Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fig. 1
Fig. 3
3
Fig. 4
4
i. Engineering
Fi
Stress S A Fi = instantaneous load
0
L Change in length L L0
Engineering strain =
L0 Original length of specimen L0
Fi
ii. True stress and
Ai
Li
dL L
True strain L log L
i
L0 o
True stress is defined as load divided by actual cross sectional area (not original cross sectional area
A0) for that particular load.
Fi
Ai
Similarly, true strain is based on the instantaneous specimen length rather than original length. As such
true strain (or incremental strain) is defined as
dL
d
L
Where L is length at load F and is the true strain.
The true strain at load F is then obtained by summing all the increments of equation.
Arithmetically, this can be written as
dL0 dL1 dL2 dL3 dLn
d L0
L1
L2
L3
......
Ln
L1
dL L1
L
log
L0
L0
True strain is the sum of each incremental elongation divided by the current length of specimen, where
L0 is original gauge length and Li is the gauge length corresponding to load F i. The most important
characteristics of truestress strain diagram is that true stress increases all the way to fracture. Thus true
fracture strength f is greater than the true ultimate strength u in contrast with engineering stress
where fracture strength is lesser than ultimate strength.
5
Li L0 Li
e= 1
L0 L
0
Li
( 1 e)
L0
Fi Fi A0 Li
S
Ai A0 Ai L0
S (1 e)
Li
dL L
log i log (1 e)
L0
L L0
log (1 e)
Let us have a specimen with length of 50 mm which then is extended to 66.55 in three steps
5 5.5 6.05
Sum of incremental strain = 0.1 0.1 0.1 =0.3
50 55 60.5
Now we will calculate total strain considering original and final length after of extension L3 = 66.55
L3 L0 66.55 50
Total engineering strain when extended = 0.331
L0 50
The result is that summation of incremental engineering strain is NOT equal to total engineering strain.
Now same procedure is applied to true strain-
L1 L2 L3
01 12 2 3 = log log log
L0 L1 L 2
55 60.5 66.55
= log log log = 0.286
50 55 60.5
L3 66.55
But total true strain equals to 0.3 log log 0.286
L0 50
In the case of true strains, sum of incremental strain is equal to the overall strain. Thus true strains are
additive. This is not true for engineering strains.
3.
7
Fig
L1 = 0
Fig
To obtain strain of 1 the cylinder must be squeezed to zero thickness which is only hypothetical and not
true. Moreover, intuitively we expect that strain produced in compression should be equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign.
To compression; L1 = L0/2
L1 L0 / 2
log log log 1 / 2 log 2
L0 L0
gives consistent results. Thus true strains for equivalent deformation in tension and comprehension are
identical except for the sign. Further unlike engineering strains, true strains are consistent with actual
phenomenon.
Problem:
8
The following data were obtained during the true strain test of nickel specimen.
Pmax 16.55 10 3
1. True stress at max load = = = 617.77 MPa
A 5.84 2
4
P 12.45 10 3
2. True fracture stress = A = = 1109 MPa
min 11 .22
2 2
d 6 .4
3. True fracture strain = ln 0 = ln = 1.053
d 3.78
i
2 2
d 6.4
4. True uniform strain = ln 0 = ln =0.183
d 5.84
i
Pmax 16.55 10 3
6. Ultimate tensile stress = = = 514 MPa
A max 6.4 2
4
Load Diamete Area True stress True strain = Engg. Stress Engg. Strain
KN r mm2 d
2
Pi ln 0 P 2
= d = d0
mm Ai i A = 1
di
(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
0 6.40 32.17 0 0
15.3 6.35 31.67 48.31 0.0156 475.59 0.0158
15.92 6.22 30.39 523.86 0.057 494.87 0.059
16.32 6.10 29.22 558.52 0.096 507.30 0.10
16.5 5.97 27.99 589.50 0.139 512.90 0.149
16.55 5.84 26,79 617.77 0.183 514.45 0.20
15.88 5.11 20.5 774.63 0.45 493.62 0.568
15.57 5.08 20.27 768.13 0.46 484.00 0.587
14.90 4.83 18.32 813.32 0.56 463.16 0.755
14.01 4.57 16.40 854.27 0.67 435.5 0.961
13.12 4.32 14.66 894.95 0.786 407.83 1.19
12.45 3.78 11.22 1109.63 1.053 387.00 1.866
3. True strains for equivalent deformation in tension and compression are identical except in sign.
4. The volume change is related to the sum of the three normal true strains and with volume constancy.
5. True stress can be related to true strain.
K () n (0 ) n
0 = the amount of strain hardening that material received prior to the tension test.
6. Truestresstrue strain values are quite sensitive to change in both metallurgical and mechanical
conditions of matter.
Truestressstrain Engineering
1. Actual values of gauge length and 1. Original cross sectional areas (A0) is
cross sectional area is used in used for calculating engineering stress.
calculating true stress and true strain. Fi
S=
Li A0
Fi dL
Ai
L Li L0
L0
Further strain e = is used.
L0
The sum of incremental strains is
The sum of incremental strains is not
equal to total strain
equal to total strain.
Unlike load elongation curve, there is
no maximum in the true strin curve.
The sloppe of the curve in the plastic
region decreases with increase in
strain
2. The calculated values of stress 2. The nominal stress (s) defined for the
strain are real and very useful in the tensile test in terms of original cross
plastic region of the curve. sectional area (A0) is not really stress
because the cross sectional area Ai at
the instant of load measurement is less
than A0 in the evaluation of s.
3. The metal working designers are 3. The structural designers are interested
interested in plastic region where in a region where strains are elastic
difference between Ai and A0 is and difference between Ai and A0 is
significant. The true stressstrains negligibly small. But this is not true in
give accurate picture and hence it is the plastic region and especially when
11
Fig. 5
The flow curve
A true stress–strain curve is frequently called a flow curve because it gives the stress required to cause
the metal to flow physically to given strain.
The plastic region of a true stress – strain curve for many materials has a general form in the form of
Holloman equation which is
k () n
k is strength constant
Fig. 6
In a tension test of stell, a specimen of circular cross section with original diameter 9 mm is used. The
loads applied were 22 kN and 28 kN which reduces its diameter to 8.6 mm and 8.3 mm respectively.
Determine (i) true stress and true strain for given loads (ii) strain hardening exponent and strength
coefficient.
Solution:
d 0 original diameter of specimen = 9 mm
F1 22 10 3 ( N)
1 3.78 N / mm 2
/ 4 d12 / 4 (8.6) 2
F2 28 10 3
T2 517.5 N / mm 2
/ 4 (8.3) 2 / 4d2
2
L1
true strain log e
L0
2
2 L1 d
d 0 L 0 d12 L1 0
4 4 L 0 d1
2
d d
log 0 2 log 0
d1 d1
1 K1n
2 K n2
2
n
2 or log 2 n . log 2
1 1 1 1
2 517.5
log log
1 378 0.54
n
2 0.1619
log log
1 0.091
K 1385 N / mm 2
Both n and K are material properties: The strain hardening exponent physically reflects the rate at which
the material hardens. The derivative of this equation
d d
n .
In states that fractional change in true stress caused by a fractional change in true strain is determined by
the strain hardening exponent (n). Therefore, the stress increases rapidly with strain for a material that
has a large strain hardening exponent, such as 3O 2 stainless steel (n = 0.3) compared to a material
where n is low such as 4.10 stainless steel (n = 0.1).
Plastic Instability
Necking or localised deformation begins at maximum load where decrease in cross sectional area
which hears the load is compensated by increase in strength due in load
dF = 0
Fig. 7
F .A
dF dA A d 0
16
dA d
A
dA dL
A
L
d dl
d
L
d
d
Problem
Prove that uniform strain is equal strain hardening exponent (n).
Solution:
Fig.
17
P K A 0 [e () n ]
u
n u n 1 u n
u n
Problem 1:
Hollomon equation for a material is given as 1400 () 0.33 . Find the ultimate tensile strength of the
material.
Solution:
Ultimate tensile strength of a material is measured at maximum load point and where necking begins.
Upto the necking point, deformation is uniform throughout its gauge length. It is a engineering stress
(S u ).
18
True strain for uniform elongation is equal to strain hardening exponent. Therefore u n.
u
Ultimate tensile strength = S u [ (1 e) S]
1 u
u log e (1 e u )
u (1 e u )
n n
u K . u n n
Su K u K n
e e
en en
0.33
0.33
1400 698.1 N / mm 2
2.71
UTS = 698. 1 N / mm 2
This shows that ultimate strength of a material can be calculated from the value of K and n.
Problem 2:
A metal obeys Hollomon relationship and has a UTS of 300 MPa. To reach the maximum load requires
an elongation of 35%. Find strain hardening exponent (n) and strength coefficient (K).
Solution:
UTS = S u = 300 MPa = 300 N / mm 2
Engineering elongation strain = e u = 35% = 0.35
uniform true strain u log (1 e u ) log (1.35) = 0.3
u S u (1 e u ) but n u 0.3
= 300 (1 + 0.35) = 405 N / mm 2 .
u K (u ) n k ( n ) n
19
K 581.2 N / mm 2
Deformation work
Work is defined as the product of force and distance. A quantity equivalent to work per unit volume is
the product of stress and strain. The area under the true stress strain curve for any strain 1 is the energy
per unit volume (u) or specific energy, of the deformed material.
Fig. 9
1
u d
0
The true stress–strain curve can be represented by the Hollomon equation K () n .
20
K 1n 1
u
n 1
1 1
n1
n K
u K () .d
0
n 1
0
similarly mean flow stress can be found
1 1
d K n .d
n1 n
K K
m 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 (n 1) 1 (n 1)
K 1n
m
n 1
The work calculated according to above equation assumes that the deformation is homogeneous through
out the deforming part. This work is called ideal deformation work.
21
Solutions
a. Calculate total strain during deformation
A0 d
ln 2 ln 0
A d
12.7
2 ln 0.199
11 .5
For AA–1100, K = 140 MPa and n = 0.25. Note that, as n , the deformation is homogeneous
n 1
Wi K 1 V
n 1
N 0.1991.25
140 10 6 1.26 10 5 m 3 187.5 N (J )
m6 1.25
0.199 0.25
140 MPa 74.8 MPa
1.25
Yield Criterion
Yield point under simplified condition of uniaxial tension is widely known and documented. But such
simplified conditions [1 – Pure uniaxial tension 2 – Pure shear] are rare in reality. In many situations
complex and multiaxial stresses are present and in this situation it is necessary to know when a material
will yield. Mathematically and empirically, the relationships between the yield point under uniaxial
tensile test and yield strength under complex situations have been found out. These relationships are
known as yield criteria. Thus yield criterion is defined as mathematical and empirically derived
relationship between yield strength under uniaxial tensile load and yielding under multiaxial complex
stress situation.
Yield Criterion is a law defining the limit of elastic behaviour under any possible combination of
stresses is called yield criterion. Yield criterion is a mathematical expression which unites experimental
observations with mathematical expressions n a phenomenological manner. Yield criteria is primarily
used to predict if or when yielding
will occur under combined stress states in terms of particular properties of the metal being stressed [
0 , K] .
Any yield criterion is a postulated mathematical expression of the stress that will induce yielding or the
onset of plastic deformation. The most general form is
f( f (1 , 2 , 3 ) = C
For most ductile metals that are isotropic, the following assumptions are invoked:
1. There is no Bauschinger effect, thus the yield strengths in tension and compression are equivalent.
Bauschinger effect
23
The lowering of yield stress for a material when deformation in one direction is followed by deformation
in the opposite direction, is called Bauschinger effect.
Fig. 10
2. The constancy of volume prevails so that plastic equivalent of poison’s ratio 0.5.
3. The magnitude of the mean normal stress m 1 2 3 does not cause yielding. The
3
assumption that yielding is independent of σm (also called hydrostatic component of the total state
of stress) is reasonable if plastic flow depends upon shear mechanism such as slip or twinning. In
this context, yield criterion is written as
F[(σ1 σ2), (σ2 σ3), (σ3 σ1)] = C
which implies that yielding depends upon the size of the Mohr’s circle and not their position. It is
shown that if a stress state (σ1, σ2, σ3) will cause yielding, an equivalent stress state (1 , 2 , 3 )
1. Tresca criterion
Tresca found that plastic flow in a metal begins when tangential stress attains a value.
24
Assume that a body is subjected to triaxial stresses. 1 , 2 , 3 are principal stresses and 1 2 3
(algebraically).
when Tmax exceeds a certain value ‘c’, specific to that material, yielding will occur. To find the value
of ‘c’, the material is subjected to uniaxial tensile test and find out yield point strength ( 0 ).
3 0
Tmax 1 c
2 2
3 0
1 or 1 3 0
2 2
1 3 0
k k 0
0
k 0.5 0
2
Application:
i) Plain stress condition. x , y, Txy
2
x y x y
1 (T ) 2
2 2 xy
25
2
x y x y
2 (T ) 2
2 2 xy
1 0 when 3 0
1 3 0 when 3 0
3
1 3 0 2 1
2
Shortcomings
1. An essential short coming of this criterion is that it ignore the effect of intermediate principal stress
( 2 ).
2. Since pastic flow depends upon slip phenomenon which is essentially a shearing. Slip is
practically absent in brittle materials. Therefore application of this criterion is limited to ductile
materials. This criterion is not applicable to crystalline brittle material which cannot be brought
into plastic state under tension but yield a little before compress fracture in compression.
3. Failure of/ yielding of a material under triaxial pure tension condition where 1 2 3 can not
be explained by this criterion.
4. It suffers from a major difficulty that it is necessary to know in advance which are maximum and
minimum stresses.
5. Moreover, the general form of this criterion is far more complicated than the Von Mises criterion.
Therefore Von Mises criterion is preferred in most theoretical (not practical) work.
e
1
( 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
G 1
G = modulus of shear which is a constant.
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 = Constant.
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
( x y ) 2 ( y z ) 2 ( z x ) 2 (T 2 T 2 T 2 ) 2 0 2
x y y z z x
1 3
ii) For plane strain: 2
2
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
(k 0 0) 2 (0 k 0 ) 2 (k 0 k 0 ) 2 2 0 2
k02 2 y2
y
k = 0.557 0
3
This is the relationship between shear yield strength and tensile yield strength of the material as per Von
Mises criterion.
27
y
Von Mises criterion satisfy the experimental data better than Tresca and therefore k value is
3
normally used.
( x
y ) 2 ( y z ) 2 ( z x ) 2 6 (T 2 xy T 2 yz T 2 zx ) 2 0 2
Effective stress
With the yield criterion, it is useful to define an effective stress denoted as which is function of the
applies stresses. If the magnitude of reaches a critical value, then the applied stress will cause
yielding.
For Von Mises criterion
1
2
( 1 2 )
2
( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 1/ 2
2
x y x y
1
2
2
Txy 2
2
x y x y )
2
2
2
Txy 2
1
1 1 υ ( 2 )
E
1
2 2 υ (1 )
E
1
3 0 υ (1 2 )
E
1
3 3 υ (1 2 )
E
let 2 0 2 υ (1 3 ) for plastic region, Nadai has shown that 0.5
3
2 1
2
3
Thus, for Tresca criterion: 1 , 1 , 3
2
1 3 0
3
1 . 3 2 2 0 2
2
2
1 3 ) 2 0 '0
3
Yield criterion
0
k=
2
2
1 3 0
3
2
stresses, and 1 2 3 .
( 3 1 ) 2 1 / 2
Or
1
σ0 (σ σ y ) 2 ) 2 (σ y σ z ) 2
2 x
( z x ) 2
( 2 xy 2 yz 2 zx ) 1/ 2
Superimposed
Fig. 11 : Tresca yield locus. In the six sectors, the following conditions apply:
I 3 1 0, so 3 Y II
3 1 0, so 3 Y
III 1 0 3 , so 1 3 Y IV 0 1 3 0, so 3 Y
V 0 3 1 , so 1 Y VI 3 0 1 , so 3 1 Y
12 3 2 1 3 0 2
This the equation of an ellipse whose major semiaxis is 2 0 and whose minor semiaxis is
2
0 . The plot of equation is called a yield locus.
3
Fig. 12
34
\Comments
1. Yielding will occur if the point representing the given stress is plotted and is on the boundary or
outside the boundary.
2. The yield locus of maximum shear stress criterion [Tresca criterion] fall inside the maximum
distortion energy criterion [Von Mises] yield locus.
3. Two yield criteria predict the same yield stress for conditions of uniaxial stress and balanced
biaxial stress (1 3 ). The greatest divergence between the two criteria occurs for pure shear
(1 3 ).
4. The yield stress predicted by the Von Mises criterion is 15.5% greater than the yield stress,
predicted by Tresca criterion.
Derive a mathematical expression for Von Mises yield criterion applicable to plane strain stress
condition:
Solution:
Von Mises yield criterion is stated as
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
where 1 , 2 , 3 are three principal stresses and 0 is the yield strength of material. In plane strain
stress condition, the intermediate principal stress is arithmetic mean of other two. Assuming
1 2 3 , we can write
3
2 1
2
(1 3 ) 2 (1 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
2 02
4 4 1
35
( 1 3 ) 2
2 02
4
(1 3 ) 2 8 / 6 0 2
2
1 3 0 0'
3
0 ' is called constrained strength of material and is 115 times the yield strength under uniaxial tensile
test.
PROBLEM
A stress analysis of a space craft structural member gives the state of stress as below:
200 30 0
Tij 30 100 0
0 0 50
If the part is made of aluminium alloy with strength 500 MPa, will it exhibit yielding as per Tresca yield
criterion and von Mises yield criterion? If not, what is the safety factor?
Data given:
x 200 MPa
y 100 MPa
z 50 MPa
Tx y 30 MPa
1/ 2
1 2
200 100 100 50 50 200 6 30 0 0
2 2 2 2 2
c
2
c 224 MPa
The calculated stress ( c ) is less than the yield strength of the material ( 0 ) , yielding will not occur as
per von Mises criterion
36
0 500 MPa
Factor of safety = = 2.2
c 224 MPa
I1 = x y z 20 10 5 25
= 191 50 100
I2 = 41
I 3 Tij
10 0 3 0 3 10
20 3 0
0 5 0 5 10 0
= 1000 + 45
I3 = 955
f ( ) 3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0
37
3 25 2 41 955 0
f(y) = y3 + py2 + qy + r = 0
p = 25
q = 41
r = 955
a=
1
3
1
3q p 2 3 41 625
3
a = 167.3
b=
1
27
2p 3 9 pq 27 r
=
1
27
2(25) 3
9(25) (41) 27(955)
b = 139.25
b 139.25
3 3
Cos = a 167.3
2 2
3 3
= 99.620
100
a
g = 2×
3
g = 14.94
P 99.62 25
y1 = g cos 14.94 cos
3 3 3 3
y1 = 20.83
38
P 99.62 25
y2 = g cos 120 14.94 cos 120
3 3 3 3
y1 = 5
P 99.62 25
y3 = g cos 249 14.94 cos 240
3 3 3 3
y3 = 9.16
0 / 2 250
Factor of safety = 1.94
Tmax 129.15
PROBLEM
1. A thin walled tube with closed ends is to be subjected to maximum internal stress pressure of 0.35
N/mm2 in service. The mean radius of the tube is to be 304.8 mm and it is not to yield in any
region.
a. If the material has 0 = 7 N/mm2, what minimum thickness ‘t’ should be specified according to
Tresca and von Mises criterion.
b. If the shear yield strength ‘K’ , were specified as 2.8 N/mm2, find ‘t’.
39
Soln:
pr
a. 1 = hoop stress
t
pr
2 = axial stress
2t
3 = 0 radial stress
pr
0
t
0.35 304. 8
7
t
t = 15.24 mm
1
2
2
(1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 2 0 2
2 2
1 1 1 0
2
0 1 2 2 0 2
2
12 12
12 2 0 2
4 4
6 12
2 0 2
4
2
1 0
3
p r 2
60
t 3
0.35 304.8 2
7
t 3
40
t = 13.19 mm
when 0 is the specified property and ‘t’ is the unknown, the Tresca criterion is more
conservative.
b. K = 2.8 N/mm2
Using Tresca criterion
1 3 = 2K
pr
2K
t
0.35 304.8
2 2 .8
t
t = 19.05 mm
612
6K 2
4
1 2 K
p r
2K
t
0.35 304.8
2 2. 8
t
t = 19.05 mm
NOTE:
When ‘K’ is the specified property, both criteria predict the same value for ‘t’.
2. Consider the same problem as above except that ‘t’ is specified as being 25.4 mm and the values of
0 and K are unknown using both yield criteria.
a. Determine the value of 0 to prevent yielding.
41
a. Tresca criterion:
1 3 0
pr
0
t
pr pr
1 ; 2 ; 3 0
t t
0.35 304. 8
0
25.4
0 = 4.2 N/mm2
von Mises criterion
2
1 0
3
2 3 0.35 304.8
0 3 1
2 2 25.4
0 3.64 N / mm 2
b. 1 2K
4.2
K=
2
K = 2.1 N/mm2
6 12
6K2
4
1 2K
K = 2.1 N/mm2
****************
42