Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table.

As described earlier, the periodic table arranges atoms

based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur
periodically. ... It is the loss, gain, or sharing of valence electrons that defines how elements react.

Orbital Energies and Atomic Structure

The energy of atomic orbitals increases as the principal quantum number, n, increases. In any
atom with two or more electrons, the repulsion between the electrons makes energies of
subshells with different values of l differ so that the energy of the orbitals increases within a shell
in the order s < p < d < f. Figure 1 depicts how these two trends in increasing energy relate. The
1s orbital at the bottom of the diagram is the orbital with electrons of lowest energy. The energy
increases as we move up to the 2s and then 2p, 3s, and 3p orbitals, showing that the increasing n
value has more influence on energy than the increasing l value for small atoms. However, this
pattern does not hold for larger atoms. The 3d orbital is higher in energy than the 4s orbital. Such
overlaps continue to occur frequently as we move up the chart.

Electrons in successive atoms on the periodic table tend to fill low-energy orbitals first. Thus,
many students find it confusing that, for example, the 5p orbitals fill immediately after the 4d,
and immediately before the 6s. The filling order is based on observed experimental results, and
has been confirmed by theoretical calculations. As the principal quantum number, n, increases,
the size of the orbital increases and the electrons spend more time farther from the nucleus. Thus,
the attraction to the nucleus is weaker and the energy associated with the orbital is higher (less
stabilized). But this is not the only effect we have to take into account. Within each shell, as the
value of l increases, the electrons are less penetrating (meaning there is less electron density
found close to the nucleus), in the order s > p > d > f. Electrons that are closer to the nucleus
slightly repel electrons that are farther out, offsetting the more dominant electron–nucleus
attractions slightly (recall that all electrons have −1 charges, but nuclei have +Z charges). This
phenomenon is called shielding and will be discussed in more detail in the next section.
Electrons in orbitals that experience more shielding are less stabilized and thus higher in energy.
For small orbitals (1s through 3p), the increase in energy due to n is more significant than the
increase due to l; however, for larger orbitals the two trends are comparable and cannot be
simply predicted. We will discuss methods for remembering the observed order.

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called the electron configuration of
the atom. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that contains three pieces of
information (Figure 2):

1. The number of the principal quantum shell, n,

2. The letter that designates the orbital type (the subshell, l), and
3. A superscript number that designates the number of electrons in that particular subshell.

For example, the notation 2p4 (read “two–p–four”) indicates four electrons in a p subshell (l = 1)
with a principal quantum number (n) of 2. The notation 3d8 (read “three–d–eight”) indicates
eight electrons in the d subshell (i.e., l = 2) of the principal shell for which n = 3.
The Aufbau Principle
To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can “build” the structures in
the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and continuing across the periods of the
periodic table, we add one proton at a time to the nucleus and one electron to the proper subshell
until we have described the electron configurations of all the elements. This procedure is called
the Aufbau principle, from the German word Aufbau (“to build up”). Each added electron
occupies the subshell of lowest energy available (in the order shown in Figure 1), subject to the
limitations imposed by the allowed quantum numbers according to the Pauli exclusion principle.
Electrons enter higher-energy subshells only after lower-energy subshells have been filled to
capacity. Figure 3 illustrates the traditional way to remember the filling order for atomic orbitals.
Since the arrangement of the periodic table is based on the electron configurations, Figure 4
provides an alternative method for determining the electron configuration. The filling order
simply begins at hydrogen and includes each subshell as you proceed in increasing Z order. For
example, after filling the 3p block up to Ar, we see the orbital will be 4s (K, Ca), followed by the
3d orbitals.

We will now construct the ground-state electron configuration and orbital diagram for a selection of
atoms in the first and second periods of the periodic table. Orbital diagrams are pictorial
representations of the electron configuration, showing the individual orbitals and the pairing
arrangement of electrons. We start with a single hydrogen atom (atomic number 1), which consists of
one proton and one electron. Referring to Figure 3 or Figure 4, we would expect to find the electron in
the 1s orbital. By convention, the value is usually filled first. The electron configuration and
the orbital diagram are:

Following hydrogen is the noble gas helium, which has an atomic number of 2. The helium atom
contains two protons and two electrons. The first electron has the same four quantum numbers as the
hydrogen atom electron (n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ). The second electron also goes into the 1s orbital
and fills that orbital. The second electron has the same n, l, and ml quantum numbers, but must have
the opposite spin quantum number, . This is in accord with the Pauli exclusion principle: No
two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. For orbital diagrams,
this means two arrows go in each box (representing two electrons in each orbital) and the arrows must
point in opposite directions (representing paired spins). The electron configuration and orbital diagram
of helium are:
So, elements in group one, the alkali metals, have one valence electron, those in group two have two
valence, those in group thirteen have three electrons, and so on. This is true for all elements except for
helium, which is in group eight, the noble gases
Valence electrons are the electrons on the outer shell of each atom. The number of valence
electrons is directly related for groups 1-2 and 13-18. However, the number of valence electrons
for the transition metals, which are groups 3-12, is generally unrelated to group number.
For groups 1-2 and 13-18, the number of valence electrons is directly related to group number.
So, elements in group one, the alkali metals, have one valence electron, those in group two have
two valence, those in group thirteen have three electrons, and so on. This is true for all elements
except for helium, which is in group eight, the noble gases. It only has two valence electrons, but
it still has a full outer shell like all of the other noble gases.
Elements and Atomic Weight
In Mendeleev's time atoms were thought to be indivisible, unique entities. Some were heavier than
others, and it seemed reasonable to order the elements by increasing weight. There are two problems
with this approach. First, measuring weight is a tricky task, and many of the accepted weights of
Mendeleev's day were not correct. Second, it turns out that atomic weight is not really the relevant
parameter. Today's periodic tables place the elements in order of their atomic number, which is the
number of protons in the nucleus. In Mendeleev's time, protons had not yet been discovered.
Elements and Chemical Properties
Mendeleev wrote that "arrangement according to atomic weight corresponds to the valence of the
element and to a certain extent the difference in chemical behavior." The valence, in Mendeleev's
understanding, was an indication of the ability of an element to combine with other elements.
Mendeleev combined the order of atomic weight with common valences to organize the elements in a
table. That is, he organized the elements in groups according to their chemical characteristics. Because
those properties repeat every so often, the result was a periodic table in which each vertical column,
called a group, contains elements with similar characteristics, and each horizontal row, called a period,
arranges the elements by weight, increasing from left to right and top to bottom.
Atomic Structure
About 50 years after Mendeleev's first periodic table, scientists discovered the atom was built around a
nucleus with positively charged protons and neutral neutrons -- both of which are relatively heavy. The
positively charged nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The number of
protons -- also called the atomic number -- typically matches the number of electrons. It turns out that
the number of electrons an element has largely determines its chemical properties. So the proper order
in the periodic table is determined by the number of electrons, not weight as Mendeleev originally
proposed.
Valence Electrons
The electrons in the cloud surrounding an element's nucleus are arranged in layers, called shells. Each
shell has a specific number of electrons it can hold. When each shell is filled a new shell is added until all
of the electrons are accounted for. Electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons,
because it is their interactions that determine the chemical properties of an element. The columns that
were set up to group elements by similar chemical properties turn out to be the exact same columns
defined by the number of valence electrons. Elements in group 1A have only one valence electron, and
each group A column to the right adds one more valence electron. Organization gets a bit murky with
the Group B elements, but each of them is also grouped by their number of valence electrons
compare the properties of families of elements
What Is an Element Family?
An element family is a set of elements sharing common properties. Elements are classified into
families because the three main categories of elements (metals, nonmetals and semimetals)
are very broad. The characteristics of the elements in these families is determined primarily by
the number of electrons in the outer energy shell. Element groups, on the other hand, are
collections of elements categorized according to similar properties. Because element properties
are largely determined by the behavior of valence electrons, families and groups may be one
and the same. However, there are different ways of categorizing elements into families. Many
chemists and chemistry textbooks recognize five main families:
5 Element Families
alkali metals
alkaline earth metals
transition metals
halogens
noble gases
9 Element Families
Another common method of categorization recognizes nine element families:
Alkali Metals - Group 1 (IA) - 1 valence electron
Alkaline Earth Metals - Group 2 (IIA) - 2 valence electrons
Transition Metals - Groups 3-12 - d and f block metals have 2 valence electrons
Boron Group or Earth Metals - Group 13 (IIIA) - 3 valence electrons
Carbon Group or Tetrels - Group 14 (IVA) - 4 valence electrons
Nitrogen Group or Pnictogens - Group 15 (VA) - 5 valence electrons
Oxygen Group or Chalcogens - Group 16 (VIA) - 6 valence electrons
Halogens - Group 17 (VIIA) - 7 valence electrons
Noble Gases - Group 18 (VIIIA) - 8 valence electrons
Recognizing Families on the Periodic Table
Columns of the periodic table typically mark groups or families. Three systems have been used to
number families and groups:
The older IUPAC system used Roman numerals together with letters to distinguish between the left (A)
and right (B) side of the periodic table.
The CAS system used letter to differentiate main group (A) and transition (B) elements.
The modern IUPAC system uses Arabic numbers 1-18, simply numbering the columns of the periodic
table from left to right.
Many periodic tables include both Roman and Arabic numbers. The Arabic numbering system is the
most widely accepted method used today.
Because elements in each family have the same number of valence electrons, they tend to have several
similar characteristics. ... There are other ways to use the periodic table to predict properties of an
element. As you move down the periodic table vertically, the ionization energy and electron affinity
both decrease
The periodic table can be used to quickly determine characteristics (number of valence electrons for
example) of an element.
A major factor in how the periodic table is organized is the configuration of each element's valence
electrons.
The video below provides a quick review of how to determine the number of valence electrons for some
commonly used elements in science classes.
Because elements in each family have the same number of valence electrons, they tend to have several
similar characteristics.
For example, elements in group one, which therefore only have one valence electron, are soft, highly
reactive metals, while those in group 18, with full outer shells, all exist in their pure form as a colorless
gas and are highly nonreactive.
There are other ways to use the periodic table to predict properties of an element. As you move down
the periodic table vertically, the ionization energy and electron affinity both decrease.
As you move from left to right the electron affinity and ionization energy both increase. Since elements
of the same family have similar characteristics, you can often predict the properties of one element if
you know the properties of another element in its family.
Elemental properties are predictable by the element position on the periodic table.
Group and Electron Configuration
The group (column) of the periodic table determines the valence electron count. Each element in the
Alkali Metal (Li, Na, K, …) IA (1) column has a valence electron configuration of s1. These elements
readily become +1 cations. Each element in the Halogens (F, Cl, Br…) VIIA (17) column has a valence
electron configuration
of s5. These elements readily become -1 anions.
Metal and Non-metal
The periodic table is divided into metals on the left and non-metals on the right. A staircase is created
through the metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te) dividing the metals from the non-metals. The further left on
the periodic table, the more metallic the nature of the element.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the tendency of an element to attract electrons.
The further right and up on the periodic table, the higher the elements electronegativity. Fluorine has
the highest electronegativity of 4.0 and Francium has the lowest electronegativity of 0.7.
The electronegativity can be used to determine the bonding nature of two elements. The difference
(subtraction) between the electronegativity value of two elements can be used in a rough scale to
determine bonding, 0 to 0.3 Nonpolar-covalent, 0.3 to 1.7 Polar-covalent and 1.7 to 3.3 Ionic.
There are other trends on the periodic table that would provide indicators of how an element may act
including, Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity, Atomic Radii and Ionic Radii.
Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that illustrate different
aspects of a certain element, including its size and its electronic properties. Major periodic trends
include: electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity, atomic radius, melting point, and metallic
character. Periodic trends, arising from the arrangement of the periodic table, provide chemists with an
invaluable tool to quickly predict an element's properties. These trends exist because of the similar
atomic structure of the elements within their respective group families or periods, and because of the
periodic nature of the elements.

Electronegativity Trends

Electronegativity can be understood as a chemical property describing an atom's ability to attract

and bind with electrons. Because electronegativity is a qualitative property, there is
no standardized method for calculating electronegativity. However, the most common scale
for quantifying electronegativity is the Pauling scale (Table A2), named after the chemist Linus
Pauling. The numbers assigned by the Pauling scale are dimensionless due to the qualitative nature
of electronegativity. Electronegativity values for each element can be found on certain periodic
tables

Electronegativity measures an atom's tendency to attract and form bonds with electrons. This
property exists due to the electronic configuration of atoms. Most atoms follow the octet rule
(having the valence, or outer, shell comprise of 8 electrons). Because elements on the left side of
the periodic table have less than a half-full valence shell, the energy required to gain electrons is
significantly higher compared with the energy required to lose electrons. As a result, the elements
on the left side of the periodic table generally lose electrons when forming bonds. Conversely,
elements on the right side of the periodic table are more energy-efficient in gaining electrons to
create a complete valence shell of 8 electrons. The nature of electronegativity is effectively
described thus: the more inclined an atom is to gain electrons, the more likely that atom will pull
electrons toward itself.

 From left to right across a period of elements, electronegativity increases. If the

valence shell of an atom is less than half full, it requires less energy to lose an electron than
to gain one. Conversely, if the valence shell is more than half full, it is easier to pull an
electron into the valence shell than to donate one.
 From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases. This is because atomic
number increases down a group, and thus there is an increased distance between the valence
electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic radius.
 Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble gases, lanthanides, and
actinides. The noble gases possess a complete valence shell and do not usually attract
electrons. The lanthanides and actinides possess more complicated chemistry that does not
generally follow any trends. Therefore, noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides do not have
electronegativity values.
 As for the transition metals, although they have electronegativity values, there is little
variance among them across the period and up and down a group. This is because their
metallic properties affect their ability to attract electrons as easily as the other elements.
Trends

 The ionization energy of the elements within a period generally increases from left to
right. This is due to valence shell stability.
 The ionization energy of the elements within a group generally decreases from top to
bottom. This is due to electron shielding.
 The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because of their full valence shells
as indicated in the graph. Note that helium has the highest ionization energy of all the
elements.

Summary of Periodic Table Trends

Atomic Radius

Period - atomic radius decreases as you go from left to right across a period.

Why? Stronger attractive forces in atoms (as you go from left to right) between the opposite
charges in the nucleus and electron cloud cause the atom to be 'sucked' together a little tighter.

Group - atomic radius increases as you go down a group.

Why? There is a significant jump in the size of the nucleus (protons + neutrons) each time you
move from period to period down a group. Additionally, new energy levels of elections clouds
are added to the atom as you move from period to period down a group, making the each atom
significantly more massive, both is mass and volume.

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the outmost electron. It is closely
related to electronegativity

Period - ionization energy increases as you go from left to right across a period.

Why? Elements on the right of the chart want to take others atom's electron (not given them up)
because they are close to achieving the octet. The means it will require more energy to remove
the outer most electron. Elements on the left of the chart would prefer to give up their electrons
so it is easy to remove them, requiring less energy (low ionization energy).

Group - ionization energy decreases as you go down a group.

Why? The shielding affect makes it easier to remove the outer most electrons from those atoms
that have many electrons (those near the bottom of the chart).

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is an atom's 'desire' to grab another atom's electrons Period- electronegativity
increases as you go from left to right across a period.

Why? Elements on the left of the period table have 1 -2 valence electrons and would rather give
those few valence electrons away (to achieve the octet in a lower energy level) than grab another
atom's electrons. As a result, they have low electronegativity. Elements on the right side of the
period table only need a few electrons to complete the octet, so they have strong desire to grab
another atom's electrons.

Group - electronegativity decreases as you go down a group.

Why? Elements near the top of the period table have few electrons to begin with; every electron
is a big deal. They have a stronger desire to acquire more electrons. Elements near the bottom of
the chart have so many electrons that losing or acquiring an electron is not as big a deal. This is
due to the shielding affect where electrons in lower energy levels shield the positive charge of
the nucleus from outer electrons resulting in those outer electrons not being as tightly bound to
the atom.