archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668

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Original Research Article

Numerical analysis of temperature and residual

stresses in hot-rolled steel strip during cooling in
coils

Szczepan Witek *, Andrij Milenin

AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059, Poland

article info abstract

Article history: The main factors influencing on the level of residual stresses in hot rolled steel strips are
Received 4 August 2017 related with uneven temperature and microstructure changes during cooling on the run-out
Accepted 7 November 2017 table and in a coil. That is why in this work, development of coil cooling model with taking
Available online 16 December 2017 into account the influence of radial stresses on the effective thermal conductivity in the
radial direction was performed. In order to assess the influence of the phase transformations
Keywords: in the coil on the level of residual stresses, the different laminar cooling strategies were
Residual stress applied. The results of numerical simulations obtained in this work were validated in
Hot-rolled steel coil industrial conditions. It is shown that the end of phase transformations in the strip coil
Radial thermal conductivity has a significant influence on the level of residual stresses.
Phase transformation © 2017 Published by Elsevier Sp. z o.o. on behalf of Politechnika Wrocławska.

The residual stresses are stresses which remain in the strip

1. Introduction
The production process of hot-rolled steel strip is a complex
process which incorporates the five major stages: heating the
slab in the reheating furnace, deformation in the roughing and
finishing mill, cooling on the run-out table (ROT), and coiling
for an easier transportation. To obtain the required quality and
properties of steel strip, strictly controlling the temperature
and the rolling conditions is essential to produce a high-
quality steel strip, free from surface and internal defects. One
of important quality parameters of strip which strongly
depends on the cooling process is the level of residual stresses.
after the original causes of the stresses (temperature distribu-
tion, mechanical deformation) have been removed [1]. High
values of residual stresses lead to deformation (bending and
twisting) of strips during laser cutting because the internal
equilibrium of residual stresses fields is destroyed. As a result,
it is not possible to get strips with straight edges. For this
reason, the manufactures of strips are interested in reduction
of the level of residual stresses.
The main factors influencing the residual stresses in hot-
rolled strip are related with uneven temperature distribution
across the width and includes the non-uniform distribution of
elastic–plastic deformations [2], stress relaxation during roll-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: switek@agh.edu.pl (S. Witek).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2017.11.002
1644-9665/© 2017 Published by Elsevier Sp. z o.o. on behalf of Politechnika Wrocławska.
660 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668
ing and cooling [3], and phase transformation occurring during
cooling [4].
In the last two decades, several studies have been made for
computing of residual stresses in hot-rolled steel strip for
enhancing the final product quality [4–8]. Zhou et al. [4]
performed a preliminary computational study of residual
stresses developed during cooling on the ROT using ABAQUS
software. The investigations were continued and results have
been published in [5]. It was concluded that the temperature
profile along the strip has little effect on residual stresses but
transverse temperature gradient plays a pivotal role. In work
[6], a three-dimensional FE model was established and later
improved [7] to analyze the residual stresses developed during
the cooling of hot rolled strip on the ROT. This model was also
performed using ABAQUS software. The results showed that
temperature drop within the strip edge region resulted to the
development of edge waviness. To better control the flatness
quality of steel strip, the strip shape compensation control
strategy of slight center wave rolling and edge masking were
proposed. Cho et al. [8] developed a three-dimensional
numerical model to predict the edge wave behavior of hot
rolled steel during ROT cooling based on FEM. The effect of the
edge mask width and the checkers on the edge wave were
examined through a series of process simulations.
In general, it was proved that the optimization of the
cooling process allows to reduce the level of residual stresses
to avoid strip flatness defects. However, the long computa-
tional time of these models does not allow to use them in the
control system of the rolling mill. To solve this problem, the
model of residual stresses based on fast computing methods
was developed [3,9,10]. The proposed model was composed of
mechanical and thermal parts that enable the modeling of
thermo-mechanical and microstructural phenomena for the
entire manufacturing process of strip.
A significant influence on the residual stresses is provided
by cooling in a coil. This is due to the fact that cooling in the
strip coil is most unevenly along the length and width of the
strip. This especially affects the residual stresses in the case
when the phase transformation does not have a time to
complete at the laminar cooling stage on the ROT. In this case,
there are two factors that increase the magnitude and uneven
distribution of residual stresses. The first is associated with the
generation of heat during the phase transformations in the
coil. This can lead to uneven heating of the coil during the
initial cooling stage. The second factor is related to the
dilatation of the material during the phase transformations,
which directly affects the magnitude of the stresses. Thus, in
the described situation, the accuracy of the temperature model
of the cooling process in the coil must be higher than is usually
considered sufficient. In particular, the anisotropy of the
thermal conductivity caused by the loose contact of the turns
and the features of the strip surface must be taken into
account. This question in the existing works is usually solved
in a simplified manner [9]. Thermal conductivity in the radial
direction is adopted as a part (usually in the range 0.05–0.2) of
the thermal conductivity of the base material. In the presence
of phase transformations during cooling in a coil, this
approximation is insufficient, since the sensitivity of residual
stresses to temperature increases.
Hence the objectives of the current work are twofold. The
first objective is to develop and experimental validation of the
coil cooling model with taking into account the key parameters
influencing on the radial thermal conductivity of the coil
during cooling. This model is crucial to thoroughly investigate
the effect of phase transformation in the coil on the level of
residual stresses, which states the second objective of the
current work.
2. Numerical models
2.1. Rods model of residual stresses
A model to predict the residual stresses formation in hot-rolled
strips during laminar cooling, coiling and cooling in the coil
was presented in the article [9]. The mechanical part of that
model was based on the assumption that all components of
the stress tensor except tension along the length of the strip
are zero. Verification of this assumption was performed by an
experimental study of residual stresses in strips rolled in
industrial conditions. It was shown that only longitudinal
stresses have significant influence in the rolling process. That
is why, in this model the profile of strip was presented as a
system of rods interconnected at the ends. In addition to the
thermal deformation of each rod, all the rods were exposed to
the average strain of the strip em that is a result of the changing
of the length of the strip in the cooling process. Thus, if in the
rod i an increment of temperature Dt and the corresponding
increment of thermal deformation Det appeared, the total
increment of the deformation Dei of the rod is equal to:
Dei ¼ Dem Det jc DtDeb (1)
where Dt is an increment of time; jc is the rate of creep; Deb is an
increment of deformation during coiling and uncoiling pro-
cesses. The current strain of the rod i is:
X
J
ei ¼ Deij (2)
j¼1
where J is the number of increments of time, j is the current
number of step.
The increment of the thermal deformation was determined
taking into account phase transformations. This relation can
be represented in a general form:
 
Det ¼ f t; tÇ; Dt (3)
where tÇis the cooling rate, t is the temperature.
Increment of deformation during coiling and uncoiling
processes can be calculated from the equation, which was
obtained from geometrical interpretation of bending:
y
Deb ¼ (4)
2Rcoil
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668
where Rcoil is the radius of the curvature of the strip at the
coiling, y is the coordinate of the rod relative to the neutral line
of the bend. The value y changes according to the plate thick-
ness h in the range of ½h=2; h=2.
Increment of stress in rods can be defined in general form
as elastic–plastic model of one rod, which takes into account
loading and unloading processes:
Ds i ¼ Ds i ðt; ei ; Dei ; Dem Þ
In the considered method Dem is an unknown quantity.
Determination of Dem was carried out on the basis of the
conditions of equilibrium of the system of k rods:
X
k
Ds i ðt; ei ; Dei ; Dem ÞSi ¼ 0
i¼1
wwhere k is the number of rods, Si is the cross section area of
the current rod i, Ds i ðt; ei ; Dei ; Dem Þ is an elastic–plastic model of
each rod. Detail description of elastic–plastic model and its
experimental verification was presented in work [10].
2.2. Phase transformations model
The phase transformations model used in the current work
was thoroughly presented in [9]. This model is based on
modified JMAK equation. The basic form of this equation is:
X ¼ 1expðktn Þ
where X is the volume fraction of a new phase, t is the time, k, n
is the coefficients.
Model consists the coefficient k which is defined as a
temperature function k = f(t). Coefficient k should map the
form of a TTT diagram. Various function of k are used for
ferritic, pearlitic and bainitic transformations. Theoretical
considerations showed that, according to transformation type
(nucleation and growth process, site saturation process) a
constant value of coefficient n in Eq. (7) can be used. For more
details, see [9].
2.3. FEM models of thermal processes
The processes occurring in the strip after the coiling process
are started at the laminar cooling stage and rolling process.
Therefore the developed FE thermal model is divided into two
parts. The first is modeling of the heat transfer in the strip
during rolling and laminar cooling. This model is based on the
two dimensional Fourier equation for the cross section of the
hot-rolled strip with taking into account the heat of deforma-
tion and latent heat of phase transformations. The second part
of the thermal model is designed for modeling of cooling in the
coil. That model is based on the solution of Fourier equation in
the cylindrical coordinate system:
 2  Considering the total thermal resistance and thickness of
dt @ t 1 @t @2 t
cðtÞrðtÞ ¼ kr þ þ kz 2 þ qtrans
dt @r2 r @r @z
661
where c(t) is the specific heat, r(t) is the density, t is the time, kr,
kz is the thermal conductivity in radial and axial directions
respectively, qtrans is the latent heat of phase transformations, t
is the temperature.
The generation of heat due to phase transformations are
calculated by the following equations:
 
f dFf p dFp dF
qtrans ¼ r Htrans þ Htrans þ Hbtrans b (9)
(5) dt dt dt
f p
where Htrans , Htrans , Hbtrans is an enthalpy of the phase transfor-
mations; Ff, Fp, Fb is the volume fractions of ferrite, pearlite and
bainite with respect to the whole volume of the material.
f p
The parameters Htrans , Htrans , Hbtrans , c(t) and k are adopted
according to Medina [11] for the steel A36. The convection
(6)
boundary condition is applied according to equation:
Q conv ¼ aðtt1 Þ; (10)
where a is the heat transfer coefficient, t1 is an ambient
temperature.
The heat transfer coefficient was determined for the
conditions of natural air cooling (convection and radiation)
from the oxidized surface of steel strip [12]:
 
a ¼ exp 3:285 þ 1:57103 t (11)
(7)
2.3.1. Effective radial thermal conductivity
A solution of Eq. (8) requires knowledge of thermal conductiv-
ity along both the radial and axial directions of the coil. Due to
the anisotropic structure of the coil which is composed of
many steel layers and air gaps between them, the thermal
conductivity in the radial direction is quite different from in
axial direction. In this case the thermal conductivity along the
axial direction is equal to conductivity of the strip material
[13]. Due to the various mechanism occurring during cooling,
the effective radial thermal conductivity (ERTC) are not only
function of the thermal conductivity of the base material. In
general, the ERTC of the coil depends on some factors
interacting with each other [14]:
 material properties,
 temperature,
 surface characteristics of strip,
 the compressive stresses in the radial direction,
 strip and interface thickness.
In order to determine the effective radial thermal conduc-
tivity, the coil can be modeled by using a concept of
representative unit layer and the thermal resistance analysis
[13–15]. In this case, the ERTC at a specified temperature and
location of the coil is equal to the conductivity of the modeled
unit layer. Schematic diagram of representative unit layer is
shown in Fig. 1.
the unit layer, the effective thermal conductivity, kr, can be
(8)
given as follows:
662 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668

where A is an approximate factor of the actual contact area, sp

is the standard deviation of profile height, m is the mean of
absolute slope of a profile, e is an emissivity, S is the Stefan–
Boltzmann constant.
The key parameter influencing on the effective thermal
conductivity in the radial direction of the coil are the radial
stresses. These stresses are developed in the coil for two
reasons – coiling tension and inhomogeneous thermal
contraction during cooling process.
Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram of representative unit layer of As it was mentioned, the mechanical model of residual
hot-rolled coil. stresses in strip was designed to ensure calculation in real-
time that are required in the control system of the rolling mill.
For this reason, the mechanical part of residual stresses model
was simplified in the way enabling to model only longitudinal
stresses. Because the initial stresses developed in the coiling
bs þ 2bo þ bi
kr ¼ (12) process usually are known, to reach objective of the current
2Rs þ 2Ro þ Ri
work, a fully coupled axisymmetric model was built using
where bs, bo, bi is the thickness of steel, oxide and interface Abaqus-Standard software to obtain a relationship between
layer, Rs, Ro, Ri is the thermal resistance of steel, oxide and radial thermal conductivity and radial thermal stresses. The
interface layer, respectively. coil was assumed to be a hollow solid cylinder with external
Thermal resistances of steel and oxide layer are expressed as: and internal diameter Ro, Ri respectively. A coupled tempera-
ture-displacement procedure was used to calculate the radial
thermal stresses. It was assumed that the deformations during
bs
Rs ¼ (13) cooling are elastic. The user subroutine USDFLD was used to
2ks
calculate the ERTC using Eq. (17) depending on the radial
thermal stresses and temperature for every time step and
bo location in the coil. The compressive radial stresses increase
Ro ¼ (14)
ko the magnitude of effective thermal conductivity when their
where ks, ko is the conductivity of steel and oxide layer, re- absolute value increases. In the case when the radial thermal
spectively. stresses are tensile, it is assumed in the calculation that they
are zero. In the developed model the initial conditions were
At the interface layer, heat is transferred by a complex adopted based on the results obtained from the thermal part of
phenomenon which involve the combined mechanisms of air the residual stresses model. Finally, in order to take into
conduction, contact points conduction due to the rough of the account the influence of radial thermal stresses, the ERTC was
surface, and radiation. The total thermal resistance of the introduced to the model of residual stresses in the form of
interface layer can be written as: metadata of correction factor of thermal conductivity as a
function of temperature, time and location in the coil
 1
1 1 1 according to formula:
Ri ¼ þ þ (15)
Rcd;s Rcd;a Rrd

where Rcd,s, Rcd,a, Rrd is the thermal resistance of conduction kr

through contact points, conduction through air, and radiation
through voids, respectively.
Mean thickness of the interface layer has been measured
experimentally by Baik [13] and is expressed by the following
exponential equation as a function of nominal compressive
pressure P:
bi ¼ 42:7106 expð0:05PÞ
Based on thermal resistance analysis and contact interface
theory, the effective thermal conductivity was proposed as
follows [16]:
Af ðt; t; r; zÞ ¼ (18)
ks
where Af is the correction factor of thermal conductivity
(CFTC), r, z is the cylindrical coordinates.
Using of metamodel of Af allows to maintain short
calculation time with high accuracy. For example, the time
of these calculations on the computer with Intel Core i7 950
CPU takes 100 s. Fig. 2a presents the example of results of
effective radial thermal conductivity for the coil depended on
(16) the compressive stresses and temperature computed for 4 mm
strip thickness. These results can be presented in form as a
ratio between the ERTC and thermal conductivity of the strip
material according to Eq. (18). The correction factor of thermal
conductivity depending on compressive stresses calculated for

bs þ 2bo þ bi
kr ¼ n  1 o (17)
bs =ks þ 2bo =ko þ ð1:13A0:94 ks m=s p Þ þ ðð1AÞka =bi Þ þ 4ð1AÞeSt3
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668 663

Fig. 2 – The relationship between the ERTC and compressive stresses computed for 4 mm strip thickness (a), and CFTC
variations under compressive stresses computed for 2 mm and 4 mm strip thickness (b).

Fig. 3 – Temperature variations at points P1 and P2 calculated using constant CFTC and stress dependent EFTC.

2 mm and 4 mm strip thickness is presented in Fig. 2b. It is real production process and conditions in the hot strip mill in
clear that the coil with greater strip thickness has higher CFTC. ArcelorMittal Poland. Low carbon steel S235 with the chemical
compositions given in Table 1 was selected as the main
investigated material. Experimental rolling of the steel S235
3. Verification of model and analyses of
were carried out. The process of the rolling of 4 mm thick steel
sensitivity
strip from a slab measuring 220 mm  1529 mm  11,034 mm
in 11 stands has been performed. The first five of the stands are
Figs. 3 and 4 show the numerical results of temperature a roughing train and the remaining stands form a finishing
distribution (for selected points P1 and P2) and residual train. Schedule of deformation during hot rolling is shown in
stresses obtained for two variants of simulation for steel Table 2. In the rolling experiments, two variants of cooling
S235. In the first case, the influence of radial thermal stresses conditions were applied. The schematic representation of
on the radial thermal conductivity is taken into account. In the applied laminar cooling strategies, namely, early and late
second variant, the radial thermal conductivity is obtained by
multiplying the thermal conductivity of material strip by
constant correction factor equal 0.2. The obtained results
presented in Figs. 3 and 4 allow to conclude that including in
the calculation the influence of radial thermal stresses on the
ERTC has a huge impact on the temperature evolution of the
strip coil, and, consequently, substantially changes the level of
residual stresses.

4. Experimental validation of the model

Validation of the developed model of coil cooling and complex Fig. 4 – Residual stresses in strip for steel S235 calculated
model of residual stresses was conducted on the basis of the using constant CFTC and stress dependent EFTC.
664 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668

Table 1 – The chemical composition of S235 and S355 steels, wt%.

C Mn Si P S Al N Cr Ni Cu
S235 Min 0.10 0.30 – – – 0.020 – – – –
Max 0.12 0.55 0.030 0.025 0.012 0.055 0.008 0.10 0.10 0.10

S355 Min 0.15 1.35 – – – 0.020 – – – –

Max 0.17 1.45 0.030 0.020 0.008 0.055 0.008 0.10 0.10 0.10

Table 2 – Rolling schedule.

Stands 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Initial thickness, mm 224.0 182.0 139.9 97.8 57.9 35.6 22.72 13.66 9.35 6.63 4.94
Final thickness, mm 182.0 139.9 97.8 57.9 35.6 22.72 13.66 9.35 6.63 4.94 4.07

Fig. 5 – Schematic representation of late and early cooling mode.

cooling mode is shown in Fig. 5. In the experiment, the
temperature measurement of the coils were made using
portable infrared camera FLIR SC660 which was placed in front
of the coil. The emissivity coefficient for investigated steel was
0.85. The temperature of the coils was measured after
removing the mandrel. The temperature distributions com-
parison between the actual measurement and the calculation
is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. As it is seen in this Figs., in both cases,
the computed results are close and showed good agreement
with the experimental data. The measurements of residual
stresses in strips have been performed by X-ray diffraction
method and are described in work [17]. The samples of sheet
were cut from the outer wrap of the coil. Figs. 8 and 9 show that
the calculation results of residual stresses are in reasonable
agreement with the experimental data in both cases. However,
some discrepancies between measurements and predictions
are observed probably due to additional uneven deformation
caused by the roller leveler in the leveling process of the strip.
5. Results of modeling and discussion
Numerical simulations of residual stresses arising in laminar
cooling, coiling and cooling in the coil were performed for low

Fig. 6 – Calculated (a) and measured (b) results of temperature distribution in the coil for early cooling mode.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668 665

Fig. 7 – Calculated (a) and measured (b) results of temperature distribution in the coil for late cooling mode.

Fig. 8 – Calculated and measured results of residual stresses in strip for early cooling mode.

carbon steels S235 and S355. The chemical compositions of
both steels are presented in Table 1. It is worth to emphasize,
that investigated steels S235 and S355 are characterized by
different carbon and manganese content. Thus, the significant
differences in the evolution of phase transformations and final
volume fractions of each phase can be expected. In order to
study the influence of laminar cooling conditions on the
evolution of phase transformations, as well as on the level of
residual stresses, two variants of the simulation for every each
steel were performed. These two variants are differed from
each other by applied cooling mode. The simulation condi-
tions such as rolling schedule or cooling strategies were the

Fig. 9 – Calculated and measured results of residual stresses in strip for late cooling mode.
666 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668
Fig. 10 – The control points for phase volume fractions
analysis.
same as in the rolling experiment. In the calculations, heat
generation during plastic deformation and heat of phase
transformations were taken into account. The analysis of
residual stresses was carried out for the average cross-section
along the length of the strip. The control points (P1, P2) in
which the change in volume fractions over time was analyzed
are shown in Fig. 10.
The modeling results of volume fractions of bainite and
pearlite in the coils after cooling process and in control points
P1 and P2 during cooling are shown in Figs. 11 and 12. In turn,
Figs. 13 and 14 illustrate the distribution of residual stresses
across the width for both investigated steels. As was
mentioned in Section 4, the experimental validation of the
developed model of residual stresses was carried out for the
steel S235. Late and early cooling mode was adopted for
laminar cooling system. The comparison of the results
obtained from these experiments (Figs. 8 and 9) indicates
that there are no significance differences among the level of
residual stresses. Analogous results were obtained from the
Fig. 11 – Distribution of bainite (Fb) and pearlite (Fp) in the coil after cooling processes and in measurement points (P1, P2)
during cooling for steel S235 for early (a) and late (b) cooling mode. LCL – laminar cooling, CCL – cooling during coiling and in
the coil.
numerical simulations (Fig. 13). The analysis of the numerical
results of phase volume fractions for steel S235 showed that
the phase transformations from austenite to ferrite and
pearlite take place during cooling on the run-out table in both
cases (Fig. 11). The final volume fractions of pearlite are nearly
the same and equal 10% for both variants. Only slight
variations of bainite volume fractions are observed at the
edges of the strip. The lower carbon and manganese content
compared to the steel S355 promote the ending of the phase
transformations during cooling on the ROT. The lack of
impact of laminar cooling strategy change on the level of
residual stresses can be explained by the similar evolution of
phase transformations during cooling process. Ultimately for
this steel, the change of laminar cooling strategy has no
essential influence on the level of residual stresses. In the case
of steel S355, the analysis of numerical simulation showed
that phase transformations ends during cooling on ROT or in
the coil depending on the applied laminar cooling strategy
(Fig. 12). The calculation results of residual stresses are
considerably higher (Fig. 14), when the transformation ends
during cooling in the coil. For this type of steel, higher carbon
and manganese content in combination with different cool-
ing modes varies significantly the evolution of phase
transformation.
6. Conclusions
In this work, the further development of a model of coil cooling
which is a part of a model of residual stresses in strip has been
performed and applied for analysis of residual stresses and
temperature. The complex model of residual stresses in strip
was verified in industrial conditions. Numerical simulations of
residual stresses in strips for steels S235 and S355 have been
performed. On the basis of the presented numerical and
experimental research, the following conclusions are drawn:
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668 667

Fig. 12 – Distribution of bainite (Fb) and perlite (Fp) in the coil after cooling processes and in measurement points (P1, P2) during
cooling process for steel S355 for early (a) and late (b) cooling mode.

Fig. 13 – Calculation results of residual stresses for steel S235 for early and late cooling mode.

Fig. 14 – Calculation results of residual stresses for steel S355 for early and late cooling mode.
668 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 18 (2018) 659–668

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