapodes
(part of the Galiformes, a far-removed cousin of the turkey and grouse). These creatures can
perform adult skills, and do so with sufficient proficiency that they are independent at birth.
Compared with these superprecocial species, the young of humans are very limited in what
they can do at birth.
While some of the behaviours and skills of human newborns are innate, or ‘hard-wired’,
most of the behaviours that are necessary to ‘succeed’ in the human social world are learned
238 10 THE TEACHING ROOM
(see Box 10.1). For example, many advanced cognitive skills require exposure to a social
interaction of some sort, such as tuition for reading, writing, reasoning, and abstract
thinking. Similarly, much of our social behaviour is learned, although the methods of
teaching may be different, for example vicarious learning of conversational rules (Gricean
Maxims; Grice 1975). As such, while each individual may be born human, they have to be
taught how to behave as an adult version of the species.
We emphasize that this is a universal phenomenon. True, the specific characteristics of
what constitutes appropriate adult behaviour may vary from one cultural to the next, across
different gender identities, and so on. Different cultures also place different demands on
when the child must begin to act like an adult, with some cultures requiring children to
‘grow up’ faster relative to other cultures. In fact, the modern developmental theories are
challenging the notion of any universals in stage development. For example, modern
theories endorse the idea that adulthood is completely culturally bound and intrinsically
linked to the nature of the social structure and formal institutions in which the child is
forced to interact (e.g. Arnett 2007). We support these twenty-first-century theorists and
acknowledge that the demands of the modern world are vastly different than they were
when many of the psychological theories of development were formulated. We acknowl-
edge that development must be contextualized in terms of the child’s cultural, ethnic, spir-
itual, linguistic, and socio-political background. Still, we hold to the view that all cultures
and societies expect to have to teach their children to behave in a fashion that conforms to
the principles of their society or group.
Given that humans must teach their young how to behave as adults, it is not surprising
that scholarly discussions and writings have given so much time and attention to the
question of how best to teach children. Again, this concern appears to be universal across all
cultures, in some fashion or another. While not every culture regards formal education as
important, it is worthy of remarking that every culture places some emphasis on some type
of teaching, be it of skills or of abstract ideas.
Box 10.1 Innate and learned behaviours

It is useful to distinguish between innate and learned behaviours. Innate behaviours can be regarded
as a set or repertoire of behaviours that are inherited and have certain characteristics. First, they are
inherited, meaning that they are transmitted through DNA and are subject to change through genetic
modifications only, like mutations. Second, they are intrinsic in that they are present in individual
members of the species even when these individuals are deprived of social contact and exist in
isolation. Third, innate behaviours are stereotypic, in that the behaviour is performed in the same
manner by each individual, every time it is performed. Fourth, innate behaviours are inflexible and
are not influence heavily by either experience or development. Finally, they are consummate,
indicating that the behaviour is expressed in its full form on the first performance. Examples of innate
behaviours include the startle reflex and fixed action patterns. In contrast, learned behaviours have
the opposite characteristics: they are acquired only through experience and exposure; are extrinsic
and lacking in those individuals who are isolated from conspecifics; can change and be adapted to
different situations; and show progressive improvement with practice.
LEARNING TO BE HUMAN 239
Pedagogy and the acquisition of knowledge

The teaching room has, at its core, a concern for those real-world situations that focus on
and are designed to promote a learner to acquire knowledge and/or skills. It is useful early
on to introduce the distinction between intentional and incidental learning (Postman and
Phillips 1954). Intentional learning is the acquisition of facts, knowledge or skills, where the
learner is explicitly motivated to learn. Put most simply, learning is goal directed and is
wilful: the learner wants to achieve something and that something is the acquisition of
knowledge, information, or skill. Most discussions of the teaching room will be concerned
with this type of learning and hence focus on things that affect the learner’s motivations and
interest, for example teaching techniques. Academic knowledge and a good many vocational
skills that we acquire generally are assumed to require the learner to engage in intentional
learning, in order to gain some mastery.
In contrast, incidental learning occurs without the explicit intention of the learner, and
occurs instead due to the interaction that the learner has with the learning materials.
Incidental learning can be as powerful as intentional learning, depending on the nature of
the task that is being performed (see Postman and Phillips 1954); and includes such
concepts as modelling, vicarious learning, and mimicking (see ‘Theories of development’,
pp. 246–253). Much of what we learn even in formal institutions can arguably be attributed
to incidental learning, for example a student vicariously learns how to behave as a profes-
sional psychologist through observing the instructor deal with conflict resolution in class.
Acquisition is another generic term that requires some definition. In terms of learning
theory, acquisition has some specific connotations. For example, in classical conditioning,
acquisition can refer to the process through which an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral
or conditioned stimulus are linked, or associated. In operant conditioning, acquisition is
evinced by the organism producing a more consistent and regular response to the
reinforcement. For the purposes here, acquisition can be regarded in more general terms as
learning: a person is exposed to an event and shows evidence of this experience through a
change in his or her behaviour.
The process through which the teacher communicates the information, knowledge, or
skill to the learner is referred to as pedagogy. The manner in which the teacher engages in
pedagogy certainly varies from individual to individual. Traditionally, lecturing—whereby
the instructor provides factual, formal, or explicit knowledge with limited interaction or
input from learners—is a classic form of pedagogy. As we shall discuss, reliance on this form
of pedagogy has fallen out of fashion with psychologists working in the modern teaching
room (the reader should note that this is not a modern stance; Socrates did not regard lec-
turing as very effective—see Box 10.2).
Many modern psychologists working in the teaching room insist that the notion of
intentionality must also apply to the teacher in order to be effective (e.g. Slavin 2003). Here,
the idea of intentionality is more than the teacher deliberately presenting information.
Instead, the teaching is goal directed, with the teacher systematically presenting informa-
tion that fulfils the learning goals agreed on by the teacher and learner. Critically, the teacher
must present the information in a manner that can be understood and that is relevant to the
learner. For example, Gill (1995) reported on studies that showed how physicians and
nurses did not respond positively to the same type of teaching method. Physicians preferred
to have information presented formally, in a lecture fashion, with little social interaction in
the form of group exercises or discussion. In contrast, nurses preferred to be presented with
information in a less formal fashion, where participants could contribute personal
experiences and feelings. Arguably, these apparent preferences could be linked to the nature
of the profession and the necessary roles that each professional undertakes during the
course of a ‘day’s work’.
The point here is that learning will be impeded, should a teacher fail to take these preferences
into account. Ultimately, an ill-matched teaching method can result in the teacher encountering
resistive learners. We shall discuss the importance of selecting the ‘correct’ teaching methods
for the ‘right’ learner more extensively below (see ‘Teaching methods’, pp. 253–255).
The nature of knowledge

An essential element to our discussion of the teaching room must include a definition of
what constitutes knowledge. Again, as most topics in the teaching room, we could initiate
the conversation with views from the ancient philosophers and scholars. However, our
review would only be cursory and not representative of the great thoughts and essays
devoted to the topic. Instead, we start our discussion by focusing on the manner in which
psychology, as a so-called modern science, has toyed with the concept. This, similarly, is a
Box 10.2 The central role of the rat

The development of learning theories, in particular operant conditioning (cf Skinner 1950) has been a
consistent source of guidance for teachers and educators. This cannot be overstated, as behaviourism
still dominates the logic and development of many formal educational interventions. For example,
special education classes utilize behavioural approaches at a systemic level, in order to include
students, faculty, staff, and parents in the development of a positive learning environment.
Techniques and interventions such as these owe much to the early work in animal behavioural
learning, as conducted in the early and mid-twentieth century by Thorndike (1911), Tolman (1948),
Lashley (1950), and, of course, Skinner (1950). These pioneers of learning theory relied on the rat as
the vehicle through which hypotheses about human learning would eventually be deduced. The
particular strain of rat that has played a critical part in the development of human learning theories is
called Wistar and belongs to the species Rattus norvegicus. The Wistar rat is an albino strain that has
been used to develop two other popular strains used in scientific research, the Sprague Dawley and
the Long-Evans. Rats are regarded as ideal subjects for learning experiments because of the qualities
they possess: they are intelligent with a penchant for problem solving; they are resourceful and can
adapt to a changing environment; they are aggressive and have social groups where dominance is
established. Even more impressively, rats have a sense of themselves, demonstrating metacognition
(Foote and Crystal 2007) With these characteristics, it is understandable why the rat and the animal
learning theories that it supported have played such a significant role in the development of teaching
methods. The rat may be responsible for the transmission of contagious pathogens; yet, it is a species
without which we would not be as advanced in our understanding of psychology and medicine, in
general. Perhaps an honorary degree might be bestowed to acknowledge our indebtedness to this
small but highly significant animal.
vast area and one that we could not reasonably hope to review in an adequate fashion. As
such, we limit our discussion to a cursory review of the major theories that have developed
within what we shall call the spatio-temporal framework. We contrast these theories with
those that have emerged from the parallel distributed knowledge or connectionist frame-
work. We also point out when these modern notions echo with those from earlier
discussions.
The spatio-temporal framework for knowledge is the dominant conceptual umbrella for
psychologists talking about knowledge. Most simply put, this framework relies on the
depiction of the learner as a store house, or vessel, in which knowledge is ‘put’ and then
‘taken out’. Knowledge is placed, metaphorically, in a depository; much like a library,
knowledge has sections and structures that organize the information in a manner so that the
learner can later access the information on demand. Relationships between different bits of
knowledge exist, for example through the mechanism of temporal contiguity, and these
relationships are often discussed in terms of strengths or associations (see below).
Knowledge structures, such as schemata or scripts (Bartlett, Piaget) are developed through
learning, for example accommodation; and, serve as the basis for the acquisition of new
knowledge with old, for example assimilation.
This most dominant type of spatio-temporal model in current psychology is the
information processing model, which depicts the transferring of information from sensory
input to organized knowledge in terms of encoding and storage; and the reproduction of
that information as retrieval. Encoding and storage are distinguished in a manner similar to
the distinction between sensation and perception: the former refers to the registration and
initial response to sensory input, for example sound waves; the later refers to the under-
standing or interpretation of the input, for example its class as a human voice, its type as
speech, etc. Retrieval is the process through which the information is removed (or assessed)
from the ‘storehouse’ of memory, in order to be utilized. These three stages are rarely omit-
ted from any introductory psychology textbook (e.g. Myers 2009).
There are many good examples of an information processing model. There is the two-
stage model of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). This model suggests that information is trans-
ferred from a short-term store, limited in its capacity, to a long-term store, which is infinite
in its capacity. Different types of strategy ensure that information is maintained in short-
term memory (e.g. rote rehearsal) until such time as the information is transferred into
long-term memory. As we shall see below, the stage model and the models that it promoted
have had a tremendous impact on teaching methods (see p. 254)
Anderson and Bowers’ (1973) association network model is another excellent example
of an information processing approach. Knowledge is generally assumed to be stored in
terms of interrelated, linked propositions, called nodes. Nodes reflect propositional
information that are linked or associated through temporal contiguity and frequency of
co-occurrence. For example, there is a node for the category label ‘dog’, to which the node
representing the specific instance of your pet dog, ‘Fido’ is associated or linked. When pre-
sented with one node, the association between the other nodes ensures the activation of
other linked nodes. Associative links are established through frequency of co-occurrence
(e.g. when given A, B follows). When A and B occur regularly and frequently, the nodes
become more strongly associated.
This notion of static traces, whereby learning occurs through the development of a new
link, or association, was strongly challenged by psychologists advocating schema theory.
Providing a single definition of a schema proves to be somewhat daunting, in that so many
individuals have appropriated the concept and added their own unique characteristics (see
Box 10.3). Arguably Plato’s views of ideals are relevant, insofar as schemata are not
necessarily representations of what has actually been experienced (e.g. see ‘War of the
ghosts’, Bartlett 1920). In the same vein, Kant’s discussion of schemas (Critique of Pure
Reason, 1781/1989) similarly fits some definitions and usages. Kant describes the ‘dog’
schema as a mental structure that can identify and distinguish ‘the figure of a four-footed
animal in a general manner, without limitation to any single determinate figure as
experience, or any possible image that [can be represented] in concreto’. From these early
notions, we get the view that schemata are generic representations of knowledge that may,
or may not have been directly experienced.
More modern versions of the concept are generally linked to Sir Frederick Bartlett’s work
on memory (Remembering, 1932), wherein he suggests that knowledge is created, through
the operation of schemas that provide some flexible representation of a particular event or
experience. Schemata (or schemas) are unconscious mental structures that enable the
learner to acquire new information, providing some basis for storage into an already existing
knowledge base. Learning and hence remembering involve the reconstruction of knowl-
edge that is contained in this representation, in line with the particular cultural attitudes
and personal biases and experiences that the person brings.
Box 10.3 The many faces of schemata

Like all good ideas, the concept of schemas (or schemata) has been passed down through the ages,
with each author adding his or her own, unique brand to the operational definition. While this has
resulted in the concept continuing to evolve (and maintain its relevance, arguably), it has also led to
problems. For example, one definition of schemata is that they represent molar forms of human
generic knowledge (Brewer 1987). A narrow sense of schemata is that they only represent generic
knowledge, and so can be applied only to knowledge that can be categorized, or grouped, for
example events, roles of generic agents. In contrast, some theorists have also suggested that
schemata can be applied to all knowledge (see Rumelhart 1980). From this broad definition, there
appears to be no limits as to what schemata can represent. This introduces something of an
ambiguity in the operational definition. Schema theories have also been criticized for failing to
address how completely novel knowledge is acquired, for example knowledge for which no
previously acquired, generic schemata are relevant. True, there are ways around this particularly
criticism through post hoc caveats, for example even novel knowledge shares some similarities with
some previously experienced events. However, there is still the question of whether schemata are
really best suited to spatio-temporal models, or more relevant to connectionist and parallel
distributed models of knowledge. For example, it is widely known that Bartlett felt that the credit for
the idea should be given to Sir Henry Head. Head, a neurologist, suggested that schemata were
patterns of brain activation that linger after an event is experienced. In some senses, these dynamic
patterns are more akin to those discussed in connectionism models than to those unconscious
organizational devices that were suggested by Bartlett and later expanded on in modern information
processing models.
Contemporary theorists and psychologists, among them Neisser (1967) and Minsky
(1975), have helped to make schemata a common concept in modern cognitive psychology.
However, the theory has long been relevant to the teaching room, in part due to the fact that
the concept is central to the work of Jean Piaget and his notions of how children develop (see
‘Theories of development’, pp. 246–253). Additionally, the concept of schemata has also
been very influential in promoting certain teaching techniques, particularly through the
influential work of the educational psychologist Anderson (e.g. 1984).
A new direction in information processing models came with the introduction of Craik and
Lockhart’s (1972) ideas regarding the type or level of processing. According to Craik and
Lockhart, how the learner processes, or interacts, with the information is critical to the nature
of memory storage. According to their hypothesis, processing (effectively the extraction of
meaningful information from input) can be along a continuum of shallow to deep. Shallow
processing is regarded as focal attention to perceptual, rather than conceptual features of the
input (e.g. counting the number of the letter ‘e’ in a list of 20 words of animals). Deeper pro-
cessing is when focal attention is being given to conceptual characteristics of the input (e.g.
identifying what category of animal each word is depicting). While deeper levels of processing
generally ensure better comprehension, shallow levels of processing can be equally useful,
depending on what the learner intends on doing with the information. Sometimes, so-called
shallow levels of processing are better strategies than deeper levels. So, if the task were creating
a cross-word puzzle, or playing a game of Scrabble, knowing the number of the letter ‘e’ a word
has is probably more relevant than knowing to which conceptual category it belongs.
Information processing models have also been concerned about the type of memory, and
most often different storage metaphors are created to accommodate these different types.
To this end, the contribution made by Ulric Neisser cannot be overstated (see Box 10.4). For
example, Neisser introduced the distinction between factual knowledge and event
knowledge, also known as the distinction between semantic and episodic memory.
Semantic memory is generally regarded as the storehouse for abstract ideas, such as
perceptual category prototypes and facts. Episodic memory is reserved for information that
regards specific instances of events, dominated by the spatio-temporal characteristics, that
is, the place and time, agents, etc.
Box 10.4 Different kinds of knowledge

The evolution away from associative networks to cognitive psychology gave rise to an increased
interest in the kinds of knowledge that could be acquired. Neisser (1967) introduced the entire
concept of cognitive psychology, which encompassed more than simply the development of
associations between events as discussed by animal learning theorists. Cognition was defined as all
mental operations, including problem solving, perception, learning and memory; and, processes and
structures were seen as more active than the typical assumptions of passive learning which were
reflected in animal models. The notion of a proactive learner, one who applied strategies and effortful
processing, was quickly picked up by psychologists. In a seminal paper, Underwood (1969)—
historically one of the most prolific ‘verbal learning’ theorists—suggested that memory was made up
of attributes, some of which were automatically encoded (e.g. class type, frequency), others of which
required more strategic processing (e.g. meaningful associations).
Neisser’s distinction between semantic and episodic memory stores has also extended to a
domain of study known as autobiographical memory. Autobiographical memory is
distinguished by virtue of the fact that the information relates to the self (e.g. see Conway and
Bekerian 1987). Autobiographical facts are related to abstract knowledge of self, for example
the date of one’s birthday; autobiographical events refer to knowledge about specific instances,
for example what you did on your last birthday. Research has established that autobiographi-
cal facts, or semantic knowledge, behave in a similar fashion to non-autobiographical facts, for
example both types of knowledge can be primed (see Conway 1987).
In contrast to the spatio-temporal models, the development of artificial intelligence and
computers gave rise to an entirely new type of framework—one that is concerned more with
the creation and distribution of knowledge rather than the discrete location of knowledge
between links, or in discrete storehouses. We will refer to these models as falling under the
parallel distributed knowledge or connectionist framework (e.g. Hinton 1989). The major
distinction between this framework and the more traditional models is the rejection of the
storehouse metaphor: knowledge is not something that is put into anything; rather knowl-
edge is something that emerges, through the repeated activation of groups (or networks) of
simple units. The reader is advised that although the development of this framework is a rela-
tively recent phenomenon, psychologists in the mid-twentieth century were already utilizing
the nature of the brain’s structure as the basis for psychological models (e.g. Hebb 1949).
The general class of models called neural networks is a very popular example of this
alternative framework. Here, the notion is that simple units become stimulated to the
point that an action potential occurs; those units that co-activate become interconnected
and weighted (a useful analogy may be the weighting of factors that occurs with multiple
regression equations). This activation spreads across units that are interconnected;
memory—or knowledge—is the particular pattern of units and their respective weight-
ings. It is in this way that knowledge emerges from the network, rather than being repre-
sented in a discrete location, or among discrete set of conceptual nodes (e.g. adaptive
control of thought (ACT); see Anderson 2007). Learning is a matter of the units ‘settling
down’ into a reliable pattern, a pattern of statistical probabilities, if you will, that one unit
is associated or co-active with another.
The reader can appreciate that the two frameworks are different in their core assumptions
about how knowledge is represented. The question of whether the two frameworks make
drastically different suggestions regarding strategies for knowledge acquisition (e.g. teach-
ing methods) is another matter, however. Further, the practical advantage of one over the
other is not immediately obvious. For example, recent research suggests that models that
utilize a version of neural network in sub-level reading tasks (e.g. regularities in spelling-
sound matches) are more successful, through their application of the statistical relations
between letters and sounds (e.g. Zevin and Seidenberg 2006). Other authors have claimed
that evidence such as this clearly demonstrates that intelligence can now be considered in a
different light, for example a function of the speed to which new units are interconnected
(e.g. Garlick 2010). However, it is not clear how such evidence leads to specific differences
in teaching methods. Hopefully, new theorists of parallel distributed models will direct their
attention to the practical implications of their approach, so that there may be in future
applied interventions that could distinguish the use of their framework over the
spatio-temporal models.
The ancient teaching room

The idea of a formal venue in which an individual can acquire knowledge and skills has
dominated philosophical discussions since ancient times. Indeed, much of the ancient
world and its civilizations valued formal education and pedagogy. The ancients firmly
believed that it was only through educating children that society could ensure continued
growth and prosperity. Most discussions of education from the ancients are predicated on
the suggestion that children must be educated in order for society to succeed and progress
in its own development.
While there are, of course, differences in the manner in which education was formalized
in the various ancient civilizations, the similarities are worthy of remark. For one, the ruling
or upper classes were likely to be the only targets for early, formal education; it is only with
the passage of the centuries that the ‘lower’ or ‘common’ citizen is afforded the opportunity.
For another, most of the early formal institutions, as they were, focused on the general
education of the individual, including poetry, music, the arts, as well as social rules regard-
ing duty and family. Finally, most of the early examples of formal education were resolute
in the belief that individuals could improve themselves through education. Indeed, without
formal education, people were doomed.
Given that formal education was introduced across much of the ancient world, there are
many examples from which we could choose. Bearing in mind the limitations of this chap-
ter, we decided to focus on ancient China and Greece, as these provide among the earliest
attempts to formalize and standardize education. However, the reader is advised to note
that the Islamic world, including Persia, also developed formal education, again focusing on
philosophical and religious teachings. However, these institutions did not follow the format
of formal institutions developed in medieval Europe (e.g. the University of Solerno, circa
ninth century bce). The latter are the basis for modern Western universities, where the
educational institution is a corporate organization.
The history of education in China is inextricably linked to the teachings of Confucius,
and in particular the Four Books and the Five Classics. Most scholars agree that these texts,
although based on the teaching of Confucius, were written by his students (e.g. Zhu XI, aka
Chu Hsi). Chinese scholars suggest that the first formal education was introduced to the
elite classes, circa sixteenth century bce, during the ‘Xia Dynasty’. Education was based on
learning the behaviour of a ‘gentleman’ (Chun Tzu), which included such issues as generos-
ity, fairness, honour, duty, and cultural traditions. For example, the teachings focus on
educating the individual to reach a state of internal balance and peace of mind; this was
accomplished through the development of moral refinement. Confucius believed that
everyone—regardless of their birth or status—was capable of learning and being educated.
Importantly, education addressed every aspect of the individual’s life, from the professional
to personal: all elements of the individual needed to be educated. If the person was to fail in
one area of their life, they would ultimately fail in all other areas.
The Greeks are always a good source to study for philosophical discussions regarding
formal education, as their views are clearly evident in the language used to describe our
educational and research institutions, for example academy, lyceum, museum. One of the
most prominent philosophers who discussed education was Plato (424/423 bce – 348/347
bce), who provides us with perhaps the most influential early thoughts on education. Much
of his writings, particularly his dialogues, are focused on explaining the importance of
education to society: who should instruct; who should learn; and how learning is best
accomplished. For Plato, the ultimate goal of education was to produce philosophers who
would be able to rule and provide suitable leadership for those less able in society. ‘Unless
communities have . . . rulers [who] practice philosophy with enough integrity . . . there can
be no end . . . to human troubles in general’ (473C11-D5).
Early education focused on a holistic tuition in music, art, and physical exercise/sport
(see Chapter 9, p. 201)that was primarily directed at developing a harmonious individual.
Plato also emphasized the importance of play, ‘let your children’s lessons take the form of
play. You will learn more about their natural abilities that way’. He also insisted that all
learning must be voluntary, and come from an internal motivation that resides within the
learner, ‘compulsory learning never sticks to the mind’. This notion that the learner must be
internally motivated was a central feature of arguments developed by Bandura in his discus-
sion of social learning theory (1977).
Modern educational psychology

We now consider the development of modern educational psychology. Most definitions of
educational psychology given by national governing bodies focus on the application of
psychology, in particular the application of theories regarding learning and development.
Traditionally, the area is concerned with the education of children and young people.
However, this is changing given the extensive increase in what might be called ‘mature’
students (see www.apa.org/about/division/div15.aspx).
First, we discuss theories of development. Hypotheses regarding the manner in which
children learn mental, motor, emotional, and social skills (with all the necessary knowledge
associated with these skills) are understandably critical for psychologists and other profes-
sionals in the teaching room, if they wish to succeed. However, we wish to point out to the
reader at the outset that not all theories have had an equivalent impact on the teaching
room. As we shall see, some have had a major influence, while others are more difficult to
apply to the real-world situation. We then go on to discuss teaching methods, and consider
various alternatives that have been created to address the difficulties in the modern teaching
room.
Theories of development
We have already established that altricial young, such as human babies, are ill-equipped to
protect or fend for themselves and that the emergence of adult behaviours requires a
consider period of development, experience, and learning. Here we consider those psycho-
logical theories that have given some explanation of how the newly born human emerges
through their lifespan. Many of the more popular theories can be called discontinuous
theories.
Discontinuous theories share a common point of departure, in that all presume that there
are discrete stages of development that in turn are associated with a child’s chronological
age. The stages are relatively fixed in terms of their order, and are distinguished, among
MODERN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 247
Box 10.5 Maturation theory

The suggestion that there are normative behaviours for certain developmental stages was particularly
advanced in Arnold Gesell’s maturation theory (see Salkind 1981, for a good review of maturational
theories). Gesell spearheaded the now common techniques of the observational method of study. In
particular, he established the importance of developing ‘normative’ behaviours for different ages:
researchers would study a large number of children and then determine the average, or typical, age
at which different developmental milestones were observed. Gesell contended that development
should be considered as an ageing process, rather than the consequences of a child learning or
experiencing specific life events (e.g. trauma). According to maturation theory, biological and
evolutionary factors ensure that development follows an orderly sequence; the rate of development
is determined more by the child’s unique genetic composition and biological constitution, rather
than environmental factors. For Gesell, nature dominates development, leaving nurture to play only a
small role (see Gesell et al. 1977).
other things, by the developmental milestones that are achieved. Each stage is more
sophisticated and the behaviours demonstrated by the child are more complex in nature.
Importantly, individuals are assumed to progress through the stages within a range of time,
with abnormal development being associated with an unusual delay or failure to achieve
specific milestones within the presumed ‘normal’ period (see Box 10.5).
While the scope of this chapter does not allow us to provide a comprehensive discussion
of all developmental theories, we will provide a precise of the more important concepts. We
note, however, that not all developmental theories have direct implications for the teaching
room. For example, Freud’s description of the five psychosexual stages of development may
provide the psychologist with an understanding of a child’s salient behavioural and
emotional conflicts at different ages. However, it does not provide an explicit guide as to
how children at various stages of development might respond to different teaching
techniques, as it does not concern itself with the specific elements of cognitive development
(in the same way as, say, Piaget’s theory).
Before continuing, we should make a few points clear to the reader. First, we remind the
reader that we have already discussed the debate regarding nature versus nurture (see
Chapter 9). We support the view that genetics determine possibilities in behaviour, and that
the environment determines opportunity for these possibilities to be explored. There is no
doubt that sometimes genetics, or nature, will be more dominant, while other times, envi-
ronmental factors or the nurturing provided will be more influential in determining behav-
iour. So, genetics are likely to determine how coordinated you are; while the environment
(say, parents) will determine how likely you are to take tennis lessons that utilize your
genetic aptitude for eye–hand sports. In an ideal teaching room, both factors—genetics and
environmental—are in synchrony, utilizing teaching methods that complement the
aptitudes and abilities of the learner (see ‘Teaching methods, p. 253).
Our second concern is to remind the reader that most, if not all of the modern
developmental theories are based on Western doctrines of individualism, and value the
uniqueness and singularity of the self. This is not to say that culture is not explicitly acknowl-
edged as an influential factor in a child’s development. Quite the contrary: Vygotsky’s
theory (1978) is an obvious example of a theory that emphasizes the importance of culture
on a child. Similarly, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (2005) explicitly

acknowledges the crucial role that the macrosystem plays in a child’s development (see
Scenario one for a discussion of Vygotsky’s and Bronfenbrenner’s theories). Nonetheless,
we note that the psychological theories that have dominated discussions in the teaching
room are derived in the main from Western cultures, and, as a consequence, should be
applied to other non-Western cultures with some caution.
Psychodynamic theories of development

Psychodynamic theories of development are generally concerned with the development of
the child’s psyche and its various elements. While each theorist focuses on different
elements, the struggles of childhood and development through the lifespan are the conse-
quence of the nascent personality endeavouring to deal with the vagaries of dealing with
itself, and the world. As a class of theories, they do not address the more practical aspects of
the teaching room to the same extent as those postulated by Piaget (1956), or Vygotysky.
Sigmund Freud’s theory of development (e.g. Freud 1915/1917) is possibly one of the
most familiar of developmental theories. As we have already discussed (see ‘The treatment
room’, Chapter 8) Freud’s conceptualization of human personality was spilt into three,
potentially disparate elements: id, ego, and super-ego. The basis for development is the
infant’s struggle and eventual resolution of conflict between the different elements of their
personality. For Freud, this was translated into his notion of five psychosexual, developmental
stages, with ‘sexual’ referring to the basic, innate biological drives and instincts represented
in the energy of the id. Central to Freud’s ideas was the belief that child development
reflected changes in the id and its energy levels initiated during each stage. The reader is
advised that numerous recent texts are available which more than adequately discuss the
stages in great detail (e.g. Broderick and Blewitt 2006). Nonetheless, it is important that the
reader remembers the basic ideas behind Freud’s theory.
Infants are born with an id, which is driven by a pleasure principle, that is, immediate grati-
fication. The function of the id is to ensure the survival of not only the individual but also the
species (e.g. Freud 1910; Broderick and Blewitt 2006). The ego begins to develop as cognitive
and physical skills emerge (e.g. language development); and with it, so does the rational self. In
contrast to the id, the ego is driven by a reality principle, where behaviour is controlled in order
to meet the demands of the external environment (Freud 1910; Broderick and Blewitt 2006).
The super-ego is the final element of the personality to develop and requires certain levels of
sophistication for example it emerges in parallel with the child’s ability to know the difference
between right and wrong, lies and truth, etc. The super-ego can be viewed as the internalized
demands of society, helping to constrain the child’s actions so as to ensure conformity, for
example the internalized parent. The super-ego, like the id, places pressure on the ego and it is
through this waxing and waning of dominance that the child’s personality develops. With the
super-ego in place, the ego must now take account instinctual pressures from the id, external
realities, and also the super-ego’s demands to conform. This constant battle between id and
super-ego places pressure on the ego. The ego must meet the ever-present needs of the id with-
out upsetting the super-ego, lest the child experiences anxiety and guilt.
Erikson’s (see 1968) theory utilized some of the topography of the psyche introduced by
Freud; however, he placed less emphasis on the energies of the id, and more focus on the
developmental tasks facing the ego at different stages of the lifespan. Erikson was primarily
concerned with how children deal with their social world, and, as such, provides an explana-
tion of development in terms of different stages of psychosocial development. There are
eight stages in total, the first five of which are comparable to the age periods identified by
Freud. However, the last three stages occur in adulthood. The suggestion that development
continues from birth to death reflects Erikson’s view that the individual’s psychological
identity is persistently evolving.
Each of Erikson’s stages presents the individual with a different crisis. Crises are the result
of tensions that exists between the changes that the individual experiences through matura-
tion, and the changes that occur in the social environment. The individual must learn how
to deal with their changing needs, for example increased sophistication of biological coor-
dination of an 18 month old, or the decline in cognitive abilities that occurs with advanced
old age. At the same time, there are corresponding changes in the behaviour, attitudes, and
expectations of others. The strength of the ego is contingent on the matching of the indi-
vidual’s developmental challenge with the support and attention of the environment.
If the individual can rely on the social environment to provide appropriate attention in
support of achieving the development task, the individual will be more likely to succeed in
subsequent developmental challenges. For example, if parental support is consistent, appro-
priate and timely to their infant’s needs, the child can achieve the task of trusting others,
feeling valued and valuable; ultimately, this leads to the infant viewing the world as a safe
place. This, in turn, will enable the infant to be more successful in achieving the later devel-
opmental task of autonomy as he or she matures from young to middle childhood.
There are certain common features across all of Erikson’s stages. First, others’ sensitivity
and responsiveness to the individual’s needs create a context for positive psychosocial devel-
opment. Two, attitudes toward self and toward others emerge together (e.g. feelings of being
valuable are associated with feelings that the environment is safe). Three, every psychosocial
task requires a balance between positive and negative feelings, with the positive outweighing
the negative. Finally, successful resolutions of future crisis are contingent on the successful
resolution of a crisis at the previous stage, such that unsuccessful resolution may inhibit
progress and increase the likelihood of maladaptive behaviour (Broderick and Blewitt 2006).
Schema theory
Jean Piaget’s (1956) theory of cognitive development is one of the most influential in the
teaching room, although evidence for all of his theoretical assumptions is equivocal (e.g.
Bullock and Gelman 1979). His theory illustrates the concept of constructivism, which
stipulates that development is a process through which children actively create meaning
and understanding of their world through interactions and experiences. According to
Piaget, children construct an understanding of their world through incorporating new
information into pre-existing knowledge structures; or through the acquisition of new
modifying pre-existing knowledge structures to accommodate the new information. Piaget
is also one of the most frequently reported theorists in textbooks. He argues that there are
four essential stages of development, beginning at birth and ending at adulthood (approxi-
mately 18). Each stage of development has the individual acquire progressively more
sophisticated cognitive skills.
The first stage is called sensorimotor, which Piaget hypothesized to occur between the
ages of birth to roughly 2 years (generally prior to language acquisition). This first stage
consists of the infant learning to master reflexive behaviours as goal directed through trial
and error. Critical goals during this period include object permanence, which indicates that
the infant has an internal representation of an object, regardless of its presence. The second
stage is called preoperational and Piaget assumed this to dominate early childhood (roughly
from 2 years to 7 years). Significant advancements at this stage include language acquisition
and more sophisticated mental abilities for abstraction, such as conservation. Children
during this stage are considered to be limited in their ability to attend to the world, for
example centration, and also are largely motivated by what Piaget called egocentrism.
Piaget argued that abstract thinking was limited in that the child could not engage in revers-
ibility, and was unable to understand hypothetical statements, such as ‘if, then’.
During the concrete operational stage (roughly corresponding to middle childhood,
ages 7 to 11 years) the child’s abilities become more abstract, such that logical thinking and
inferred reality are achieved. A child at this stage can identify concepts and conceptual
relationships (class inclusion), and can engage in problem solving and inferential reasoning,
provided that the objects and situations are relatively familiar. The final stage, formal opera-
tions, occurs during adolescence (roughly 12 years to adulthood). At this last stage, children
demonstrate abstract problem-solving skills and reasoning that adults demonstrate, for
example hypothetical problem solving.
The reader should note that Piaget regarded these stages as inviolate, in that he consid-
ered it impossible for children in one stage to show cognitive characteristics of a more
advanced stage: for example, Piaget believed that conservation could not be taught until a
child was in the preoperational stage. In this way, development dictated what the child
could do and what he or she could learn. However, this strong assumption has been chal-
lenged by evidence that children may demonstrate cognitive skills at ages much earlier than
would be predicted by Piaget (e.g. Baillargeon et al. 1990) Other researchers have criticized
Piaget’s theory on the grounds that his stages assume broad classes of cognitive skills develop
at the same rate, an assumption which has not been supported (e.g. Greenbowe et al. 1981).
For Piaget, cognitive development was inextricably linked with a child’s moral reasoning.
As with cognition, moral development proceeds in an orderly, sequential fashion, with the
child going from a very ego-centred position, where ‘good and bad’ are determined by the
physical consequences of one’s actions and specific moral prescriptions of others, to a
sophisticated stance where moral behaviour is determined by the individual’s chosen ethi-
cal rules and guidelines. Kohlberg (e.g. 1981) modified Piaget’s original suggestions, prefer-
ring to examine children’s behaviour not in play but rather through the use of the moral
dilemma. As we shall see below, theories of moral behaviour are critical in the teaching
room, as they help professionals highlight and support appropriate social behaviours and
conflict resolution in the developing child (see Scenario one, below).
Learning theories
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory (1977) focuses on the relationship between the
environment and the child’s behaviour and development. In particular, he postulated the
notion of reciprocal determinism, where the environment impacts on behaviour while at
Box 10.6 Skinner and the teaching room

The reader will note that we have spent some time in earlier chapters discussing Skinner and his
theories regarding instrumental or operant conditioning. The impact of Skinner’s idea, particularly in
the domain of teaching children, is enormous and constitutes much of what is now regarded as
positive behavioural systems. Skinner’s arguments were simple: reinforcement alters behaviour. If a
behaviour is undesirable, a negative reinforce will discourage it; if a behaviour is desirable, a positive
reinforce will increase its likelihood of occurring. While Skinner’s theory is considerably more
complex than what we have just described (e.g. effects of different types of reinforcement
schedules), the basic idea that to reward behaviour is a concept that is easily implemented, across
most if not all venues for the teaching room. Of course, there are many critical elements to make
this a successful equation. One of the more obvious critical elements is the selection of an
appropriate reinforcer; and it is here where a sound knowledge of child development is essential.
The reason is obvious: the child’s level of development will determine what they regard as positive
or beneficial. Additionally, individual differences also influence what the child might regard as
reinforcing. This makes for an interesting combination of factors: one, the reinforcer must be
relevant to the child’s developmental level; two, the reinforcer must be valued by the individual
child. So, for example, suppose a teacher wants a 5 year old to wait their turn; the child particularly
enjoys reading aloud during the story portion of the day. The teacher may decide that, in response
to the child producing the desirable behaviour, she will allow the child to read aloud when ‘story
time’ comes. Of course, in order to be truly effective, the child must know that the reinforcer and her
behaviour are linked. Thus, the teacher might proffer the child the following, ‘if you let X take your
turn, I will let you read during story time’. Of course, such a reward—reading aloud—may be
ineffective with a child who hates reading! Alternatively, it is highly unlikely that reading aloud to a
classroom would be sufficient reinforcement for a 15 year old. This illustrates the importance of:
identifying the appropriate reinforcer for the child’s developmental level, identifying the child’s
individual preferences, and ensuring that the reinforcer is clearly associated with the production of
the desired behaviour.
the same time behaviour influences the environment. For Bandura, development is a matter
of observing and modelling behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
There are three vital components to development: the environment, the psychological
processes of learning, and the production of a behaviour. According to Bandura, these three
factors are responsible for how and who the child ultimately becomes as an adult.
For Bandura, modelling was the psychological process responsible through which
children learned from their environment, and, based on empirical studies, he proposed that
four components enabled the process of modelling, these being attention, retention, repro-
duction, and motivation. Each component must be present in order for modelling to be
successful.
Attention is the first component, specifically selective attention. The developing infant is
presented with an enormously complicated, multifaceted environment that is filled with
sensory information. Without first isolating that which is to be modelled, the infant has no
chance of being able to learn the behaviour. As such, the ability to attend selectively to the
environment is vital. Of course, the environment in turn can facilitate this: for example, a
mother wanting her child to see that their father has returned home might point in the
direction, look back and forth from the child and the direction from which the father is
entering, and say, slowly, ‘Here’s daddy!’ This shows how the environment, behaviour, and
psychological processes can interact in helping the child develop object recognition and
primitive conceptual categories.
It follows that anything that taxes a child’s attentional capacity will inhibit observational
learning. These inhibitors can be physiological, as when a child is sleepy, drugged, or ill; or
psychological, as when a child is distraught or nervous. In a similar way, the environment
can make it more difficult for the child to engage in observational learning. For example,
emotionally charged family dynamics, and noisy and fast paced environments, are likely to
be less conducive to observational learning as the child is enmeshed in an environment
where multiple sources are competing for their attention.
One of the significant features of the environment is the model, of course. For example, it
is well documented that human infants, only some hours old, are more likely to attend to
visual stimuli that reflect features of a human face, than random patterns (e.g. Valenza et al.
1996). The attractiveness of the model, particularly as defined by the particular developmen-
tal level of the child will also command more attention. Similarly, if the model seems more
like themselves, people will pay more attention (Bandura 1977). This is the principle of
identification, and serves as the basis for social cohesion (e.g. see Scenario one, pp. 259–266).
The second necessary component is retention, or memory. Once having given attention,
the child must be able to remember what was observed. The ability to reconstruct, re-assemble
that which is no longer present requires an ability to manipulate abstract ‘symbols’, that is,
ability to construct and manipulate internal ‘images’ and language. A child develops from
being able to observe and in parallel mimic a behaviour or action, to reproducing the behav-
iour or action at a later time. As the child acquires more and more sophisticated mental
abilities, so too does their ability to reproduce more complicated actions and action
Box 10.7 Macaques and observational learning

The use of modelling as a means to teach one’s young is not exclusive to humans. Another species that
enjoys the ability to learn through observation is the macaque. The macaque is a group of old world
monkeys who have been the subject of some legendary tales of observational learning, particularly
Macaca macaca fuscata. For example, macaque mothers will intentionally demonstrate the use of
tools to their children (e.g. using sticks), performing the act multiple times so that the infant is able to
repeat the behaviour independently. Even more spectacular is the story regarding one particular
female, Imo. In response to researchers leaving yams on the beach (sweet potatoes), Imo developed
the habit of washing her food in the sea to remove the dirt before eating the sweet treats. The other
members of her group gradually adopted the same habit, until nearly all members of the group could
be seen engaging in the same washing behaviour. Another striking example is the group of macaques
at Jigokudani hot springs, where members of the group developed the social habit of bathing with
each other in the warm, natural baths. Both of these examples illustrate the profound impact that the
environment can have on the individual. It is therefore not surprising that psychologists and other
professionals in the teaching room are so concerned about the impact that the child’s home
environment might have on their attitudes and behaviour in the teaching room: social behaviour,
emotional expression, conflict resolution, and ultimately, the child’s motivation to learn will be
determined to a large extent by what the child observes from their immediate social environment.
Box 10.8 Good enough parenting

Professionals working in the teaching room must recognize the importance of understanding and
communicating with parents. All theories of education and formal teaching programmes realize that
parental influence is an important element in securing the success of a child. Unfortunately, some
people are not equipped to deal with the responsibilities that come with parenting; and, many
children suffer as a consequence. In order to address the problem, many regional and government
authorities (e.g. criminal justice system) require that parents partake in educational classes designed
to improve their skills in parenting. In such cases, the psychologist working in the teaching room plays
a key role. Because of the systemic nature of the problem, it is essential that the psychologist
participates in multidisciplinary teams. Psychologists are likely to join other professionals, such as
healthcare professionals, social workers, and those from the criminal justice system to help parents
deal with difficulties in childrearing. Many clinical psychologists are involved in psycho-educational
interventions such as parenting classes. These classes are generally based on cognitive-behavioural
approaches, and support parents by educating them in child development, and other issues (e.g.
attachment style). Classes help parents better understand their own child’s (children’s) behaviour and
also help parents identify constructive ways to deal with the inevitable frustrations of parenthood.
Often, classes support parents to understand better their own personal issues, and identify how these
issues can impact negatively on a child. Within the teaching environment, parents can also develop
social support networks, and learn through sharing and listening to the experiences of others.
sequences. Bandura (1977) also notes that the child’s ability to imitate improves as they
continue to practise the behaviour.
The final component is perhaps one that is the most essential, motivation. We have
already given attention to the importance of the concept of motivation (e.g. ‘The war room,
Chapter 7, pp. 135–166); so, we will not repeat the many theoretical arguments that have
been advanced to account for it effects. Bandura regards motivation in a slightly different
manner, suggesting that motivation is not the reason people learn through observation, but
rather the reason why the child might conform, or not conform, to what they have observed.
In this way, motivation is the incentive for the child to act, think and feel in accordance to
the dominant rules of the social environment. Bandura suggests that past reinforcement,
promised reinforcements, or incentives can serve as motives, although he also notes the
effectiveness of vicarious reinforcement, where the child learns by observing the outcomes
of other’s actions. Like other learning theorists, Bandura says that punishment in whatever
form does not work as well as reinforcement and, in fact, has a tendency to produce undesir-
able effects (Bandura 1977).
Teaching methods
The major goals of education are to ensure: first, that the knowledge, information or skill has
been acquired by the learner; and second, that the learner retains the information, etc., such
that at a later time, he or she can utilize the previously acquired knowledge and apply it
accordingly to the current needs of the task at hand. Earlier we defined the process through
which this happens as pedagogy and stressed that there are different ways that this can
occur. We refer to these as teaching methods. As we discuss below, there are a variety of
different types of teaching method, some more active than others. In spite of this variation,
all teaching methods are goal directed; they must ensure that the learner can recognise the
knowledge, reproduce the knowledge, or utilize the knowledge in new problem-solving
situations (e.g. transfer effects; practice effects). However, the reader is warned that there is
an underlying disagreement between professionals as to what teaching methods are likely to
produce the best results and whether any teaching method actually has any substantial
evidence to support its use over another’s use.
To this end, the teaching methods used by an educator provide a critical element of the
learning environment. Teaching methods should include a number of different factors, at
least ideally. For one, the method should be commensurate with the type and level of abilities
of the learner. A good example of this is the use of age appropriate language. The dangers of
smoking tobacco can be discussed with a 5 year old and an 18 year old, although the precise
words used and ideas put across will be vastly different. So, the type of teaching method must
somehow match the individual being taught. Second, teaching methods should ensure that
the learner acquires that which is identified as important. For example, if it is decided that the
learner must be able to demonstrate practical knowledge, then the teaching methods should
selectively guide the learner towards the mastery of this knowledge. This is often the case with
professional degrees, for example PsyD, where the emphasis is on acquisition and mastery of
professional skills. These types of degrees will always require teaching methods that enable
the student to acquire and demonstrate learning in professional areas. Third, the teaching
methods should motivate the learner to engage with the learning materials (see Box 10.10
Box 10.9 The use of stage models in teaching

Stage models of memory have had serious implications for the teaching room. We note that the
development of the working memory model by Baddeley and his associates (see Chapter 8, ‘The
treatment room’, Scenario two; Baddeley 2000) is an example. There have been many other
developments of working memory, with distinctions being introduced regarding its relationship to
long-term memory stores. Generally, working memory is assumed to be a temporary store relying on
a variety of strategies in order to maintain the information for future use. Evidence has shown that
working memory is critical for reading and language development (e.g. Breznitz and Share 1992),
with others suggesting that working memory capacity parallels cognitive development and ageing
(e.g. Pascual-Leone 1970). Importantly, the concept of a system that provides a temporary storehouse
for information critical in reading, language comprehension, and problem solving is naturally going
to be highly relevant to the teaching room. This has indeed proven to be the case. Evidence from
research on working memory models has pointed to clear techniques for improving not only the
average learner, but also learners who may have certain childhood cognitive disorders, such as
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (e.g. Mash and Barkley 2007). These include such techniques
as repeating and drawing attention to the critical information (e.g. ensuring successful transfer of
information), checking to verify that the information has been acquired correctly; minimizing the
amount of information presented to the learner at any single time (e.g. facilitating sustained attention
to the learning materials); chunking information so that more complex relationships can be
established; and retrieving the information regularly so as to increase the accessibility of the
information to the learner.
ISSUES IN THE MODERN TEACHING ROOM 255
and the quote from Plato, p. 246). This does not simply mean that the teaching methods
require the learner to attend to the appropriate material. Rather, the learner should possess a
desire to learn, to acquire, and to demonstrate that they have learned. This desire, this com-
pelling drive must be supported by teaching methods that are interesting and engaging.
For example, teaching methods that place the responsibility of learning onto the learner,
and require the active participation of the learner in discussing the material are generally
preferred methods, as they yield better performance (e.g. Socratic methods). Modern
examples of these types of techniques are generally considered under the generic heading of
active learning methods (e.g. Bonwell and Eison 1991). The central assumption is that the
responsibility for learning should be firmly placed on the shoulders of the learner, rather
than the educator. Methods include such things as class discussion, activity exercises for
small groups that are then shared with the bigger class; role playing; and learning by teach-
ing (see Bonwell and Eison 1991).
While there is no doubt that the learner must be motivated to learn, the influence of the
guidance of the educator cannot be understated (e.g. Kirschner et al. 2006). The teacher
must know how and when to support the learner to be active cognitively while simultane-
ously serving as a role model, having enthusiasm and interest in the topics and subjects in
question. Without skill, enthusiasm, or interest, the teacher cannot captivate the attention
of the learner, and the process of pedagogy becomes stale and lifeless.
It is interesting that a good many authors—from the classical philosophers to modern
social commentators—doubt the ultimately positive impact that a teacher might have on
the learner. For example, de Montaignie argues ‘Obest plerumque iss discere volunt authori-
tas erom qui docent’, which, roughly translated is, ‘For those who want to learn, the obstacle
can often be the authority of those who teach’. Neitzsche similarly echoed caution regarding
the teacher–learner relationship when he stated, ‘It is because of teachers that so little is
learned, and that so badly’ (1880). The often-quoted phrase ‘Those who can, do; those who
cannot, teach’ similarly questions whether the teacher should automatically warrant respect
(the reader should note that the quote finds some origin in George Bernard Shaw’s Man and
Superman, 1903). These somewhat negative views serve to remind the psychologist, and any
other professional working in the teaching room, that the role of an educator must never be
taken lightly.
Issues in the modern teaching room

We now consider more contemporary issues that dominate psychologists’ attention in the
modern teaching room. Most, if not all, of the major issues we have already discussed con-
tinue to be relevant. However, new challenges have emerged, and relate to dramatic changes
in technologies and general attitudes towards education. In particular, psychologists work-
ing in the modern teaching room must be able to adopt strategies of teaching that can apply
to learners across a wide range of cultures and linguistic preferences. Equally important,
psychologists must also be flexible and capitalize on the rapidly changing trends in learning
styles that have been the direct consequence of new everyday technologies, like the person
computer and other communication devices.
Box 10.10 Formal educational environments

Currently there are a number of formal venues for the teaching room. There are considerable
differences across different cultures, of course. Nonetheless, certain similarities exist, particularly as
one observes higher education rooms. Generally, most children are involved in formal education by
the age of 4 or 5 years until adolescence. These institutions are generally hierarchical in nature.
Teachers are responsible for executing specific curricula, and are overseen by principals who are
responsible for ensuring that the average performance for students at the institution reaches specific
learning outcomes, for example exceed specified levels on test scores. In turn, principals are
responsible to local educational authorities who in turn are accountable to regional government
authorities. Educational authorities are responsible for developing standards and content of curricula
as well as determining the use of resources in dealing with issues such as special educational needs
(see ‘Special education’ below). Higher education is generally defined as those institutions that confer
academic degrees and professional certificates, which will include colleges and universities. The
former offer professional certificates and bachelor’s degrees, and include career colleges, technical
colleges, liberal arts colleges, sixth form colleges (in the UK) and community or junior colleges.
Universities offer undergraduate and post-graduate degrees, the latter of which include master’s
degrees, professional doctorates (e.g. PsyD) and, of course, academic doctorates (PhDs). Generally,
colleges and universities offer psychologists with excellent opportunities to teach and to conduct
research, whereas lower educational institutions (e.g. primary schools) are particularly well suited for
psychologists specializing in educational psychology.
To this end, we consider the types of educational institutions that are available to the
psychologist who may be interested in the teaching room. We highlight that the teaching
room no longer needs to consider the physical environment or physical presence of the
educator or teacher. Indeed, technology has resulted in the teaching room being more of a
virtual environment than a real one.
The international classroom

One of the most dramatic changes in the characteristics of the teaching room, at least in
Western societies, is the diversity of students. The range in the cultural and linguistic
backgrounds of students ultimately introduces new challenges to the instructor/teacher.
While there is no doubt that genetic components determine various characteristics and
aptitudes, there is equally little doubt that the socio-linguistic and economic environ-
ments will be heavily influential in how a student can learn. Because of this, the classroom
is a microcosm of the society at large, and students will exhibit behaviours and attitudes
that are congruent with the culture with which they most strongly identify. The profes-
sional working in the modern teaching room, confronted with this situation, must be able
to utilize instructional methods that will support the achievement of all students, regard-
less of background.
One such instructional programme is called cooperative learning. This approach has
been particularly advocated by Holt et al. (1991), who suggest that cooperative learning can
be highly beneficial in classrooms that have linguistically and culturally diverse students.
The basic idea behind the approach is to create a learning environment wherein each student
ISSUES IN THE MODERN TEACHING ROOM 257
supports the other to acquire competence and mastery over the learning materials. The
programme was developed in response to the more traditional methods of teaching that
were adopted in the 1950s in the USA, which arguably encouraged competition among
students rather than collegiality (see Coleman 1972).
A specific incarnation of this general class of programme is described as the ‘Power of
One’. Most of the characteristics of this programme are designed to develop group cohesion
and, as a consequence, will benefit all students’ learning. Among the more salient features of
the Power of One are: a common, single goal with a common shared workspace; specific,
identifiable roles that are assigned to each group member; and limited materials to encour-
age students to share and communicate (e.g. only one set of books).
Slavin (1994) conducted research on a type of cooperative learning, Student Team
Learning. He reported that all programmes share the common themes of having students
work as a group and having each student responsible for their peers’ success. For Slavin,
there were three critical concepts to any cooperative learning programme: the team is
rewarded, although each group member is graded individually; the team’s success is contin-
gent on all group members succeeding; and all group members are expected to improve
their performance relative to their previous levels of success. Most recently, Duplass (2006)
argues that additional common characteristics include heterogeneous group members, that
is, diversity in terms of skill and backgrounds; face-to-face interactions; social etiquette
whereby all group members show respect and civility towards each other; and group reflec-
tion, where the group as whole reflects and evaluates its performance and the processes
through which the group members operated as a team.
The virtual teaching room

It is clear that we must discuss how technological advancements have challenged the
requirement of a physical environment and also questioned the necessity of a face-to-face
relationship between instruction or teacher and student or pupil. We will refer to the general
class of teaching rooms in which the teacher and student are separate—either in space, time,
or both—as distance learning environments. This general class includes the concepts of
e-learning as well as the recently developed term, virtual classroom. E-learning is best con-
ceived as a continuum: there are classrooms that have no technology available and utilize
traditional methods such as writing on a board, or arts and crafts; then there are classrooms
that use aids, such as PowerPoint and videos (DVDs). At the extreme other end are those
classrooms that are fully online, utilizing aids such as elluminate (www.elluminate.com),
Blackboard (www.blackboard.com), as well as other Internet-based systems.
Early examples of the virtual classroom include Great Britain’s Open University, and the
New Jersey Institute of Technology. For example, the Open University would provide
lectures and lessons through the television (late night) and students would submit assign-
ments. At some point (generally during the summer term), students would be required to
attend a formal setting, where they would meet with the tutors and instructors, as well as
other students. In the USA, Turoff and Hiltz (1978, The Network Nation) are regarded by
most authors in e-learning as the pioneers, developing the first groupware systems (1970,
Delphi Conference and EMISARI), which have served as the prototypes for modern ver-
sions that are now familiar tools in twenty-first century teaching rooms (e.g. Blackboard).
The reader should note that e-learning is available for students of all ages, across all
academic levels. For example, children aged 5 and 6 can log onto www.e-learningforkids.
org and discover a series of different courses, each designed to provide developmentally
appropriate programmes for maths, language and arts, science, computers, environmental
and life skills, and health choices. As is common with such sites, the child is offered an inter-
active programme, whereby they can learn through problem solving different ‘tasks’.
An interesting consequence of the virtual classroom is the relative emphasis on the
knowledge that is to be learned, rather than the knowledge that is gained from social inter-
actions per se between students. We have seen that a significant part of a formal education—
from the time of ancient China to the twentieth century—was learning how to behave. Thus,
a child would not only be expected to learn basic mathematics in school; they would also be
expected to demonstrate behaviours that were commensurate with their developmental
level and with the expectations of the teacher, who represented authority. In this way, the
social environment provided an essential element in the child’s education; and children
were often graded on their social behaviour. For example, ‘silence’ and ‘not speaking to
one’s neighbours’ was regarded as important to observe during class time, and children who
found it difficult to comply would be marked down.
Box 10.11 The Montessori method

The Montessori method has come to be known as an alternative teaching method that use
standardized syllabi. The approach was developed initially by an Italian physician and educator Maria
Montessori, although now the name is a generic term that appears to be applied to a number of
specific approaches. This makes summarizing the approach considerably more difficult, as variations
exist in terms of philosophies. However, a few of the essential elements of the approach can be
understood through the concepts of inner nature, self-directed learning, observation, and indirect
teaching. Inner nature refers to the belief that the child has the ability to develop into their true,
‘normal’ nature, through their own inherent, internal guidelines. The environment should be designed
to support the child’s inner nature, by providing guidance and encouragement rather than directing
the child to learn in a manner that is not congruent with their internal self and interests. Self-directed
learning follows from this: the child is allowed to act as their own teacher, and is free to develop at
their own rate, engaging in those elements of the environment that are particularly attractive or salient
to their own, personal nature. The teacher (director or guide), in turn, operates through observation
and indirect teaching by monitoring the environment to ensure that the child is not faced with
obstacles. For example, the teacher may intervene with children (‘lessons’) who are experiencing
difficulties, and help the child find solutions which ‘fit’ their temperament and interests. Essential
through this process is the prepared environment, which provides children with the appropriate
conditions for them to learn. Younger children (2–6 years old) are particularly sensitive to the physical
environment; so, the teacher must be sure that the child is presented with an enriched environment,
where there are a variety of physical objects, textures, etc. that surround the child and are available ad
lib (e.g. tablets, cylinders, stairs, see Montessori 1972). For example, younger children are give specific
materials to support physical coordination (e.g. asked to pour soup in a cup), and other life skills. While
such techniques are most commonly used for younger children, research has provided ample
evidence that the Montessori approach produced superior performance in mathematics and social
skills in middle childhood (Lillard and Else-Quest 2006) as well as high school (Dohrmann et al. 2007).
While the virtual classroom still relies heavily on interactions between educator and
students, and students and students, some advocates have used the absence of a tangible
social environment as a positive factor. For example, in the USA, regular advertisements on
television encourage parents to enrol their children in Internet-based classes, starting from
kindergarten through high school. These advertisements warn parents that the traditional
teaching environments fail children in a number of ways. Most significantly, the formal
classroom does not allow a child to learn at ‘their own pace’; and the physical presence of
other children can act as a deterrent, impeding the individual child’s development and pro-
gress. Instead, education at home, through e-learning, with specified lessons and teaching
plans, and the child’s own personal tutor (or teacher) promises to be a more fulfilling way
for the child to learn.
It is undoubtedly true that the presence of other children can be distracting. On the other
hand, the physical presence of another student can promote collegiality, and a healthy
element of competition. In fact, we have reported in an earlier chapter that many psycholo-
gists and behavioural analysts consider the social environment to be one of the most essen-
tial elements in ensuring that people perform well at their tasks (see ‘The work room’,
Chapter 6). Whether a student—regardless of age, gender, or culture—learns better in a
quiet, isolated environment, or one that is filled with noisy, social dynamics will probably be
determined more by the learner’s individual temperament than anything else.

Scenario one
Changing social behaviour at school
The first scenario deals with the issue of how to change social behaviour of adolescent stu-
dents at an upper school (ages 13+). In particular, the scenario focuses on how to discourage
students from partaking in activities that adults consider worrisome and problematic—
teenage drinking. It is certainly true that some percentage of adolescents and teenagers will
‘experiment’ with some form of drugs or narcotics, whether the drugs be alcohol, tobacco,
or the more socially unacceptable narcotics such as marijuana, cocaine, and opiates (e.g.
heroin). As we have seen, developmental theorists and researchers often anticipate that
some form of rebellious behaviours are ‘normal’ and are more likely to emerge as children
remove themselves from the primary family unit and begins to develop peer relationships
(e.g. the transition from young middle childhood into adolescence). Further, there is the
argument that children will mature out of their rebellious behaviours, relegating the unde-
sirable behaviour as a ‘phase that he or she will grow out of’. For example, Charles Winick’s
seminal paper on addiction provided strong arguments that a significant percentage of indi-
viduals with heroin addiction remit as they get older (Maturing out of Narcotic Addiction
1962). However, this hopeful attitude does not quell the worry of many parents, nor does it
relieve the anxiety that educators experience, as the latter are held formally responsible for
students in their care. As such, waiting for the adolescent to ‘grow out of it’ is not a course
of action that is likely to be preferred by adults. This scenario deals with how a psychologist
was instrumental in helping those involved take more proactive steps.

A large secondary school in a relative large suburban city was the brunt of media attention
when some of its students were involved in raucous behaviour at a football match. The
students used profanity and demonstrated crude behaviours, all which were caught on vide-
otape and broadcasted on the local nightly news (twice). The situation was further exacer-
bated by an interview that two, non-offending students, also present at the match, gave to
the news reporter. Both students were adamant that other pupils at the school ‘regularly
came to class off their heads’ and made strong allegations that a substantial proportion of
the student body had a slight to moderate drinking problem. The students also claimed that
many of those who drank were also demonstrating other undesirable behaviours, such as
aggressiveness towards teachers and other students. No one at the school, the board of
trustees, or the regional educational authority was informed of the footage, nor did the
television station tell any of the school representatives of their intention to broadcast an
entire 6-week ‘piece’ about teenage drinking, with the tape of the students being at the
centre of the programme.
On hearing about the newscast, the principal called an emergency meeting of staff,
parents, and the board of trustees. Not surprisingly, reactions were not good—arguably one
could say that the situation was dire. While some parents threatened to remove their
children and sue the school authority, other parents complained that their children were
increasingly more difficult to control and had been experiencing greater instances of aggres-
sive behaviours at home, such as verbal abuse and physical violence. In a similar vein, teach-
ers who attended the meeting stated their concern about the level of aggressive behaviours
with which they were dealing on a daily basis. The board of trustees decided that the princi-
pal and staff should to address the problem immediately, and devise strategies that would
reduce not only any collateral damage but also improve the school’s image. Critically, the
school was required to demonstrate—with ‘hard evidence’—the extent of the problem and
the success of any subsequent interventions. The school was given 60 days to respond with
its proposal, which would have to include data regarding the problem, the strategies for
interventions, a time-line identifying major milestones (e.g. goals that would be achieved)
and specific outcome measures that would illustrate the success, or failure of the
interventions.
Why were psychologists involved?

The strong, negative reactions of the board of trustees, the parents, and the regional school
authority severely affected the morale and confidence of the principal and her staff. In fact,
many of the parents (as well as senior administrators in the school authority) expressed
grave doubts about the abilities of the current staff to address any problems, given that they
had been so unaware of the severity of the problem. There was another confounding prob-
lem: while the school knew that there would have to be clear and strong evidence presented
as a response, the principal and faculty did not feel that they were best equipped to deal with
the issues adequately. The school psychologist of course had experience in psychological
concepts and issues that might be relevant (e.g. empowerment of children in defining
boundaries). However, he did not feel that he was sufficiently experienced in data analyses
and report writing, and was adamant that some sort of outside assistance would be essential.
This decision was finally agreed upon unanimously by the principal and faculty. It was also
agreed that the psychologist(s) needed to be someone who understood developmental

issues, and also had experience in dealing with applied projects, rather than someone whose
expertise was in theoretical or experimental psychology.
The psychologist hired for the project was present at a second meeting held with parents,
the board, and the school staff. Again, parents and staff expressed concerns over the uncon-
trollable nature of the students’ behaviours, both in terms of alcohol consumption and in
terms of aggressive, anti-social behaviours. The psychologist also became very aware that
the students’ behaviour was not the only problem: she noted that many of the staff and
parents were speaking as though they had no control, and that, often, they appeared to feel
as if they were victims of the students’ unruly behaviours.
What psychological concepts were involved?

The ultimate goal for the psychologist was to outline steps that could be taken in order to
address the target problems of anti-social behaviours (i.e. alcohol consumption and
aggressive behaviours). While apparently straightforward, the psychologist knew that this
situation was very complicated. For example, the psychologist knew that the behaviour of
the students was equally determined by internal factors as external factors; and, as a conse-
quence, felt that ultimately, a number of different levels must be included in order for any
interventions to be successful.
Clearly, concepts related to addictive behaviours (such as impulsivity) would be impor-
tant to consider, although there was some question in the psychologist’s mind as to whether
any of the students could be considered to have a problem with alcohol. After all, while
teenage drinking may be a problem, the psychologist was well aware that such behaviour is
not automatically synonymous with alcohol addiction. The psychologist felt it would be
important to consider risk and vulnerability factors that might influence the extent to which
specific students would engage in drinking, as well as protective and resiliency factors that
might be relied on to support more moderate behaviours, or abstinence (which seemed to
be the preference of most parents and the board of trustees). This was based on most theories
of addictive behaviours which stipulate that risk/protective factors as well as temperament
factors will determine whether an individual indulges in drugs.
Similarly, the psychologist knew that it would be important to review general
developmental milestones, particularly with respect to experimentation and rebellious-
ness. The psychologist was aware that teenagers in particular are faced with especially
difficult developmental challenges. Physical changes, such as changes in hormonal levels,
are one obvious set of factors that can create difficulties for both the child and parent.
Additionally, the teenagers are increasingly motivated to assert their individuality and
independence, and strive for individuation from their parents’ views, attitudes, and
restrictions (e.g. Erikson 1968).
While the psychologist was not given any remit to address the problems experienced by
the staff and parents, she knew that failure to address these corollary issues would prevent
any successful interventions from being implemented with the students. The psychologist
also realized there was an intricate balance between all the factors. This suggested the use of
a conceptual framework that would depict multiple factors and multiple levels of explana-
tion of the behaviours in question. To this end, the psychologist felt that the bio-ecological
model proposed by Bronfenbrenner (2005) would be the most successful in providing an
integrated structure from which interventions and practical steps could be derived and
evaluated.
Bronfenbrenner’s model is founded on the suggestion that a child’s development, be it
personality, cognition, moral behaviour, or physical prowess, is the result of the immediate,
or proximal interactions that the child has between various factors in their environment.
The child is viewed as an organism, existing and growing within smaller and larger contexts:
the organism influences and is influenced by their environment, which includes genetic,
social, environmental, and political characteristics. The interactions are reciprocal and
influence each other, either directly or indirectly. In this way, any behaviour that a child
demonstrates is viewed to be the result of a multiplicity of continuously changing interac-
tions that occur across different levels and different factors, be they persons, objects, or
symbols in the environment.
The environment, then, is like a set of nested structures, each inside the next. Bronfenbrenner
distinguishes factors in terms of their relative level and their proximal or distal nature. Level is
defined in terms of microsystems, exosystems, and lastly, macrosystems. Bronfenbrenner
emphasizes the bidirectional effects of each level on the adjacent levels, so that development is
genuinely the result of dynamic interactions. Proximal factors are those which are closest to the
child, in terms of the directness of the interaction and refer to a child’s immediate interactions
with people, the physical environment or informational sources. In contrast, distal factors exert
their influences in indirect ways. Examples of these include internal distal factors such as the
child’s genetic make-up, which Bronfenbrenner referred to as a chronosystem, while features
of the educational system and the broader culture are examples of external distal factors.
According to Bronfenbrenner, proximal factors are modified and mediated by distal processes.
In this way, development is viewed as a complex and interwoven interaction between different
factors, both close and distant to the child and their immediate surroundings.
Examples of microsystems include family and child–parent relationships, the home or
living environment, teachers, peers, and any other factors with which the child interacts
directly and closely. Infants and young children interact primarily with family members;
but, as the child grows older, other microsystems, such as the school or neighbourhood,
become part of their lives. Microsystems can themselves influence each other and
Bronfenbrenner refers to these reciprocal relationships as a mesosystem. For example, a
child’s interactions with their teachers affect interactions with their parents.
Exosystemic factors are those with which the child does not directly interact but nonethe-
less will impact on the child’s development. They can include more global factors, such as
the general community, school authority, and other systems such as medical resources.
Alternatively, exosystemic factors can be much more specific, such as a teacher’s family life,
which, through influencing the teacher, will affect the nature of the interactions that the
teacher has with the child. Macrosystem factors are at the highest level and include the more
diverse influences that influence a child, such as cultural values, social conditions, economic
and political doctrines, and so on. These factors similarly influence and shape the interac-
tions and operations of microsystems. Thus the macrosystem will influence how effective
the immediate environment is to the needs of the particular individual child, as well as the
specific ways in which those needs are met, including opportunities for growth. For example,
economic policy decisions regarding how much money might be allotted to art programmes
will ultimately restrict the opportunities a child who is interested in art might have had to
develop their talents. In this way cultural attitudes and laws regarding the education of
students will impact on the operation of a school and therefore a child’s interactions with
teachers (Bronfenbrenner 2005; Broderick and Blewitt 2006).
At the same time, the individual child’s temperament will directly influence the
effectiveness of the environment and those people and objects in it. Bronfenbrenner’s later
theorizing emphasized the nested nature of many internal features, such as dispositions,
resources, and demand characteristics. The latter are depicted as behavioural tendencies
that are exhibited by the child that can promote or inhibit different kinds of reactions from
others. For example, some children are shy and inhibited in social interactions. These chil-
dren are less likely to demand attention from their environment, and may fail to elicit atten-
tion and receive less support when needed, when compared with a child who is sociable and
more outgoing (Bronfenbrenner 2005; Broderick and Blewitt 2006).
Unlike other developmental frameworks, Bronfenbrenner’s model does not specify the
nature of the developmental changes. The model can incorporate emergent, stage-like
changes, such as those that are depicted when a child transits between preoperational to
concrete operational thought (Piaget, 1956); as well as continuous, gradations, such as
changes in recreational interests or progressive involvement in athletics as a child gets older.
Any change will always be the result of proximal processes, but distal internal and external
factors will heavily impact. Once changes occur, the individual identifies and brings new
resources to these proximal processes (Bronfenbrenner 2005; Broderick and Blewitt 2006).
Using this framework, the psychologist started out with the assumption that the students’
drinking and aggressive behaviours were the consequence of a sequence of finely related
interactions. Some elements of the behaviours could be attributed to genetic or distal factors,
such as a student’s propensity to engage in impulsive behaviours; whereas other elements of
the behaviours could be the consequences of more proximal factors, such as family dynamics
or extra-curricular friendships. The psychologist knew that it would be essential to identify
the level of factors, as some would be more amenable to intervention, while others would not
be, for example extra-curricular friendships versus temperament, respectively.
Box 10.12 Complexity in adolescent aggression

It appears that most of the research on adolescent aggression supports the notion that the
temperament of the child is a necessary condition for the emergence of aggressive behaviours during
adolescence (e.g. Jakob 2010). Thus, it is likely that a child, early on in their development,
demonstrated characteristics that could be identified as premature indices of later social aggression,
for example, inability to tolerate change, impulsive, unresponsiveness to social cues, and so on.
However, the research also heavily endorses the view that the environment will play a critical role in
promoting these behaviours as the child develops. Parental factors include poor conflict resolution
within the family and the partnership, etc; societal factors include not only the usual suspects, for
example video games, Inter-net, media, but also the justice system, through the emergence of
children’s rights. While no viewpoint is being endorsed here, it must be acknowledged that children
in the twenty-first century regard themselves as having civil rights and have entitlement to their
views, opinions, and beliefs about how they should be raised and what they should be doing (e.g.
child divorcing their parents) in ways that are unprecedented.
Additionally, Bronfenbrenner’s model helped the psychologist develop a clear explanation

that she could present to the school authorities, faculty, parents, students, etc. She knew that
this systemic explanation could provide clear arguments for the involvement of everyone,
and that it highlighted how important each ‘level’ was in ultimately producing the desirable,
or undesirable behaviours. Everyone—the school authorities, faculty and staff, parents and
families, and students—would understand how essential their respective inputs and sup-
port would be in ensuring success. Everyone’s ‘voice’ could be heard, and this, in and of
itself, could promote systemic changes.
The psychologist also knew that it would be essential to consider the exact methods
through which she would impart information regarding the factors influencing the students’
behaviours, and how appropriate interventions might be developed. To this end, she decided
that she would adopt a psycho-educational approach, whereby the emphasis would be on
each party having insight into how they may be contributing to the target behaviours; she
would then provide information—through videos, the Internet, informational packets, focus
groups, guest speakers—that would support people to change their behaviours. Critically she
knew that the teaching methods would need to map onto the level and interests of the audi-
ence in question. For example, students would probably prefer methods of intervention that
could utilise a range of technologies, such as the Internet and YouTube; whereas their parents
may prefer more ‘traditional’ methods of focus groups and pamphlets.
The psychologist anticipated that each level would have to focus on different specific
concepts. For example, the psychologist felt that a concept like personal responsibility
would be essential to introduce to students, who would need support in understanding their
emerging roles as adults. In contrast, the psychologist believed that concepts such as model-
ling and vicarious learning would be important to stress when discussing the roles that
parents, teachers, and other adults have on adolescent behaviour.
The psychologist also felt that it was essential to consider concepts such as social injustice
and cultural/linguistic sensitivity.
Box 10.13 Social injustice and education

The concept of social injustice focuses on a failure to recognize the habitual oppression that is
endured by members of particular racial, cultural, and sexual groups within the society. The argument
stems from the fact that certain groups have traditionally been marginalized and oppressed, through
the domination of ideologies and doctrines of the majority. Central to the notion of social injustice is
that understanding that all individuals and persons should be regarded as equals, and should have
fair and proper access to opportunities and living standards that are considered lawful within the
society (MacNair-Semands 2007). Major mechanisms or processes that result in social injustice are
generally described in terms of some interaction between emotion (e.g. fear) and cognition (e.g.
perception of differences; interpretation of behaviour). For example, the individual fails to perceive
another person as an individual, and applies instead characteristics that are based on often fallacious
or distorted beliefs, the result can be stereotyping. These fear responses, based often on inexperience
with the group or the individual, then lead the individual to make fundamental attribution errors. The
resultant consequences include discrimination, stereotyping, racism, classism, ableism (as in physical
ability), ageism, and sexism.
She knew that the methods of teaching, parenting, and the like were all heavily influenced
by the culture in which the individual was embedded. If she were to proceed without taking
into account these greater distal factors, explicitly and at the outset, then she was certain that
she would fail. Underlying all her actions was the psychologist’s firm commitment to sup-
porting the various participants to take action and empower themselves.

The psychologist decided that a smaller group of interested parties should meet again,
almost as a task force, with a remit to go back to their specific groups and come up with ideas
regarding concrete interventions that might be introduced. She first identified five levels or
groups from which participants would be selected and would attend this initial task force
meeting. Importantly, the psychologist focused only on those levels for which some practi-
cal interventions might be more likely. So, while the psychologist knew that there were
greater cultural factors at stake (e.g. television programmes that supported drinking and
aggression as attractive qualities to have), she did not want to encourage any disempower-
ment by focusing on factors for which very little could be accomplished. Instead, she focused
only on those levels for which some interventions could be introduced. To this end she
identified the school authority, the faculty and staff, the parents, the students, and the local
community in which the school was located.
She felt that some more distal factors, such as genetic predispositions for aggressive
behaviours, could be identified through school, parental and student levels, for example
information regarding students who may have a ‘history’ of difficulty behaviours, or identi-
fication of those students who may have a familial predisposition towards certain types of
behaviours. She was also acutely aware that the use of such information would need to be
closely monitored, as scapegoating and stereotyping could result from an overly zealous
interpretation and use of background details. For example, simply because a student may
have a familial predisposition towards behavioural health problems did not guarantee that
this student would develop or demonstrate such health problems.
The psychologist then created a slide presentation for the initial task force meeting that
explained her general theoretical approach and highlighted the various levels of factors that
she felt were contributing to the target behaviours. The presentation also put forward vari-
ous options that the different ‘levels’ had in terms of responses to the situation, for example
focus groups, class surveys, and guest speakers. The psychologist felt strongly that it was first
essential for each level to be present, simultaneously, and to discuss how each of these
groups might proceed to determine their preferences in terms of interventions. This would
reflect the first stage of action from which everyone could then move towards more specific
interventions.
The psychologist presented her ideas to the task force group and fielded specific ques-
tions and concerns that arose. After this, she required the group to break into smaller
subgroups, where the task was to identify how they might go about getting at more specific
ideas for interventions. She gave examples, such as students forming focus groups, or ask-
ing for a debate at the general school assembly. She also asked each subgroup to come up
with time deadlines for actions, stressing that a strict and firm timetable would have to
be developed, which identified milestones and deadlines for the achievement of specific,
concrete objectives.
Each subgroup developed topics that it felt was important and identified methods for
obtaining further information about the target behaviours. For example, one subgroup
suggested that students hold an open forum, with faculty present, where students’ views
regarding drinking and aggression could be heard, and where specific ideas for types of
interventions could be created. Another subgroup suggested that parents might form a
support group, particularly when children were having difficulties. The support group could
serve as a source of information for such things as parenting skills. Yet another subgroup
suggested that students be responsible for developing ‘anti-drinking’ messages, in the form
of videos and Internet chatrooms. Generally, each subgroup was very proactive and
successful in identifying specific ways of moving forward.
At the conclusion of the meeting, the psychologist reviewed what each subgroup had
developed and then asked the group to agree on a timetable for the next sequence of actions,
etc. The task force was able to agree on a timetable, with specific objectives and milestones;
and the members stated that, as a group, they felt that they had achieved a significant first
step in addressing the problem. The psychologist said that she would be happy to facilitate
the task force through all of its stages, although she was aware that the task force may not
wish to commit themselves at that time.
How was the input of the psychologists assessed?

Subsequent to the task force meeting, the psychologist received a letter on behalf of all
parties. The letter said that the task force had valued highly the psychologist’s help and that,
as a consequence of her input, they felt that they had a good set of ideas from which to
approach the problems. Importantly, the school authority was very impressed with the way
that the psychologist had facilitated the task force, and inquired whether the psychologist
would be willing to adopt a similar role in other local schools.
The specific school itself felt that they could move forward without the psychologist’s fur-
ther input. They stated that their decision was based, in part on the fact that they had a limited
budget, and some of the interventions would require funding for which sources had yet to be
identified. However, they also stated that they would welcome the psychologist’s input at
some point in the future, perhaps before any specific interventions were implemented.
Scenario two
Educating the multidisciplinary team
This scenario involves difficulties in establishing courses for multidisciplinary healthcare
teams. Fiscal restraints and increasing population demands have left healthcare models
struggling to provide the necessary healthcare (Tesch et al. 2010).
This strain has been acutely experienced by professionals who provide mental healthcare
for chronically distressed clients and their families. To combat this, some statutory providers
have been required to ‘outsource’ their services to other independent healthcare providers, in
an effort to keep costs to a minimum. This outsourcing enables the county agency to special-
ize in its treatments, by relying on the outsourced organization to supplemental tasks. A vari-
ant of this is the Improved Access to Care pilot project that was implemented in parts of
England after 2008. These types of model are contingent on good working relationships
between the different providers, a clear definition of boundaries and job duties, as well as
clear avenues through which knowledge and information can be shared. Importantly, meth-
ods to discuss disagreements over essential issues as treatment, assessment and so on, are
critical to develop and implement, as a breakdown in communication across providers could
prove serious to clients, their families, and ultimately the community. This scenario exam-
ines what happens when communication breaks down between healthcare providers work-
ing in a multidisciplinary setting; and illustrates how the teaching room can be extended to
the further training of professionals, or continued professional development.

The behavioural health department of a beleaguered, and financially insolvent county,
Brokesburgh, was forced to outsource work for chronic clients of ‘transition age youth’ or
TAYs (i.e. 16–25 years), in order to reduce costs incurred by using their own clinicians. The
subcontracted agency, HelpYouth, was to provide new and supplemental healthcare
services, particularly for those clients who were more stable and less severely impaired.
Practitioners would use the same coding system as required by the regional authority and
were to invoice Brokesburgh on a monthly basis. The in-house departmental clinicians were
very much against this new outsourcing. First, outsourcing had a direct impact on a clini-
cian’s workload and pay cheque. Second, Brokesburgh had begun to use outsourcing as its
main means of reducing costs: outsourcing generally was associated with people being
made redundant, and losing their jobs. Nonetheless, Brokesburgh was adamant, in spite of
the very hostile response from its clinicians. It was a fete accompli.
Some 10 months later, the regional authority announced that it would be conducting an
audit across a number of counties, including Brokesburgh. Brokesburgh complied in a
timely fashion with the relevant information about services, clients, etc. The audit showed
that Brokesburgh had increased their spending significantly, as compared with their average
over the past three years, and had significantly greater expenditures per client than any of
the other counties that had been audited. The regional authority decided to conduct more
specific analyses on Brokesburgh. The authority randomly selected 30,000 invoices received
over a nine-month period and analysed the data for trends. The findings were worrying: for
example, Brokesburgh and HelpYouth were invoicing for exactly the same services in spite
of the fact that this should not be happening; also, healthcare providers were giving the same
client vastly different diagnoses. In a significant number of instances, the diagnostic catego-
ries were seriously discrepant, for example one client was simultaneously given a diagnosis
of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) by the Brokesburgh provider, while the HelpYouth
worker documented that the GAD diagnosis was incorrect and instead gave him a diagnosis
depressive personality type. The audit also revealed other curious discrepancies. For exam-
ple, the analyst reported a striking example of how Brokesburgh invoiced ‘involuntary com-
mitment services’ for a client, while on the same day, HelpYouth invoiced for ‘travel
expenses to activity park’. From the authority’s standpoint, such data provided clear evi-
dence that the excessive spending could be the direct result of poor coordination between
the two healthcare providers.
The authority contacted the county, declaring that Brokesburgh was ‘on probation’. The
authority warned that Brokesburgh would lose its funding, if the two providers could not
determine what specifically they could do to bring down the cost of services. In particular,
the authority stipulated that it was extremely disturbed by the discrepancies in diagnoses,
treatment plans, and the apparent lack of coordination between professionals. The county
was given 30 days to respond with a proposal that would identify concrete interventions and
outcome measures addressing the issues. The proposal was to be in the form of a research
project, where specific empirical questions were posed; behavioural interventions were
identified and executed, and outcome measures were assessed.

The county was concerned that it needed extensive support in developing its proposal,
particularly as its response had to be in the form of a research project. The county adminis-
trators were also acutely aware of the fact that there had been a growing resentment between
their agency workers and those of HelpYouth. Part of the conflict seemed to be the result of
the attitudes and professional training of the different people who were working in the two
organizations. The county used primarily clinical psychologists, who had graduate training
in assessment, diagnoses, treatment planning, and treatment evaluation. HelpYouth pre-
ferred to employ behavioural counsellors, counselling psychologists (see ‘The treatment
room, Chapter 8, pp. 168–169, for a discussion), and peer workers. The latter were trained
to certificate levels in dealing with low and moderately severe mental health problems. The
workers at HelpYouth mainly had extensive experience with the client and family popula-
tion, and more experience and knowledge of issues of advocacy, such as housing, benefits,
and social injustice. Because of the differences in emphasis of formal training and experi-
ence, the understanding of how to diagnose and how to treat chronic health problems were
likely to be disparate from the outset.
The Brokesburgh administrators knew that the development of the partnership between
their agency and HelpYouth had been plagued with problems from the outset. This was in
part due to the different attitudes towards treatment. Brokesburgh favoured more direct
methods of intervention and the use of specific evidence-based models (such as cognitive-
behavioural therapy), whereas HelpYouth advocated more of a person-centred approach
and felt strongly that interventions should be non-directive and largely left to the client and
family to decide (see Chapter 8, for discussions of both approaches). Equally important,
though, were the overt prejudicial and stereotypical attitudes that different professionals
and workers had for each other. It was known that practitioners from HelpYouth felt the
county clinicians were ‘out of touch’ with social issues and were not good advocates for the
client, and, oftentimes, not very good therapists. For their part, the Brokesburgh clinicians
felt that those at HelpYouth were ill-trained and ill-equipped to make judgements over seri-
ous issues of clinical diagnoses, assessment, and treatment.
Brokesburgh felt that the most prudent way to proceed was to develop some sort of inter-
disciplinary, continued professional development training day, as there were extra funds for
training that needed to be spent. The training day would focus primarily on procedures for
diagnoses, as this was the issue that emerged as problematic from the audit. This co-training
would explicitly encourage providers to have a ‘common platform’ from which other issues,
such as treatment attitudes and development of treatment plans, could be considered. To
this end, the county decided to employ a psychologist who had expertise in adult, profes-
sional continued education. The psychologist was meant to focus on developing a syllabus
that had clear outcomes which could be directly linked to the issues raised in the audit.
Senior administrators from both providers would have to agree on the content and would
be review the syllabus together at a joint meeting.
Additionally, the county wanted the psychologist to develop a way of directly address-
ing the problem of antagonism between professionals. The county felt that further didac-
tic education, with an emphasis on group discussion and group practical exercises,
would help to develop collegiality across the various professionals involved. To this end,
the county announced that all providers, regardless of organization, were mandated to
attend the training day, and that there were no exceptions. This announcement was met
with negative reactions from practitioners, workers, and clinicians in both Brokesburgh
and HelpYouth.
What concepts were important?

The psychologist knew that there were a host of different of problems confronting
Brokesburgh and HelpYouth, and that a variety of psychological concepts would be
relevant. Some were concerned with the application of formal knowledge regarding men-
tal health. For example, both organizations utilized the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) in making any diagnoses,
as this was mandated by the regional funding authority. However, the psychologist knew
that there was considerable discretion in the manner in which criteria could be interpreted,
which could easily lead to disparate views about diagnoses; the DSM was, at best, a guide-
line for diagnosing, rather than a proscription of how to diagnose. To this end, the
psychologist knew that the training would have to create a shared knowledge base into
which each group could contribute and from which each group would agree to interpret
formal diagnoses (see Gill 1995).
The psychologist felt that those diagnoses which were most common for the client group
should be reviewed so that all practitioners could be ‘refreshed’ in terms of criteria, coding
requirements, etc. This decision was based on the psychologist’s desire to induce motivation
for learning: if the psychologist introduced topics that were regarded as irrelevant or unim-
portant, she knew that professionals—who were mandated to take the course—would
question the relevance of the training. The information would probably be best delivered
through a combination of didactic and small group exercises. The psychologist felt that the
situation lent itself to a type of cooperative learning (see pp. 256–257, this chapter), particu-
larly as the demographics of the group were similar to those discussed by Duplass (2006).
There would be diversity in terms of formal education and background experience. The
psychologist saw the training as an opportunity for professionals to work together in smaller
groups, so that respect and etiquette in dealing with different members could be practised.
Critically, the psychologist knew that the lack of communication and cooperation between
professionals dealing with clients who were vulnerable increased risk factors. There was
substantial evidence that lack of coordination and failure to share information substantially
increases the challenges of dealing with vulnerable individuals, and contributes to poor
prognosis (e.g. Carr 2003). The psychologist realized that it would be essential for the
professionals to be reminded that their clients would be at risk if some collaborative
relationships could not be established.
Other issues surrounded the characteristics of the learners: they were adult
professionals, already doing a job. At the least, the psychologist could anticipate some
sort of resistance due to the cognitive challenges posed by continued training. For
example, individuals become accustomed to behaving in particular ways and these form
work schemata (see Chapter 6, ‘The work room’). Training would involve a certain
amount of assimilation as well as accommodation, and individual habitual methods of
‘doing the job’ would be challenged. These specific issues that are raised with mature
learners are highlighted by authors discussing the lifespan psychology perspective of
higher education (e.g. Mercer 2010). Some authors contend that the motivation for older
adults to return to learning is grounded in a need or desire for self-change (e.g. Walters
2000). Others have emphasized that self-development, enhanced sense of self and self-
esteem, and confidence are often positive consequences that are reported by adult learn-
ers, particularly those from non-traditional and under-served groups (e.g. Prins et al.
2009). Still, most theorists agree that education for adult learners is a balance between
the positive (e.g. opportunity for self-enhancement) and negative (e.g. fear of failure)
(Mercer 2010; Taylor and House 2010). As such, the psychologist was keenly aware that
she would need to ensure that the participants were motivated to engage with the train-
ing materials, particularly as it was clear that many of the professionals, across both
organizations, felt that they were being ‘forced’ to attend.
Other concepts that the psychologist knew she must consider focused on inter-group
dynamics, and, in particular, the stereotypical views that the different professionals seem to
Box 10.14 Twenty-first century views of development

The challenges of today focus on a set of circumstances that suggest, at least to some theorists, that
the traditional notions of development, developmental stages, and ‘ages’ are inadequate. The most
vocal of these theorists suggests that the traditional notions of lifespan tasks (e.g. Erikson)) rely on
linear models of development, which are not only inadequate but inaccurate in their description of
developmental tasks. For example, Hendry and Kloep (2002) argue that development is domain
specific and overlapping, with individuals achieving mastery of some domains far earlier than others;
and, they reject entirely the idea that development is linear and non-reversible. Hendry and Kloep
utilize the notion of ‘challenges’ in a similar manner to earlier theorists (e.g. Erikson’s conflict) and
propose that the individual’s equilibrium is disturbed by these challenges. Challenges are
operationally defined as ‘any new task an individual meets that just matches or slightly exceeds [their]
current resources’ (Hendry and Kloep 2002, p. 28). Hendry and Kloep argue that the determining
factor in an individual successfully achieving developmental competency is the type of resources that
are available. Each individual is viewed as having a reservoir or collection of resources. These
resources are grouped into familiar categories: biological (e.g. personality, intelligence); social (e.g.
attachment style; extent and type of social network); skill level (e.g. social skills; cognitive skills); self
(e.g. self-efficacy, self-empowerment, agency); and structural (e.g. socioeconomic class, gender). All
these resources interact to enable, or inhibit, the individual’s ability to respond to the challenges at
each developmental stage throughout the lifespan. These modern theorists argue that the traditional
models of development are limited and do not reflect the myriad of tasks that not only confront
individuals at different developmental stages, but also disregard the flexibility of the individual to
cope with different challenges across different domains.
hold about their counterparts. Stereotypes are generally the result of lazy perceptual
processes, such as rules or heuristics. The ‘laziness’ of the process is directly the result of the
observer making assumptions about the observed. In the case of stereotypes, the assump-
tions are that the individual example of the class has most if not all of the properties that are
common to that class. In this way, the observer fails to take into account critical individual
differences. Instead, he or she applies a rule (or schema) and ‘fills in the gaps’. This filling in
the gaps has the consequence of making attributions regarding the individual that may, or
may not be accurate, namely stereotypes.
In this way, stereotypes can be viewed as the consequence of overgeneralization, a con-
cept that is used to account for a variety of cognitive and social phenomena. Some introduc-
tory psychology textbooks posit that prejudice is a mixture of predispositions, stereotypic
beliefs, and negative emotions (Myers 2009). An example can illustrate how this combina-
tion results in self-perpetuating, or at least reiterative inaccuracies in social perception.
Suppose an individual is not tolerant of differences, for example people from a different
race, a different religion, a different sex, a different country; and experiences anxiety when
having to interact with these ‘other people’. In the case of this hypothetical person, her illiber-
alism towards the category, ‘other people’, is not the result of any learning, but rather reflects
her predisposition or temperament. Her temperament would lead her to avoid having a lot of
interactions with other people in part as she does not find the experience positive. Whatever
schemas or categorical knowledge she holds about other people would obviously be based on
very little evidence, therefore. Avoidance also would lead our hypothetical person to be more
ignorant of the class, and hence, more uncertain, which, in turn, would increase anxiety in any
interactions—and the cycle continues. In this way, a predisposition results in avoidance;
avoidance results in ignorance and fear; fear supports quick beliefs based on little evidence.
There was another level at which discrimination was operating. The psychologist identi-
fied issues regarding organizational dynamics, particularly in terms of the clinicians’
Box 10.15 Us versus them

One of the most relied on tactics by politicians, autocrats, dictators, and the like to encourage
hostility towards another group is the ‘us’ versus ‘them’ attitude (see Chapter 7, The war room’). The
‘us’ versus ‘them’ attitude can be traced back to Homo sapiens sapiens’ inherent need, or desire, to live
in groups. Many theorists, such as Bowlby, have discussed how group membership affords safety and
security. In addition, group membership affords the human being with a social identity, or a sense of
who he or she is through association with other people. When a person identifies with a social group,
he or she constructs an identity that can include such things as type of dress, preferences in music
and food, linguistic and social behaviours, and, critically, views on other members of other groups.
After a social identity develops, it becomes easier for the individual to distinguish between the
ingroup, namely those who have group membership, from the outgroup, who are individuals
belonging to other groups. What follows is an ingroup preference, which leads the individual to seek
out those who from the ingroup more than those from the outgroup. The favouritism shown to
ingroup members has been documented in other primate groups. For example, Goodall (1986)
reported that chimpanzees would clean the places on their body that had made contact with
chimpanzees from another group. Such behaviour can be interpreted as the non-human version of
an ingroup bias (Goodall 1986).
increasingly hostile views against their administration (see Chapter 6). The ‘us versus them’
mentality seemed to be prevailing. The psychologist felt that such hostility could easily
contribute to the dissatisfaction of the practitioners. The effects of organizational strain
would increase any other negative dynamics that were operating.

After the preliminary meeting, the psychologist asked to consult again with representatives
from the county and HelpYouth, with an agenda to devise a survey so that participants’
views might be reflected in the training, particularly with respect to organizational dynamics.
The survey was sent out to all practitioners, and asked for views on: problem areas in treat-
ing clients and families; problem areas in working within multiagency teams; and problems
in providing specific services. To the latter question, survey respondents were asked to rate
how well they felt that the different healthcare providers agreed on the diagnostic categories,
agreed on the treatment plans and goals, and agreed on the specific treatment inventions
and methods that should be adopted.
On the basis of the results from the survey, the psychologist developed a syllabus that
included topics, practical exercises, learning objectives and outcomes measures, and a
method for evaluation. The training day would consist of an opening statement regarding
the learning objectives and reasons for the training; a preliminary exercise that would allow
people to discuss problematic issues; specific review of diagnostic criteria and evidence for
best practice; and practical exercises that used hypothetical, real-world examples to illus-
trate any of the learning materials that were reviewed. The psychologist felt that it was essen-
tial that the learning objectives included explicit reference to developing more cooperative
relationships between the two organizations. The psychologist also developed an evaluation
form that asked, among other things: first, how well the learning objectives had been
achieved; second, how relevant the training day was with respect to their daily roles; and
third, whether the training day had promoted closer relations between the two organiza-
tions. The evaluation form used a Likert-type rating scale for each question that would make
it relatively easy to analyse the effectiveness of the training. The evaluation would provide
frequency data that would be amenable to analyses using a X2 technique—a statistical method
that was familiar to the analysts in the organization and, therefore, would be much easier for
everyone to interpret. At the end of the evaluation was a section where participant could
write any other, additional comments that they might have.
The psychologist presented the syllabus to the representatives from both organizations,
and received feedback that enabled her to modify the training syllabus accordingly. Once
the content of the final syllabus was agreed, the psychologist created a template from which
the training could be conducted. The organizations asked whether the psychologist would
be willing to act as trainer for the course. She felt that it would be better if the organizations
found another trainer, but did agree to help the designated trainer better follow the syllabus,
and also review the evaluations.

The psychologist was asked to return to meet with the organizational representatives and
the trainer after the training had occurred. The evaluations were not positive. The trainer
revealed that participants had become increasingly argumentative with each other and
increasingly vocal about their dissatisfactions with their organizations. Participants
were also overtly negative towards having to attend the training day; and felt that the
organizations were not taking responsibility for the problems that existed. While the
trainer did his best to contain the negativity, he was not well equipped to deal with group
dynamics and allowed the argumentative discussion to continue without intervention.
The result was that that sequences in the syllabus had to be abandoned and only some of
the information was included. The evaluations indicated that people felt even more
divided than before. Additionally, the trainer received very poor ratings; and the
comments from participants focused on his lack of ability to contain the group and
create a safe environment. The trainer felt that his negative evaluations were in part due
to the fact that the psychologist should have prepared him better for the possibility of
group conflict.
The organizations agreed with the trainer’s accusations and demanded that the
psychologist find some sort of reparative intervention that would address the fact that the
division between the two organizations was even greater. The organizations were particu-
larly disturbed about how the regional authority would view the fact that their project had
failed so dismally. They felt that the psychologist was directly responsible for the failure of
the training day. The psychologist did not accept responsibility for the failure of the train-
ing, arguing that she had been more than happy to coach and help the trainer, but that the
trainer had declined much of her support. However, the psychologist did agree that she
would help the two organizations discover a way of breaching the hostilities. She sug-
gested that senior practitioners from both organizations were contacted and that a ‘strike’
force committee should be established immediately to help identify what could be done.
The psychologist offered to facilitate the committee in an effort to ensure that some
progress was made.
Additional reading
Delpit, L. (2006). Other People’s Children: Cultural Conflict in the Classroom. The New Press, New
York, NY.
This is an excellent collection of original essays on cultural and linguistic diversity in the classroom.
Hartley, J. (2008). Recent studies in teaching and learning. Psychology Teaching and Review 14(2),
94–98.
Kamuche, F. (2005). Do learning and teaching styles affect students’ performance? An empirical
study. Journal of Business and Economic Research 3(9), http://cluteonline.com/journals/index.
php/JBER/article/view/2806/2854
Michel, N., Carter III, J.J., and Varela, O. (2009). Active vs. passive teaching styles: An empirical
study of student learning outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly 20(4), 397–418.
Psychology Teaching Review.

This twice-yearly journal from the British Psychological Society is an excellent resource for teachers
and researchers.
TESOL Quarterly, http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID=209&DID=1679

This journal provides exceptional articles and discussions regarding teaching English as a second
language.
Questions
Scenario one
1. What other methods might the psychologist have used in the scenario? Topics include investigative
methodologies, quantitative versus qualitative designs, subjective phenomenological experience,
generalization.
2. What problems might the school encounter without the use of an outside professional? Topics
include expert knowledge, subjective biases, use of appropriate statistical/empirical analyses.
Scenario two
1. What possible reasons did the psychologist have for not conducting the training? Topics include
dual relationships; professional bias.
2. What other interventions might the psychologist have suggested? Topics include focus groups,
group facilitation, systemic interventions.
11 The nature room
In this chapter, we consider the complex relationships that humans have with their
environment. As we shall see, the nature room focuses on highly diverse situations, and
the very definition of what is ‘natural’ has a flexibility that reflects the rapidly changing
features of modern life. The reader will note that many of the issues discussed in earlier
chapters resurface here, for example gender roles, attitude formation, motivation, and
incentives, to name a few. The chapter first provides a brief summary of the progressive
settling of the human race on planet Earth; and outlines how human beings and their
environment have evolved. We include a discussion of what might be regarded as
human universals, and consider some of the basic similarities that transcend culture.
Then, the focus turns to the new challenges that humans are facing, as they progress in
their evolutionary development. Not surprisingly, some of these challenges are ones
that ancient civilizations struggled to address. We conclude with a discussion of current
movements in psychology, where psychologists argue that the profession has an
obligation to help resolve worldwide problems of climate change, sustainability, and
pollution. The scenarios reflect a combination of current and future concerns. One of
the scenarios examines the importance of the natural environment to community
well-being. The scenario illustrates how psychologists might be used to help devise
creative and constructive ways of using public spaces; and combines newer philoso-
phies, such as environmental psychology, with more traditional movements (e.g., con-
servationist). The second scenario depicts a situation in the future, at a time when
Homo sapiens sapiens are anticipating relocation; and where the problem is finding
people whose psychological temperaments are most suitable for space travel. The
ultimate question is whether space travellers are ‘born’ or ‘made’; and the ethical and
moral implications of human genetic engineering.
Another potted history of human evolution

Man: a species of ape who believes in the gods and who imitates them without ceasing to be an
animal
From L.R. Hiatt, 2004, ‘Edward Westermarck and the Origin of Moral Ideas’, cited from the
First World War prison memories of Andre Lorulot, French pacifist (original italics)
Man does not weave the web of life. He is merely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web, he
does to himself
Chief Seattle, circa 1854
278 11 THE NATURE ROOM
A species of consumers
The chapter starts with a brief review of how humans have come to be on the planet, Earth.
The behaviours of early people are only remotely related to the way that contemporary
humans behave. Still, the admittedly potted review is important, as it helps to keep things in
perspective.
It is obviously beyond the scope of this book (not to mention the expertise of its authors)
to provide a history of the world in terms of human habitation. There are hundreds of
excellent books on the topic; and an ever-growing number of websites that are devoted to
discussions of the evolution of humans. Critically, as new discoveries are made, old theories
are challenged, and, as such, it becomes difficult to decipher what is fact from conjecture,
especially in regards to evolutionary background. Indeed, it appears that science is uncer-
tain about our past. Because of this, we, the authors, are disinclined to make any sweeping
statements, as probably more often than not, we would be incorrect or be challenged.
Instead, we choose to approach the issue of human evolution with an attitude of curiosity.
We present the reader with some ‘facts’ and do our best to provide compelling, contradic-
tory evidence or competing interpretations, when we can find them.
Let us start with something on which most people agree, the scientific classification or
taxonomy (the practice and science of classification) of humans. We, humans, are of the
kingdom of Animalia (clearly, we are not plants); and belong to the phylum of Chordata. At
this phylum level, our relatives include tunicates (e.g. sea squirts), whales, as well as the now
extinct sauropod dinosaurs. Our class is Mammalia (the current estimate is that there are
about 4629 different examples in this class), and we belong to the order Primate (with
approximately 233 other living species in 13 different families). Our family is Hominidae.
According to some taxonomic schemes, we share our family with chimpanzees, gorillas,
Box 11.1 The distinguishing characteristics of modern humans

Scholars suggest that there are four features that distinguish modern humans from the rest of the
animal world (e.g. Ponting 2007). First, we are able to stand erect on two feet; this enables us to use
our hands for other things than walking. Our second distinguishing feature is our big brain, which, in
turn, is the essential component for our third distinguishing characteristic, our ability to use language.
Many suggest that language appeared with modern humans (about 40,000 years ago), although there
is no evidence as to exactly when language was first developed. The ability for abstract thought also
serves as the basis for our fourth distinguishing characteristic, our ability and propensity to make
complex tools. While tool making is something that is shared with other primates, our ability to
develop complex tools is quite unique. Stone tools were used as early as 2 million years ago by the
first humans, whereas it is not until modern Homo sapiens sapiens that one sees technological
advancement through the use of more complicated materials and procedures: wood, bones, and
hide were utilized rather than only stone, and tools involved component parts, such as projectile and
barbed tips, which required different stages of construction. By about 20,000 years ago, humans were
using tools that required refined motor skills, and used procedures that required more abstract
thought processes, as manufacturing techniques involved stages such as heat treatment. Consistently,
it seems that technology is one of our most outstanding achievements, while, at the same time, being
the very thing that will help contribute to our downfall.
ANOTHER POTTED HISTORY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION 279
and orang-utans; however, some argue that humans alone should be regarded as hominids.
What is not debated is that we are the only living species of the genus Homo (see Box 11.1).
Our genus appeared on the scene roughly 2.5–3 million years ago (give or take a couple of
millennia); but, our cousins, who included Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo
neanderthalensis, have long since vanished (Mayr 2001).
Our species is Homo sapiens, a name that was coined by Carolus Linnaeus and is derived
from Latin, meaning ‘wise man’ or ‘knowing man’. We note as have many others that the
name carries with it positive characteristics that our species may not warrant. Modern
humans, namely, our subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens, probably first appeared some
200,000 years ago, with the widespread population of the planet being achieved about
30,000 years ago. Taken from a broad cosmic perspective, we are the ‘new kids on the block’.
While our taxonomic classification is fairly uncontroversial, our evolutionary history
seemingly is the opposite. For many years, anthropologists suggested that modern humans
evolved from archaic Homo sapiens, who in turn evolved from Homo erectus. Now, new
fossils that have been discovered over the past 10 years have substantially challenged theories
about the ancestry of modern humans (Ackermann 2001). In fact, there is so much confu-
sion over how to interpret these new discoveries that some scholars suggest that the whole
concept of a family tree is obsolete. For example, Ackermann argues that science is likely to
find that modern humans do not have a family tree, but have something more akin to a fam-
ily bush.
Another commonly held assumption by scholars is that Homo sapiens sapiens obtained food
through gathering and hunting, and did so for some considerable time (see Barnard 2004).
Small social groups would mobilize, utilizing what appears to be quite exceptional knowledge
about growth seasons of different plants and migratory movements of different animals. Some
scholars argue that our ancient ancestors lived ‘in harmony’ with their environments, instinc-
tively knowing that they should neither use nor take too much away from the fragile ecosystems
upon which they relied. Apparently, our early ancestors intuitively understood that they should
not exploit nor damage their natural environment. They understood that humans were part of
nature rather than separate to it. If early humans hurt the environment, they realized that, ulti-
mately, such an act was like inflicting a wound on oneself.
Certainly there is evidence to suggest that this view is correct; and, there are examples that
the manner in which early humans viewed themselves is dissimilar to the way modern
humans do (Ponting 2007). There are also challenges to this view, however. First, the con-
cept of an idealized early human, who was in some way more in touch with the environ-
ment, has been associated with accusations of ethnocentricity and racial bigotry (e.g.
Rousseau’s concept of the Noble Savage). Second, there is compelling evidence to suggest
that the ancient humans exploited their environment and had inconsistent regard for the
future. The evidence includes the following.
Gathering and hunting practices of early human ancestors inevitably altered the natural
environment. Early humans modified the environment, for example, by burning and
‘irrigation’ of replanted types of natural grains (Ponting 2007). Importantly, social groups
were limited in number, such that many scholars contend that there was no substantial
pressure placed on environmental resources. Thus, early humans did not do extreme
damage to the environment (unlike modern humans) because there were too few of them to
cause much strain on the planet.
Early hunting practices also modified the environment. On the one hand, there is evidence
that groups strived to avoid over-hunting through totemic restrictions; and that some
groups across Eurasia were very systematic in the methods of hunting. For example, some
form of management of the herds was adopted, so that the humans could selectively kill
specific animals, so as to conserve resources (Barnard 2004). On the other hand, there is
evidence of excessive killings (Ponting 2007). Examples include the hunting practices some-
times used on the plains of North America, where herds of animals would be killed by
driving them over cliffs or into narrow canyons. The result was that most of the animals
were crushed. Those carcasses were of little use and so left to rot. In fact, some argue that the
disruption of eco-systems—including smaller animals as well as the habitats on which
larger animals were supported—is one of the most uniform features of most, if not all, early
human settlements. According to Ponting, ‘Humans had become the only animals to
dominate and exploit every ecosystem’ (2007, p. 35). Fortunately, the environment could
withstand the assaults of early humans, since there were not too many of them around to
exploit the resources.
A third point of some consensus is that farming had an impact on early humans. As
already stated, early humans used a combination of gathering and hunting. It appears that
Box 11.2 The progressive slaughtering of innocents

One of the more interesting facets of human behaviour is the disregard for non-human species that
humans have demonstrated, especially in the last 10,000 years. The Old Kingdom (2950–2350 bce),
introduced significant changes to the Nile valley, primarily through farming and this resulted in
significant losses of natural wildlife, such that many species became extinct (e.g. elephants). Other
civilizations of the ancient world—Mesopotamia and Greece—were equally culpable in extinguishing
entire species due to their extreme hunting practices. Still, the ancient society most associated with the
indiscriminate slaughtering of animals was the Roman Empire. Ponting (2007) suggests that the Romans
particularly enjoyed killing animals, often times in the thousands, to provide entertainment during civic
celebrations, or to commemorate Roman conquests. After the demise of the Roman Empire, the
theatrical spectacles associated with the slaughtering of animals may have ceased but the killings
continued apace and reached new heights. Once medieval Europe was inhabited (circa 1000 ce), many
species of plants and animals became extinct. Indeed, Europeans, particularly during the sixteenth
through nineteenth centuries, devastated much of the world’s wildlife and natural resources, especially
as they travelled the corners of the uncharted world. Sometimes, devastation would be in the form of
introducing new species, such as the rat, the pig, and the rabbit, which served not only to challenge
indigenous species, but also placed extensive strains on the environment. The most destructive habit,
however, was hunting, which was often done for pleasure and sport. This was most dramatically seen in
North America, with a well-known example being the extinction of the bison. Another, perhaps more
poignant example is that of the passenger pigeon, however. Billions of animals were hunted and killed
within the course of only 50 years, to the point of extinction. The last known wild specimens became
extinct in about 1900; the last ‘pathetic survivor’ died in 1914, while in captivity (Ponting 2007, p. 145). In
fact, not until the twentieth century did humans seriously consider how their actions have contributed
to the obliteration of a vast number of species. This concern may be too late. Ponting argues ‘the
twentieth century has seen [the rate of extinction of species] rise to unprecedented levels’ (2007, p. 170),
primarily as a direct consequence of human action. Some speculate that half of the species now existing
in the world will become extinct by 2100 (Nature, January 2004).
ANOTHER POTTED HISTORY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION 281
about 12,000 years ago a change occurred, where another method of obtaining food,
farming, began to be employed in a systematic and strategic fashion. Notable centres which
developed independently included south-west Asia, China, Mesoamerica, the Andes, the
tropical areas of Africa and south-east Asia. Some scholars suggest that this is best viewed as
a gradual inclusion of farming into the already established gathering and hunting practices,
rather than a radical new change in techniques used to obtain food (see Barnard 2004).
A substantive change in the nature of the society of early humans was introduced with the
intensification of farming methods (reaching its peak anywhere between 12,000 to 10,000
years ago) (Barnard 2004). This change is illustrated in the differences between immediate-
return economies and delayed-return economies (Woodburn 1988). Immediate-return
economies are generally characterized by the absence of food storage, such that food is
gathered/hunted and consumed at the time, rather than being amassed in great amounts for
future use. Critically, food is shared across all members of the social group and there is little
distinction between members in terms of status, roles, actions, etc. The concern is for the
collective, rather than the individual; the principle of egalitarianism dominates.
In contrast, delayed-return economies are those where food is not eaten immediately but
rather is stored. Strategies are employed in order to ensure an adequate supply of food for
future use (e.g. pastoralism; agricultural practices, methods for food preservation, and so
on). The delayed-return economics are associated with levels of social status and division of
labour, unlike the immediate-return economies. Some scholars argue that these early social
Box 11.3 The leisurely life of early humans

Most anthropologists agree that early humans adopted primarily gathering and hunting techniques.
To modern twenty-first century humans, these types of activity might seem not only arduous, but
also very time consuming. The life of ancient humans has been regularly depicted—in science,
literature, and films—as a struggle and conflict, where no certainty existed regarding life, safety, food,
or shelter. One of the great founders of psychological theory, Sigmund Freud, suggested a very
pessimistic view of the human animal. For Freud, the true nature of humans is one of competition, a
‘survival of the fittest’ struggle where inevitably one human must dominate over another. Indeed,
Freud considered that civilization was necessary, albeit unwelcomed, if humans were ever to extend
beyond their essentially crude, sexual, and aggressive drives. Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs
would have early humans concerned primarily with physical needs (food, safety and belonging), and
less likely to be concerned about ‘higher needs’ such as self-esteem and self-actualization. Certainly,
life for early humans did not have the luxuries that are afforded to their twenty-first century progeny.
The view that ancient humans were somehow more taxed in their daily lives, when compared with
modern humans, has been strongly challenged, however. For one, the arguments of theorist such as
Freud and Maslow can be viewed as being relevant to only certain types of societies, namely
individualistic societies; and as being highly ethnocentric. This view arguably reflects prejudice, bias,
and elitism (see Brown 1991). For another, there are those who argue that ancient humans actually
represented the ‘original affluent society (e.g. Rosseau, Sahlins). For example, Sahlins (2005) suggests
that hunter-gatherers clearly win over modern humans, when measured in terms of how much free,
or leisure time, their lifestyles afforded them. Certainly, times of harsh weather conditions, like
drought, would have put strain on these early human groups. Still, these groups survived; and, in
non-challenging times, needed to spend but a few hours a day on food-related behaviours.
divisions—precursors to distinctions between ‘the haves’ versus ‘the have-nots’, aristocrats

versus peasants, the entitled versus disenfranchised—were one of the first consequences of
strategic and systematic farming techniques.
We conclude our admittedly truncated review of the early evolution of humans by
making something of an obvious statement: Homo sapiens sapiens seems better at consum-
ing resources, rather than conserving them. True, the damage inflicted by early humans
cannot compete with the flagrant excessiveness of modern life, from which most notions of
consumerism derive. Still, humans have always modified, altered, and inextricably changed
their environment. While there were cultural restrictions on how early humans could use
natural resources, once civilizations developed, the trends seem to be one of consuming
without a huge amount of thought to the consequences. In fact, there is very good reason to
suggest that modern, twenty-first-century Homo sapiens sapiens shows very little evidence
of being the ‘wise man’, in that the subspecies has not seemingly learned much from rela-
tively recent, past mistakes. While modern humans might be forgiven for ignoring the les-
sons of their early hominid ancestors, examples of ruin and devastation from a few centuries
ago seem to be disregarded. We refer, of course, to the oft cited example of Easter Island.
Easter Island, or Rapa Nui (Big Rapa), is a remote, relatively small island in the Pacific
Ocean, thousands of kilometres away from any known inhabited landmass. Its early inhab-
itants—Polynesians—discovered the island in roughly the fifth century (although estimates
include between 700 to 1100 ce); and they found little in the way of natural resources. The
settlers brought with them a few domesticated animals (chickens) and soon discovered that
the climate could only support one main vegetable root crop (sweet potatoes). As a conse-
quence, the inhabitants developed a relatively monotonous diet, and one that required them
to spend little time in gathering or hunting. This relatively non-demanding food schedule
enabled them to divert their attention to other things, such as social activities. Among those
things that became very important were ceremonies and rituals, along with the construction
of monuments to support these ritualistic activities. Most notable were the ahus, the huge
platforms upon which the enormous stone statues, moais, were placed; and which served as
the loci for ceremonial activities. The moais were regarded as deified ancestors; and, for the
early settlers, who belonged to the ancestor cult, nothing was more important than enacting
ceremonies to appease these ancestors, from whom they believed all their provisions were
forthcoming. As the population grew, the society became delineated with clans, who were
in direct competition with each other for natural resources, and who also competed for
status regarding the construction of bigger and more imposing ceremonial sites.
One explanation for the decline of this otherwise highly advanced civilization is that as
the population increased, islanders progressively outgrew their environmental resources.
Diamond (2005) cites a number of factors that can contribute to the demise of a society.
Among those that are regarded as historical factors include: deforestation and the destruc-
tion of the local habitat; problems to do with soil conservation, including erosion and
salinization; problems in the management of water resources; overhunting and overfishing;
the introduction of new species; overpopulation and increased impact of inhabitants due to
increasing population.
Diamond argues that the demise of Easter Island was completely due to environmental
mismanagement, and, in particular, deforestation. Deforestation was the result of advancing
agriculture, increased demands for fuel and housing materials, and importantly, for the
UNIVERSALS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOUR 283
transportation of the massive moais. Once deforestation occurred, the impact on soil
erosion and other related factors resulted in diminished capability to grow crops and
support life. Similar arguments are made by Ponting (2007), who also suggests that
deforestation gravely restricted the ability of the islanders to leave the island, once the
situation had become unsustainable. Deforestation meant that long-distance canoes could
not be built, thereby restricting the voyages that the islanders might have possibly made to
other more habitable locations. The only resource that was not impacted by the environ-
mental factors, chickens, became more highly valued; and, as a result, civil disputes and
theft became common.
A number of scholars dispute the explanations of Diamond and Ponting. Peiser (2005)
argues that slavery and diseases (brought by the Europeans) were more devastating to the
population than deforestation or other environmental factors. While scholars may continue
to debate the exact causes, one fact seems clear. Easter Island, once a highly advanced and
thriving society, was destroyed by human action.
Universals in human behaviour

Geographical location, weather conditions, culture, ethnicity, race, and sex have profound
effects on human behaviour. The emphasis on culture—language, food, customs and rituals,
and social maxims—has become dominant in scientific writing, particularly in the
twenty-first century, although it is also associated with the writings of nineteenth-century
anthropologists, most notably Franz Boaz. It appears that early anthropologists were more
inclined to entertain notions of similarities across different cultures, while modern scholars
seem more intent on focussing on celebrating the differences.
Box 11.4 A planet of cultures and countries

Culture is one factor that has received considerable attention from archaeologists, anthropologists,
and psychologists. The United Nations agency UNESCO provides a definition of culture in the
Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity that includes spiritual, intellectual, emotional, and material
(tangible) features of a group of individuals, that extend to art, literatures, habitual living styles and
roles, rituals, and traditions, beliefs, and moral or value systems. Other definitions focus on three
components that collectively make up culture: values, norms, and artefacts. It is reasonable to ask
how many of these cultures exist. One way to approach the question is to reframe it by asking how
many countries exist. Criteria that have been put forward include: has space or territory with
internationally recognized boundaries, even if there is a dispute over these boundaries; people live
there on an ongoing basis; economic activity and an organized economy, with regulation of foreign
and domestic trade and issues money; enforced social engineering, for example education;
transportation system for moving goods and people; government that provides public services and
police power; sovereignty with no other state having power over the territory; has external
recognition and been voted into the club by other countries. The use of a country to define culture is
fraught with problems, though, as one country can hold a number of different cultures (e.g. the USA,
Nigeria). In spite of these definitional problems, UNESCO estimates that there are approximately
6000 cultures across 195 countries today.
The emphasis on the impact of cultures on human behaviour seems to parallel the decline
of what is called the comparative school of anthropology, and the rise of the view of cultural
relativism. The comparative school is criticized for its ethnocentricity, judging the behav-
iour of humans in the context of one’s own, sanctioned patterns. Anything which does not
fit with, or cannot be understood by the ‘judging’ culture can be viewed as wrong, bad,
incorrect, crude, unsophisticated, and so on. Szasz (1967) illustrates the horrific conse-
quences of an extreme application of this type of philosophy to subcultures in societies:
many people were imprisoned in asylums and considered ‘mad’ or ‘evil’, specifically because
their behaviour was not sanctioned by the dominant society. In contrast, cultural relativism
avoids absolutes. Behaviour should only be considered in terms of the relevant society in
which it occurs. Judgements of ‘good’ or ‘bad’, and assumptions about functions can only be
understood by adopting the phenomenological perspective of those who live, and thrive
within that group of people. Certainly, cultural relativism has been embraced within many
areas of psychology (e.g. see the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition; cultural
and linguistic sensitivity) (Glazer 1996).
We agree that ethnocentricity is dangerous and reject the absolutism of the comparative
method. At the same time, we support critics of cultural relativism, insofar as the method
can lack discretion, and can allow almost any behaviour to be acceptable, given the rationale
of the context in which it ‘naturally’ occurs. The reader is left to establish where along the
continuum they feel most comfortable. Still, people are similar, even though everyone does
not feel, behave or think the same way. This ‘sameness’ of people exists, regardless of the
language that they speak, the rituals to which they adhere, the clothes that they wear, the
food that they eat, and the basic maxims that guide their social interactions. In the follow-
ing, we focus on some of these basic similarities.
The reader should note that our selection is extremely limited, and completely arbitrary.
We do not discuss Jung and the notion of archetypes to any great extent. This is in part
Box 11.5 Seeing things that are not there

We mention briefly a quirky universal, pareidolia, which roughly refers to the human propensity to
misperceive otherwise ambiguous objects as clear, identifiable, and most frequently, human forms. A
good example is the person seeing an image of the face of Jesus in a cheese sandwich; or seeing an
image of the Buddha in a burnt tortilla. Apophenia refers to a similar, more global process of
perceiving meaningful patterns and connections in otherwise meaningless or random information,
like seeing a smiley face - in a couple of circles and semicircle (see Conrad 1958). Apophenia seems
more akin to the notion of forming a gestalt, although arguably both pareidolia and apophenia seem
to require the propensity to give meaning to otherwise meaningless patterns. Both processes have
been used to account for psychotic symptoms (e.g. Conrad 1958), although Sagan has a distinctly
different suggestion. He claims that pareidolia is an inherited, evolutionary trait: ‘As soon as the infant
can see, it recognizes faces and we now know that this skill is hardwired in our brains . . .. These days,
nearly every infant is quick to identify a human face, and to respond with a goony grin’ (1965, p. 45).
According to Sagan, our propensity to see human faces, even when they do not exist, is part of an
evolutionary trait which served to ensure that the human infant would respond to its parents, and,
therefore, thrive.
because we have already considered Jung’s ideas in an earlier chapter (see ‘The treatment
room’, Chapter 8); and we provide recommended readings at the end of the chapter. We
also have omitted some notable examples, such as colour perception, music, and art and,
again, we provide additional readings for these topics. Generally, we recommend that the
reader reviews Donald Brown (1991), who provides a compelling and comprehensive
ethnography of a universal people. Brown suggests that there are along the order of 400
different human behaviour and social patterns that can be applied to every known culture.
Gender and sex roles

The first universal that we consider is gender. We start out by providing an operational
definition. We adopt the somewhat traditional, and arguably out of fashion position that
‘sex’ refers to biological or physical characteristics (genitalia, secondary sex characteristics).
For humans, there are two sexes, male and female. In contrast, gender refers to personality,
social roles and behavioural stereotypes, self-identify and sexual identity, for example
women versus men; boys versus girls. Gender has something to do with the individual’s
phenomenological experience of themselves, other people, the social environment and so
on; sex does not, as one’s genitalia is not contingent on experience.
Operationally, gender is about how and what the individual feels, thinks; and, ultimately,
how the individual behaves. Importantly, gender is not necessarily associated with sex,
although oftentimes it is. In contrast, sexual preferences, such as heterosexual and homo-
sexual, are not related to either gender or sex.
Sexual dimorphism is common among mammals. In our subspecies, this dimorphism is
evidenced through physical differences, for example reproductive organs, hormonal
systems, metabolic rate, fat content, to name but a few. Most of these differences are
quantitative and the two sexes have some degree of similarity or overlap.
While there is no debate that males and females physically differ, what is more contentious
is whether the physical differences are associated with qualitative, psychological differences
between the sexes. We use the example of the human brain to illustrate. The brains of males
are different from females, for example the effects of hormones; and on this everyone agrees.
What is highly disputed, however, are whether these brain differences cause (or are at least
associated with) qualitative differences in mental operations, emotional expression, and
social behaviour. So, while it may be statistically probable that an average female will have
smaller brain than the average male, it does not follow that the average female will be
different from the average male in terms of her perceptions, intelligence, or problem-solv-
ing skills.
This debate is not new; and, it ever evolves. Essentially the argument focuses on the extent
to which structure is isomorphic to function: do structural differences in the brain (includ-
ing the influence of different levels of different hormones during gestation) translate into
functional differences between the two sexes. For example, Fine argues that many of the
studies conducted on sex differences are ‘flawed, many are over-interpreted . . . you’re got
just about everything you need for a self-fulfilling prophecy’ (2010, pp. 900–901); whilst
Baren-Cohen, a researcher whose work was reviewed by Fine, retorts that ‘Fine’s neurosex-
ism allegation is the mistaken blurring of science with politics’ (2011, p. 905) (see also,
Baron-Cohen et al. 2005).
Importantly, the research on gender/sex differences is extensive, as is evidenced by the

topics that one can find just by looking in any textbook under the heading ‘gender differences’.
Research has investigated differences in aggression, jealousy, conformity, conflict resolution,
depression, leadership, helping behaviours, self-disclosure, self-esteem, sexuality, social loaf-
ing, workplace compensation, to name only a handful (e.g. Kassin et al. 2008). In general, the
research shows that men/boys are different in some ways, from women/girls.
It is how society uses such data that elicits controversy. Take the application of gender
stereotypes. Gender stereotypes, as all stereotypes, serve the purpose of homogenizing the
class of individuals, so that some type of general characteristics can be inferred, thereby
helping the processing of future instances. For example, historically, women are seen to
have certain emotional qualities, such as nurturing, while men are seen to have other
qualities, such as more aggression. These stereotypes, like all stereotypes, can be wrong of
course; and most certainly are in some percentage of examples. There is nothing inherently
dangerous about the fact that sometimes a ‘rule of thumb’ is incorrect.
What is problematic, however, is when the stereotypes are used to promote social injustice.
As we discussed in other chapters (‘The teaching room’, Chapter 10), social injustice occurs
when a group of individuals—who are viewed as atypical by the dominant society for what-
ever reasons—become silenced or persecuted, through the indiscriminate use of
stereotypes, that is, prejudice. Under these circumstances, the individual is lost; and so too
are his or her human rights. Given this disempowerment is often justified through the
application of stereotypes, we feel that one must proceed with caution when discussing
gender differences.
Our preferred view is to regard gender differences as an interaction of genetics and the
environment: while there may be a biological tendency for women to act certain ways, the
environment will enhance or inhibit these tendencies. Nutrition, too, is likely to have an
impact, to the extent that nutrition influences so many elements of psychological perfor-
mance, for example muscle growth (e.g. Dunbar 2008). Of course, the flexibility of gender
roles, and the extent to which an individual rejects or accepts them are highly contingent on
the permissiveness of the dominant context in which the stereotypes operate; and the extent
to which the individual has the temperament to defy, or conform. Some cultures allow for
more latitude in the interpretation of gender roles than others; some individuals have a
greater need to conform to or rebel against social expectations than other people.
Emotions
The second universal we consider is human emotion and facial expressions. There is exten-
sive evidence that humans demonstrate and can infer emotions on the basis of facial expres-
sions. The classic example is the study of Ekman et al. (1987), who demonstrated that
participants across a range of cultures (and religions) showed significant consensus in their
judgements of facial expressions of different human emotions. Such evidence strongly argues
that human emotion and expression of those emotions are universal behaviours. All humans
have the same abilities, regardless of the specific culture or society under which they live.
While our ability may be innate, there are factors that will influence a person’s ability to
recognize emotions. For example, Elfenbein and Ambady (2003) demonstrated the effects
of familiarity on facial recognition of people from other racial groups. More frequent
Box 11.6 Everyone has a laugh

Another universal in human behaviour is humour. Axtell (1993) states that humour is contextualized
by the society, in that humour does not translate particularly well across different cultures; still, he
argues that humour is a consistent behaviour demonstrated by all peoples. Brown (1991) makes a
similar assertion, and lists humour as one of his 400 universals. The act of finding things (e.g.
situations, jokes) amusing or funny is a trait that is not only common to all people, but also suggested
to be present in some apes (e.g. van Hooff 1972). While humour may be a universal, defining humour
is not so easy. Some scholars argue that humour defies operational definition (e.g. Smuts 2006). For
example, Schibles states that attempts to provide a single definition of humour are misguided as
‘there is [no] single definition of humor, or any other term, which will apply to all types, in all contexts,
places and times’ (2002, p. 121). Even the emotion associated with humour proves problematical, as
none of the basic emotions seems to be relevant to the experience of humour. For example, humour
is not associated with being happy. Martin (2007) posits the term mirth to refer to the emotion that is
experienced when a person perceives something as being humorous. Laughter is a behaviour that is
often associated with humour, and can be viewed as something of a reflex. Developmentally, infants
are able to express laughter by the age of 4 months (e.g. Sher and Brown 1976), suggesting that
whatever is responsible for the ability to find things humorous, the mechanisms emerge fairly early in
life and continue as one grows into adulthood.
exposure to individuals from another race promoted better recognition of facial expressions
of emotions.
Elfenbein and Ambady (2002) offered intriguing evidence for the recognition of what they
call basic emotions: happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, fear, disgust. Their study analysed
data from studies that provided over 22,000 participants across 42 different countries.
Elfenbein and Ambady reported a significant concordance across the six emotions, although
an inspection of the percentage of accuracy shows that accuracy varies considerably with the
emotion. For example, happiness was reported as being recognized by over 90% of the peo-
ple, whereas fear was recognized by substantially fewer people (less than 60%).
While facial expressions may transcend culture, non-verbal behaviours do not. For
example, Axtell (1993) reports the very interesting ways in which different cultures inter-
pret the head shake: whereas a head nodding up and down indicates ‘yes’ in some cultures,
for example in Bulgaria, a nod is taken as a ‘no’. Similarly, other non-verbal behaviours,
such as eye contact and handshakes, are subject to different social norms, depending on the
culture. Even the ubiquitous smile can have different meanings. For example, in Japan, a
smile can denote happiness as well as sadness and discomfort.
Taboos
Taboos are behaviours that a society bans, prohibits, forbids, or outlaws. As a rule, taboos
are defined in terms of moral judgements of the society, or religious beliefs. The consensus
is that taboos are a way of society ensuring that the individual conforms to authority, be it a
moral or religious one. Generally, the breaking of a taboo is associated with serious
consequences. These can include public humiliation, shaming, prosecution, sanctions,
exclusion, and in many cases death.
While every culture and society has taboos, each culture has its own, specific types.
A good example is the different dress codes that are adopted across the world. In some
cultures, women are prohibited from showing any of their body in public, whereas in other
cultures, nudity is acceptable and encouraged. Importantly, these taboos may be unrelated
to religious doctrines. Again, take the example of dress codes. Partial nudity in public (e.g.
going topless on a beach) is banned in Turkey and in some states in the USA, such as
California. In contrast, Brazil regards partial nudity in public as acceptable, and people are
not reprimanded for exposing their bodies.
There are notable similarities across cultures, however. Some of the similarities in
taboos involve the regulation of sexual behaviours. One example is incest. All cultures
appear either to forbid incest or offer means through which incest can be avoided. Sexual
behaviour serves as the focus of another taboo, in the form of prohibitions against rape.
Rape, that is the coercive act of sexual contact with another who has not consented, is
regarded as a bad thing in most cultures. The conditions under which sexual copulation is
considered appropriate also appear similar across cultures. For example, Brown (1991)
suggests that all cultures prefer copulation to occur in private rather than public places, a
characteristic that humans share with the Bonobo (a notable exception is the Roman
Empire under the rule of Nero).
Another seemingly universal taboo is murder, and this is a particularly interesting
example. On the one hand, some killing is clearly regarded as acceptable: examples include
religious sacrifice, government sanctioned actions (e.g. wars, police shootings), and the
lawful taking of another’s life (e.g. self-defence). In these cases, the behaviour, killing, is
not considered to be taboo (see ‘The war room’, Chapter 7). For example, the actions of
soldiers who kill women and children (as collateral damage) can be justified to the extent
the soldiers are ‘following orders’. Similarly, torture techniques for interrogation of alleged
war criminals can be justified under the auspices of national security. On the other hand,
an outraged worker who shoots his employer for unfair dismissal is regarded as breaking
the taboo of murder; or a person who feels that she is politically oppressed and decides to
use explosives to kill herself and fellow university students is labelled ‘evil’. These examples
demonstrate how the boundaries between taboos and socially condoned behaviours are
often highly complicated.
Taboos are not static, of course, and can change, as the society and culture evolve. Behaviours
that were once prohibited are eventually allowed expression, or at least allowed to be debated
Box 11.7 Oedipal/Electra complex

Brown (1991) asserts that the Oedipal complex is one of the human universals. Briefly, the Oedipal
complex was a concept introduced by Freud (Introductory lectures/twenty-first lecture, 1915–1917;
see Strachey, 1943–1974) which describes the complex emotions that are experienced by young
children during their psycho-sexual development. These emotions are postulated to be the result of
an unconscious sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex and a wish to exclude the parent of
the same sex. Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex is the classic example: unwittingly, Oedipus kills his father, only
to later marry and bed his mother. According to Freud, the basis for this complex is the transfer of
emotions from the initial love object (the breast) to the parent (mother).
(e.g. women driving in Saudi Arabia (http://saudiamber.blogspot.com/2007/06/dr-sleiman-

al-eids-argument-against.html; retrieved 6 May 2011). At the same, behaviours once
considered acceptable can become taboo. An example of this is foot binding, a practice that
was once a common custom in ancient China and which now is now forbidden (Levy 1991).
Myths
Myths are another example of a human universal. As with humour, we find that
operationalizing the term is not straightforward. This is in part due to the fact that myths,
like humour, serve different functions and takes different forms. There are subtle distinctions
between myths, legends, folklores, and folktales (e.g. Campbell 1988a). For the present pur-
poses, we have combined a number of different sources and define myths in the following
way: myths are traditional legendary stories (about a hero or an event), with or without a
documented or consensual basis of fact or natural explanation, which explain some practice,
rite, or phenomenon of nature.
There are a number of theories regarding the origins of myths. One set focuses on the
relationship that myths have with real historical events, euhemerism, whereby the myth
serves to represent gist details of a real event. Deviations from historical accuracy probably
are the result of narrators taking liberties, introducing idiosyncratic interpretations. The
evolution of the myth through the ages, and subsequent inclusion of otherwise incorrect (or
fantastical) information, may have ensured that the event maintained its vitality and current
relevance. A second type of theories focuses on the metaphorical function that stories can
serve, allegory. The content of the myth provided a symbolic representation or description
of natural phenomena (e.g. the ‘raging’ sea), or served to symbolize moral, philosophical, or
spiritual meaning (the hare as the ‘trickster’).
A third view is that the myth emerged as a type of personification of inanimate objects or
forces (associated with mythopoeic thought—the propensity to perceive ‘things’ as people/
persons). Ancient people would worship natural phenomena (e.g. the sea) and gradually
their devotion led them to describe the phenomena in terms of gods (e.g. Poseidon).
Ultimately, natural events were perceived and mythologized to be the acts of personal gods,
for example volcanic eruptions were the consequence of a god’s wrath. A fourth commonly
held view regarding the origins of myths is one that links myths to rituals (for other discussions
of rituals, see ‘The sport room, Chapter 9’; and ‘The teaching room’, Chapter 10). William
Robertson Smith is most often cited as a proponent of this view (www.william-robertson-
smith/en/en070edinburghacambridgeEN.htm; retrieved 30 July 2011). The suggestion is
that ancient people forgot why they enacted a ritual; the myth serves to provide an explana-
tion, and, in turn, the ritual is seen to commemorate the events described in the myth. Thus,
the myth rationalizes behaviour through the invention of an event (see also Frazer 1922).
There are also different explanations for the functions of myths. One proposed by Eliade
(1954). Eliade suggests that myths serve as models for behaviour as well as providing a
religious experience. In the case of the latter, the myth enables the listener to suspend belief
and transcend into higher levels of consciousness (e.g. become closer to the gods).
Campbell (1988a) posits four different functions of myths, which include: mystical,
cosmological, sociological, and pedagogical. Mystical and cosmological functions enable
the listener to share in the wonderment of the universe and also its characteristics. The
sociological function allows confirmation and endorsement of the social group, while the
pedagogical function provides a way of progressing through the phases of life, giving sup-
port as to how to conduct oneself. Campbell links the pedagogical function to rites of pas-
sage, suggesting that ‘the prime function of [mythology and rites of passage] is to supply the
symbols that carry the human spirit forward, in counteraction to those other constant
human fantasies that tend to tie it back’ (1949/1988b, p. 11).
Myths were passed from generation to generation in a number of different ways.
A method alleged to be universal among cultures, past and present, is the oral tradition, or
the transmission of stories through speaking (e.g. Rubin 1995). Carey (1970) discusses two
main storytellers who disseminated myths and legends in early African tribes. One would
be a priest or elder. This person was well versed and educated in the oral traditions, history,
and rituals of the tribe. Carey suggests that this type of storyteller would focus on stories that
would function to inform the tribe of their origins, or detail the conditions under which the
traditions and customs of the tribe were developed (euhemerism; myth-ritual; sociological
function). The other storyteller appeared concerned with the more cosmological and peda-
gogical functions, for example ‘trickster’ myths. As Carey says, myths and legends of Africa
were not meant ‘to express wish fulfilment, the unfairness of life is accepted, the hero will
not necessarily triumph, and wrong may go unchecked’ (1970, p. 5).
Today, myths are seemingly absent in modern life, a fact that has resulted in the progres-
sive neuroticism of modern society, according to Campbell (1949/1988b). He states, ‘Alas,
where is the guide . . . to supply the simple clue that will give us courage to face [the mon-
ster], and the means then to find our way to freedom when the monster has been met and
slain?’ (p. 23). Campbell (1988a) points out that the only replacement modern humans have
these mythical stories are the epics that are projected in films. Thus, Luke Skywalker (Star
Wars—episodes IV, V, and V, directors: George Lucas, Irvin Kershner, Richard Marquand,
respectively) becomes the modern-day hero, overcoming the evil that threatens to dominate
and destroy all that is good; and, in doing so, overcomes his own demons and monsters,
thereby committing himself to the ‘dangerous task of self-discovery and self-development’
(Campbell 1949/1988b, p. 23).
Seven basic tales

Our examination of universals ends with a discussion of stories. As discussed earlier (see
Chapter 8), Jung proposed archetypes, which reflect the innate energy and content of the
collective unconscious of the species. These archetypes can be figures (e.g. the trickster),
events (birth, death), motifs (apocalypse, creation), or transformations (Jung 1959/1990).
It is not surprising, therefore, that there exists common themes in literature, or ‘story
universals’. One proponent of this view is Booker (2005) who has written an impressively
large book on the topic. Booker asserts that there are seven basic story-lines that serve as the
basis for all fictional literature, across all cultures. These basic plots are archetypes and can
be used in various combinations. According to Booker, anything that has been written,
regardless of the genre or culture, will be based on one of these plots.
One plot is ‘overcoming the monster’: the hero or heroine must challenge a terrifying,
omnipotent monster that is threatening life or society, where there is inevitably a ‘fight to
the death’. Examples of this include Beowulf, and the film, Transformers (2007, director
Michael Bay). The second plot is called ‘rags to riches’ where the hero or heroine undergoes
a transformation from an average, unremarkable person to one who shows great strength
and exceptional qualities. A classic example from literature is Jane Eyre; a twentieth century
example from film is Trading Places (1983; director John Landis). The reader should note
that both of these stories somehow also involve the hero or heroine discovering aspects of
themselves which previous may have been dormant.
The third basic story is referred to as the ‘quest’: again a hero or heroine is the protagonist
who must achieve an important goal, and cannot deviate from their path until the goal is
accomplished. The journey that they must embark on is treacherous and dangerous, and
fraught with obstacles and foes that must be overcome. Examples of this include The Lord of
the Rings and the film Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981; director, Steven Spielberg). The fourth
is called ‘voyage and return’. The hero or heroine, and oftentimes companions, embarks on
a journey that takes them away from their familiar surroundings to a foreign place. Gradually
the intrepid traveller(s) become(s) aware that the new surroundings are hostile, dangerous,
and perilous. After a dramatic escape, they return to their familiar world. Examples of this
include Alice in Wonderland, and the films The Wizard of Oz (1939; director Victor Fleming)
and The Deerhunter (1978, director Michael Cimino).
The fifth universal story is ‘comedy’. This is where the characters become embroiled in a
series of misunderstandings and confusions, such that there is an increasing tension regard-
ing the outcome; eventually, however, all misunderstandings are corrected and the outcome
resolves all tension. Examples of this include any of Shakespeare’s comedies (e.g. All’s Well
That Ends Well), most of the novels by Jane Austen (e.g. Pride and Prejudice), and the films
It Happened One Night (1934, director Frank Capra) and The Hangover (2009, director
Todd Phillips). The reader should note that the basic plot of comedy does not imply that the
story is funny. The films La fille coupée en deux (2007, trans. ‘The Girl Cut in Two’, director
Claude Chabrol) and The War of the Roses (1989; director Danny DeVito) illustrate the
darker side of the comedic story-line.
Tragedy, the sixth plot, involves a main character (sometimes one with great status or
authority) who is drawn into a course of action that can only result in great loss or disaster.
Importantly, the main character brings about her or his own downfall: it is because of the
protagonist’s character that the actions were taken. Thus, the loss or disaster occurs as a
direct result of the personality, or psyche, of the protagonist, and their actions. Shakespeare’s
play King Lear is a classic example of a tragedy; Bonnie and Clyde (1967; director Arthur
Penn) and The Hurt Locker (2008; director Kathryn Bigelow) are examples of tragedy
depicted in films.
The last universal plot is called ‘rebirth’. Here dark forces threaten to overtake the hero
or heroine, until they become consumed by them. These dark forces can either be the
result of external forces, or dynamics within the protagonist’s own psyche. In some ways,
it is their personality that renders the heroine or hero vulnerable. It is only through acts
of good deeds that the protagonist is saved and redeemed; in many stories, this redemp-
tion is the result of love. Examples include Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol; examples
from cinema include Casablanca (1942; director Michael Curtiz) and Spiderman III
(2007; director Sam Raimi).
The reader should note that most narratives, stories, tales, myths, and legends involve at
least one main archetype, although it is equally likely that any single story combines a
number of different archetypes. So, for example, the series of books by J. K. Rowling that
tells the story of the young wizard Harry Potter, has elements of many of the major story
lines (e.g. overcoming the monster, voyage and return, the quest, tragedy, comedy). Perhaps
part of the reason for the global appeal of the Harry Potter series is that Rowling has been
able to capture the imagination of her readers by using plots that are universally
understood.
The modern nature room

Arguably, the modern nature room is in bad shape. Many factors probably contribute to
this sorry situation. One factor is physical: the planet is evolving; the environment and
natural resources are increasingly being used by more and more people. The Earth is now
heavily inhabited with people who are heavy users. This poses a problem as there are only so
many resources to ‘go around’.
Another factor is that the modern nature room is immersed in a world of politics and
finances (arguably, politics always involves money). Reminiscent of Baron-Cohen (2011), it
is a bad idea to mix politics and science. It is an even bigger mistake to mix politics, science,
and money. Since the three are completely enmeshed in the modern nature room, the ‘truth’
is subject to outrageous distortions. We defer the discussion of the roles that politics and
finance play in the modern nature room below.
In this section we review some of the specific issues that are likely to challenge profession-
als working in the modern nature room. First, we note what appear to us to be major themes
that continually surface. One is environmental change. Pollutants are on the increase, and
they are affecting people’s health (e.g. poor air quality due to increased traffic numbers, which
then leads to breathing and lung problems). Health psychology has taught us that the physi-
cal, embodied self is inextricably linked to emotional and cognitive well-being. Increases in
health problems generally correlate with more mental health problems, simply because peo-
ple are not very happy (or creative, productive, empowered, etc.) when they do not feel well.
Another theme in the modern nature room is the omnipresence of technology. Modern
technology, for example in the form of the Internet and media broadcasting, has given
singular access to events across the globe; and connected people in ways that have never
before been considered. A volcano erupting in Iceland can impact the personal lives of peo-
ple who are living thousands of miles away. As a result there is a global connection, and with
it, an international, shared consciousness about the natural events occurring on the planet.
Humans across the world are united through shared experiences in ways that are unparal-
leled in the history of the species.
Brayne (2007) discusses the consequences of this shared consciousness in his experience
as a mental health professional. Brayne argues that therapists and clinicians will need to
consider how to support clients who are ‘addressing the dangers . . . as individuals, as fami-
lies, as communities and as a species . . .’ (2007, p. 7). He predicts that, once the global
public realizes how very bad things are, ‘Speaking with Carl Jung, we may experience a
seismic shift in consciousness as a presently hidden collective awareness breaks the surface’
(pp. 6–7), although he questions whether this shift in consciousness will occur in time to
save human life.
THE MODERN NATURE ROOM 293
Global disasters
As we have stated, one consequence of information technology is that the world has become
a much smaller place. In an instant, billions of people are aware of what is happening (the
recent nuptials of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge are a salient example, as is the World
Cup, 2010). Nowhere is this more dramatically demonstrated than in the broadcasting of
ecological disasters.
An earthquake of approximately 9.2 on the Richter scale hit northern Japan in February
2011. The consequence of the earthquake included a massive tsunami that destroyed towns
and villages; and, damage to a nuclear power plant. In the hours and days following the
disaster, the levels of radiation became of acute concern, not only to the Japanese people but
also to people across the world. As so poignantly put by Joji Sakurai, ‘There are events in
history that sear themselves into the world’s collective imagination, and enter the realm
where myth meets heartbreaking reality. Japan’s tragedy is one of those events’ (Associated
Press, 17 March 2011).
The events in Japan served as a reminder that the planet is a dynamic, ever changing geo-
logical eco-system. This eco-system is prone to abrupt, dramatic and unpredictable change:
volcanic eruptions, violent schisms, and massive tidal waves annihilate civilizations, leaving
unthinkable disaster, financial ruin, and immeasurable emotional grief. In fact, evidence from
ancient civilizations chronicles how profoundly precarious human life is on planet Earth.
Diseases also present a constant challenge to the welfare of the species. In ancient civiliza-
tions, diseases that were associated with the ‘great plagues’ (e.g. smallpox, bubonic plague)
were transmitted across continents, as trade routes were developed. For example, the
Antonine plague, an outbreak of smallpox, devastated imperial Rome for nearly 15 years.
Scientists posit that the plague first originated in the east of Eurasia (probably China), where
a major outbreak occurred in 161–162 ce. Some scholars hypothesize that the disease was
brought back by Roman troops who had been fighting in Mesopotamia (e.g. Ponting 2007).
Among the most devastating diseases of the modern nature room are human immuno-
deficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). It is hypothesized
that the virus was transmitted across species, with humans first becoming contaminated
through the hunting and eating of animals, especially chimpanzees (in whom the disease is
Box 11.8 Ancient disasters

There have been numerous, natural disasters—earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, epidemics—
that have reeked havoc and destruction. For example, earthquakes destroyed the Palace of Knossos,
first in 1720 bce and then again in 1300 bce. The devastation on the Minoan culture was
unimaginable. The Minoans were again dramatically impacted by another natural disaster during the
Bronze Age (estimates include 1500 bce to 1628 and 1645 bce). This time a volcano erupted which
resulted in a massive tidal wave, often referred to as the Thera eruption. In 373 bce, an earthquake
and subsequent tsunami destroyed the ancient city of Helike, during the winter months. Earthquakes,
tsunamis and volcanoes continued to devastate the ancient world, with notable examples including
Mt Vesuvius (24 August, 79 ce), Crete and Alexandria (21 July, 365 ce), and Antioch (526 ce).
endemic). Transmission of the disease occurs through the blood stream, with sexual contact
and intravenous drug use being particularly easy ways to contract the virus. Infection with
HIV reached epidemic proportions by the 1970s–1980s (see Kiple 1993.)
As with so many diseases, HIV/AIDS is a problem of the poor. The highest concentration
of known cases is in Africa, where as many as 40% of adults might have the disease (e.g. in
Malawi, Botswana, and Swaziland; Ponting 2007). While there are drug regimens that
greatly inhibit the symptoms, these are expensive; and, as a consequence, drug treatment is
offered only to a small percentage of the people who are infected.
Not all modern diseases afflict the poor, however. While certain diseases have been largely
eradicated in industrialized societies (e.g. polio, scarlet fever, syphilis, smallpox), new dis-
eases have come forward. In particular, the modern nature room sees the emergence of
diseases that are likely to be the direct result of industrialization, and the changes that have
occurred in the environment and food habits (McKeown 1988). For example, increased
rates of some cancers have been linked to environmental pollutants (although it is equally
likely that the increase is due to the fact that humans are living longer, and have a greater
chance of contracting degenerative diseases that have some genetic basis). Other diseases,
such as cardio-vascular illness and diabetes, are probably the result of changes in dietary
habits, for example greater consumption of sugars and fats in refined or ‘fast’ foods. Ponting
(2007) suggests that the food industry has played a large part in changing dietary habits.
Once interested in distributing fresh food, the industry became more interested in selling
processed foods and quick turnover. Processed food afforded more financial reward through
the use of poorer-quality ingredients.
The new ‘natural’ environment

One undeniable facet of the modern nature room is the enormous impact that the Internet
has had on the way in which humans interact. The advent of ‘social networks’, which include
chat rooms, Facebook, LinkedIn, eHarmony.com, and Match.com, means that the Internet
Box 11.9 Driving is in our genes

One of the most important and yet often ignored examples of modern social behaviour is driving.
Groeger (2000) points out that the late nineteenth century saw very few people driving, with most
never experiencing speeds in excess of 20mph (except on horseback). Now, people who do not drive
are an exception rather than the rule. Groeger argues that driving requires people to do things that
were considered ‘unnatural’ in nineteenth-century societies: perform highly complex actions, in
sequence and simultaneously, at extreme speeds, on and in a machine. Yet, humans have clearly
evolved and mastered the necessary skills to propel themselves at accelerated speeds, in a self-
contained vehicle, for long periods of time. Now, driving is seen as part of daily life, and is certainly
incorporated into everyday schemas and scripts (e.g. Eldridge et al. 1994). From an evolutionary point
of view, it may be that driving reflects an example of the ‘fitness’ strategy that ensures species survival
(Dunbar 2008). Dunbar considers cultural inheritance and social learning to be as equally subject to
the laws of Darwin as are the genetic inheritances, like eye colour. Given driving ‘allows fidelity of
copying across generations . . .’ (Dunbar 2008, p. 304), one can argue that driving is just another
evolutionary process that somehow allows humans to exploit make the most from their genes.
has now become the loci of social interactions. Nowhere is this seen more powerfully than
in the younger generation.
Tapscott (1998) suggests that the youth of today, the ‘Internet generation’ or
‘N-generation’, increasingly operate in social environments that are highly reliant on
technology. He suggests that adolescents are adapting to and developing new ways to
communicate and conduct social interactions, where verbal content dominates and where
non-verbal behaviours become non-existent with perhaps the exception of symbols, for
example emoticons when texting, blogging, tweeting, emailing, etc. (Tapscott 1998).
Some researchers are concerned that this new form of social environment may have an
impact on the development of socio-emotional skills in children and adolescents (e.g. Wallis
2006). Development of social skills—such as the ability to read facial emotions—begins in
infancy, and the ability progresses over time, heightening in adolescence (Nelson 1987).
Ultimately, the concern is that with extended usage, children and adolescents will be less
adept at processing vital social cues (Halberstadt et al. 2001). Importantly, both extroverts
and introverts use the Internet to communicate (Hamburger and Ben-Artzi 2000). Thus,
the issue is likely not to be personality style, but rather the amount of compulsive Internet
usage by the individual.
Changing human behaviour

One of the major issues in the modern nature room is climate change. According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007), our current green gas emissions
are threatening to increase global temperatures and if we do not change our behaviours, by
another 15 years we will be unable to avert a catastrophe of such magnitude that human
civilization will be destroyed within two generations (Brayne 2007; Spence et al. 2009). But
not everyone agrees with the IPCC. Booker (2011) questions the soundness of the science,
making the point that the IPCC was designed to investigate and model climate change (not
decide whether it is happening). Booker also challenges the expertise of the members,
claiming that ‘many are not scientists, let alone climate experts’. He continues, ‘If global
warming odes turn out to have been a scare like all the others, it will certainly represent as
great a collective flight from reality as history as ever recorded’
What is indisputable, however, is that interventions need to be introduced, to lessen the
impact that we are having on the environment. One set of interventions involves changing
the way people behave, think, feel, and respond to their environment, their world, the cos-
mos . . . to infinity and beyond! Simply put, people need to change their attitudes (beliefs/
feelings/thoughts) and behaviour. It seems logical that psychologists will be asked to help in
this endeavour.
Thus far, the research suggests that humans do not change quite that easily. For example,
Uzzell (2010) reports that while the general public is very aware of climate change—
estimates are that as much as 80% of the population think the issues are serious—people
rank climate change much lower than other issues such as unemployment, taxes, and
healthcare. When questioned further, respondents indicated that they felt the issues of cli-
mate change are more pertinent to the global or national levels, rather than the local level.
This is almost as good as saying that the polluted air reported by an East Anglian health
authority is not the problem of the person living in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. Uzzell
Box 11.10 The bystander effect

The bystander effect, or Genovese syndrome, is a term coined from the seminal work of Latane and
Darley (1969; Manning et al. 2007). The experimental work was prompted by the shocking death of
Kitty Genovese, who pleaded for help as she lay dying of attack wounds in a New York street. She had
an audience of some 38 people who lived in the surrounding apartments, who could hear her pleas for
help; yet none responded. The lack of response was not cold-heartedness; rather, every one thought
that someone else would telephone, that someone else would take action. The phrase, bystander
effect, denotes the relationship between number of people who are aware of an event, and the
likelihood of someone taking action in response to the event. Generally, the greater the number of
people who are aware of the need for action, the less likely that any single person will take action.
(2010) describes this as a dislocation: things which are happening to the world, or to the
nation somehow, are not relevant to what is happening locally.
This ‘dislocation’ is coupled with another phenomenon, namely the ‘I will if you will’
attitude (Uzzell 2010). Consumers report that they will change their behaviours if the ‘other
guy’ changes theirs as well. It may be that this reflects some social learning or modelling
phenomenon: if I see my neighbour recycling, then I am more likely to recycle (e.g. Nigbur
et al. 2005). It may also be that this abdication of personal responsibility reflects similar
processes that operate in other social behaviours, for example the bystander effect (cf. Latane
and Darley 1969).
Changes in behaviour and attitudes will unquestionably involve financial and economic
consequences; given changes are required at national levels, there will also be political
consequences. As we stated earlier, the combination of science, money, and politics makes
for unhealthy bedfellows; and yet, there are impossibly connected in the modern nature
room. Unfortunately, the science-politics-finance framework makes the already difficult
task of changing human behaviour even more problematic. A brief discussion of what might
be called ‘green politics’ can serve to illustrate.
Green politics is not so much a political ideology but a holistic view of how to live.
Generically, the policies focus on environmental outcomes, and consider ecological health
to be as important as economic growth. Another general characteristic of green politics is
the alliances that have been forged with other groups sharing similar philosophies, such as
conservationists, feminists, and peace activists (see Betchel and Churchman 2002). Different
groups develop their own specific principles, although some variant of the following is gen-
erally adopted: ecological wisdom, social justice, participatory democracy, non-violence,
sustainability, and respect for diversity (www.global.green.org).
While the principles of green ideology are benign (e.g. endorsing nonviolence), they are
often perceived as representing a serious challenge to traditional views of productivism,
consumerism, and the constant demands of conventional capitalism to acquire more and
more. Ultimately, the ‘greens’ promote philosophical positions that will undermine the fab-
ric of the global economic monoculture. Equally, the green policies often do not coincide
with the views of governments. A good case in point is the use of nuclear power, which is
resoundingly opposed by the green movement, while regularly supported by federal and
state governments (e.g. the USA, Japan, France; see McCormack 1995).
Critically, green politics are associated with particular social and personal identities, and
herein lies some of the problem: such policies are sometimes viewed as reflecting liberalism,
‘hippy-ism’, elitism (in that many of the proponents are the well educated from developed
countries), and ‘do-gooder’ attitudes. Thus, a person might say ‘I don’t mind recycling, but I
don’t want to seem like I am a hippy’; and, because of the reluctance to be associated with or
identified as part of that group, the person resists changing her habits. Similarly, a factor
worker may want to use less plastic bags, but then he hears that this is the position of the green
movement, which opposes factory production lines. Threatening the industry means threat-
ening the worker’s job; this, in turn, undermines the worker’s sense of safety, empowerment,
and identity. As a consequence, the factory worker ignores the issue. It is this problem—the
rejection of the social label and the threat to identity—that poses one of the greatest challenges
to psychology and other professionals who are hoping to facilitate a change in the public’s
attitudes and behaviours. This will be discussed more fully in Scenario one.
The responsibility of psychology

The modern nature room will challenge the professional in ways that have never before been
experienced. We note that professional journals are now leading with articles on climate change
and whole issues are being devoted to how psychology must begin to take responsibility and do
something as a discipline (e.g. The Psychologist, 2009, 22(2), Therapy Today, 2007, 18 (10)).
Uzzell (2010) makes the important point that the rise of individualism and consumer
choice paradoxically undermines the ease with which people can identify with the collec-
tive. Thus, there are little internal incentives to change, leading to the real possibility that
people may need to be coerced into altering their behavioural patterns. He suggests that
what psychology must do is identify what motivates people’s behaviour and concentrate our
efforts there. He admonishes, however, from psychology concentrating on the individual’s
behaviour. Instead, he suggests that psychology has a broader role to play, one that can
provide a framework for understanding human behaviour in the context of communities
and societies. According to Uzzell, psychology must promote a sense of opportunity for
individuals to create social environments where they can then thrive and flourish.
Spence et al. (2009) suggest that psychology must continue not only to provide empirical
evidence, but also begin to integrate findings across diverse areas. For example, they argue
that theories of social cohesion and group identity need to be merged with evidence regard-
ing sustainable behavioural change, in order to determine what kinds of interventions are
most suitable for different communities. They assert that, for these reasons, all of the major
disciplines of psychology, including counselling, organizational, cognitive, and health,
must be prepared to work across methodological and paradigm differences, in unity, with
other professionals from other theoretical and scientific backgrounds. Uzzell (2010) makes
a similar point when he stresses that the future will require psychologists to work within
multidisciplinary teams, and in interdisciplinary modes.
A final word
Homo sapiens sapiens has failed to address adequately many of the environmental issues
that dominated the twentieth century. These issues arguably will dominate the consciousness
of future generations, and will unquestionably impact on the quality of life across the
planet. While we do not approve of fear-mongering, nor melodramatic ‘sound bites’, we
nonetheless feel that some summary comment is in order that reflects the seriousness of
these problems.
The fate of the human species is in question, whether due to ‘natural’ or self-inflicted
factors, or some odd combination of both. It may be that we, humans, will overcome our
economic, cultural, racial, ideological, geographical, and physical differences; that we will
agree on the facts (whatever they are); and, that we will forge ahead with purpose and vitality
on global issues. If we do not, then there is the ever-increasing chance that our evolutionary
‘claim to fame’ will be that ‘we are the only species on the planet ever to document our own
extinction’ (The Guardian, 20 November 2007).

Scenario one
Re-creating public space
The first scenario examines how humans use their physical environment. It focuses on the
problems of a community that was suffering from unemployment, poverty, and neglect; and
how this community was motivated to create and maintain a public space that could serve
to unify and support the residents, and contribute to the community’s well-being. We have
already introduced some of the factors that influence the ease or difficulty people experience
when their habitual behaviours are challenged. In this scenario, the emphasis is not only on
changing undesirable behaviours; the focus is also on creating new environments so that
people can engage in positive behaviours. This emphasis on the positive reflects Seligman
and his views on positive psychology (see ‘The treatment room, Chapter 8). Challenges are
viewed as part of the process of growth, development, and enhancement, rather than con-
sidered to be hurdles to be removed (e.g. Uzzell 2010). Some of the issues that emerge in the
scenario include those that have concerned early conservationists (see Box 11.12, p. 302),
such as conserving the natural habitat, as well as those that are particularly relevant to
today’s environmentalists, for example sustainability.

The community in question was part of a growing suburban city, Littleborough. Historically,
agriculture had been the primary source of income for locals, and work was available on a
seasonal basis (e.g. migratory field work). Farmers’ markets were held regularly, where local
produce suppliers as well as small farmers would sell fresh produce, meat, cheeses, and
breads. There were clear divisions in the different areas of Littleborough: the upper east side
and north of town (known collectively as UpTown) were exclusively for wealthier families,
while the Southland and Westside were generally where poorer families, and migrant
labourers, lived.
Around 100 years ago, higher education institutions were introduced, including a profes-
sional college, and a university; both were funded initially through private benefactors.
Over the years, the college and university promoted new kinds of industry (in particular
biotechnic, biological, and computer science based). Because land was relatively inexpensive,
other universities and professional colleges were established, increasing the overall
population and also introducing new demographics to the area. Now, additional businesses
developed to accommodate the needs of a younger population (e.g. leisure, retail) and the
characteristics of the city changed from quietly rural, to noisily suburban. Farmland was
sacrificed to fit the demands for housing; and much of the surrounding geography—hills
and orchards—was transformed into track homes and new ‘gated’ communities.
Traffic congestion became an immediate problem, and bypasses were built in order to
relieve the number of cars going through the city centre. These structural changes were also
associated with increased costs in maintenance; and monies were reallocated from public
services that were considered less vital. Two services that suffered were parks and recreations;
and graffiti removal (e.g. conservation corps).
As Littleborough grew, so too did the division in the socioeconomic status of different
areas. The newer parts of the city (UpTown and Luxury Hill) enjoyed better designed houses
and public areas. Houses were on lots of ample size that afforded privacy; most gardens had
mature trees and shrubs. Important amenities could be accessed easily (e.g. banks, markets,
chemists); there were upper-end professional buildings (e.g. private surgeons; dentists);
entertainment centres that included cinemas, restaurants, coffee shops, theatres; expensive
clothes shops, and so on. UpTown and Luxury Hill also had new, modern schools with well-
kept grounds; and, importantly, athletic fields and courts, and well-manicured walking gar-
dens that were accessible to the public.
The Southland, once considered a poor part of the town, was taken over by a private
developer and turned into an exclusive area, with an exclusive golf course and shops (e.g.
luxury car sellers). Local people from that area found that they could no longer afford to live
in the Southland, and either moved out of town, or moved to the Westside. Unlike the
Box 11.11 The different kinds of pollution

Pollution can be generically defined as the result of contaminants being introduced into a natural
environment that cause instability, disorder, harm, or discomfort to the ecosystem. The basic
categories of pollution include air (e.g. smog, ozone depletion, chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, acid
rain); ocean and water (e.g. coastal dead zones, oil spills, algal blooms, pharmaceutical and personal
care products); noise (e.g. airspace, traffic, industrial); visual (e.g. signs, neon and street lights, traffic
symbols); food and soil (e.g. mercury in fish, pesticides, herbicides). The consequences of pollution to
human health have been well documented. They include vascular and neurological problems,
diarrhoea and sickness, hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbances. Light
pollution, most notably from the increase presence of street lights), is an example of the delicate
balance between the benefits and disadvantages of ‘contaminants’: street lights are regularly
associated with decreases in crime rates; at the same time, highly lit streets impact on the quality of
sleep, which ultimately impacts on the stress levels of the residents. Agencies in the UK and USA that
can be contacted when pollution is suspected include the Department for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs (Defra; UK), Environment Agency (England and Wales), Scottish Environment Protection
Agency (Scotland), Environmental Protection Agency (the USA), EEA (European Environment
Agency), and Greenpeace (www.greenpeace.org).
Southland, the Westside had not benefited from the changes in Littleborough. One of the
oldest parts of the city, throughout Littleborough’s history, the Westside was the centre for
privately owned local produce warehouses; and most of the residents were employed by
these businesses as manual labourers. There were few small local businesses, such as pubs
and eating establishments; and a number of churches and religious centres. While the
Westside was poor, there was a strong collaboration between the small local businesses, the
larger privately owed produce companies, religious and spiritual centres, schools and
residents.
Thus, while not wealthy, the Westside was proud, in particular of its large park. The park
was located roughly in the centre of the area; and contained a children’s playground, a
wading pool, and a patio area with shade trees. There was also a path along the circumfer-
ence of the park, lined with an avenue of large chestnut trees; and street lights that had once
been gas, but had been rewired for electricity. The park served as the venue for fetes, school
fairs, community flower shows, and outdoor concerts during the summer. The local park
had helped to make the Westside a strong and cohesive community.
A major part in the demise of the Westside was played by the structural changes to traffic
routes that had been introduced. Littleborough was now accessible to surrounding, smaller
towns; and given the extensive availability of land, new ‘chain’ stores were introduced,
including supermarkets. The local produce suppliers were hit very hard by this latter devel-
opment, as people were no longer supporting small, community-based shops but instead
going for the cheaper prices that the new larger stores could offer. As a consequence, unem-
ployment rose dramatically, with Westside reporting unemployment rates that were at least
37% higher than the national average. With unemployment came higher crime rates. In
particular, drug trafficking being a major problem; and relations with residents and law
enforcement were very tense. Schools and education also suffered. Buildings were not
maintained and became dilapidated and vandalized. Graduation rates were as low, and
exclusion percentages were higher than they had been in 50 years. Public services had
become limited. There were few doctor’s offices, and the practices were overloaded with
financially indigent patients and their families. The nearest hospital was some five miles
away, on the newer sides of Littleborough.
Critically, the park had become a refuge for drug dealers and addicts: the grounds were
left unkempt, with extensive graffiti; and vandalism made it impossible for children to play
safely, as there were glass shards everywhere from the broken street lights. The city council
was disinclined to direct municipal funds to the area, as any previous attempts had resulted
in vandalism and general misuse of public property.
The breaking point for the community came when tragedy struck: a young child of a
young teenage mother was left playing unattended in the playground while her mother was
procuring drugs. The child found what appeared to be a used, hypodermic needle and had
accidentally stabbed herself in the eye. The child died in her mother’s arms, while waiting
for the emergency services. The story was covered nationally by all of the major networks;
locally, the news made the headlines, with Westside being in the spotlight as ‘one of the
worst places in the region to live’. Residents, parents, local educators, and businesses were
outraged at what had become of their once solid community. They collectively decided to
form a taskforce that was charged with strategizing the types of changes that could be intro-
duced in order to re-establish well-being in the community.
The taskforce was a mixture of families who had been long-standing residents of the
Westside, and local religious and spiritual leaders, business owners, educators, and medical
doctors. Additionally, representatives from various agencies from both the city and county,
and notable non-profit and for profit agencies were asked to attend (e.g. law enforcement,
criminal justice system, social services, regional school authority, human investment initia-
tive group, banks, housing authority, and so on). In total, the taskforce had a membership
of about 30 people.

The taskforce knew that it must do something about the problems in Westside. It was
unclear what type of professional might be useful in helping them, so decided to contact the
regional psychological association for some initial guidance. The association gave them
contact details of a few applied psychologists, one of whom was local to Westside and had
worked on civic and community projects for the homeless. The taskforce felt that it wanted
someone who would be sensitive to the traditions and history of Westside. They contacted
the local psychologist and asked if she could come and talk to them, and help them find a
way of saving their community.
The psychologist met with the taskforce. It soon became clear that interventions most
likely to receive support would be ones that focused on the park, since it had been the source
of such community cohesion and had seemed to be so symbolic of what had become of the
community. The taskforce asked the psychologist to come up with some ideas about what it
might do with the park, bearing in mind that there would be little money available from the
county or city to help with renovations.
What concepts were important?

One of the most salient features to the psychologist was the importance of the Westside’s his-
tory and tradition. Arguably, the only reason that the taskforce had approached the psychologist
in the first instance was because she was ‘local’ to the area, and had some understanding of the
community. This illustrated the strong in-group versus out-group mentality of the residents
and community (e.g. Tajfel and Turner 1986). The psychologist felt that this ‘in-group’ bias
was in part associated with the strong place attachment, particularly felt towards the local
park. Place attachment has been defined as the connexion that people have to places, such that
the place helps to identify who that person is (see Altman and Low 2001).
A number of theories have been put forward to explain the phenomenon of place attach-
ment. One explained by Tajfel (1982) is called social identity theory. Tajfel describes social
identity as a type of self-concept that is derived from belonging to certain social groups.
Positive emotions, such as self-esteem, are one of the consequences of belonging to the group;
and to the extent that membership is valued and viewed positively, the social identity will
direct the person’s behaviour in accordance with group norms. Extending this theory to
Westside, the strong attachment to the park could be the result of the park becoming part of
a ‘database’ that helps to identify the local community or group (e.g. Proshansky et al. 1983).
Another explanation for place attachment emerges from the theory of place-identity
(Twigger-Ross et al. 2003). The theory is somewhat lacking in precision regarding the exact
nature of processes, making only general references to the notion of schemas (e.g. Piaget).
It is not clear whether schemas are intended to reflect processes (e.g. creation of invariant
properties for classes of events), or organizational devices that store information. Either
way, the theory of place-identity argues that places (e.g. physical location) are an important
personal characteristic (or variable), and help to define the personal parameters of who
someone inherently is.
Breakwell (1986) has suggested an identity process theory, where identity is seen as both
a structure (e.g. schemas) and process. Identity is both social and personal. There are two
dimensions, content and value. Content refers to the informational categories of identity
(e.g. the database), whereas the value dimension refers to the positive or negative value
associated with the different categories. Identity is considered to be dynamic, and the
relative organization of the content-dimensions varies according to the demands of the
social context. Thus, who one ‘is’ depends on ‘where’ one is, relatively speaking.
The fact that the Westside area was proud of its history also pointed to the importance of
using a model of intervention that would be compatible with the strong community pres-
ence. A systemic approach, such as one posited by Brofenbrenner (2005), would have been
suitable. Equally, theories of social disorganization might be appropriate (e.g. McCall and
Niruebeerta 2007; Wang and Arnold 2008). Such theories argue that social disorganization
occurs through a combination of factors, for example poor economic conditions, ethnic
heterogeneity, and residential instability. Crime is allowed to occur because of a lack of
social control or surveillance.
Instead the psychologist considered the generic type of ecological models that had been
applied to prevention and intervention in health-related behaviours (e.g. McLeroy et al.
Box 11.12 Conservation, preservation and environmental activism

Environmental concerns have been a matter of public debate for a considerable time. For example,
the latter part of the nineteenth century saw three environmental issues dominate, particularly in the
USA. One concerned the decreasing availability of natural resources, such as wood. This concern
prompted what is now known as ‘the conversation movement’: people were encouraged to reduce
their usage of natural materials in the hope that future generations would have a sufficient supply of
essential raw materials. The second issue focused on the fate of what was known as the ‘wilderness’.
Nash (2001) argued that Americans, particularly in the early part of the nineteenth century, viewed
wilderness as wastelands, in need of cultivation and exploitation. By the mid-nineteenth century, a
romantic movement began which idealized the natural environment as an escape from the vagaries
of modern industrial life (see Thoreau and the noble savage). This idealized view of humans, and the
importance of protecting the natural habitat, was not associated with left-wing policies, as it appears
to be today. A vivid case in point is the strong environmental movement by Hitler and the Nazi Party
during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The third problem that prompted public concern was that of
pollution, particularly the types associated with industrialized societies and poor living conditions
(e.g. air, water treatment, garbage). After the Second World War, the environmental movement
gained more momentum. There are many reasons for this modern development. First, there was the
growing belief that affluence should not mean destruction. Second, there was increasing awareness
that new technologies were bringing with them new hazards (e.g. chemical agents). Third, the
information about environmental damage was more accessible due to information technology.
Finally, the fact that the world had become a much smaller place meant that environmental problems
transcended regional boundaries (see Suggested reading; Ponting 2007).
1988; Sallis and Owen 1996; Sallis et al. 1998). A major reason for her choice was that these
types of models had specifically been concerned about understanding how humans interact
with their environment, and many had been developed under the general banner of
environmental psychology.
There are certain general characteristics of the class of ecological models, which in turn
reflect the general philosophy of environmental psychology as a whole (see Sallis and Owen
1996). Critically, there is extensive involvement of users at all stages; and there is a collabora-
tive relationship between professionals, providers, and user/stakeholders. Users help to iden-
tify the problems and importantly the types of interventions or steps that would be acceptable;
in addition users provide essential information about the effectiveness of any interventions.
Another general characteristic is the close attention paid to local culture. For example,
interventions are considered in terms of how problems are traditionally addressed. This
ensures not only that the new interventions will ‘fit in’ with the local traditions; an assess-
ment of past interventions also provides essential information about outcome effectiveness.
An additional benefit is being able to anticipate secondary consequences of the interven-
tions, for example introducing a predator into an eco-system to prevent numbers of rodents
increasing. The number of rodents may decrease; a secondary effect, however, may be that
the insects (upon which the rodents feed) thrive, and destroy more crops than the originally
targeted vermin. Another feature of ecological models is the philosophical commitment
that all interventions must be multidisciplinary in nature. There must be a synergistic col-
laboration between different professionals. ‘Agents of change’ include any discipline that
might have some impact on the problem, including educators, the media, epidemiologists,
health professionals, forensics, architects, and behavioural/physical scientists.
Ecological models are also generally associated with a positive psychology approach (cf.
Seligman 2000), where the emphasis is on increasing resilience. Resilience can be defined as
those personal factors that provide the individual with resources to deal with stress and
negative events; protection is used to describe factors that are external to the individual and
help to support the person to deal effectively with negative, stressful events. Ecological mod-
els concentrate on positive factors, so that interventions can maximize these factors. This is
in contrast to more typical risk assessment approaches. In the latter, the focus is on remov-
ing or limiting the risks posed by external factors (e.g. poverty, crime, environmental pol-
lutants) which, in conjunction with vulnerability factors, render the individual more prone
to behaviours that are unhealthy.
Interventions that emphasize positive factors are easier to sustain, according to ecological
theories (e.g. see Uzzell 2010). This is because the interventions have incorporated strengths,
preferences and aptitudes of the users/stakeholders, and capitalized on these assets. An
individual is also more likely to stay motivated (an important element of sustaining behav-
iour) if the interventions complement their already existing preferences.
Ecological models also stress prevention, so that antecedent conditions leading to the
unwanted situation can be recognized, identified, and avoided. Interventions are focused
on raising public consciousness, rather than introducing punitive and coercive measures
(although some researchers suggest that such measures are inevitable, see Uzzell 2009).
Methods of learning include modelling, prompting, coaching, and problem solving. For
example, the notion of social capital—characteristics of a social group that promote
cooperation, as actions are seen as being mutually beneficial—is an essential element to
Box 11.13 Problems with positive thinking

Positive psychology was introduced by Seligman (2000), and its impact cannot be understated. We
digress for a moment to remind the reader that Seligman is also responsible for the learned helplessness
hypothesis, a hugely influential theory in the treatment of depression (Seligman 1978). Positive
psychology is an approach that emphasizes the good, the bountiful, the upbeat: problems are viewed in
terms of opportunities for growth and progress. According to Seligman, optimism can be learned; and
positive thoughts will promote better problem solving. People who are positive stay healthier, are more
productive, and overall are more effective. This approach has its critics, however. For example,
Ehrenreich (2010) amasses an impressive argument against the injudicious use of positive thinking. She
suggests that habitual positive thinking requires dubious processes such as thought control (e.g. ‘only
think positive thoughts’) and self-deception (e.g. ignore any possibility of failure); and in some ways, can
be likened to the tactics for social control that were used by the Soviet Union under Stalin. Ehrenreich
argues that positive thinking is not a panacea, stating that while American society is dominated by a
need for positive thinking, this ‘American infatuation with positive thinking has not made us happier’
(2010, p. 16). Ehrenreich is not advocating pessimism, but rather a healthy and vigilant realism, where
failure is not viewed as an evitable outcome, but still considered as a possible one. She warns that, if
taken too far, positive thinking can lead to an inability to see flaws and threats. It seems that, in the long
run, it may be better to know that ‘something is rotten in the state of Denmark’ (Hamlet, W. Shakespeare).
promote. Uzzell (2009) discusses the importance of downstream interventions (communi-

cation strategies directed at changing attitudes), particularly if these interventions highlight
the relative consequences of different actions that the user can take (e.g. which actions are
most likely to produce the greatest impact).
Ecological models acknowledge diversity of needs, in terms of race, sex/gender, culture,
religions, etc; and, in this way, have grown out of the philosophical arguments of social
constructivists and feminism. Social justice must be promoted through the use of interven-
tions that reflect the beliefs, needs, attitudes, and preferences of all stakeholders; and inter-
ventions must ensure that all members have equal voice. This means that any conflicting
messages—be they from society or the media—are identified and addressed. A good exam-
ple of a conflicting message is the consistent promotion of individualism (e.g. the rights of
the consumer) while simultaneously appealing for pro-environmental, pro-collective
behaviours.
Finally, there is the recognition that problems go together, and as a consequence, cannot
be treated separately. Thus, poverty is associated with crime, poor health, and poor housing
conditions. Individual factors play their role, but only provide a part of the picture (and
sometimes not a very big part of the picture). If an intervention is going to be introduced, it
must be supported by an infrastructure of other interventions, aimed at factors that trigger
and maintain the problem. In fact, many ecological approaches explicitly stipulate that any
change in behaviour must take into account all of the factors that contribute to the problem
(e.g. McLeroy et al. 1988).
For example, McLeroy et al. (1988) identify five, intricately connected levels that
contribute to health behaviours. These include intra-personal (e.g. temperament, biology),
interpersonal (e.g. relationships between family and friends), institutional (e.g. companies,
schools, healthy agencies), the community (e.g. relationships among institutions, businesses
etc), and public policy (laws and policy). Thus, what an individual might do or feel is the
consequence of who he or she is innately (e.g. impulsive), the types of social learning they
have experienced (close to parents and social group; parents smoked), the extent that public
services are available (e.g. education at school about smoking), the extent that public services
are integrated (e.g. strategic planning of public messages), the manner that the behaviour is
interpreted in terms of social rules (e.g. laws about smoking); and procedures to ensure
conformity, as well as what to do when rules are violated (e.g. fines, exclusion).

The psychologist decided that her first step would be to outline the goals that she hoped to
achieve, and the relevant timetable for reaching these milestones. She realized that she
would have to identify things that could be accomplished in the shorter term, as opposed to
those goals that might take a far longer time to attain.
An initial stage of the project would be to get evidence, and this could be accomplished in
a relatively short period of time. One of the most important things was to find out more fully
what the community wanted to do with the park. To this end, she decided to collect a
mixture of qualitative and quantitative data; using focus groups to obtain qualitative data
about the subjective and phenomenological experiences of the residents and community,
and what the park might mean to the community. Ideally, she was hoping that the focus
groups would also tell her about the specific goals the community wanted to achieve. She felt
it was important to make sure that the people knew their voices were being heard, and that
there was a venue where they could express their concerns, feelings, etc. She noted that focus
groups were a good ‘fit’ with the traditional ways that the community dealt with its local
issues, in that town hall meetings had often been held in the past. Meetings were usually
conducted in the auditorium of the primary school. In line with tradition, the psychologist
would hold the focus groups there.
Advertisements for the focus groups would have to appear at least 4 weeks in advance,
and would have to rely on more than flyers and word of mouth. The psychologist decided
that she would need to employ the help of the media (television, radio and newspapers), as
well as placing advertisements in county departments, doctor’s offices, supermarkets and
on street lamps. She would also ask if announcements for the focus groups could be made at
city and county council meetings, which were open to the public. The psychologist felt that
it as essential to involve all generations of the community. To this end, she contacted the
local schools and asked whether they would be interested in getting the pupils’ and students’
views about what should happen with the park. Pupils were encouraged to share their ideas,
through art, music, pictures, poems, and any other medium. The involvement of younger
generations would mean that the park would maintain its status in the Westside and pro-
mote some personal association and responsibility (e.g. place attachment).
The psychologist also knew that she would have to monitor her own reactions, as she was
a local from the Westside and her feelings undoubtedly would impact on how she analysed
the data from the focus groups (see Moustakas 1994). To this end, she would produce an
epoché, to document her own personal feelings about the park and consider how her
subjectivity might influence her interpretation of the qualitative data.
The psychologist decided that, in parallel, she would conduct a survey, where she would
use multiple choice and cued recall questions. The purpose of the survey, as the focus
groups, was to find out what specific goals the community wanted to achieve. Unlike the
focus groups, the survey would be more direct and ask about perceived risk and protective
factors. The survey would also ask participants to write three or four phrases that expressed
what they would like the park to symbolize, for example a safe place, a place to relax, a place
where the community could congregate.
The psychologist felt that it was essential that she understand the eco-socio-demographic
characteristics of the Westside. She already knew that unemployment was high and the
average household income was low, with over 25% of the families living under the designated
poverty level. The two local schools, a primary school and a middle school, both reported
conduct disorders and emotional problems above the national, regional and local averages.
Many of the children were known to the family and children courts. There were consistently
poor performance levels on national and regional examinations; and there was an
over-representation of exclusion, when compared to other schools.
On the basis of her research, the psychologist decided to start by outlining some
preliminary factors that would be likely to impact on the successfulness of the project
(regardless of the specific actions that might be taken); and then consider what resources
might be applied to the problems. In particular, she wanted to be sure to identify the
collaborative partnerships that would need to be established and nurtured. Not surpris-
ingly, these issues had been raised in her initial meeting with the taskforce.
One major factor was that the park had become a place for crime. There were a number
of ways in which crime could be addressed. One would be through structural changes, such
as increased presence of law enforcement. The psychologist already knew that the commu-
nity relations with law enforcement were poor; so, some intervention was essential to
change the lines of communication. This might be achieved through a number of different
interventions that could produce changes in relative short periods of time: the use of local
residents to partner with the police and to maintain a vigilant watch over the events in the
park; and a more relaxed and frequent interaction between the residents and police (e.g.
daily on-street presence). Law enforcement could also easily establish better relations with
the younger population by conducting day visits, and gear the messages to things that young
people consider more interesting (e.g. technology, use of watching a bomb be detonated). A
longer-term intervention could be to recruit local young people and adolescents to law
enforcement, in a strategic fashion.
A second set of interventions could involve technology, such as gates, lights and also
surveillance cameras. Gates or barriers that prevented cars from actually entering the park
would be ideal, although some costs would be associated with them. The psychologist knew
there was a well-known artist who from the Westside and whose family still lived there;
perhaps the community leaders could persuade him to create something for the residents
gratis. There would, of course, be the issue of the parks and recreation agencies allowing this
to happen; so, the community would have to establish good connections with civil servants
and agency administrators.
Light has been linked to reduced crime rates (e.g., Myers, 2009); so another immediate
intervention could be introducing better lighting in the park. There were a number of issues
that immediately concerned the psychologist, however. For one, the street lights had been
vandalized extensively. There seemed little point in replacing things as they were, since part
of the issue is that the cost would be prohibitive. For another, the psychologist knew of
equivocal evidence regarding the efficacy of lights as a deterrent of crime. For example,
studies where crimes rates decline with lighting often only show significant effects when day
and night crimes are considered; an examination of crime rates at night shows no effect of
increased lights (see Home Office Research Study 251, Farrington and Welsh, see www.
homeoffice.gov.uk/science-research/research-science/crime). Other research showing a
reduction in crime due to street lighting has been criticized on the grounds that it was
funded by biased sources (e.g. street light companies; www.britastro.org/dark-skies/crime.
html. Retrieved 05 May 2011). Still other research suggests that increased lighting might
make people more vulnerable to crime (see Report to the US Congress 1996, National
Institute of Justice). An example is lighting at ATM machines. Extra light is allegedly pro-
vided for the protection of the user, so that they are more confident about seeing people who
otherwise might victimize them. Ironically, the National Institute of Justice suggests that
this is the case only with appropriate lighting. With poorly designed lighting, the user might
be more vulnerable, with the lights making the user more visible to the potential offenders.
There also were additional secondary consequences of lighting, which might have adverse
effects on the community. For example, some studies have shown that increase street light-
ing heightens worry and concern that residents have about crime rates. Other negative
effects include increased stress and sleep disturbances (due to glare). As such, the psycholo-
gist decided that she would mention lighting as a deterrent, but also provide evidence that
challenges its effectiveness as an intervention.
Another major factor was sustainability. For example, one of the ways in which the
atmosphere of the park could be changed, and relatively quickly, was through plants and
shrubs; and renovating the children’s play areas. Such changes would be associated with
substantial costs, though. Planting greenery would involve direct costs (e.g. buying the
plants) as well as indirect costs (e.g. a workforce to maintain the plants).
The psychologist suspected that the local colleges and universities could be most helpful
in this regard. Agriculture had long been an important industry in Littleborough; and there
were many academic programmes offered locally. The psychologist felt that the Westside
could establish a collaborative relationship with senior administrators and management
(e.g. deans, programme directors) and develop some sort of applied practicum. The practi-
cum would allow students to get real experience in an important community project, where
they would be responsible for selecting, planting and maintaining the greenery and shrub-
bery. Students at different levels could take on different roles (e.g. manager versus labour),
and so teams could be developed that would ensure a continuity to the project. It would be
the proverbial ‘win-win’ situation. The plants could be donated, either from a privately
owned business, or through a public ‘plant drive’. Importantly, plants would be selected on
the basis of their function (e.g. to provide a scented garden for the blind) and only those that
were indigenous to the area would be introduced.

The psychologist compiled a preliminary report that identified these issues and made clear
to stress that the issues were just examples, to show how the community might go about
affecting change. Her report contained a review of the types of short- and long-term goals
that could be achieved by different interventions; and outlined the timetable for collecting
data regarding community views and opinions. She presented her report as a discussion
document to the taskforce, which could serve as a starting point for future action. The
psychologist also contacted many of the agencies that she had identified as important col-
laborators; and established connections that the Westside taskforce could develop further.

The taskforce and administrators were very pleased with the report. They were very
impressed that the psychologist had outlined short- and longer-term goals, and also identi-
fied some of the difficulties that the community might encounter. The group was particu-
larly pleased that the psychologist had provided specific ways in which data could be
collected about prevailing public opinion. The taskforce decided that once the data had been
collected and the priorities of the community were known, then it could identify specific
goals and how to achieve them. The group unanimously felt that it had at least started the
process of collaboration and communication; and that these first steps would help the task-
force reach its goal of re-creating a sense of community well-being in the Westside.
Scenario two
Out in space
This final scenario takes a slightly different form from all the rest, in that the story takes place
some time in the future. As it is hypothetical, not all of the information is necessary scientific
‘fact’, and some liberties have been taken. The scenario finds the human species at something
of a cross-roads: most countries and nations are struggling to overcome the hardships posed
by extreme weather conditions, pollution, diseases and decreasing public services. The ques-
tion is not whether, but when and how, humans should leave Earth in search of finding more
hospitable conditions. The scenario introduces the importance of space as being a potentially
‘natural environment’ for future humans; and discusses what personal, social, cognitive, and
physical characteristics are most amenable to space travel. The scenario shows how many of
the disciplines in psychology are relevant to space travel: social, organizational, personality,
and cognitive factors take centre-stage. Thus, the reader is re-introduced to issues that have
already been discussed in earlier chapters, such as personality (e.g. the war room, the treat-
ment room) group dynamics and team selection (e.g. the work room; the war room), sleep
deprivation (e.g. the treatment room), gender differences (e.g. the sports room), and motiva-
tion (e.g. the war room; the sport room; the teaching room). Because some of the topics are
repeated, we restrict our discussion so as not to be too repetitive. Analogue studies will be a
major source of information and will help to formalize hypotheses about ‘ideal space
travellers’. The scenario ultimately raises the ethical question of whether human behaviour
should be controlled, and, if so, what methods are most likely to ensure success.
What is the situation?

It was a very exciting time for science. The Human Genome Project was having unprece-
dented success in unravelling DNA codes; neuro-science had made major advances in the
mapping of the brain. For the first time in the history of humans, there was the real possibil-
ity of identifying the genetic templates for specific temperamental, attitudinal, physical,
emotion, and psychological characteristics. The understanding of brain circuitry meant that
humans were also close in having the ability to control thought, emotion, attitudes, and
behaviour through either electrical or chemical stimulation.
At the same time that science had progressed so exceptionally, there was ever growing
global concern about the planet, as there had been a series of serious, freak weather phe-
nomena. A number of large earthquakes hit heavily populated centres across the globe and
the resultant tidal waves ripped apart nuclear power plants so that radiation levels in many
parts of the world were reaching unhealthy levels. Extreme weather in the form of
mega-hurricanes had devastated cities, and left millions homeless and without basic food
and sewage services; as a result, illness and disease was rampant and many were forced to go
without medical treatment. Various disasters in the fossil fuel industries (e.g. oil spills)
resulted in many coastal lines now being dead; and air pollution had been at unhealthy
levels for so long, that major outbreaks of lung-related diseases were being reported across
the Americas, Great Britain, Europe, Australia, India, and China.
In response to the progressively worsening situation, international science groups were
established, with members including epidemiologists, geologists, educators, environmental
scientists, physicists, cosmologists, economists, and physicians. Four, independent groups
were formed. Each was charged with modelling different weather trends, pollution levels,
projected estimates of deaths through diseases, etc. The findings would be presented to the
Earth Committee (EC). The EC was a highly select group, made up of senior politicians
from 110 nations, who met under clandestine conditions. At the end of a three-year inves-
tigation, each scientific group presented their reports to the EC. All the groups had came to
the same conclusion: the planet would become too dangerous for life within 300–500 years.
The only real, long-term option was to consider relocation to another planet.
The EC decided that the only recourse was to address the possibility of relocation; and,
in particular, focus on the psychosocial barriers to space travel, but decided against using
specialists, as there had been extensive discord in the group as to whose specialists should
be used! To avoid this, the EC members agreed that internationally renowned applied
psychologists should be used. The psychologists should be known for their ability to
review large data sets and evidence objectively; and be able to provide logical and evi-
dence-based conclusions and recommendations, in a timely fashion. Ideally, the psychol-
ogists would have experience working in a large number of applied contexts, for
governments, agencies, private foundations; and have extensive experience in publica-
tion and dissemination of findings. Finally, the psychologists should all have excellent
reputations with their colleagues.
The EC contacted the major psychological governing bodies of their member nations.
Nominations were put forward, and three psychologists were selected to serve as co-leaders
on the project, SPLIT (Studying the Possibility of Long-term Inter-planet Travel). The
psychologists could choose their own support teams; and, could speak directly to research-
ers in space psychology. The EC made it clear, though, that no one except the co-leaders
would actually know the purposes of SPLIT.

The EC was very clear that it wanted SPLIT to consider two basic questions. First, what type
of individual would be best suited for long-distance space travel; and second, what is the
best way to select for these individual differences? In regards to the second question the EC
wanted SPLIT to tell it whether the selection for, and preparation of, individuals for space
travel could be achieved adequately through training alone; through a combination of
training and additional social control (e.g. electrical or chemical stimulation/supplements);
or whether some sort of human, genetic engineering would be necessary to ensure that the
voyagers had the ‘right’ psychological temperaments. The EC also imposed a strict deadline:
it wanted the psychologists’ recommendations within 90 days.
The EC wanted the psychologists to consider evidence from three primary sources. One
was data recorded from astronauts and actual space missions; included here would be
research on aviators. Another was the literature from analogue studies of human behaviours
in extreme environments. The third was historical accounts of extreme journeys under
extreme conditions (e.g. early maritime journeys). Data from simulations would also be
important, although such data were incomplete. For example, the Pluto500 project had
been designed to provide information about the psychological effects of long-distance space
travel. Unfortunately, Pluto500 had been terminated prematurely, due to a mega-storm that
knocked out all power and instruments in the isolation chamber; so the project had to be
abandoned. Major declines in funding for ground simulations meant that few projects had
been started subsequently.
Problematically, data from actual space missions were still rarely reported, due to the
problems inherent in conducting research on astronauts and cosmonauts. Selection pro-
cesses for becoming an astronaut were highly competitive, and few, if any, individuals
wanted to comment for fear of being replaced or rejected. Additionally, data from space
missions did not generalize to the more critical features of long-term space travel. For
example, space missions were always time-limited and astronauts were aware that they were
coming ‘home’. Also, ‘home’, namely Earth, was still very much in view and astronauts
could at least receive care packages from the ground crew and talk to loved ones regularly.
Neither of these would be luxuries of long-term space travel.
The first meeting of the SPLIT co-leaders was something of a tense moment. All were
uncomfortable with the responsibility before them. They knew that SPLIT raised issues that
were far-reaching and, in their views, should not be addressed exclusively by such a small
group of politicians, scientists, and scholars. Importantly, none liked the idea of conducting
such an important project without the public’s knowledge, as there were no provisions for
oversight and accountability. Nonetheless, they were prepared to put aside their concerns
and work together.
What concepts were involved?

The psychologists concurred that the most over-arching concept in the SPLIT project was
how humans deal with stress (see Chapters 7 and 8). Space flight was stressful, whether it
was for three days or 35 years. Not surprisingly, much of the research that had been done
had focused on identifying what types of stress were associated with space flight; and what
type of person would best cope with the stressors of space travel.
Dr Nick Kanas, a long-time researcher in the area of psychology and space travel, has
suggested that there are four types of stress that individuals will encounter on long space
flights: physical, physiological, psychological, and social (see Kanas 2011). Of course, these
do not operate independently. If someone has, say, from type 2 diabetes, they will show
some psychological symptoms as well, for example abrupt mood changes. Similarly, if a
person is highly anxious, then physiological correlates will become apparent, for example
night sweats and night terrors, shortness of breath. Bearing this in mind, the psychologists
focused on physical and psychosocial stressors that would be most likely to occur with
prolonged space travel.
The natural environment of space travel, or the physical conditions, had been well
documented, although there were admittedly big gaps in knowledge, for example the impact
of radiation, the impact of high propulsion on behaviour, and so on. Long-term space travel
requires the person to live in a restricted and fairly monotonous physical environment;
where there is limited personal space; and from which there is no escape. Individuals will
have restricted mobility for a considerable period of time, as time is another inevitable fact
of space travel. Thus, the natural environment of humans in space is cramped, crowded, and
unchanging. There is no escape and confinement extends for years.
Other features of the physical environment put stress on individuals. Heat regulation is a
potential problem, as this can vary within the spacecraft (Jarrett 2008). Even the perception
of one’s own body temperature can be highly inaccurate in space; and these inaccuracies can
result in potentially fatal overcompensations in personal heat and cooling systems (see
Jarrett 2008, p. 1020). Equally problematic are noise and light levels. The noise levels on
spacecraft are a constant source of stimulation; and the absence of a clear day/night sequence
disturbs circadian rhythms. The consequence is that sleep patterns are affected.
While the physical environment is stressful, the psychological environment is also highly
demanding. Space travel will be filled with unexpected situations, complications, and dangers.
Individuals will have to maintain relatively high states of vigilance and focused attention, and
be alert to potential problems. If nothing else, this consistent state of alertness would be
expected to impact on sleep patterns, in addition to those factors already discussed.
The social environment will be severely limited. Communication with outside sources
may be delayed and, in some cases, no longer possible. Kanas (2011; Kanas and Manzey
Box 11.14 Extreme natural environments

The Antarctic has become the source of vital pieces of information regarding how humans adapt to
extreme physical environments. Many scientists have reported on a variety of important
psychological phenomena (e.g. Neider 1972; Rivolier et al. 1988). The relevance of such work to
questions about space travel is clear, particularly when considering the parallel in the living
environments. The Antarctic (like space) represents a living environment where there is ‘physical
danger, a hostile climate . . . isolation, enforced small-group togetherness, restricted mobility and
social, and disruption of normal recreational and professional activities’ (Suedfeld 1991, p. 653). In
fact, the Russian space programme actually used Vostok (where the lowest temperature on Earth has
been recorded, –89.2 °C) as the environment to provide preliminary assessments of behavioural
performance for the Soviet Salyut space programme (see Roberts 2011). Suedfeld (1998) suggests
that there are three basic factors that consistently been found to be associated with effective
performance in and adaptation to the physical environment of the Antarctic: ability (e.g. problem
solving, competence), stability (e.g. emotional regulation), and compatibility (e.g. inter-personal
skills). Findings such as these are critical for the better understanding of the psychological effects of
extreme natural environments. For these reasons, the Antarctic provides an ideal model to study the
effects of deep space journeys on human behaviour.
2008) warns that the psychosocial stressors are considerable. Among the stressors are low
sensory input, lack of motivation, isolation, monotony, free time, unconscious conflicts,
and interpersonal conflicts (see discussion below of crew selection and demographics).
On long distant, multi-generational spacecraft, other social and ethical issues become
serious: coupling, sex, and birth rates would have to be addressed explicitly. The psycholo-
gists noted, however, that there was very little evidence is available to support what the most
effective strategies would be for discussing physical needs and sexual desires on long-term
space flights (e.g. Huntford 1999). Kanas (2011) suggests that explicit and inflexible social
control may have to be implemented, such as prohibiting sexual coupling until a certain age,
in order to control for cohort births. He also points out that this stringent social control will
likely become the source for rebellious interactions of generations who were born in space,
and for whom the Earth no longer had any attachment.
The most debilitating aspect of space travel will be the isolation and loneliness that would
be likely to be experienced by at least some of the individuals. Again, the extent to which this
occurs is likely to depend on the generation of space traveller. First-generation space trekkers,
who were born on and lived on Earth, would be most susceptible to the low moral, depression,
and loneliness that has been reported (see Kanas and Manzey 2008). Second-generation trav-
ellers would not have first-hand knowledge of Earth, although it is likely that they will be told
‘stories’ about the ‘home planet’. Third-generation trekkers would have no particular attach-
ment to Earth at all, although Kanas (2011) suggests that the stories about the ‘home planet’
might become highly mythologized, for example the tales of Beowulf and the Odyssey.
Loneliness and isolation, coupled with low motivation and low stimulation, are symptoms
often associated with clinical diagnoses of mood disorders, particularly major depressive
episodes. The impact of depressive type symptoms is substantial on the cognitive operations
of memory (see Chapter 8). Impairments in memory, be it prospective or retrospective,
would be major problems, for example failures to remember emergency actions, making
immediate treatment of mental health issues a priority for a multitude of reasons.
Concepts of personality and personality traits had long been of interest to psychology as
a discipline; so the psychologists knew that there was a considerable body of work that
could be relied upon to provide some guidance (see Chapters 6 and 7). The assumption was
that specific types of people would be more likely to adapt and react positively to the condi-
tions of space than others. The empirical issue was identifying whether there were any
traits that were clearly associated with better adjustment and adaptation (e.g. Ponterotto
and Hayden 1983).
Data of this type have generally been collected through the administration of personality
tests (see Chapter 2, ‘Scaling’, pp. 26–28), such as the Personal Characteristics Inventory
(PCI) and the NEO Personality Inventory (e.g. Costa and McCrae 1989; Musson et al. 2004).
The PCI discusses traits in terms of Instrumentality and Expressiveness. The NEO- assesses
traits related to the Big 5, Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and
Conscientiousness. Research has been conducted with astronauts and aviators, and there is
considerable consistency in the findings. Some researchers have argued that personality
clusters clearly indicate people who are ‘the Right Stuff’, ‘the Wrong Stuff’ and ‘No Stuff’
(Musson et al. 2004). For example, Musson et al. (2004) report that these clusters are associ-
ated with performance levels in aviators and astronauts alike.
Box 11.15 How stable are people?

One of the major psychological debates has surrounded the relative stability of personality and
behaviour. Many people have argued that human are inherently fixed in their propensity and types
of behaviours; and that these behaviours reflect the operations of relatively stable personality traits,
or dimensions (e.g. Costa and McCrae 1989). Thus, an individual’s behaviour can be predicted on the
basis of the types of personality traits that they possess. Some researcher go so far as to suggest that
personality trait structures are a human universal, with all cultures demonstrating essentially similar
constructs (e.g. McCrae and Costa 1984). In contrast, others have argued equally convincingly that
self-reported personality traits do not necessarily predict an individual’s behaviour; and that
consistency is likely to be due to the similarities across situations just as much as inherent traits of the
individual. Thus, people maintain a stable personality (and behaviour) to the extent that they are
operating in stable life circumstances (e.g. Mischel 1968).
Ursano (1980) provided a fairly extensive list of the personality traits in aviators that
seemed to be associated with better adaptation to the stress of flight. Among those, he
includes: self-sufficiency; high need to achieve; works better towards short-term goals;
emotionally avoidant; need for excitement; need for individual initiative; avoids introspec-
tion; employs concrete thinking; uses humour as a defence mechanism; prefers to modify
the environment rather than one’s own behaviour; the need for perfection in self and others.
Some of these characteristics are reminiscent of those discussed by Lazarus and Folkman
(1984), in their transactional model of stress. Lazarus and Folkman suggest that people use
different strategies when under stressful situations. Strategies are deliberate and inten-
tional, unlike defence mechanisms; so, therefore are under the control of the individual.
The individual’s goal is to reduce their stress; he or she does this through distributing and
allocating their attention to different features of the environment.
Lazarus and Folkman suggest that there are two types of strategy to deal with stress, prob-
lem oriented and emotion oriented. The former, problem oriented, is focused on action and
how the environment can be changed. Individuals using the strategy tend to seek accurate
information about the problem, develop a specific and realistic action plan on which the
follow through, and seek dependable advice and help from individuals who have some
expertise. Thus, the attention is placed on concrete elements of the environment that can be
changed, and on how to implement a plan that will change the external conditions under
which the individual is experiencing stress. In contrast, emotion-oriented strategies are
affect oriented. The goal here is to change the internal reaction to stress. As such, attention
is focused on emotional processing and expression; effort is given to reframing and restruc-
turing the understanding of the situation, so as to enable a reappraisal of the emotional
reactions. Social relationships are sought out, in an effort to gain support with emotional
processing and cognitive understanding.
Thus, the concept of coping strategies for dealing with stress would be important to con-
sider for future space trekkers. The available research conducted thus far strongly suggested
that people who use more action-oriented strategies will be better suited for space travel. It
appears that people who are problem focused, do not dwell on emotional reactions, and
Box 11.16 Gender differences in space

There is extensive literature on gender/sex differences; so, it is not surprising that concerns over
sex differences also emerges as an important topic in space travel. Research conducted on analogue
studies suggest that women focus more on emotional issues and are more cooperative in their
efforts to overcome stress-related problems. This tendency to support each other can have negative
consequences, however ( Jarrett 2009). The added concern for team members, along with the normal
everyday stress of extreme and hazardous conditions, places undo pressure on female members
of the team.
refrain from extensive emotional processing will fare better with the extreme circumstances
that space travel involves.
Other concepts relevant to a discussion of personality types and space travel came from
the process communication Model (PCM; cf. Kahler 1972; cited in Kahler 1999). This tool
had been used by NASA to identify those candidates that will be the strongest mentally and
most capable of coping with intense stress. The PCM posits that there are six different
personality types, each having its own set of strengths and relative weaknesses under certain
conditions. Correlations for personality types include strengths, management styles,
communication methods, perceptual style, environmental choices, and personality traits.
Investigations have shown that one personality type in particular is more represented in
astronauts than in the general population: the persister. The persister personality type has
an underlying drive to be perfect and to facilitate perfection in the performance of others.
This characteristic was also noted by Ursano’s research on aviators (1980).
Another set of concepts that was essential to consider examined the characteristics of the
social environment, rather than the individual characteristics of the traveller. These included
the general topic of team selection, within which specific concepts such as leadership, crew
selection and training, could be discussed. Each had been studied extensively by other
disciplines in psychology; so there was ample literature from which to choose.
Leadership is a concept that had long been the topic of discussion for psychologists and
behavioural scientists (see Chapters 6 and 7). Much research had emphasized that the deter-
mining qualities of a ‘good leader’ are, in part, influenced by the stage at which the organiza-
tion or team is developmentally. Thus, teams in their infancy may require more of an
authoritative style of leadership, whereas teams that are more mature could benefit from
more relaxed leadership style (Kassin et al. 2008). In hazardous situations, leaders must be
able to instil confidence into their team members, respond to emergency situations with clear
thinking, and cannot dwell on the psychological problems that might threaten to sabotage
problem-solving skills (Jarrett 2008; Roberts 2011). Importantly, management style will have
to match those of the team; and this leads to the second issue, group cohesion.
It could be argued that group cohesion is the single most important factor in determining
how well the group, and its members, interact to perform ‘group goals’ (see Yalom 1995).
Simply put, group cohesion refers to the extent to which members fit with each other, like
each other, communicate effectively with each other, and have some sort of positive emo-
tional investment in each other. All of the extant research agreed on this issue: the team
must be composed of members who enhance each other’s skills and aptitudes, so that, as the
Box 11.17 Mental health problems in space

A number of mental health issues are likely to emerge with prolonged space travel. Mood disorders,
for example major depressive disorder, and adjustment disorders, for example responses to leaving
or returning from a space mission, have been the most frequently considered, although psychosis
might also cannot be ruled out completely. Another type of mental health issue is the use of
immature defence mechanisms, for example, displacement. Astronauts—distressed with colleagues—
alleviate their stress by becoming aggressive with the ground crew, rather than risking taking out their
frustrations on other members of the space mission (Kanas et al. 2007; cited in Jarrett 2008).
Countermeasures are defined as those procedures that are employed to help astronauts deal better
with psychological issues (e.g. Jarrett 2008). Some of these countermeasures, such as debriefing
astronauts about what to expect, are likely to be used with long-space journeys. Others, however, will
not be as easy to implement, such as access to newspapers, postings from family and friends, and
care packages. Equally, some countermeasures that are suitable for short space travel would be
potentially unhealthy for longer journeys. For example, astronauts are often given films to watch as
part of their leisure activities. It is questionable, though, whether cinematic images of Earth-life are
likely to produce the desirable positive effects from people who are going to be journeying for
decades, and who, in all probability, will not be returning to Earth for a very, very long time, if at all.
Confronted with these new challenges, space programmes are now focusing on on-board strategies
for dealing with mental health issues. One possibility that has been considered was problem- or
solution-focused therapies. Solution-focused techniques do what the name implies: focus on solving
the problem. The techniques are goal oriented and generally operate in terms of behavioural
modifications. Insight, as discussed by the more traditional ‘talking therapies’ is unnecessary; all that is
needed for mood improvement is to modify the conditions of the environment so that the
maladaptive behaviour is no longer triggered or maintained. Jarrett (2009), reporting on research into
these goal-oriented therapies, suggests that these types of technique are more suited for astronauts.
proverbial saying goes, ‘the whole becomes greater than the mere sum of its parts’. Cognitive
styles, emotional expression and conflict resolution skills must be comparable and
compatible. There must be sufficient homogeneity across team members so that personali-
ties can withstand irritations and inter-personal dynamics can contain the pressures and
demands of long-distance travelling.
Issues of team selection would not only involve questions of personality type. Research
from analogue studies suggested that mixed-sex teams are likely to perform better than
single-sex teams (e.g. Roberts 2011), although this raises problems regarding the regulation
of coupling, as well as social control of birth rates. Issues of race and culture (and religion)
would also be important to consider. For example, it had been consistently demonstrated
that culture played a large role in how team members interacted with each other, and also
affected how isolated and excluded team members felt, particularly when belonging to a
‘minority’ (e.g. Kanas 2011). Age was another issue that needed to be considered. There was
little literature on this apart from those historical accounts of journeys conducted (see www.
legendsofamerica.com); and these were sufficiently dissimilar so as to make the compari-
sons questionable.
The second question, namely how to best select for these preferred personality traits, was
difficult to address conceptually. There were a number of options put forward: training,
social control through electrical or chemical stimulation, and genetic engineering. Social
control through electrical or chemical stimulation was considered a poor risk, as there were
problems that could easily arise (e.g. lack of medication compliance; abuse of power).
Training was the method of current choice. Candidates would go through a rigorous,
multi-stage vetting process, where interviews, standardized tests and performance under
simulated conditions would be examined, before then undergoing years and years of inten-
sive group training. There was little doubt that training was adequate to produce successful
teams for short-term space missions. Still, it was troubling to extrapolate from strategies for
short-term missions to the long-term travel that was being considered. For example, how
long individuals would have to be trained together in order to be confident that they could
travel extensive distances together happily and how would one obtain the evidence for this?
Thus far, no one had generically engineered anything except sheep and lower primates.
As such, there was no substantive evidence as to whether engineering would better ensure
success than training. It was evident, though, that there had to be the correct combination
of individual and group factors; that there had to be sufficient homogeneity in emotional
expression, conflict resolution and problem solving; that there had to be a balance between
cultures and social values, for long space flights to become a real possibility. All of the evi-
dence suggested that consistency, homogeneity, cohesion, and compatibility were essential
ingredients. To the extent that selection methods were not absolute in ensuring that these
ideal conditions were met, the mission would certainly run into major difficulties, if not fail.

The psychologists reviewed all of the relevant evidence regarding psychosocial barriers to
space travel; and the literature that focused on personality styles and group dynamics. They
decided that their report would first discuss the conditions of space travel, distinguishing
between the physical environment and the psychosocial environment. Evidence from the
psychological literature would then be reviewed. The report would end with conclusions and
recommendations. An executive summary would preface the report. The executive summary
would provide a precise of the goals of SPLIT, the questions addressed, the evidence that had
been examined, and the conclusions and recommendations that had been reached.
The report concluded that some types of individuals are better suited for space travel; but
that other factors, such as group cohesion and type of leader would need to be considered
carefully. Of this, there was overwhelmingly consistent evidence. The report also empha-
sized that conditions of space travel were highly complicated and required an intricate
understanding of how people cope with stress. While science could indeed socially control
behaviour, there were still unknown areas regarding the secondary effects that such control
might have.
The report recommended that, ultimately, the most successful method of selection of
candidates would be through genetic engineering. Embryos should be selected for physical
and psychological characteristics, and this would be the most effective way of ensuring the
‘Right Stuff’. Generations of cohorts (in order to ensure some diversity in age) should be
raised in controlled environments that simulated space travel; they would live together and
be trained for their future tasks, so that group cohesion would be ensured. These ‘selected
ones’ would have no experience with life outside of the simulated isolation environment,
and would be geared from birth to adapt to the natural environment of space travel. There
would be some allowance for individual choice, but this, too, would have to be limited to a
large extent. While it was clear that this would require great personal sacrifice, the ‘designed
space traveller’ could at least be proud of the fact that he or she had help to secure the future
of the human species.

The EC was presented with the findings and thanked the psychologists. All documents, files
and source materials were taken, and the psychologists were prohibited from keeping any
copies of their report, and from disseminating any information collected under SPLIT, for the
duration of their lifetimes. At this point, the psychologists are unaware of any actions taken as
a consequence of the SPLIT project. Efforts to contact the EC have been met with no response.
Additional reading
Breakwell, G. (ed.) (1983) Threatened Identities. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
This is a good account of identity theories.
Canter, D. (1997) The facets of place. In G.T. Moore and R.W. Marans (eds) Advances
Inenvironment, Behavior and Design: Towards an Integration of Theory, Methods, Research and
Utilization Plenum Press, New York.
This is a good summary of the psychological relevance of ‘place’, by a well respected author.
Deutsch, D. (ed.) (1999) The Psychology of Music, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
This is a wonderful edition and is filled with topics such as music and the auditory system, neural nets
and tonality, rhythm and timing, the psychology of singing, to name just a few.
Futuyama, D. (2005) Evolution, 1st edn. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
Gray, L.H. (ed.) (1916) The Mythology of all Races, 12 volumes. Marshall Jones, Boston, MA.
Provides early discussions of myths.
Roberson, D., Davies, I., and Davidoff, J. Color Categories are not Universal: Replications and New
Evidence from a Stone-Age Culture. Available at: www.essex.ac.uk/psychology/departmnet/
people/Roberson_files/bookChapter.pdf Retrieved 06 May 2011.
This is an excellent article that challenges the conclusions of Rosch Heider (1972).
Rosch Heider, E. (1972) Universals in color naming and memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 93, 10–20.
This is a seminal empirical paper and should be read.
Turner, J.C. (1982) Towards a cognitive redefinition. In H. Tajfel (ed.) Social Identity and Intergroup
Relations, e–40. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
This is a very good reference book for social identity theories and inter-group dynamics.
Twigger-Ross, C.L. and Uzzel, D.L. (1996) Place and identity process. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 16, 205–220.
Another interesting discussion of how geography and personality link.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1971) The Psychology of Art. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
This discusses the classic forms of literary genre, including fables, epics, short stories and
Shakespearean tragedy.
www.esa/int
This is a tremendous website where readers can find out about all activities of the European Space
Agency. It also has an extensive description of the scientific protocols, including work on psychosocial
issues of space travel.
www.nasa.gov
This is the official website for NASA.
www.nps.gov/history
This is an excellent website and provides the reader with excellent articles and information on the
National Park Services in the USA.
Questions
Scenario one
1. What are some of the ethical issues that arise in this project? Topics include ethical guidelines in the
conducting of research, ethical treatment of human subjects, subjective bias of researchers.
2. How might the psychologist discover if the park had an effect on community well-being? Topics
include outcome measures, empirical methodologies, baseline measures, subjective reports.
Scenario two
1. What mental health treatments might be necessary aboard long-distance space flights? Topics
include insight-oriented therapies versus action-oriented therapies; operant conditioning;
psycho-pharmacology.
2. What are some of the potential risks that might become associated with genetic engineering? Topics
include elitism, genetic imperfections, free will, social control.
Glossary
A-B, A-Br paradigm A technique used in paired- architecture, biofacts, and cultural landscapes (the
associate learning, where the stimuli from one list are archaeological record).
re-paired with responses from the same list. For example,
cat–hat and dog–bowl would be repaired to form cat– artificial intelligence (AI) The intelligence of
bowl and dog–hat. machines and the branch of computer science that aims
to create it. AI textbooks define the field as ‘the study and
academy An institution of higher learning, research, or design of intelligent agents’, where an intelligent agent is
honorary membership. a system that perceives its environment and takes actions
that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy,
accommodation (in psychology) The process by who coined the term in 1956, defines it as ‘the science and
which existing mental structures and behaviours are engineering of making intelligent machines’.
modified to adapt to new experiences according to Jean
Piaget, in the learning broader theory of Constructivism. assimilation A socio-political response to demographic
multiethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation
acquisition Takeover, the acquisition of a company. of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture.
active learning (learning methods) An umbrella association A concept used in learning theory to
term that refers to several models of instruction that place denote the manner in which two events that are proximal
the responsibility of learning on learners. become linked together as a unit.
actual self A term used in Rogerian therapy to denote Association Network Model Networks of various
the real, genuine self, which is dynamic and changing. sorts play an integral part in many theories of semantic
See also ideal self. memory. Generally speaking, a network is composed of a
set of nodes connected by links. The nodes may represent
actualizing tendency A concept from the Rogerian concepts, words, perceptual features, or nothing at all.
approach to psychotherapy, which reflects the person’s The links may be weighted such that some are stronger
innate desire and drive to grow, develop, and enhance than others or, equivalently, have a length such that some
their potential. links take longer to traverse than others.
allegory A figurative mode of representation conveying autobiographical memory A memory system
meaning other than the verbal. Allegory communicates consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s
its message by means of symbolic figures, actions, or life, based on a combination of episodic (personal
symbolic representation. experiences and specific objects, people and events
experienced at particular time and place) and semantic
altricial Means ‘requiring nourishment’; refers to a
(general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.
pattern of growth and development in organisms which
are incapable of moving around on their own soon after
autonomic nervous system (ANS) The part of the
hatching or being born.
nervous system that is responsible for regulating and
analysis of covariance A family of statistical controlling the body’s internal environment, through
techniques enabling the user to partial out, or cancel, the involuntary smooth muscle and glandular activity.
effects of a correlated variable in assessing the significance
of differences in group or subgroup means. baseline measurement An assessment of some
behaviour prior to the introduction of any variables or
Anthropology (logist) The study of humanity. It has interventions.
origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the
social sciences. Behavioural counsellors Behavioral counseling is
an active action-oriented approach that works with the
apophenia The experience of seeing meaningful typically developing population but also assists people
patterns or connections in random or meaningless data. with specific/discrete problems such as career decision
making, drinking, smoking, or rehabilitation after injury.
Archaeology (logist) The study of human society,
primarily through the recovery and analysis of the behavioural psychology The study of human
material culture and environmental data left behind behaviour that focuses on observable outcomes, and relies
by previous civilizations, which includes artefacts, on concepts from conditioning theories.
320 GLOSSARY
Blackboard A virtual learning environment and Cognition (cognitive skills) is the scientific term for
course management system developed by Blackboard ‘the process of thought’. Usage of the term varies in
Inc. Features include course management, a customizable different disciplines; for example in psychology and
open architecture, and a scalable design that allows cognitive science, it usually refers to an information
for integration with student information systems and processing view of an individual’s psychological
authentication protocols. functions. Within psychology or philosophy, the
concept of cognition is closely related to abstract
bottom-up processing A type of information concepts such as mind, intelligence, cognition is used
processing that relies on lower-level analyses to send to refer to the mental functions, mental processes
information to higher-level centres; for example, retinal (thoughts) and states of intelligent entities (humans,
information. human organizations, highly autonomous machines and
artificial intelligences).
central nervous system (CNS) The brain and
spinal cord. collective unconscious A concept developed by Carl
Jung to denote primal drives, images, and desires that are
centration The tendency to focus on one aspect of a
outside our conscious awareness and that are universal
situation and neglect others. A term introduced by the
and innate to the species of Homo sapiens.
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) to refer to the
tendency of young children to focus attention on only one combat trauma Anxiety and other related trauma
salient aspect of an object, situation, or problem at a time, reactions that are in direct response to being exposed to
to the exclusion of other potentially relevant aspects. or participating in military action.
Chronosystem Urie Bronfenbrenner is generally comparative school of anthropology A particular

regarded as one of the world’s leading scholars to approach to anthropology that uses one culture as
focus on the interplay between research and policy the basis for analysing and understanding behaviours
on child development. Bronfenbrenner suggests from another culture. It has been criticized for judging
child development research is better informed when the behaviour of humans in the context of one’s own,
institutional policies encourage studies within natural sanctioned cultural patterns.
settings and theory finds greater practical application
when contextually relevant. This perspective is well concrete operational stage The third of four stages
defined by Bronfenbrenner, who states, ‘basic science of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. This stage,
needs public policy even more than public policy which follows the preoperational stage, occurs between
needs basic science’ (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 8, the ages of 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the
italics in original). It is from this vantage point that appropriate use of logic.
Bronfenbrenner conceives his primary contribution,
ecological systems theory, in which he delineates four conditioned response (CR) A concept used in
types of nested systems. He calls these the microsystem classical conditioning whereby a previously unrelated
(such as the family or classroom); the mesosystem (which response becomes associated with a stimulus, for
is two microsystems in interaction); the exosystem example, salivating to a bell.
(external environments which indirectly influence
development, e.g., parental workplace); and the
conditioned stimulus (CS) A concept used in
classical conditioning whereby a previously unrelated
macrosystem (the larger socio-cultural context). He later
stimulus can be used to evoke a response, for example, a
adds a fifth system, called the chronosystem (the evolution
bell eliciting a salivation response.
of the external systems over time).
circadian rhythm Biological functions that occur conditions of growth A concept from the Rogerian
within an approximately 24-hour cycle, such as sleep. approach to therapy that represents those environmental
features that enable the person to grow healthily; these
classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent include unconditional positive regard, openness, and
conditioning, Pavlovian reinforcement) is a form empathy.
of conditioning that was first demonstrated by Ivan
Pavlov (1927). The typical procedure for inducing Confucius A Chinese thinker and social philosopher of
classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral the Spring and Autumn Period.
stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance, the
‘unconditioned stimulus’. connectionist framework James Lloyd (Jay)
McClelland is best known for his work concerning
clinical psychology (-logist) An integration of parallel distributed processing, applying connectionist
science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of models (or neural networks) to explain cognitive
understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically phenomena such as spoken word recognition and
based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective visual word recognition. McClelland is to a large extent
well-being and personal development. responsible for the ‘connectionist revolution’ of the
GLOSSARY 321
1980s, which saw a large increase in scientific interest for super-ego, which enable the ego to prevent unwanted and
connectionism. threatening thoughts, images, and actions from entering
conscious awareness, or help to modify the drives into
conservation To protect plants, animals, and their more socially acceptable forms. These are processes
habitats. that occur outside awareness, and include repression,
identification, regression, displacement, sublimation,
Constructivism (learning theory) A theory about rationalization, denial, projection, and reaction
the nature of learning.
formation.
conversion hysteria A term used to denote disorders
defence reaction (DR) Innate physiological reaction
whereby the person experiences neurological symptoms,
to intense stimuli. It may prepare for action. See also
such as paralysis or blindness, that may have a sudden
orienting reaction (OR).
onset, but no physical basis.
delayed-return economics A term used to refer to
conversion symptoms See conversion hysteria. those social groups where food is not eaten immediately
cooperative learning An approach to organizing but rather is stored. Strategies are employed in order
classroom activities into academic and social learning to ensure an adequate supply of food for future use
experiences. (e.g. pastoralism; agricultural practices, methods for
food preservation). The delayed-return economics are
counselling psychology (logist) is a psychological associated with levels of social status and division of
specialty that encompasses research and applied work in labour.
several broad domains: counselling process and outcome;
supervision and training; career development and demand characteristics An experimental artefact
counselling; and prevention and health. where participants form an interpretation of the
experiment’s purpose and unconsciously change their
counterconditioning The process derived from behaviour accordingly.
classical learning theory, whereby a maladaptive response
to a stimulus, such as anxiety when seeing a spider, is denial An example of a defence mechanism developed
replaced by an incompatible, more adaptive response, from Freudian theory, whereby the person refuses to
such as relaxation. acknowledge their behaviour, feelings, etc. and denies
their existence; for example, someone who has a drug
covariability When two measures are correlated they problem referring to themselves as a casual user.
are said to covary; that is, scores on one reflect, in some
degree, scores on the other. For example, age and height depressive personality type or disorder
would be expected to covary in a sample of children. Proposed as a new classification in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders, Fourth
cued recall A memory technique that reinstates some Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-R) which is described
aspects of the to-be-remembered event at the time of as a pervasive pattern of depressive cognitions and
retrieval. For example, a stimulus is presented and the behaviours beginning by early adulthood and present
person is asked to recall the response to which it was in a variety of contexts. Individuals must fulfil five of
paired. seven symptom criteria in order to be diagnosed with
this disorder. It is controversial as to whether this
cultural and linguistic sensitivity The quality diagnosis is substantially different from the diagnosis of
of being aware and accepting of other cultures and dysthymic disorder.
languages.
discontinuous theories A developmental theory that
cultural relativism The principle that an individual suggests development does not conform to discrete and
human’s beliefs and activities should be understood by uniform stages.
others in terms of that individual’s own culture.
discourse analysis A general term for a set of
decibels (dB) A logarithmic measure of sound qualitative techniques that examine discourse and focus
intensity. on the subjective experiences of the person, rather
than quantifiable measurements of behaviour. These
declarative knowledge (or declarative memory) A techniques consider thematic content, topic development,
term used to describe knowledge that can be verbalized and the use of metaphors and other images to understand
by the person. This includes personal, autobiographical the underlying psychological processes.
information, such as events and facts; and semantic or
abstract information about the world and language. displacement An example of a defence mechanism
derived from Freudian theory whereby the person directs
defence mechanisms Theoretical processes originally feelings to a substitute object; for example, being angry
derived from Sigmund Freud’s work on the id, ego, and with your partner and yelling at your friend instead.
322 GLOSSARY
distance learning or distance education A field environmental psychology An interdisciplinary

of education that focuses on teaching methods and field focused on the interplay between humans and their
technology with the aim of delivering teaching, often on surroundings.
an individual basis, to students who are not physically
present in a traditional educational setting such as a episodic memory A term used by spatio-temporal
classroom. models of memory to denote our ability to recollect or
retain knowledge over long periods of time, about specific
distributed knowledge A term used in multiagent events that occurred at specific times and places.
system research that refers to all the knowledge that
a community of agents possesses and might apply epoché An ancient Greek term which, in its
in solving a problem. Distributed knowledge is philosophical usage, describes the theoretical moment
approximately what ‘a wise man knows’ or what someone where all judgements about the existence of the external
who has complete knowledge of what each member of the world, and consequently all action in the world, are
communities knows. suspended.
distributed practice A method of training where ethnocentricity The tendency to believe that one’s
the person is asked to perform the task with practice ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that
trials being more dispersed across a longer period; for all other groups are measured in relation to one’s own.
example studying all term for an exam, one day a week,
is distributed practice; cramming for the exam the night
ethology A method of studying animal behaviour
where observations are made without intervention of the
before is massed practice. Distributed practice is known
animal(s) in their natural habitat or environment.
to yield superior learning and skill.
euhemerism rationalizing method of interpretation
dizygotic twins Non-identical twins, where each fetus
that treats mythological accounts as a reflection of
develops from its own individual egg.
historical events, but shaped by retelling and traditional
drive A theoretical concept that reflects a state of mores.
psychological tension, or imbalance, in response to some
event memory See episodic memory.
need; a drive is assumed to motivate the organism to
reduce the tension or redress the imbalance. existential approach A general framework for
understanding the human psyche where emotional
ecological validity The extent to which a set of
problems and difficulties are the result of the person
theoretical ideas or empirical findings can be transferred
failing to find meaning in a life filled with pain and
to other settings, such as real-world situations.
suffering. This general approach supports people to
educational psychology The study of how humans discover their own meaning of life to promote inner
learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of health.
educational interventions, the psychology of teaching,
exosystems Community-level influence, including
and the social psychology of schools as organizations.
fairly established norms, standards, and social networks.
Educational psychology is concerned with how students
learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as experimental methodology A research technique
gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. where the person, the experimenter, examines a particular
aspect of behaviour by manipulating some features of
egocentrism The incomplete differentiation of the self
the environment and holding other features constant.
and the world, including other people and the tendency
The behaviour that is measured is called the dependent
to perceive, understand and interpret the world in terms
variable; the features of the environment that the
of the self.
experimenter manipulates are called the independent
E-learning Comprises all forms of electronically variables.
supported learning and teaching. The information and
communication systems, whether networked or not, serve
experiment-wise error rates A statistical measure
of the likelihood of incorrectly identifying differences
as specific media to implement the learning process.
across all analyses conducted within a particular
elluminate A web conferencing program that ‘rents’ experiment.
out virtual rooms or vSpaces where virtual schools and
explicit Stating something rather than implying it.
businesses can hold classes and meetings.
explicit knowledge Knowledge or skills intentionally
encoding Allows the perceived item of use or interest
gained and accessible to immediate awareness; for
to be converted into a construct that can be stored within
example, knowing that Paris is the capital of France is
the brain and recalled later from short- or long-term
explicit knowledge. See also implicit knowledge.
memory.
GLOSSARY 323
explicit memory A psychological state where the Four Books See Five Classics.
person is consciously aware that they are engaged in the
act of remembering a past event or knowledge. This is in free association A technique most commonly used
contrast to implicit memory. See also implicit memory. in psychoanalytic therapies, where the person is asked
to report on the content of their consciousness, without
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) A monitoring or censuring.
standardized personality test developed by Hans
Eysenck that relies on three general factors: extroversion, frequency The number of times that a sound wave is
neuroticism, and psychoticism. repeated in one second, measured in cycles per second.
This determines the pitch of the sound: high frequency
face validity A term used in psychometric testing means high pitch. See also Hertz (Hz).
to identify tests that can be seen to measure what they
purport to measure, hence engender confidence in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
their use. Use of the magnetic resonance imaging scanning
technique during active responding, in order to identify
factor analysis A statistical technique that relies on the structures involved in the response. See also magnetic
correlations between different measures of different tasks resonance imaging.
to identify larger and common underlying characteristics,
referred to as factors. galvanic skin response (GSR) In response to
emotional or attentional demand, the sweat glands on
factual a platform for anyone to share and mash the palms of the hands and fingers increase their activity.
open data. This is measured as an increase in skin conductance or a
decrease in resistance, monitored by electrodes attached
fight-or-flight reaction A state of physiological to the fingers. Also known as the electrodermal response
arousal in response to sudden threat or danger, which (EDR).
enables us to flee from the situation, or confront and
challenge the threat. gender A set of characteristics distinguishing between
male and female, particularly in the cases of men and
figure Along with ground, concepts used in Gestalt women. Depending on the context, the discriminating
theories of perception to distinguish those elements of the characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender
world to which we give our focal attention (figure) from identity.
those elements of the world that are outside our focal
attention (ground). The figure has form, meaning, and gender identities The way in which an individual
appears more salient than ground. identifies with a gender category, for-example as being
either female or male, or in some cases being neither.
Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics are the
authoritative books of Confucianism in China written gender stereotypes Type of discrimination in regards
before 300 bc. to gender; standardized and simplified conceptions of
groups based on some prior assumptions.
focused attention Directing one’s current awareness
and conscious efforts towards one element in the generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) An anxiety
environment, at the expense of other elements. This disorder that is characterized by excessive, uncontrollable
is in contrast to divided attention, where the person is and often irrational worry about everyday things that is
allocating mental energy and awareness to more than one disproportionate to the actual source of worry.
element in the environment.
Gestalt A school of psychology that focuses on our
formal relating to an established procedure or set of innate response to complete a whole, based on incomplete
specific behaviours. fragments. Gestalt theories of perception hold that the
brain automatically organizes perceptual information
formal operational period The fourth and final of into whole objects; Gestalt therapies assume that the
the periods of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. person has a habitual response to re-enact old patterns of
This stage, which follows the concrete operational stage, behaviour that can symbolically reappear in later life.
commences at around 11 years of age (puberty) and
continues into adulthood. In this stage, individuals ground See figure.
move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think
abstractly, reason logically, and draw conclusions from group norm A term used to denote the average
the information available, as well as apply all these performance, or behaviour of a large number of
processes to hypothetical situations. individuals, for example, norm reading behaviour for
13-year-old boys. The norms are often used as a control
formal knowledge A term used to denote knowledge or comparison for groups in which some intervention
that can be expressed either through words, or abstract has been given, or which are a special subgroup, such as
symbols, such as formulae. clinical disorders.
324 GLOSSARY
habituation A general decline in the organism’s or information, and attempts to explain how this
capacity to respond to an innocuous stimulus that has information becomes analysed and understood; typically
been repeated. At the neural level this is reflected in a involves stages of analyses, including encoding, storage,
reduction in responsiveness to continued stimulation. and retrieval.
Hertz (Hz) The technical term for wave frequency in information processing model Within the field
cycles per second; named after Heinrich Hertz, a German of cognitive psychology, information processing is an
physicist who discovered radio waves. approach to the goal of understanding human thinking. It
arose in the 1940s and 1950s. The essence of the approach
hot cognitions A term used to denote beliefs or is to see cognition as being essentially computational in
thoughts that have personal significance and emotive nature, with mind being the software and the brain being
power for the person, such as ardent religious beliefs. the hardware.
This is in contrast to cold cognitions, which reflect facts
and information that have no personal significance or instinct A complex behavioural pattern that is inherited
importance. by members of the same species, for example, an
automatic specific response to a specific stimulus.
hysterical disorder See conversion hysteria.
intentional (-ended) An agent’s intention in
ideal self In Rogerian therapy, a dynamic set of performing an action is his or her specific purpose in
characteristics, goals, or aspirations that the person would doing so, the end or goal that is aimed at, or intended to
most like to have. See also actual self. accomplish.
identification An example of a defence mechanism introjection See identification.

whereby the person does not express a drive or need, but
rather mimics or adopts characteristics of a drive object, learned helplessness A term coined by Martin
which is generally someone who is the focus of that Seligman to describe depressive symptoms. Seligman
drive; for example, a young girl wants to dress like a pop suggests that through inappropriate attributions the
star; similar to introjection, which refers to the person individual learns that he or she has no control or agency
adopting the values and beliefs of the drive object. in the world, and hence, learns to become helpless.
immediate-return economics This refers to social Learning (-er) is acquiring new or modifying existing
groups where food is gathered/hunted and consumed knowledge, behaviours, skills, values, or preferences and
at the time, rather than being amassed in great amounts may involve synthesizing different types of information.
for future use. Critically, food is shared across all
members of the social group and there is little distinction learning schedule Description of the methods used to
between members in terms of status, roles, actions, etc. introduce the organism to new information, which vary
The concern is for the collective, and the principle of in terms of time, frequency, and regularity; for example,
egalitarianism dominates. interval reinforcement schedules will reinforce a response
within a certain time interval. See also distributed practice
implicit knowledge A concept that reflects and massed practice.
knowledge that can be demonstrated, but it is expressed
without the person’s awareness; for example, amnesiac learning theory the process of how humans
patients who can show evidence of learning but have no learn behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism,
explicit awareness. See also explicit knowledge. connectivism.
implicit memory A state where the person shows learning to learn A description of improvement in
evidence of using past information or knowledge, but has knowing how to perform a task through repeated practice
no conscious awareness that they are engaging in the act trials.
of remembering. See also explicit memory.
lifespan psychology also known as developmental
individual differences A general term used to denote psychology is the scientific study of systematic
long-term factors that help to explain the variability in psychological changes that occur in human beings over
behaviour of different people; for example, gender or the course of their lifespan.
intelligence.
limited processing capacity A concept widely used
individuation Introduced by Carl Jung to describe the in discussing attention and short-term memory, which
goal of personal development, where the ego or conscious refers to our restricted ability to analyse more than a
self become integrated with the unconscious aspects of certain amount and type of information at any given time.
self through expansion.
long-term memory One component of spatio-temporal
information processing A general framework that models of memory where information is stored and
regards the environment in terms of units of knowledge, retained for a long period of time, over months and years.
GLOSSARY 325
Lyceum A category of educational institution defined where the person is required to perform more than one
within the education system of many countries, mainly set of actions at a time to achieve these goals; for example,
in Europe. driving a car is a multitask setting, involving many
component actions.
Macrosystem See chronosystem.
multiple regression A statistical technique for
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A technique combining several measures into a single best predictor of
that uses strong magnetic fields to construct accurate, some criterion.
three-dimensional, computer-generated images of the
brain or other body areas. Unlike X-rays, it can image mystical A spiritual communion with the divine.
soft tissue.
mythopoeic thought The propensity to perceive
massed practice A method of learning where ‘things’ as people or persons.
the person is repeatedly exposed to the information
with short or no temporal breaks in between different myths In a very broad sense, the word can refer to
presentations; for example, showing the same word four any traditional story. The main characters in myths are
times in a row. Known to produce superior learning and usually gods or supernatural heroes. As sacred stories,
memory over short time periods, this is in contrast to myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and closely
distributed practice. linked to religion.
maturation theory The guiding notion in educational necessary condition A description of a state
theory that developing children will develop their that must be present for a particular behaviour to
cognitive skills on their own with no influence from their occur, but that, by itself, is not sufficient to produce that
environment. behaviour.
means-steps analyses A method of problem-solving neural networks A biological neural network is

in which characteristics of the current state of affairs are composed of a group or groups of chemically connected
compared with characteristics of the desired final state of or functionally associated neurons.
affairs (solution) and adjusted repeatedly to achieve an
neuropsychology A general area of psychological
optimum match.
interest that uses medical models to explain behavioural
memory span The limited amount of information patterns particularly in those populations with
that can be held within short-term memory, suggested neurological damage.
by George Miller to be seven plus or minus two bits of
neurosis A term introduced by Freud to refer to
information.
maladaptive anxiety responses. Now commonly used
Mesosystem See chronosystem. to describe mental disorders that are affective in nature
but do not involve serious distortions of reality. See also
Microsystems See chronosystem. psychosis.
modelling learning by imitating or observing a noble savage expresses the concept an idealized
person’s behaviour. indigene, outsider (or ‘other’), and refers to the literary
stock character of the same.
monozygotic twins Identical twins, produced from
the same egg. object permanence The understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard,
moral dilemma A complex situation that will often or touched.
involve an apparent mental conflict between moral
imperatives, in which to obey one would result in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) An
transgressing another. anxiety disorder that has two components; an obsessive
component reflected in thoughts and concerns, and a
motivation The term used to identify all the internal compulsive component which is reflected in habitual,
factors that initiate and maintain goal-directed stereotypical behaviours.
behaviours. These include both biological and social
factors; for example, hunger, thirst, the need for approval, occupational psychology The study of how
the need for security, etc. individuals behave within the work place. See also
organizational psychology.
multimodal A description of the type of information
considered, using the different modalities of sight, offender profiling A general class of analyses of
hearing, touch, smell, and thought. criminal behaviour where the offender’s personality traits
and personal history are used to explain the motives for
multitask situation A description of an environment and reasons for the specific ways in which the crime is
where there is more than one goal operating at a time and committed.
326 GLOSSARY
operant conditioning A type of learning where an perceive the environment, based on expectations, feelings,
organism’s behaviour is shaped and modified through motives, and beliefs; similar to perceptual set.
the use of positive or negative reinforcements, which
serve to increase or lessen a behaviour in response to person-centred therapy A humanistic therapy first
specific stimuli or sets of stimuli. First introduced by advanced by Carl Rogers, which supports the person to
B. F. Skinner. take responsibility for their own change and stresses the
importance of the person’s subjective experience.
operational definition A term referring to a
psychological construct, behaviour, or variable whose personification An ontological metaphor in which a
meaning is defined by the processes used to elicit or thing or abstraction is represented as a person.
measure it.
phase delay A change in the circadian rhythm where the
oral tradition Cultural material and traditions length of the sleep–wake cycle is extended, such as when
transmitted orally from one generation to another. flying from east to west across time zones. This is in contrast
to phase advance, where the sleep–wake cycle is shortened.
organizational psychology The study of the
behaviour of groups of individuals and the impact of phenomenal field A term from humanistic therapies
organizational structure within a working environment. that refers to the person’s own, subjective experience of
See also occupational psychology. the world; used in Rogerian therapy to denote the client’s
unique perception of the world.
orienting reaction (OR) The initial reaction that an
organism shows to a newly introduced stimulus, usually place attachment The connection that people have
associated with initial attentional responses. Pavlov to places, such that the place helps to identify who that
referred to it as the ‘what is this?’ reaction. See also person is.
defence reaction (DR).
pollution the result of contaminants being introduced
outsourcing involving the contracting out of a into a natural environment that cause instability,
business function—commonly one previously performed disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem.
in-house—to an external provider.
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) A
overgeneralization A logical fallacy of faulty clinical anxiety disorder that is associated with physical
generalization by reaching an inductive generalization symptoms of hyper-vigilance and over arousal, feelings of
based on insufficient evidence. anxiety and apprehension, and mental disturbances such
as intrusive thoughts.
paired associate learning A learning procedure
whereby two items appear contiguously in time, or precocial refers to species in which the young are
simultaneously, and are learned as a unit of stimulus- relatively mature and mobile from the moment of birth
response pairs. or hatching.
parallel distributed knowledge The prevailing prejudice (cial) A prejudgement, an assumption
connectionist approach today was originally known as made about someone or something before having
parallel distributed processing (PDP). It was an adequate knowledge to be able to do so with
artificial neural network approach that stressed the guaranteed accuracy.
parallel nature of neural processing, and the distributed
nature of neural representations. preoperational This is part of Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development. The preoperational stage is
parallel processing A description referring to the the second of four stages of cognitive development.
state of performing multiple analyses or processes By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to
simultaneously, in contrast to serial processing, where demonstrate that towards the end of the second year,
only one analysis can occur at one time. Commonly used a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning
in the context of parallel distributed processing models of occurs.
G. Hinton and D. Rumelhart.
proactive interference A concept developed from
pareidolia A psychological phenomenon involving a verbal learning theories to explain the negative impact of
vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) prior learning on later learning; for example, learning a
being perceived as significant. first list, A, will slow down learning and impair memory
pedagogy The study of being a teacher or the process for a second list, B.
of teaching. The term generally refers to strategies of
procedural knowledge A term which refers to
instruction, or a style of instruction.
information that cannot be reproduced through verbal
perceptual type A concept that refers to the descriptions; for example, often linked with how to do
variability that people show in the way they attend to and things, as well as other motor-related skills and actions.
GLOSSARY 327
projection An example of a defence mechanism old/new, multiple choice, and yes/no judgements rely on
introduced by Sigmund Freud, where the person disowns recognition memory.
the dangerous, threatening, or unacceptable parts of the
id by attributing them to someone else; for example, a recovered memories A general term used to refer to
woman who is attracted to another man cannot own the recollection of events for which the person previously
her feelings and so accuses her husband of wanting to had little or no conscious awareness; for example,
have an affair. amnesia for traumatic life events.
psychic determinism A core assumption in regression An example of a defence mechanism

psychodynamic theories first suggested by Sigmund introduced by Sigmund Freud, where the ego cannot cope
Freud that all behavioural responses are caused by some with the demands of a current situation and the person
form of mental activity or process. retreats to an earlier, younger stage of development; for
example, when an 18-year-old girl begins to suck her
psycho-educational approach targets a student’s thumb during her exams.
function within his or her educational setting.
rehearsal A concept used in memory research
psychoacoustics The psychology of hearing processes. to denote the repetition of information; generally
distinguished between rote rehearsal, where information
psychosis A broad classification of serious mental is simply repeated; the term is linked with discussions of
disorders where the person’s ability to maintain an short-term memory, as in the working memory model of
accurate sense of reality is severely disturbed, often memory.
demonstrated in irrational belief systems and erratic
behaviours. See also neurosis. reinforcement A concept used in operant learning
theory, as developed by B. F. Skinner, which denotes
qualitative data Behavioural responses that reflect an outcome to an organism’s response that is intended
the participant’s subjective experience of the world, and to motivate the organism to continue or discontinue
are analysed so as to identify any major themes that producing that response; the outcome can be positive,
emerge for the person; non-numerical commonly used as in positive reinforcement, or negative, as in negative
for analyses such as interpretative phenomenal analysis, reinforcement.
and other discourse analyses, for example, conversations
between dyads. reinforcement theories A general class of theories,
first developed by B. F. Skinner, which rely on the notion
quantitative data Behavioural responses that reflect that reinforcement acts as a motivator for, or against, the
the amount or extent of a participant’s response, and are production of responses to a stimulus.
analysed using parametric and nonparametric statistics;
for example, numerical data, like means, used for t-tests. reliability An estimate of the degree to which a
psychometric test measures some variable consistently.
rationalization As used by Sigmund Freud, an It is assessed by comparing scores on the same test,
example of a defence mechanism where the ego cannot repeated on the same subjects, or dividing the test items
acknowledge the true motives behind the behaviour, so into two halves and comparing them. A perfectly reliable
a more reasonable explanation is constructed instead; test (there is no such thing!) would yield identical scores.
for example, a child fails to clean their room, saying A number of mathematical procedures are available to
that there was a spider which stopped them. As used by measure degrees of agreement.
Frederick Bartlett, a process through which the cultural
expectations of the person are reflected in the errors that repression An example of a defence mechanism first
they produce when remembering a story, such as The War postulated by Sigmund Freud, whereby unpleasant or
of the Ghosts. negative thoughts, desires, or memories are relegated to the
person’s unconscious, and are effectively banished from
reaction formation An example of a defence conscious awareness; the term is commonly used without
mechanism introduced by Sigmund Freud where the reference to Freud’s psychoanalytic model of the ego.
person does the opposite of their true, unconscious
impulses or desires; for example, being in love with retrieval Refers to the process of recalling information
someone and ignoring them every time you see them. that is stored in memory.
reciprocal determinism The theory set forth by reversibility Part of the concrete operational stage in
psychologist Albert Bandura that a person’s behavior Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the mental
both influences and is influenced by personal factors and process of understanding that numbers and objects can
the social environment. change and then return to their original state.
recognition memory Conditions where the to-be- Richter scale Refers to a number of ways to assign a
remembered information is presented and the person is single number to quantify the energy contained in an
required to make a familiarity judgement; for example, earthquake.
328 GLOSSARY
scapegoating The practice of singling out any party for social injustice A concept relating to the claimed
unmerited negative treatment or blame. unfairness or injustice of a society in its divisions of
rewards and burdens and other incidental inequalities.
schema A concept first put forward (in its modern The concept is distinct from those of justice in law, which
sense) by Bartlett, and widely used in many contexts may or may not be considered moral in practice, or
to denote an organizing constellation of thoughts or from the concept of justice within a coherent ideological
cognitions that direct perception, comprehension, and system, which focuses on just process rather than on
memory on the basis of information already gained, incidental inequalities.
serving to organize them in such a way that they make
sense to the individual in terms of past experience social learning theory A general theory that argues
(plural, schemas). that a person’s development is influenced by those people
who surround them, and that these social influences teach
scripts A sequence of expected behaviours. the person about all aspects of behaviour, including their
personality, attitudes, beliefs feelings, how to behave, etc.
semantic The study of meaning. It typically focuses on
the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, Sociology (logical) The study of society. It is a
signs, and symbols, and what they stand for, their social science—a term with which it is sometimes
denotata. synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical
investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine
sensorimotor stage The first of the four stages in a body of knowledge about human social activity, often
cognitive development which ‘extends from birth to the
with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of
acquisition of language’. In this stage, infants construct
social welfare.
an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory
experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, spectral characteristics The pattern of multiple
motoric actions. frequencies that determine the quality or timbre of a
sound. A pure sound, such as that made by a flute, has
serial processing Commonly associated with limited
few frequencies. A raucous sound, such as by a trombone,
capacity models of memory, which stipulate that the
has many. Sounds heard as noise have random frequency
analyses of information is restricted to one input,
components.
modality, or source at a time and that further analyses
occur in a sequential fashion. standardized psychological test A psychometric
test that has been administered to a large cross-section of
sexual dimorphism A phenotypic difference between
individuals, to determine the range of normal responses,
males and females of the same species.
is said to be standardized.
shaping A process used in operant conditioning,
state anxiety A concept used to denote a temporary
whereby the acquisition of a desired response is achieved
condition of heightened arousal, worrisome thoughts,
by reinforcing successive approximations of the response;
and agitation; it is considered along a continuum of high
the process begins with a response that the organism
to low.
already knows and can perform, such as a dog being
taught to sit on verbal command. stereotype (typic, typing) A popular belief about
specific social groups or types of individuals.
short-term memory One component of multi-
storage models of memory that represents our ability to storage in human memory is one of three core process
retain a limited amount of information over short-periods of memory, along with Recall and Encoding. It refers to
of time, for example 20 seconds, without rehearsal. the retention of information, which has been achieved
through the encoding process, in brain for prolonged
signal-detection theory An information processing period of time until it is accessed by the recall process.
theory of perception which conceptualizes perception
as detecting an external stimulus, or signal amid a Student Team Learning An educational method that
background of noise; the detection of the signal is a strives to increase student engagement.
function of the distinctive perceptual properties of the
signal and the psychological, motivational, and physical sublimation An example of a defence mechanism first
state of the individual. introduced by Sigmund Freud that refers to the person
redirecting unwanted or unacceptable thoughts or drives
Skinner box An apparatus used in the operant into socially acceptable behaviours, or constructive or
conditioning of small mammals and birds, with creative goals, such as a man who is sexually frustrated
a bar or lever; upon pressing the bar or lever, the collecting great works of art with nudity.
animal can obtain food, water, or change some
aspect of the environment, like a light on or off, as sufficient condition A description of a state that can
a reward. be present in order for a particular behaviour to occur,
GLOSSARY 329
but is not required for that behaviour to be demonstrated; specific personality characteristic that is considered along
for example, being a bird is a sufficient condition for a continuum of high to low.
flying, but not a necessary one.
transfer effects Human conduct, learning, or
superprecocial refers to a level of physical maturity performance based on prior experience.
and capability in young animals that is most extreme.
two stage model A process of recall beginning with
systems theory An approach which disputes a search and retrieval process, and then a decision or
traditional experimental methods that control and recognition process where the correct information is
manipulate variables in the environment, and suggests chosen from what has been retrieved. In this theory,
that there are emerging properties from the whole recognition only involves the latter of these two stages,
that cannot be deduced by combining the separate or processes, and this is thought to account for the
components making up that whole; this approach does superiority of the recognition process over recall.
not proffer any predictions regarding overall outcomes, Recognition only involves one process in which error or
but looks instead to patterns of relationships between the failure may occur, while recall involves two stages.
different component parts.
unconditional positive regard A term used in
taboos A strong social prohibition (or ban) relating to Rogerian therapy to denote one of the core conditions for
any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred the healthy development of personality; acceptance and
and forbidden based on moral judgement and sometimes care that is given to an individual without imposing any
even religious beliefs. restrictions on how the person must be, act, or feel.
tacit knowledge Information about the world, unconditioned response (UCR) A term used in
actions, and self that is not available to explicit description classical conditioning denoting a reflexive response to a
or conscious awareness; often used to describe knowing particular stimulus, such as blinking in response to a puff
how to do something. of air to the eye.
task analyses A technique developed from the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A term used in
human-relations movement that breaks down a classical conditioning denoting a stimulus that elicits a
goal-directed behaviour, or task, into its component reflexive, or unconditioned response, such as a puff of air
parts—for example, sub-actions; used to determine ways to the eye.
of improving the match between job and worker, and
also to teach workers how to perform sub-actions more unconditioned stimulus A stimulus of some
efficiently and effectively. significance.
Taxonomy science of finding, describing, classifying, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific
and naming organisms. and Cultural Organization) A specialized agency of
the United Nations, established on 16 November 1945.
temperament A term used to describe behavioural Its stated purpose is to contribute to peace and security by
tendencies and personality characteristics that are promoting international collaboration through education,
believed to be the result of heredity; for example, science, and culture in order to further universal respect
adaptability, sociability, synchronicity of sleep and eating for justice, the rule of law, and the human rights along
patterns, and emotionality. with fundamental freedoms proclaimed in the UN
Charter.
temporal contiguity The principle that ideas,
memories, and experiences are linked when one is United Nations An international organization whose
frequently experienced with the other. stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international
law, international security, economic development, social
top-down processing A description of progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace.
information analyses where processing is initiated
at more abstract, higher levels, in contrast to more validity A measure of the degree to which a
peripheral levels; for example, the effects of expectations psychometric test measures what it is supposed to
on object recognition. measure. It is assessed by comparing scores on another
test that is known to be valid. The potential circularity of
total-time hypothesis The view that the amount of this procedure is well known. See also reliability.
time spent in rehearsing an item in memory determines
the strength of that memory. verbal learning A school of experimental psychology
that devoted its study to how we acquire and remember
trait anxiety A concept used to denote behavioural abstract, verbal materials, such as nonsense syllables,
patterns associated with anxiety symptoms that occur words, and numbers; stimuli such as pictures and objects
consistently across a range of situations and time; a were also considered under verbal learning theories.
330 GLOSSARY
vicarious learning Acquiring information or content through the use of methods such as course
knowledge about something through watching or management applications, multimedia resources, the
observing others; a concept often used in social learning internet, and videoconferencing.
theory.
virtual reality therapy A method of psychotherapy
vicarious observation See vicarious learning. that uses virtual reality technology to treat patients with
anxiety disorder and phobias where it has proven very
virtual classroom is instruction in a learning effective.
environment where teacher and student are separated by
time or space, or both, and the teacher provides course work schemas See schema.
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Index of subjects
A state anxiety, 111, 328 auditory warning signals 150–8

stress 115–16 class or set similarity 156
advertising 96, 118, 124, 127–32, 305
therapy 170, 203, 222–5 learning and retention of 156, 157
affective disorders 34
trait anxiety 111, 329 paired associate 156
aggression 67, 186, 229, 240, 260,
see also fear; post-traumatic stress see also psychoacoustics; signal
261, 265, 315
disorder; trauma detection; sound; visual
adolescent 263
anthropology 18, 279, 281, 283, 319 warning signals
alcohol, effect of 263, 265, 266
comparative 284, 320 autonomic nervous system, see
gender 286
approaches, methodological: central nervous system
innate 135, 146, 185, 281
actuarial 43, 46, 47–8, 83, 86–7, 90
leadership and 141, 143
advisory 32, 43, 46, 48
learned 145, 147 B
clinical 43, 46, 47, 48, 82, 86,
limbic system, role of 146
motivation for 145–8 87, 89 back pain 96–7, 226
neurotransmitter substances 147 experimental 43, 46, 48, 54, 56, Oswestry Back Pain Scale 26
personality 147 82–3, 86, 90, 93 Quebec Back Pain Scale 26
sport 205, 212 archetype, see analytic psychology see also central nervous system;
see also genetics; war arousal 65, 144, 197, 215, 216, 218, pain; pain perception
allegory 289, 319 220, 222, 223, 229 battle fatigue, see military
see also myth Yerkes–Dodson theory 216, 218 psychology
American Association for the Study see also fear behavioural psychology 4–5, 8, 17,
of the Feeble Minded 20 articulatory loop, see memory 33, 36–7, 42, 48, 105, 158, 194,
American Psychological Association articulatory suppression 193, 196, 219, 240, 259, 268, 319–20
(APA) 88, 139 197–9 behavioural disorders 60, 168–9,
American Society of subvocal rehearsal 193 170, 247, 265
Anesthesiologists 28 artificial intelligence 204, 244, 319 cognitive behavioural theory 47,
amicus curiae 81 athletes 224, 232 168, 253, 268
amnesia 63–4, 174, 182–3, 187, 190, Greek athletes, classical 201–2, criminal 53–5
324, 327 203, 212, 217 behaviourism 14, 18, 36, 240, 324
anaesthesia 24, 29, 30, 226 performance anxiety 217–20 BEM Sex Role Inventory 204
consciousness under 28–9 performance rituals 223 see also gender
day care 29 personality 222, 223, 224, 229 bereavement 25, 228
‘glove anaesthesia’ 175 see also sports psychology syndrome 194
analytic psychology (Jung) 12 attachment behaviour 72, 253, 270, body language 121
archetypes 284–5, 290–2 301–2, 305, 326 brain:
collective unconscious 176, ‘stranger situation’ 74 amygdala 146, 226, 230
290, 320 attention 92–5, 121–3, 151–2, 154, biochemistry 42
individuation 176, 261, 324 158, 161–2, 192–3, 204–5, 211– circadian rhythms, see sleep
anxiety 27, 35, 56, 63, 65–6, 99, 147, 12, 215–16, 243–4, 251–5 cortex 196, 230
151, 159, 248, 328 ‘bottle-necked’ 152 damage 100, 123, 193
cognitive symptoms 170, 186, centration 250, 320 endorphin activity 230
218, 220 cocktail party effect 130 function 92, 96, 152, 153, 154,
disorders 92, 170, 194, 217, 219, focal awareness 64, 66, 93, 180–1, 194, 223, 226, 230, 328
267, 323, 325, 326, 330 185, 230, 243, 323 gender difference 205, 285–6
generalized anxiety disorder 194, selective 92, 93–4, 122–3, 130, hippocampus 146
219, 267, 323 154, 192, 251–2 hypothalamus 146, 194, 226
hierarchy of 222, 223 attributional style 162, 214 mind, connection with 17
mood symptoms 167, 181, 219, irrational beliefs 65, 169, 215, 231, neural patterns 131
220, 221, 229 323, 327 neurons 34, 194, 325
performance anxiety 201, 212, learned optimism 212, 214, 229 pineal gland, 194
216, 217–20, 221, 225 mascots 215 scans (fMRI) 18, 36, 92, 210, 308,
phobic 29, 187, 321 rituals 205, 215, 223, 282, 283, 325
physical symptoms 219, 220, 311 284, 289, 290 septum 226
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 345
suprachiasmatic nuclei suggestibility of young computers 95, 106, 109, 113–14, 213,
(SCN) 194 children 57, 73, 74 244, 255, 258, 299, 325
thalamus 146, 230 witnesses 57, 71 human–computer
see also central nervous system; see also child abuse; child interaction 108, 114–15
information processing development see also artificial intelligence;
British Broadcasting Corporation Chronic Fatigue Syndrome information processing
(BBC) 127–9 (CFS) 96 conditioning:
radio channels 128–9, 130, circadian rhythms, see sleep classical 16, 203, 224, 239, 320
131, 132 Civil Service 159–61 conditioned response 16, 320
British False Memory Society clinical psychologists 23, 46–8, 56, counter-conditioning 220–1,
(BFMS) 183 81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 95–7, 100, 321
British Psychological Society (BPS) 169, 182, 189–90, 227, 253, 268 operant learning 107, 239, 240,
32, 88, 183, 184, 190, 191, 273 clinical psychology 19, 22, 30, 32, 88, 251, 326, 328
bystander effect 296 92, 167, 170, 174–5, 184, 188, shaping 107, 328
193, 221, 312, 320 stimulus–response
forensic psychology 8, 32, 41, 43, associations 37, 220
C 76, 82, 83, 84, 101 see also behavioural psychology;
Cartesian dualism 13 see also approaches, learning; reinforcement;
mind–body problem 13–14 methodological; counselling; Skinner box
catharsis 168, 174, 188 crime; experimental psychology confederates 145
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor cognitive interview technique (CIT) confessions:
Schedule 229 49, 57–8, 64 false 35, 82, 83, 84, 85
central nervous system: cognitive maps 48 guilt and 56
autonomic nervous system 161–2, cognitive processing: suspects and 32
163, 319 bottom-up 46, 320 see also memory, false
pain 225–8: interneurons 225, top-down 46, 178, 179, 329 conscience 14, 18, 185
226; motor neurons 226; cognitive psychologists 32, 88, 182 see also psychoanalytic theory
neurons 226; nociceptive cognitive psychology 4, 17–18, 34, consciousness 16–17, 18, 47, 169,
neurons 225, 226; reflex 37, 38, 43, 46, 61, 90, 92, 108, 182, 196, 205, 210
system 226 113–15, 119, 194, 215, 230–2, altered states of 51
see also brain; pain 243, 324 continuum 172–3
central tendency 86 cognitive theories 44, 48, 54, 56, Freud’s theory of 172–4, 176,
chemotherapy 15 57–8, 71, 76, 113, 154, 162, 168, 185, 186–7
child abuse 68–71, 74–5, 76, 98, 191, 203–4 levels of 185, 195, 207, 208,
182, 183 see also approaches, 209–10, 289
child development, effect on 57, methodological; behavioural shared 292
70, 71, 72, 76 psychology; information under anaesthesia 28–9
guidelines for investigation processing see also hypnosis; memory;
of 68–9 Cold War 158 psychoanalytic theory; sleep
see also child development; crime; covert operations 159, 160 constructivism 249, 321
interviews; victims; witnesses counter-insurgency 159–60 accommodation 241, 270, 319
child development 57, 70, 71, 72, 74, special operations 159, 160 social 38, 71, 304, 319
76, 94, 243, 247, 249–53 collective unconscious, see analytic see also learning; social learning
child protection 68 psychology theory
children: coma 28 content analysis 66, 67, 71, 75, 172,
anti-social behaviour 50, 259–60, see also anaesthesia; brain 173, 321
261 communication 26, 110, 112, 120, context reinstatement 60–3
education 245–6, 247, 251, 121, 127, 129, 135, 149, 192, conversion symptoms 98
253–73 215, 216, 304, 314 conversion hysteria 168, 321
effect of violence on 50 comprehension: counselling 22, 25, 33, 85, 169, 177,
intelligence testing 19–20 counterfactual thinking 65, 220 180, 227, 268, 319, 321
intensive care of 24 human–computer crime 31, 41–76
interaction with adults 71 interaction 108, 114–15 arson 34, 53, 55
interviewing 68–9, 70–1, 74–5 legal 90–4 car theft 44
sense of self 74 measurement of 95 detection 45–6
social learning theory 50, 112–13, reasoning 95, 192, 193 deterrence 32, 299, 306–7
147, 203, 205, 238, 246, 250–1, skills 159 evidence 31, 32, 35, 36, 42, 43,
328, 330 verbal 21, 193, 254 45–6, 49, 52, 54, 59, 67, 69, 70,
special needs 71 see also information processing 75, 79–80, 81, 91–5
346 INDEX OF SUBJECTS
expert testimony 44, 81, 82–3, 87, rationalization 186, 289, 327 biological basis, 146–7, 150, 162
88–9, 92, 97 reaction formation 186, 321, 327 cognition 47, 57, 121, 154, 163,
eyewitnesses 31, 34, 44, 48–51, regression 186, 321, 327 182, 221, 231
61, 89 repression 64–5, 174, 175, 177, combat 149–50
geographical profiling 42, 48, 53 183, 184, 185–6, 187, 188, desensitization 136
identification line-up (or parade) 190, 327 development 71, 72, 246–7,
34, 41, 48, 49–50 sublimation 186, 321, 327 288, 295
motiveless 41, 42, 52 Department of Veterans’ Affairs facial expression 121, 286, 295
motives for 35, 42, 52, 53, 54, (DVA) 23 gender differences 48, 285,
213, 300 depression 27, 37, 141, 167, 181, 286, 314
murder 34, 55, 288 194, 221, 227–8, 229, 233–4, 86, impact on sports
offender profiling 53, 56 304, 312 performance 204, 212–13, 215,
rape 53, 59, 87, 288 memory, effect on 66 218, 225
robbery 49, 54 postnatal depression 72 memory 56, 63–5, 66, 187, 221
serial crime 34, 52–4, 55 psycho-social models of 227 pain 226, 230
white-collar 90–1 testing for 46, 82 recognition of 286–7, 295
see also approaches, descriptive statistics 57, 75 see also anxiety; arousal;
methodological; child desensitization 136, 222, 225 depression; mood; stress
abuse; confession; criminal developmental psychology 37, 72, emotional abuse 68
justice system; interviews; 74, 94, 125, 204, 205, 238, 259, emotional stability 142, 168, 313
investigative profiling; law; 261, 263, 270 energy patterns 194–5
police; witnesses lifespan psychology 270, 324 environment, natural 33, 36,
Criminal Justice Act 69 maturation theory 247, 249, 325 279–80, 282–3, 292–4, 309
criminal justice system: see also psychodynamic theory; climate change 295–7
adversarial nature of 78–80, schema theory; systems theory disasters 293–4
81, 90 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of environmental change 292–5
cross-examination 63, 82 Mental Disorders (DSM) 170, extreme 308, 309, 310, 311
inquisitorial system 80–1 269, 284, 321 pollution 299, 302, 308, 309, 326
plea-bargaining 83–4 discourse analysis, see content environmental psychology 303–4
sentencing 43, 80, 82, 83, 86 analysis see also human beings
stages of 43 dissociation 57, 60, 65, 66, 141, environmentalism 296–7, 298, 302
trials 43, 80, 82, 83, 87, 89, 90, 91, 230, 234 epilepsy 47
93–5 neodissociation theory 51 ergonomics 115, 150
see also jurors; law; police distributed practice 129, 322, 325 human engineering 108
criminality 41 see also learning estimator variables 48, 49, 56, 57
and genetics 50 drives 37, 53, 145, 146, 172–3, 175, ethnocentricity 279, 281, 284, 322
cultural relativism 284, 321 177, 178, 185–6, 248, 281, 320, ethnography 285
culture 321, 328 ethology 146, 322
behaviour and 33, 238, 256, see also instinct eugenics 19
283–5, 288 dyslexia 47 evolution, theory of 16, 19,
crime and 41, 42, 68 277–83, 294
emotional expression 286–7 see also human beings
gender roles 205, 231, 238, E exercise 35, 201–35 246
285–6, 288 Earth Committee 309 see also sports psychology
pain, experience of 227, 231 Easter Island 282 existential therapy 111, 180,
social values 185, 316 echo-location 153 181–2, 322
taboos 287–9 ecological systems theory 248, experimental design 25
work, conception of 104, 115 261–2, 302–4, 320 experimental methodology 16–17,
ecological validity 129, 322 36–8, 47, 48, 54–5, 63, 74, 76,
ecology 293, 296, 302–4 82–3, 87, 90, 93, 146, 150, 154,
D see also environment; 174, 184, 195, 322
data handling 46–7, 57, 71, environmentalism see also approaches, methodological;
305, 307 electrodermal responses 162, 164, research
defence mechanisms: 323 experimental psychology 5–6,
denial 186, 321 emotion 11, 33, 36, 85, 89, 111, 115, 16–17, 84, 85–6, 132, 182, 192,
displacement 186, 315, 321 141, 143, 144, 149, 167–71, 220, 232, 261, 329
humour 313 286–7, 301 explanatory variability 179
identification 186, 324 advertising 127 extroversion 12, 141, 222, 223,
projection 186, 321, 327 behaviour 35, 54, 162, 204 295, 312
see also introversion goal orientation 110, 112, 117–18, see also environment;
Eysenck Personality Inventory 223, 203–4, 205–6, 207, 213–14, environmentalism; evolution,
323 223–4, 225, 230–1, 233 theory of
see also task analysis human–machine
groups: interactions 135, 150
F behaviour 37, 103, 108, 117, 118, human relations movement 103,
face validity 100, 323 119, 148, 326 105, 107–8, 329
factor analysis 12, 54, 83, 323 cohesiveness 107, 108, 116, see also task analysis
factorial variables 36, 37 118–19, 145, 148, 149, 252, 257, Human Resource Research Office
False Memory Syndrome Foundation 297, 314–16 (HRRO) 140, 141, 142
(FMSF) 183 Hawthorne studies 107–8 humanistic therapies 168, 172,
family therapy 180 ingroups and outgroups 271, 301 177–82, 326
fear 35, 65, 84, 146, 147, 149, 162, leadership 118–19, 142–3, 149 core assumptions of 178
167, 170, 187, 219, 220–1, 222, norms 107, 108, 116, 149–50, 238, phenomenal experience
264, 271, 287 301, 323 (subjective experience) 169,
‘fight or flight’ defence peer groups 34, 145 178, 180
reaction 162 primary group 139, 145, 148–50 see also person-centred therapy
hierarchy of 222 social concepts 38 humour 141, 287, 289
see also anxiety; phobia social interaction 116, 117, 257, use as defence mechanism 313
First World War 20, 106, 314, 316 humours, theory of bodily 11
138–9, 144 stages of development 116, hypnosis 25, 51, 59, 173–4, 187–8,
focal awareness, see attention 117–18 226
football 206, 207–8, 212, 227, 229 subgroups 117 self-hypnosis 29
guided memory technique, see see also consciousness;
memory dissociation
G hysteria 56, 173, 174, 175, 182, 187,
galvanic skin response (GSR) 4, 188
224, 323 H conversion hysteria 168, 321
Ganser Syndrome 98 habituation 34, 163, 164, 324 hysterical disorder 98, 324
gender 22, 99, 163, 190, 323 happiness 10, 287
behavioural patterns 205, see also positive psychology
285–6 Hawthorne studies, see groups; I
brain development 205 workers incentives 106, 107, 144, 145–6, 147,
brain differences 285–6 health psychology 23, 202, 292 150, 206, 253
emotion 48, 285, 286, 314 hospices 23 endogeneous (internal) 106,
identity 238, 323 hospitals 10, 22, 23–6, 28, 29 147–8
pain, and experience of 231 departments and clinics 24 exogeneous (external) 106, 147–8
physical activity 204 employment of psychologists 23–5, see also motivation
roles 204, 205, 231, 238, 285–6 219 individual differences 4, 11, 12, 22,
sexual dimorphism 285, 328 hot cognitions 145, 324 33, 34–5, 57, 103, 105, 109–10,
stereotypes 285, 286, 323 human beings 111, 112–13, 115, 143, 147, 160,
genetic(s) 24, 36, 50, 143, 168, 262, consumerism 282, 296 163, 174, 195, 251, 271, 286,
294, 316–17 delayed return economies 281 309, 324
aggression 265 development of agriculture 281–2 crime 50, 84, 85–6
behaviour and 178, 238, early hunting practices 279–80, sport performance 204, 206, 214,
247, 263 281 229, 232
disease 294 hierarchy of needs 281 see also personality
DNA 52, 238, 308 immediate return economies individuation 176, 261, 324
engineering 308–9, 310, 281 industrial psychology 20, 105
315, 316 language as defining the see also occupational psychology;
gender differences 286 human 278 organizational psychology;
genetic testing 45 Noble Savage, concept of personnel psychology; workers
Human Genome Project 308–9 the 279 information processing 91, 114, 125,
predispositions 119 place attachment 301–2 127, 152, 207, 242
geographical profiling, see crime taxonomy 278–9 attention 37, 92
Gestalt theories of perception 98, universals of human brain function 37, 51, 153, 154,
99–100, 122, 155–6, 180–1, 323 behaviour 283–90 324
see also perception use of physical environment learning 92, 208
Gestalt therapy 180–1, 323 298–308 levels of processing 125, 243
limited processing capacity 92, 324 declarative 113, 208, 321 linkage blindness 55
memory 92, 241, 243 explicit 113, 322 logical empiricism 38
see also sensory information; serial formal 89, 113, 239, 269, 323
processing implicit 113, 324
Information Technology (IT) 56, 94, parallel distributed knowledge 33, M
95, 104, 108, 293, 302 241, 242, 244, 320, 326 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
see also Internet procedural 113, 209, 326 17–18, 92, 96, 323, 325
injury, see pain; sports psychology retention 33, 34, 72, 93, 241 malingering 97, 98, 100
insomnia, see sleep schematic 85, 131, 214, 242 massed practice 129, 325
instinct 144, 172, 173, 178, 248, 324 tacit 89, 113, 329 maturation theory 247, 249, 325
see also drives see also attention; information means–steps analyses 114, 325
intelligence 19–22 processing; learning; memory memory:
chronological age 19–20 articulatory loop 193, 215
mental age 19–20 autobiographical (personal)
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 19–20, 34 L memory 60, 71, 72–3, 244, 319
interference 131, 198 language: automatic 125
A-B, A-Br paradigm 130 acquisition 22, 250 cued recall 124, 305, 321
proactive 130, 326 and development 73, 248, 254 direct memory tasks 60, 123, 193
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate skills 22, 72, 73, 278 effects of stress and anxiety on 54,
Change (IPCC) 295 verbal comprehension 21 57, 63, 156
International Classification of verbal learning 37, 85, 130, 243 effects of trauma on 57, 65, 183,
Diseases (ICD) 170 see also communication 187
International Society of Sport law: emotion and 56, 63–5, 66, 187, 221
Psychology (ISSP) 213 enforcement 41–2, 45, 56, 300, encoding specificity 61
Internet 23, 25, 56, 114, 257, 259, 301, 306 episodic or event memory 45, 57,
264, 266, 292, 294–5 psychology, role of 43, 44–5 58, 59, 78, 86
‘Internet generation’ 294 taxonomy of 44 explicit memory 60, 71, 73, 123,
interviews 4–5, 6, 31–2, 43, 44, 46–7, see also crime; criminal justice 188, 323
48, 51, 56, 57–9, 66–71, 74–6, system; police false memories 84–6, 167, 183,
87–8, 119–20 leaders/leadership 116, 117, 118–19, 189, 190
cognitive interview technique 141, 142–3, 314 forgetting 11, 130, 182
(CIT) 49, 57–8, 64 born vs. made 35, 119 guided memory technique 62
question structure 49, 51, 69, 87–8 combat vs. non-combat 143 implicit memory 60, 188, 324
structured interviews 38, 49, 53 qualities 119, 137 indirect memory tasks 60
video interviews 69, 71, 74–5 selection of 139, 142–3 intentional memory 60, 123
see also questionnaires; witnesses style 119, 314 knowledge retention 33, 34, 72,
introversion 12, 222, 223, 224, learning 33–4, 123, 130–1, 193, 93, 241
225, 295 237–73 long-term memory 192–3, 241,
see also extroversion active 113, 255, 258, 319 254, 324
intrusive thoughts 65, 170, 191, 193, association 156, 192, 242, 244, memory span 193, 325
197, 198, 220, 326 319 memory stores 115, 125, 192,
investigative profiling 34, 35, 42, 47, cooperative 256–7, 269, 321 193, 244
48, 62–3 difficulties 70 mood congruent memory 221
see also crime disorders 47 prospective 123, 312
incidental 123–4, 239 recall 33–4, 49, 51, 61–2, 63, 65,
intentional 123–4, 239 72, 73, 85, 124, 221, 305
J massed practice 129, 322, 325 recognition memory 72, 124,
job–worker matching, see workers schedules 34 125, 327
jurors 88, 89, 91 theories 16, 33, 34, 37, 50, 107, semantic 243, 319
abilities of 91–5 108, 112–13, 140, 147, 150, serial position effect 129
decision making by 90, 93 193–4, 239, 240, 250–3, 320, short-term memory 92, 125, 192,
mock juries 90, 93 321, 324, 327 193, 241, 324, 325, 327, 328
selection of 144 vicarious 140, 149, 238, 239, 264, spatio-temporal metaphor 125,
330 192, 322
see also attention; conditioning; strategic 125
K information processing; visuospatial scratchpad 193
knowledge: knowledge; memory; skills; working memory 37, 125, 191–2,
acquisition 33, 34, 72, 93, 113, social learning theory 193, 215, 221, 254
239–40, 244, 245–6, 253 levels of description 204 see also amnesia
Mental Measurements Yearbook functions of 289–90 endorphin activity 230

(MMYB) 21 oral tradition 290 gender 231
mental and physical health mythopoeic thought 289, 324 nervous system 146, 230, 225–8
relation 202, 205, 221 personality type 229
military psychology: T-cells 226
Army Examinations 139 N see also brain; central nervous
battle fatigue 34, 104 National Institute of Industrial system; pain; relaxation
classification of fighters/ Psychology 107 paired association 130, 156, 319, 326
soldiers 141–2 National Institute of Justice 307 parametric statistics 36, 327
combat psychology 34, 104 neuropsychology 42, 96, 125, 325 analysis of covariance 83, 319
combat trauma 149, 150, 188 neurosis 188, 169–70, 223, 224, 225, linear regression 36
Gulf War Syndrome 96 229, 290, 312, 325 multiple regression 83, 224, 325
malingering 97, 98, 100 neurotic behaviour 12 t-tests 36, 327
morale 136, 137, 143–5, 148, neurotic personality 163 perception 17, 34, 37, 46, 47, 122,
150 see also psychosis 152, 154, 178–9, 180–1, 241,
personnel assessment 138–9 nonsense syllables 85, 329 243, 328
personnel selection 20, 139, see also Gestalt theories;
143, 159 information processing
personnel training 139, 140, 141 O Personal Investment Theory 206
war neurosis 188 object permanence 72, 250, 325 personality 12, 46, 82, 99–100, 172,
see also aggression; Cold War; object recognition 46, 252, 329 175, 179, 202–3, 206, 223, 248,
leadership Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 291, 312
mind, theory of 74 (OCD) 32, 194, 325 characteristics 47, 53, 84, 110, 111
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality occupational psychology 104, 139, temperament 11, 139, 329
Inventory (MMPI) 98, 99, 100, 325 tests 110, 223, 312, 323
160 see also industrial psychology; traits 143, 145, 160, 224, 312–13
misleading information 44, 73, organizational psychology; type 147, 202, 229, 232, 267,
188, 189 personnel psychology; workers 314–15, 321
see also post-event information operant learning, see conditioning see also individual differences;
modelling 149, 158, 239, 251, 252, organizational psychology 32, 104, psychoanalytic theory
264, 303, 325 115, 116–17, 139, 297 person-centred therapies 178–80,
mood 11, 167–8, 220, 310, 312, 315 see also industrial psychology; 268, 326
enhancement 33, 231 occupational psychology; see also humanistic therapies
exercise, effects of 213, 214–15 personnel psychology; workers personnel psychology 109–12
mood congruent effects 221, 224 orienting reaction or response 28, virtual recruitment 109
profiles 221 161, 321, 326 see also industrial psychology;
morale, see military psychology occupational psychology;
motivation 22, 33, 35, 36, 37, 44, organizational psychology; task
106, 107, 127, 144, 150, 172, P analysis; workers
176, 239, 325 pain: phenomenal experience 38, 169,
aggression 145–7 acute 97 180, 195, 216, 226
competition 173 chronic 97 phenomenal field 178–9, 326
external motivators 147–8, 214 description 26 see also sensory experience;
internal motivators 147–8, 246 function of 226 sensory information
learning 252, 253, 269, 270 Gate theory 226 phobias 29, 37, 170, 171, 217
self-motivation 206 injuries 217, 223, 225–35 memory, role of 187
sport 206, 212–14, 216, 230–1 management of 25, 26, 29, 97, phobic anxiety 29, 187, 321
see also goal orientation; 217, 225–35 see also fear
incentives; military psychology; placebo effect 229–30 physical activity 201–7, 213, 217
sports psychology; workers quality of 26 physiology 16, 154, 178, 202
motor control 205, 207 questionnaires 26 placebo effect, see pain
motor learning 207, 208–12 thresholds 160, 231 police 41–2, 45–6, 48–56, 58–9, 62,
motor skills 33, 53, 204, 208, 211, see also anaesthesia; back pain; 67–70, 75, 87, 115, 306
278 central nervous system see also crime; criminal justice
Munchausen Syndrome 98 pain perception: system; law
Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy cognitive strategies for 213, 230, polygraphs 160–5
(MSBP) 98 231–2 positive psychology 298, 303
Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME) 96 culture 227 learned helplessness 214,
myth 218, 291–2, 312, 325 dissociative techniques 230, 234 304, 324
learned optimism 214–15, 229, psychophysics 154 Treatment Room 23, 32, 34, 38,
304 psychophysiology 25, 28, 161 167–200
positive thinking 231, 234, 304 psychosis 327 War Room 20, 32, 33, 34, 35,
post-event information 44, 51, 89 psychosomatic factors 97 103–34
post-traumatic stress disorder psychotherapy 121, 168, 181 Work Room 20, 32, 33, 34, 35,
(PTSD) 34, 44, 81, 104, 170, 326 103–34
see also military psychology;
trauma Q
practice effects 34, 123 questionnaires 26–7, 94, 126–7, S
prejudice 268, 270–1, 281, 286, 326 138, 232 scaling methods 22, 26–7
see also social injustice; General Health Questionnaire scapegoating 265, 328
scapegoating; stereotypes (GHQ) 26 see also prejudice; social injustice;
projective tests 88, 99 Oswestrey Back Pain Scale 26 stereotypes
Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Quebec Back Pain Scale 26 schema/schemata 37, 54–5, 85,
Test 98, 99, 100 Roland–Morris Pain Scale 26 123, 129, 131, 204, 234, 241–3,
Rorschach Psychodiagnostic see also scaling methods 239–50, 270–1, 301–2, 308
Test 98, 99, 100, 110 questions, see interviews schizophrenia 169
Thematic Apperception Test Second World War 23, 50, 139–40,
(TAT) 98, 99, 100 142, 144, 148, 181, 206
proprioceptive feedback 204 R selective attention, see attention
pseudo-shopper 120–7 rape trauma syndrome 59 self 13, 14, 73–4, 185, 206, 244, 249,
psychiatrists 23, 44, 150, 169 rapport 21–2 301, 313
psychic determinism 14, 37, 52–3, reasoning, see comprehension ideal vs. actual 178, 179, 181,
172–3, 176, 327 recovered memories 63, 175, 182–4, 319, 324
psychoacoustics 150–1, 154, 327 186–7, 189–91, 327 multiple selves 111
psychoanalytic theory: rehearsal 93, 124, 125, 192–3, 223, self-esteem 106, 147, 213,
ego, id, and super-ego 47, 175, 231, 241, 327 214, 224, 227, 229, 270, 281,
185, 186, 248–9, 321 reinforcement 107, 147–8, 150, 239, 286, 301
free association 174, 323 251, 253, 320, 324, 327 stability of 179
introjection 185, 324 see also conditioning; learning unified 111, 247
mental constructs 173 relaxation 170, 216, 222, 223, 224, sensation 14, 175, 209, 226, 229, 241
Oedipal complex 288 230–1, 233, 234 sensory experience 17, 46, 154, 169
parapraxes (Freudian slips) 176 autogenic training 224, 231 see also phenomenal experience
pre-conscious 175, 185 biofeedback 224, 231, 236 sensory information 155–7, 192,
subconscious 175, 185 preparation in sport 212 209, 225–6, 241, 251, 312
unconscious 98, 121, 175–6, progressive muscle see also information processing
181, 182, 185–6, 187, 221, 242, relaxation 196, 198, 203, 224, serial position effect, see memory
288, 312 231 serial processing 151, 152, 326, 328
see also consciousness; defence self-relaxation 29, 194 see also information processing
mechanisms; hypnosis; Research Institute of Physical shaping, see conditioning
hysteria; neurosis Culture 206 signal detection 122–3, 154–8, 328
psychodynamic theory 172–3, 175, research methods Silence of the Lambs
176–7, 178, 181, 187, 248–9 cross-sectional design 74 Clarice Starling (film character)
see also drives; instinct; experimental 25, 36, 74, 85, 150, 45, 55
motivation; psychic 192 Hannibal Lecter (film character)
determinism longitudinal design 74 55
psychological tests 21, 23, 82, 86, 97, observational approach 74, 247 single case study approach 46,
98–100, 141–2 see also psychological tests; 47, 197
co-variability of 142, 321 questionnaires; scaling skill:
reliability and validity of methods acquisition of 73, 113, 207–8, 239,
100, 110–11, 138, 142, 160, risk assessments 83, 86–7, 135, 150, 245–6
164, 329 303 assessment of 211–12
standardized tests 21, 26, 46–7, robotics 204 closed skills 207, 208
53, 82, 86, 99, 110–11, 114, 119, rooms definition of 207
138–9, 142–3, 159–60, 204, 222, Court Room 31, 32, 44, 79–102 effects of practice 209–11
316, 328 Crime Room 31, 32, 34, 35, learning 34, 138, 140, 203–4,
psychometric school 21 41–78 237–8
psychometric tests 46, 99, 164 Sport Room 23, 32, 34, 35, 51, measurement 21, 139
psychophysical parallelism 14 201–36 open skills 207, 208
performance 113, 208, 209, motivation 206, 212–14, 216, 221, type one 65
215, 216 230–1, 233–4 type two 65
role of feedback 207, 209 pain management 217, 225–35 twins
Skinner box 107, 328 performance 207–9, 211, 215, dizygotic 143, 325
sleep: 218, 225 monozygotic 143, 322
circadian rhythms 194–5, 311, performance anxiety 217–20
320, 326 personality, role of 206
deprivation, effects of 56, 144, skills acquisition 207–9, 215–16 U
195, 196 sports science 202–3, 212 unconditioned response 329
hygiene 197–8 standardized tests, see psychological unconditioned stimulus 329
insomnia 191–9 tests
maintenance 197, 198 stereotypes 264, 265, 268, 285, 286,
onset 197, 198 322, 328 V
rapid eye movements (REM) see also prejudice; scapegoating; Veterans Administration (VA) 23
196 social injustice victims 59–60, 63–8
stages of 196 stimulus control 194, 197 see also child abuse; interviews;
social injustice 264, 268, 286, 328 stimulus–response associations, see witnesses
see also prejudice; scapegoating; conditioning visual warning signals 151–2, 153
stereotypes stress 4–5, 54, 57, 63, 89, 115–16, see also auditory warning signals;
social facilitation 206 140, 145, 148, 179, 217–18, 223, signal detection
social learning theory 50, 112–13, 227–9, 234–5, 299, 302
147, 203, 205, 238, 246, 250–1, management 32, 216, 310–11,
328, 330 313, 314, 316 W
see also constructivism transactional model 313 warfare, see military psychology
social services 68, 69, 70, 74, 301 work-related 115–16, 117, 120 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
sociology 91, 328 suggestibility 51, 57, 86, 163, 188 (WAIS) 98
somatology 18 system variables 48, 49, 56 witnesses 4–5, 6, 31–2, 34–5, 44,
soul 11, 12, 18 systems theory 232–3, 248, 320, 329 45, 46, 48–9, 50–1, 61–4,
sound: 67, 82
decibels 153, 321 see also crime; interviews
frequency 152, 153, 154, 155, T Woolf Report (1996) 81
156, 323 taboo 41, 42, 43, 287–9, 329 work, concept of 103
Hertz 153 task analysis 34, 109–11, 125, 122, workers:
intensity 152, 153, 157, 158 125–6, 137–8, 141, 329 Hawthorne studies 107–8, 120
pitch 152, 158 action oriented 110, 167, 169, 221, incentives 106
spectral characteristics 153, 154, 313, 319 job–worker matching 109–10
155, 157, 158, 328 goal oriented 110, 112, 117–18, performance 104, 105, 106, 108,
wavelength 153 203–4, 205–6, 207, 239, 254, 109, 111, 116, 117
see also auditory warning signals; 305, 313, 314, 315 productivity and efficiency 105–6,
psychoacoustics; signal temperament, see personality 107, 108
detection tennis 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, selection of 105, 107, 108, 109,
space travel 308–17 213, 218 110
SPLIT (Studying the Possibility of therapy 149, 170, 171, 172, 181 training and assessment 107, 108,
Long-term Inter-planet Travel) action oriented 169, 219, 221 111–12, 113, 119–21
309–10, 316, 317 insight oriented 169, 221 see also industrial psychology;
stress 210–11, 312, 313 time and motion studies 105 personnel psychology;
sports psychology 203–4 total time hypothesis 129, 329 occupational psychology;
competition 206 trade unions 104, 118 organizational psychology;
impact of emotions on trauma 48, 57, 64–4, 175, stress; task analysis
performance 204, 212–13, 215, 184, 225
218, 225 child development, effect
injury, reaction to 217, 223, on 70 X
225–35 combat trauma 149, 150, 188 X-ray 96, 325
Index of names
A Black, J. 250 Conway, M. 93, 244

Abernethy, B. 208 Blume, J. 82 Coolican, H. 3, 108, 118
Abrahamowicz, S. 26 Boaz, F. 283 Cooper, C. L. 104, 115, 116
Ackermann, R. R. 279 Bohman, M. 50 Copernicus, N. 173
Adler, A. 173, 176 Bonwell, C. 255 Corsini, R. 136
Agnew, H. W. 195 Booker, C. 290, 295 Costa, P. 312, 313
Agnew, N. M. 5, 29 Borchers, J. 121 Couper, J. 26
Ainsworth, M. 74 Boring, E. G. 30 Courage, M. L. 73
Aldaz, J. A. 191 Botti, M. 231 Coyle, K. 191
Altman, I. 301 Bowlby, J. 176, 271 Craik, F. I. M. 125, 243
Andersen, M. B. 228 Braskamp, L. A. 206 van Creveld, M. 137
Anderson, J. R. 38, 113, 152, 241, Brayne, M. 292, 295
243, 244 Breakwell, G. 301, 302, 317
Andrade, J. 29 Brentar, J. 51 D
Angel, E. 181 Bretherton, I. 74 Dalgleish, T. 189
Aristotle 11, 12 Breuer, J. 168, 174 Darmarjian, N. 215, 216
Arkowitz, A. 199 Brewer, W. 242 Darwin, C. 19, 173, 294
Arnett, J. 238 Breznitz, Z. 254 Davies, G. 74
Arnold, J. 104, 133 Broadbent, D. 130, 152 Davies, I. 317
Arnold, M. 302 Broderick, P. 248, 249, 263 Davies, J. B. 26
Arrigo, B. 76, 84 Bronfenbrenner, U. 261–2, 263, 320 Davis, R. C. 82
Asch, S. E. 145 Brown, D. 281, 285, 287, 288 de Klever, E. 45, 46
Atkinson, J. W. 104, 106 Brown, S. 287 De Vos, J. 250
Atkinson, R. C. 192, 210, 241 Bruck, M. 73 Demjanjuk, J. 50
Axtell, B. A. 287 Buchholz, R. A. 104 Dennett, J. L. 64, 67, 68
Bull, R. 57 Descartes, R. 12–14, 18, 30
Bullock, M. 249 Deutsch, D. 317
B Burns, T. 63 Deutsch, G. 205
Bacon, F. 2 Buss, D. 205 Devine, P. G. 61
Baddeley, A. D. 6, 61, 93, 125, 132, Diamond, J. 282–3
193, 254 Diamond, S. 92
Baillargeon, R. 250 C Dishman, R. K. 206
Bandura, A. 246, 251, 252, 253, 327 Cajal, Ramon Y 16 Dixon, N. F. 165
Barber, T. 51 Campbell, J. 289–90 Dodson, J. 216, 218
Barnard, A. 279, 280, 281 Canter, D. 54–5, 317 Dohrmann, K. 258
Barnard, P. J. 110, 114, 115, 152, 162, Carey, M. 290 Donnelly, J. 99
199, 221 Carr, A. 269 Doron, H. 172
Barnes, P. 72 Casper, J. 92 Dostoevsky, F. 19
Baron-Cohen, S. 285, 292 Cassidy, T. 3, 108, 118 Doyle, A. C. 45
Bartlett, F. C. 107, 131, 138–9, 207, Cattell, R. B. 223 Dunbar, R. 286, 294
241, 242, 327, 328 Ceci, S. J. 73 Duncan, J. 93
Bateman, D. 163 Cermak, L. 60 Duplass, J. 257, 269
Beecher, H. 229–30 Chapman, P. D. 21
Bekerian, D. A. 64, 67, 68, 76, 80, 93, Chase, K. 60
110, 132, 244, 266, 294 Cherchar, A. 3, 108, 118 E
Belmonte, M. 285 Cherry, C. E. 130 Ebbinghaus, H. 11, 18
Bernard, C. 16 Christianson, S. A. 64 Ecclestone, C. 97
Betchel, R. 296 Clark, R. 104, 106, 149, 255 Ehrenreich, B. 304
Biddle, S. 206 Clifford, B. R. 57 Ekman, P. 286
Bidwell, S. 142 Cloninger, C. R. 50 Ekstein, R. 23
Billings, F. J. 189 Coleman, J. 206, 257 Eldridge, M. 110, 294
Binet, A. 19–20, 21–2, 34 Collaer, M. I. 205 Elfenbein, H. 286–7
Black, A. 94 Conrad, K. 284 Eliade, M. 289
INDEX OF NAMES 353
Ellenberg, H. 181 Hall, G. S. 72 Jarrett, C. 311, 314, 315

Elliott, B. 235 Hamburger, Y. A. 295 Jenner, E. 15, 16
Ellsworth, P. 89 Hammond, C. 72 Jervis, R. 232
Engel, B. 163 Haney, C. 44, 45, 83, 88 Jesty, B. 15
Erikson, E. 71, 176, 249, 261, 270 Harrower, J. 3, 108, 118 Johnson, M. 60, 63, 92
Erlich, P. 15 Harvey, M. 187 Jones, M. C. 220–1
Esdaile, J. M. 26 Harvey, W. 12, 13, 18 Judd, W. 18
van de Eshof, P. 46 Hasher, L. 60 Jung, C. 12, 176, 284–5, 290, 292,
Eysenck, H. 12, 223, 323 Haward, L. 43, 76, 82 320, 324
Head, H. 242 Justinian 81
Hebb, R. D. 244
F Hefferline, R. 180
Fairbanks, J. C. 26 Heidl, R. D. Jr. 137 K
Fine, C. 285 Heil, J. 230–1, 233 Kahler, T. 314
Fisher, R. 49, 51, 60 Hendry, L. 270 Kahneman, D. 10, 27–8
Fivush, R. 72 Henry, V. 34 Kanas, N. 310–11, 312, 315
Fodor, J. 38, 210, 211 Heritage, R. 55 Kant, I. 16–17, 242
Foote, A. 240 Herman, J. 65, 187 Kardiner, A. 188
Fox, D. 101 Herrnstein, R. J. 30 Karon, B. P. 65
Frank, L. K. 99 Herzberg, F. 106 Kassin, S. M. 89, 286, 314
Frankl, V. E. 181 Hiatt, L. R. 277 Katzell, R. A. 106
Freud, A. 176 Hilgard, E. 51 Kempler, W. 180
Freud, S. 23, 36, 121, 168, 173–6, Hillman, D. C. 195 Kerr, M. 92
177, 182, 185, 186, 187, 188, Hines, M. 205 Kiple, K. 294
248, 249, 281, 288, 325, 327, 328 Hinton, G. 152, 244, 326 Kirschner, P. 255
Futuyama, D. 317 Hitch, G. 125, 193 Knickmeyer, R. 284
Hobbes, T. 12 von Knorring, A. L. 50
Hofstede, G. 104 Koch, R. 15
G Holland, H. 51, 60 Koehler, G. 180
Gacono, C. B. 100 Hollingworth, L. S. 20 Kohlberg, L. 250
Garlick, D. 244 Hollway, W. 104, 133 Koenken, G. 66
Geiselman, E. 49, 51, 60 Holt, D. 256 Koper, J. A. 26
Gendlin, E. T. 224 Holub, R. J. 98 Kosslyn, S. M. 34
Gesell, A. 247 van Hooff, J. 287 Kroeber, A. L. 231
Gibson, J. J. 113 Horne, J. 195, 196 Kuhn, T. S. 38
Gilbreth, F. B. 105, 107, 108 Horney, K. 176
Gill, S. P. 26, 112, 121, 239, 269 Hovarth, M. 87
Godden, D. 61 Howe, M. L. 73 L
Goldmann, L. 28, 29 Hull, C. L. 107 Lacey, J. 163
Goodall, J. 271 Hume, D. 12 Ladd, G. T. 17
Goodman, P. 180 Huntford, R. 312 Lambie, J. A. 111, 210
Gorini, A. 170 Hyman, I. 189 Lamping, D. L. 26
Gould, D. 215, 216 Lashley, K. 240
Graber, M. 250 Latane, B. 296
Gray, L. H. 317 I Lazarus, R. 313
Green, J. 51 Ibsen, H. 19 Lepes, D. 206
Greenbowe, T. 250 Inman, M. 56 Levey, A. B. 28, 29, 191
Grice, P. 238 Ivan the Terrible 50 Lev-Wiesel, R. 172
Griffith, C. 206 Levy, H. 289
Groeger, J. A. 294 Ley, P. 129
Grudin, J. 114 J Lillard, A. 258
Gruneberg, M. 38 Jackson, J. A. 45, 46, 80 Locke, E. A. 106
Gudjonsson, G. 76, 82, 84 Jackson, S. 76 Lockhart, R. S. 125, 243
Guthrie, E. R. 207 Jacoby, L. 60 Loftus, E. 48, 49, 51, 63, 64, 89, 188–9
Jakob, P. 263 Logie, R. 93–4
James, H. 17 Lorenz, K. 146
H James, W. 17, 18, 162, 185, 210 Lowell, E. 104, 106
Halberg, F. 195 Janet, P. 187 Luginbuhl, J. 82
Halberstadt, A. G. 295 Janoff-Bullman, R. 65 Lynn, S. 51
354 INDEX OF NAMES
M Natsoulas, T. 210 Roesch, R. 86, 101

McCall, P. 302 Neider, C. 311 Rogers, C. 177, 178–80, 181, 326
McCarthy, D. 92 Neisser, U. 37, 85, 129, 243–4 Rogers, W. S. 98
McCarthy, J. 319 Neitzel, M. 92 Roland, M. 26, 82
McClelland, D. C. 104, 106 Nelson, C. A. 295 Rosch Heider, E. 317
McClelland, J. 320 Nideffer, R. N. 223 Roskill, Lord E. 91, 92
McCormack, J. 296 Nietzsche, F. 255 Rozenberg, J. 91
McCrae, R. 312, 313 Nigbur, D. 296 Rubin, D. 290
McDermott, K. 60 Nimmo-Smith, I. 210, 211 Rubio, N. 206
McKeown, T. 294 Rumelhart, D. 242, 326
MacKinnon, D. 51, 60 Ryan, R. M. 206
McLaughlin, C. 210, 211 O
MacLeod, C. 199 O’Brien, J. P. 26
McLeod, P. 210, 211 O’Driscoll, G. 169 S
McLeroy, K. 302, 304–5 Ogloff, J. 101 Sagan, C. 284
MacNair-Semands, R. 264 Osofsky, J. 50 Sahlins, M. 281
Maehr, M. L. 206 Salkind, N. 247
Main, M. 74 Sallis, J. 303
Malpass, R. S. 61 P Schein, E. H. 108
Manning, R. 296 Palmer, S. 46 Schneider, W. 125
Marcel, A. J. 111, 115, 210 Parks, S. 208 Seligman, M. E. P. 10, 199, 214–15,
Marr, D. 37 Pascual-Leone, J. 254 229, 298, 303, 304, 324
Marshall, J. 115 Pasteur, L. 15 Semeneoff, B. 99
Marshall, S. L. A. 140, 141 Patterson, R. D. 150, 152 Sharp, B. 207
Martin, R. 287 Pavlov, I. P. 16, 147, 224, 320, 326 Shaw, G. B. 255
Mash, E. 254 Peiser, B. 283 Sheldon, K. M. 206
Maslow, A. 147, 281 Penny, G. 3, 108, 118 Sher, P. 287
Masson, J. 171 Perfect, T. 71 Sherrington, C. S. 131
Matthews, A. 199 Perls, F. 180 Shiffrin, R. M. 125
May, R. 181 Perls, L. 180 Siffre, M. 195
Mayo, E. 107, 108 Petrila, J. 101 Sigvardsson, S. 50
Mayr, E. 279 Phillippides 203 Skinner, B. F. 147, 240, 251, 326, 327
Meloy, J. R. 100 Piaget, J. 71, 204, 241, 243, 247, 248, Slavin, R. 239, 257
Melton, G. 87, 101 249–50, 263, 301, 319, 320, 323, Slobgin, C. 101
Mercer, J. 270 326, 327 Smith, V. 89
Mester, J. 235 Ponterotto, J. 312 Smith, W. R. 289
Milano, G. 195 Ponting, C. 278, 279, 280, 283, 293, Smuts, A. 287
Miller, G. 192–3, 325 294, 302 Snaith, R. P. 26
Milsom, J. 74 Porteus, M. 103, 133 Solomon 98
Minsky, H. 243 Postman, L. 37, 85, 239 Spence, A. 295, 297
Mischel, W. 111, 179, 313 Poythress, N. 101 Spiegel, H. 188
Mitchell, R. 74 Prichard, J. C. 18 Springer, S. P. 205
Montessori, M. 258 Prilleltensky, I. 101 Stainton-Rogers, W. 97
Morant, N. 189 Prins, E. 270 Steller, M. 66
Morgan, S. 109 Proshansky, H. M. 301 Suedfeld, P. 311
Morgan, W. P. 221 Pyke, S. W. 5, 29 Sun Tzu, 137
Morris, P. 38 Sweet, J. J. 96
Moustakas, C. 305 Sykes, R. 38
Mullholland, C. L. 82 R Szasz, T. 284
Münsterberg, H. 43, 44, 105, 108
Raesaenen, S. 169
Musson, D. 312
Reese, E. 72
Mutrie, N. 206, 235
Reich, W. 121 T
Myers, D. 241, 271, 306 Tajfel, H. 301, 317
Richardson, R. 137
Riggio, R. E. 107, 133 Tapscott, D. 295
Rivolier, J. 311 Taylor, A. J. W. 311
N Roberts, R. 311, 314, 315 Taylor, F. W. 105–6, 107, 108
Napoleon, 81, 137 Robertson, I. 104 Taylor, J. 270
Nash, R. 302 Roediger, H. 60 Teasdale, J. 152, 162, 199, 221
INDEX OF NAMES 355
Terman, L. 20 W Williams, J. L. 26
Tesch, B. 266 Wagenaar, W. A. 50–1, 129, 130 Williams, J. M. 228
Thomson, D. 61 Wagstaff, G. 51 Williams, J. M. G. 199
Thorndike, E. 240 Walley, W. 3, 108, 118 Wilson, C. 74
Tolman, E. 240 Wallis, C. 295 Wing, R. L. 137
Triplett, J. 206 Walters, M. 270 Winnicott, R, 176
Tuckman, B. 117 Wang, F. 302 Wolff, A. 169
Tulving, E. 61 Wann, J. 208 Woodburn, J. 281
Turner, J. C. 301, 317 Watson, J. 14, 210, 220 Woolf, H. (Lord Woolf of Barnes) 81
Tversky, A. 28 Watson, P. 160, 165 Wright, Q. 137, 165
Twigger-Ross, C. L. 302, 317 Watson, R. 30 Wundt, W. 16, 17, 18, 19
Watts, F. 191, 199
Webb, W. B. 195
U Weekes, J. 51
X
Underwood, B. 37, 85, 243 Weiner, I. B. 101 Xenophon 137
Undeutsch, U. 66 Weiner, N. 232
Ursano, R. 313, 314 Weiskrantz, L. 190
Uzzell, D. 295, 296–7, 298, 303, 304 Wells, G. 48, 49, 76 Y
Wechsler, D. 21 Yalom, I. 314
Westbury, T. 3, 108, 118 Yerkes, R. M. 139, 216, 218
V Widener, A. 65
Valenza, E. 252 Wiederhold, B. 170
Van der Ver, A. 27 Wiederhold, M. 170 Z
Van Lehn, R. 165 Wiggins, E. 92 Zevin, J. 244
Vella, M. 51 Wigmore, J. H. 44 Zigmond, A. S. 26
Verfaellie, M. 60 Williams, A. C. C. 97 Zola, E. 19
Vygotsky, L. S. 247–8, 317 Williams, E. 87 Zubieta, J.-K. 230

Applied Psychology Putting Theory Into Practice 2nd Edition

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Applied Psychology Putting Theory Into Practice 2nd Edition

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Applied Psychology

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PART ONE The transition from theory into practice

1 About this book 3

2 The origins and scope of applied psychology 10

PART TWO The rooms

4 The crime room 41

6 The work room 103

8 The treatment room 167

11 The nature room 277

Preface to the second edition xii

PART ONE The transition from theory into practice

1 About this book 3

2 The origins and scope of applied psychology 10

PART TWO The rooms

4 The crime room 41

Collaborations between psychologists and the police 48

6 The work room 103

8 The treatment room 167

Thoughts, feelings, and sport 212

10 The teaching room 237

The second edition has been greatly expanded and includes:

Note to the reader

The transition from

The role of theory

The nature of theories

The structure of this book

The structure of the rooms

Five basic questions

Journal of Applied Psychology (founded in 1917)

Journal of Applied Behavioural Science

Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology

Journal of Occupational Psychology

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied

International Association of Applied Psychology: www.iaapsy.org

The role of philosophy

Box 2.1 Why bother with history?

Box 2.2 Clockwork mice and other delights

understanding behaviour in terms of natural forces, rather than in terms of unobserved

Box 2.3 Descartes’ mistakes

Box 2.4 The mind–body problem

The eighteenth century: the Age of Enlightenment

The conquest of nature

Box 2.5 The story of vaccination

The role of physiology

Psychology becomes a science

Box 2.6 The evolution of the word ‘psychology’

The story so far

The other face of industrialization

The intelligence quotient (IQ)

How stupid is stupid?

The decline of the IQ

The scope of applied psychology

Pure and applied science

Box 2.7 The knowledge base: an illustration

The modern hospital

Box 2.8 Services, clinics, and departments of the modern hospital

Box 2.9 A voluntary project

Technical skills in applied psychology

Box 2.10 Scale properties: basic concepts

into economic science, especially concerning human judgement and decision-making

Selected case studies

Case study one: Consciousness under anaesthesia

comments by operating-theatre personnel, and of responses, if any, to a tape cassette played