Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION
A country’s production of electricity is a basic indicator of its size & level of developments.
Although a few countries export electric power, mostly generation is for domestic consumption.
In 1983 the first electric supply undertaking was established in India by a company, which
constructed a small generating station in the city of Surat in Gujrat. This was perhaps one of the earliest
electric supply companies anywhere in the world. This undertaking got as far as lighting the main streets
of the city by arc lamps, but unfortunately in the next year disastrous floods of the river Tapi submerged
its generating plant. In the year 1896 an undertaking started operation at Calcutta. Thus the beginning of
electric supply industry in India was mainly due to private company effort.
According to reports (1998)
The total installed capacity : 89,166.87MW
Thermal power : 55,969.48MW = 62.76%
Hydro : 21,891.08MW = 24.55%
Nuclear : 2,225.00MW = 2.49%
Diesel, wind & gas : 9,081.31MW = 10.18%
100.00%
Installed power generation capacity, however does not give a correct indication of the quantum of
the reliable generation capacity (utilization factor). As the thermal power units are periodically required to
be close down (called planned outages) for mandatory repair, inspection & overhauling. Consequently
the availability of TPP is reduced to about 60% even under the best condition of operation &
management. (The ratio of reliable capacity / installed capacity is called utilization factor). In India the
average utilization factor is about 46% .So as such there exists a room for improving the availability. This
would probably off set the gap in present demand & supply more economically.
The forced shut down of a boiler due to failure of components severely affects the progress
through non-availability of power which is the basic need for growth in national economy. Some of the
outages are due to tube failures in pressure parts most of which can be minimized by proper care and
preventive steps of its causes.
The actual cost of repairing failed tubes is less than the cost of generation loss due to outage, so
it becomes imperative to repair & bring the unit quickly into service. Also, it is equally important to identify
the cause of failure so as to take corrective action and preventive measures so that the failure does not
recur. Tube failure is most significant causes of bringing down the plant availability in utility fossil-fired
boilers. Shutdown of a 200MW unit on account of tube failure will cause a loss of several lakhs rupees,
even when the shutdown is only for three days. Further, during outage of boiler, if the secondary damage
due to the tube failure is not detected additional failure during start up or afterwards can occur, thus
prolonging shutdown & increasing the generation loss.
1. Forced / unplanned / planned outages in power plant amount to 15%.
2. Forced / unplanned / planned outages resulting out of boiler are 60% or more of the above (1).
3. Outages due to boiler tube leakage are 75% or more of the above (2).
About The Process
Boiler is a composed of number of tubes. It covers the following heating zones.
1. Water Walls
2. Super-Heaters
3. Re- Heaters
4. Economizer
Water Walls
Almost all-modern power boilers are equipped with water walls. In large boilers water walls
completely occur in the interior surface of the furnace providing practically complete elimination of
exposed refractory surface. Water walls serve as means of heating and evaporating the feed water
supplied to the boiler from economiser. Water walls usually consist of large number of vertical tubes
arranged tangentially or approximately. They are connected at the top and bottom of headers. These
tubes receive water from the boiler drum by means of down comers connected between drum and water
wall lower header. In boiler the water walls absorb approximately 50% of heat released by combustion of
fuel in the furnace. Heat so absorbed is used in evaporation of all or a relatively large percentage of
water supplied to the boiler. The mixture of steam and water is discharged from top of water wall tubes
into the upper wall header and then passes through riser tubes to the steam drum.
Types of water walls
a) Tangent tube construction
b) Membrane wall construction
Super- Heaters
SH are meant to raise the steam temperature above the saturation temperature by absorbing heat
from flue gas. By increasing the temperature of the medium (steam) the useful energy that can be
recovered increases thus efficiency of the cycle is improved. So in modern Boilers SH are widely used to
increase a cycle efficiency economically. The maximum temperature to which steam can be heated is
dictated by the metallurgy & economy in initial cost and maintenance cost. Present trend is to limit the
steam temperature value to 540oC both in SH as well as reheater. SH also eliminates the formation of
condensate during transporting of steam in pipelines and inside the early stages of turbines , which is
harmful to the turbine blades and pipelines.
Reheater
RH is used to raise the temperature of cold steam from which, part of the energy has been
extracted in H.P.T. This is another method of increasing the cycle . The efficiency increases with
number of stages of reheating. Reheating requires additional equipment (i.e.) heating surface, boiler
turbine connecting piping, safety equipment like safety valve, NRV, isolating valve, steam temperature
regulating equipment , instruments etc. Because of these additional investment, complexity in operation
and reduced availability of such system offsets the gain in efficiency of the system gets minimised. Hence
single RH can be economically applied only for capacity above 100 MW & two RH for capacity above
500MW. The limit is also dictated by the predicted fuel price over the period of operation.
Types of SH & RH
These heating surfaces can be classified into convection and radiant type according to heat
transfer process.
Even though the surfaces get heat by both radiation and convection, the ratio between them
varies according to the location and temperature of flue gases at that location. The Reheater and SH
placed above furnace which can view the flame is called Radiant type .The other surfaces are called as
convection type. Radiant surfaces are located at high temperature region.
They are widely pitched to reduce the velocity of gas and bridging the surface by the ash. They
are arranged inline with least longitudinal pitch. They are called platen SH. The SH and RH can be
arranged either horizontally or allowed to hung vertically. The vertical arrangements are simpler in
supporting and allows for expansion. This arrangement is pendent type. Horizontal SH needs supporting
of tubes at multi points to avoid sagging. Expansion movement should also be permitted with advantage
of draining.
The SH which is placed at lower flue gas temperature region is called as Low Temperature Super
heater (LTSH). The SH & RH can also arranged as ceiling or wall and they are termed as ceiling
superheater or wall SH etc. accordingly.
Arrangements of SH and RH
Generally the heating surface can be arranged in line or staggered. Staggered arrangement
requires fewer surfaces for the same duty but draft loss will be more. Also on load cleaning of surfaces,
will not be effective. Hence In line or staggered arrangement is selected based on fuel fouling
characteristic, operating cost of draft loss and cost of tube material used at location.
The surface can be designed to place in such way that the flow direction of flue gas and steam is
in line parallel or opposite. Counter flow arrangement has advantages of minimum surface area
requirement but the metal temperature at the leaving section is high compared to parallel flow. Counter
flow arrangement is used in most cases except in final section where the metal temperature limitations
call for parallel flow.
Economizer
The function of an economiser in a steam-generating unit is to absorb heat from the flue gases &
add this as sensible heat to the feed water before the water enters the evaporative circuit of the boiler.
Earlier the economizers were introduced mainly to recover the heat available in flue gas that
leaves the boiler. Provision of this additional heating surface increased the efficiency of steam
generation, thus saving in fuel consumption. So the name “economiser” was christened. In the modern
boiler (used for power generation) feed water heaters are used to increased the efficiency of the unit &
feed water temperature. So the relative size of economiser is less than earlier unit. This is a good
proposition as the heat available in boiler exit flue gas can be economically recovered using air heater,
which is essential, for pulverized fuel fired boiler.
Location & Arrangements
It is usual to locate economiser ahead of Air Heaters & following the primary SH or RH in the gas
stream. Hence it will generally be contained in the same casing as the primary SH or RH tubes.
Counter flow arrangement is normally selected so that heating surface requirement is kept
minimum for the same temperature drop in the flue gas. Economiser coils are designed for horizontal
placement, which facilitate draining of the coil & favours the arrangement in the second pass of boiler.
Water flow is from bottom to top so that any steam formed during heat transfer can move along with
water & prevent the lock up steam, which will cause overheating, & failure of economizer tube.
Types of construction of economiser Tube
1) Plain Tube
Plain tube economisers have several banks of tubes with either in- line or staggered type
formation.
2) Welded fin- tube
Large no. of variations in this type was available in earlier days . Cast Iron shrouds were shrunk
on mild steel tubes for use as economiser in stoker fired boiler. This type had good resistance against
gas side corrosion but were heavy in weight. Modern boiler uses only plain or fin welded design as gas
side corrosion is not faced due to high feed water temperature.
Materials Used for Boiler Tubes
Metallic iron is rarely found in nature. The principle ores of iron are heamatite (Fe2O3), magnetite
(Fe3O4), limonite (2Fe2O3 3H2O) & siderite (FeCo3). The first step in the production of iron & steel is
reduction of the ore with coke & limestone in blast furnace to produce an impure form of iron called pig
iron. Pig iron is then remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron. C.I. are alloys of iron & carbon
containing approximately 2% to 4.5% carbons. Steels like cast iron , are alloys of iron and carbon
containing upto 2%. Carbon . Steel is cast in an initially malleable mass. Steel production consists of
removal of slag of excessive amount of carbon silicon & manganese, & impurities such as sulphur &
phosphorus by chemical reactions. This is followed by addition of controlled quantities of carbon , silicon ,
manganese & aluminium to produce required composition. Other alloying elements are added in case of
alloy steels.
Steels in the molten state can contain in solution relatively large quantities of gases, particularly
oxygen & hydrogen. The solubility diminishes with falling temperature & gases released during cooling
may be entrapped in the solidifying steel, giving rise to extensive porosity. All cast ingots contains a small
proportion of cavities but these have little significance & are welded up by a pressure welding process
during rolling or forging. It is necessary to remove most of the gases whilst the steel is still molten.
Effects of Alloying
The effects of alloying elements are numerous. A list of a few of the more important effects is
given below.
1) To alter the transformation temperatures and time.
2) To modify the room temperature & Elevated temperature strength of given structures by
a) Stiffening the crystals.
b) Introducing complex precipitates, which tend to harden the steel.
3) To modify the type of oxide film formed on the surface of the steel & there by affects its corrosion
resistance.
Alloying elements can be broadly classified into two groups
a) Austenite Stabilizers: Which have the effects of extending the temperature range over which
austenite is formed? Such elements are carbon, manganese, nickel, copper & cobalt.
b) Ferrite Stabilizers: Which have the effect of extending the temperature range over which alpha &
delta ferrite are formed. This consequently reduces temperature range over which austentile is
formed. Such elements are Silicon Chromium, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Titanium and Niobium.
Some of these elements for example chromium, molybdenum & vanadium also form carbides,
which replace or modify the iron carbide in the structure.
Additions of the austenite stablising elements reduce temperature at which the austenite to ferrite
change occurs and will consequently facilitate the formation of martensite with slower rates of cooling ,
that are necessary with plain carbon steels. This also means that for a given cooling rate, larger cross-
sections can be fully hardened uniformly throughout their section.
A) Chromium
Chromium, although in itself a ferrite & carbide former, has a side effect of making the structural
changes very sluggish. This suppresses the austenite to ferrite change in heat treatment easily . It is
therefore extensively used in steels to be hardened & tempered. A further important property of chromium
particularly marked when present in quantities above about 5% is to improve resistance to corrosion &
oxidation.
Resistance to corrosion & oxidation of steel depends on the film of oxide formed on its surface. In
carbon & many low – alloy steels, this oxide film offers little or no resistance to atmospheric corrosion. At
elevated temperature i.e. upto 575 degree C these steels have good resistance to oxidation in air or flue
gases but above this, the rate of oxidation increase rapidly. The presence of chromium, however, in
excesses of about 5% promotes the formation of a more protective oxide film. Although 5% is insufficient
to obtain useful resistance to atmospheric & aqueous corrosion, it is enough to improve the oxidation
resistance up to about 600c. Further increasing the chromium content produces a more resistant oxide
film & at 13% satisfactory resistance to mild corrosion media such as wet steam is achieved. Applications
of this type of steel are steam turbine blades, propeller & pump shafts, impellers & water turbine runners.
Increasing the chromium content above 13% produces improved resistance to more corrosive media & at
28% chromium, satisfactory oxidation resistance at 1100 degree C can be obtained.
B) Nickel
In order to be able to utilize the good corrosion – resisting properties of these high chromium
steels and at the same time attain satisfactory engineering properties, it is necessary to re-establish the
austentite region. This can be done by adding nickel. With 18% chromium steel the addition of about 2%
of nickel does this and produces steel which can be hardened and tempered. This is the well – known
S80 steel (En 57) which is widely used for pump shafts in the marine field.
Maintaining a chromium level of 18%, the addition of increasing amounts of nickel extends the re-
established austentite region until at 8% nickel the temperature of the change from austenite to ferrite is
suppressed below room temperature and the structure at room temperature consists of grains of
austenite. These steels are termed austenite and include the well-known 18/8 stainless steel.
Since the austenite-ferrite change, on which hardening and tempering are dependent, is
suppressed below room temperature, these austentite steels are similar to the high chromium ferritic
steels in that they cannot be hardened by normal heat treatment. They are different from the ferritic high
chromium steels in that they are extremely ductile, and ideally suited for deep pressings and similar
applications. In addition, since they are austenitic, they are non- magnetic and they have a high
coefficient of thermal expansion and a low thermal conductivity.
Although these steels are not hardenable and have relatively low tensile strength at room
temperature, they do have good elevated temperature tensile properties which, when combined with their
good corrosion resistance suit them to application demanding this combination. These include
superheater tubing and steam piping where the metal temperatures are in excess of 550C, gas turbine
components, and numerous types of pressure vessels employed in the chemical and allied industries.
C) Carbon
Carbon is not generally regarded as an “alloying” element because steel would not be steel
without carbon. Nevertheless, it is appropriate in a discussion of alloying elements to note the specific
effects of carbon on the properties of steel.
In general, an increase in carbon content produces higher ultimate strength and hardness but
lowers ductility and toughness of steel alloys. The curves in figure indicate the general effect of carbon on
the mechanical properties of hot – rolled carbon steel.
Carbons also increase air – hardening tendencies and weld hardness, especially in the presence
of chromium in low – alloy steel for high – temperature applications. The carbon content is usually
restricted to a maximum of about 0.15% in order to assure optimum ductility for welding, expanding, and
bending operations. To minimize intergranular corrosion caused by carbide precipitation, the carbon
content of austenitic (18-8 type) alloys is limited in commercial specification to a maximum of 0.08%, or
even less, i.e. 0.03% in the extremely low- carbon grades used in certain corrosion- resistant
applications.
In plain carbon steels in the normalised condition, the resistance to creep at temperature below
440C appears to increase with carbon content upto 0.4% carbon . At higher temperature there is but
little variation of creep properties with carbon content.
An increase in carbon content lessens the thermal and electrical conductivities of steel and
increases its hardness on quenching.
C) Silicon
Silicon contributes greatly to the production of sound steel because of its deoxidizing and
degasifying properties. When added in amounts up to 2.5%, the ultimate strength of the steel is
increased without loss in ductility. Silicon in excess of 2.5% causes brittleness, and amounts higher than
5% make the steel nonmalleable.
Resistance to oxidation and surface stability of steel is increased by the addition of silicon. These
desirable effects partially compensate for the tendency of silicon to lower the creep properties of steel.
Silicon increases the electrical resistivity of steel and decreases hysteresis losses. Silicon steels are,
therefore, widely used in electrical apparatus.
E) Manganese
Manganese is an excellent deoxidizer and sulfur neutralizer, and improves the mechanical
properties of steel, notably the ratio of yield strength to tensile strength at normal temperatures. As an
alloying element, manganese serves as an inexpensive means of preventing “red shortness” (brittleness,
now more commonly known as “hot shortness”). It improves rolling properties, hardenability, and
resistance to wear. However, manganese increases the crack sensitivity of weldments particularly with
steels of higher carbon content.
Unlike silicon, manganese benefits the creep properties of steel. It does not appear to have any
specific influence on the resistance to oxidation or corrosion of steel.
F) Titanium and Columbium (Niobium)
These are potent carbide-forming elements. Titanium is also a good deoxidizer and denitrider.
These elements are most effective in the chromium-nickel austenitic alloys (18-8 type) where they react
more readily with carbon than does chromium. This allows the chromium to remain in solid solution and
in the concentrations necessary to maintain the “stainlessness” (corrosion resistance) of the steel.
Titanium and columbium (or columbium plus tantalum) are sometimes used to reduce air-
hardening tendencies and to increase resistance to oxidation in steel containing upto 14% Cr. These
elements seem to have a beneficial effect on the long – time high – temperature properties of chromium-
nickel stainless steels. Both columbium and titanium have been used in some of the “super alloys” to
improve high- temperature properties.
To minimize the occurrences of such failures, proper temperature monitoring systems by installing
built-in thermocouples on the tube walls should be incorporated.
Case II – Poor material Quality and Deficiency in Fabrication
The present case documents an interesting analysis of failure of secondary superheater tube in a
power plant due to poor material quality and processing defects.
The material used for the secondary superheater tube conforms to ASTM A 335 (Grade P5) Boiler
quality steel. The damaged tube had a crack of about 53 cms. long, and had extended along the length
of the tube. There were no seals either on the outside or inside surface of the tube. No swelling was
observed in the cracked zone.
Further, on dissection of the tube longitudinally, typical crack on the bore surface was noticed .The
bore surface of the tube was also found to be uneven and noticeable ribs (alternate elevation and
depression on the tube wall) were detected. It was also evident that longitudinal and discontinuous
crack propagated along one of the pronounced ribs. There was no evidence of corrosion or fitting on the
bore of tube.
Microstructural analysis of the samples selected from the vicinity of crack and away from it
revealed almost identical structures, i.e. fine dispersion of alloy carbides particles in a matrix of ferrite
(Fig. 10). This illustrated that the tube was not overheated as the microstructure was quite agreeable to
this class of material as developed in commercial production of the tubes.
To substantiate the case of failure, metrological measurements in regard to the well thickness at
different locations of the tube in the vicinity of crack and at its sound portion as well as the roundness
error on the inside diameter at the sound portion were done. The observations showed heterogeneity in
measured values. The roundness error on the inside diameter of the round region of the cracked tube
was in the order of 0.60 mm. This is represented graphically in Fig.11.
Development of ribs on the bore surface of the tube during tube production might have a
contributory effect towards the failure of this nature during services. In addition to above causes,
leakages/ruptures of boiler tubes in the power plants can occur due to (a) embrittlement arising out of
hydrogen damage, (b) water side corrosion by feed water, (d) fire side corrosion resulting from
combustion of fossil fuel, (d) abrasives erosion of superheater tubes results from impact by particles of fly
ash entrained in the flue gases, (e) stress corrosion cracking of the tubes where feed or condensate can
collect.
Remarks
The foregoing illustrations have discussed many causes related to failure. Many failures in steam
systems involve more than one failures process the so called multiple mode failures. Certainly many
types of failures were not discussed and no attempt could be made to illustrate all the types of failures
possible. The causes that promote failures can indeed be many and complex and attempt has been
made to illustrate and discuss some of the more common failures and the related causes.
Usually the most spectacular or dramatic failures are carefully studied while little emphasis is
placed on the common failures. Many analysis of plant or operational failures usually add upto high
separation costs due to time loss resulting from make-shift maintenance or repairs in order to continue
operation. Thus metallurgical analysis of such failures is all the more important.
Chapter 4 - SOME CAUSES OF BOILER TUBE FAILURE WHEN SEEN THROUGH A POWER
STATION CHEMIST'S EYE
INTRODUCTION
In power plant operation a Chemist is intimately mixed up with tube failures. It may be due to
faulty water conditioning or improper operation. In general , every tube failure may be due to any of the
following three reasons :
a) Material failure
b) Mal - operation
c) Improper water conditioning
In case of material failure, blame goes to the manufacturer, for mal-operation and improper water
conditioning it is human error. In the present chapter , based on experience, it has been tried to show
how improper water conditioning can cause tube failures.
NEED FOR WATER CONDITIONING
1. The main need is to protect the internals from corrosion – which cause ultimate failure. There are
several types of corrosion possible, like
i) Dissolved O2 pitting
ii) Stress corrosion
iii) Ductile corrosion
iv) H2 embrittlement etc.
There are three zones, where same water is conditioned differently. They are –
a) Feed System
b) Drum
c) Steam and Condensate
Various parameters are laid by the boiler manufacturers, time to time, depending upon the metallurgy of the surfaces
through which water/steam flows. These parameters vary depending upon the pressure of boiler and temperature of the Steam
Cycle. In the table below, effective parameters are shown.
Particulars Boiler Pressure 60 kg/cm2 and under Boiler Pressure from 60 kg/cm2
and above
PH Cond. H Silica PH Cond. H Silica
Make up 7.0 0.5 Nil Nil 7.0 0.5 Nil Nil
Feed 8.8 – 9.0 Upto 4.0 Nil Nil 8.9 – 9.0 Upto 2.5 Nil Nil
Drum 9.5 –9.9 Upto 100 Nil * 9.3 – 9.5 Upto 25 Nil *
Steam 8.8 –9.0 Upto 4.0 Nil 0.02 8.9 – 9.0 Upto 2.5 Nil 0.02
Condensate 8.5-8.7 Upto4.0 Nil Nil 8.5 – 8.7 Upto 2.5 Nil Nil
Scale: Cond.: Conductivity in Micromhos, Silica in ppm, silica, hardness in ppm CaCO3.
*: As per pressure silica curve
The change of pH 7.0 in make-up to 9.5 in drum is maintained by dosing suitable chemicals at
different places of the water cycle. The parameters are designed to suit the internals of the
system, so that a corrosion free surface is maintained. The dosings are mainly of two types
volatile and non-volatile.
Sr.Nº Type of dosing Chemical Dosed Place of Dosing Ultimate Effect
1. Volatile Ammonia Morpholine Feed System at the To increase pH
Cyclohexyl amine suction of feed pump
2. Volatile Hydrazine hydrate Feed System at the To scavenge oxygen
inhibited or treated suction of feed pump & In & To increase pH
hydrazine condensers at the suction
of Extraction pump
3. Non-volatile Tri-sodium Phosphate Drum To increase pH to
Sodium Hydroxide maintain residual
phosphate.
4. Non-volatile Sodium Hydroxide & Drum To decrease pH, to
Sodium-di hydrogen maintain residual
Phosphate, Hexameta phosphate
Phosphate
When dosed properly, the required parameters can be obtained and conditioning becomes
proper, resulting a trouble free service.
MAIN CAUSE OF TUBE FAILURES EVEN AFTER PROPER DOSING
There can be two types of main causes of failures. These are –
a) Improper Chemicals
b) Excess or incorrect amount of dosing
Improper chemicals not only deviate main aim of water conditioning it raise complication also, the
effect of improper chemical dosings are summerised as under with particular reference to the probable
impurities.
Chemical Possible Impurities Effect or Dosing
Ammonia Hardness, Silica Very slow increase in pH
Rapid increase in conductivity.
Injection of silica in System/
Phosphate Free Sodium Hydroxide and chloride Unstable pH condition
Increase in conductivity
Foaming action in drum,
Free sodium hydroxide in Steam
When we analyse the remarks on last column following points are raised on tube failure:
a) Caustic attack
b) Hydrogen attack
Caustic Attack
Although the pH of the media is high and safe for most of the tubes, yet excess of it may cause
soap-bubble effect at a particular point leading to carryover and or volatile caustic carryover from drum
and improper distribution of heat flux at any point due to the same.
The caustic attack due to sodium hydroxide is very much deteriorating than due to ammonia.
Whereas, excess of ammonia may give raise to a possible formation of nitric acid as:
NH3 + 202 = HNO3 + H2O
The possibility is very less due to the presence of excess hydrazine hydrate, which takes care of
any oxygen available in the system.
The caustic attack due to the presence of excess sodium hydroxide is very much harmful due to
the phenomenon known as steam blanketing, resulting static or slow moving slug of steam generation
causing rupture in the tube due to irregular heat transfer.
Hydrogen Attack
This is very serious, sometimes we find unnecessary increase in hydrogen level in steam, this
leads to corrosion as per per-oxide theory.
The H2 released combines immediately with free O2 to from hydrogen per-oxide (H2O2). This
reacts with Fe (OH)2 and forms Fe(OH)3.
2Fe (OH)2 + H2O2 = 2Fe(OH)3
Sufficient care during rolling of tubes and correct material selection can avoid failures due to such
defects.
Procedures for failure investigations and collection of failed sample
The causes for failures are evaluated by removing carefully the failed material (e.g. tube) along
with deposits if present. It is preferable to pack them with polythene wrappers and box, such that no
corrosion and mechanical damage occur during transit. If the deposits are loose, water side and fire side
deposits are collected in separate polythene bags with rigid tags. The flame cut region should be at least
200 mm away from the region of failure since heat produced during flame cutting will change the
microstructure, if the cut region is close to failed region. For comparison, it is preferable to have a good
portion (about 300 mm) of the tube (along with deposits if it is present) which is considerably away from
failed region. The samples of materials which failed due to brittle fracture should be taken out (if it
possible) and the fractured facets should be protected by using rust preventive coatings. In some cases
in site micro-examination is carried out when the specimen could not be removed. This technique is also
used for fracture investigations. In certain cases it becomes essential for the metallurgist or chemist to
visit the site and have first hand information regarding the location and overall nature of failed tubes or
any other components. He has to watch the performance under the existing condition at site. This will
help in the interpretation of complex failures.
Procedures for Metallurgical Investigations
The tools and techniques for failure investigations are chosen as to suit the individual
requirements. Generally the following procedures are followed:
a) Dimension and thickness measurement at important locations comparison with the original or
good material.
b) Standard mechanical tests; usually tensile, drift flattening, hardness etc.
c) Spectral and chemical analysis of deposits, water, fuel, ash etc.
d) Investigations with microscope for evaluating the nature of failures – special corrosion tests for
stainless steel components.
e) Advanced techniques; Electron microscopy for detailed information on fine structures and creep
damages, x-ray diffraction for the analyzing of ash, deposits, scales etc., creep testing and burst
testing for the determination of residual creep life etc. are used for complex case histories.
Data Required for Investigation
The log book is to be referred at site for one or more of the following information which will be
required for effective investigation of failed components.
a) Operating pressure and temperature of the pressure parts close to failed region location of the
failed tube, data of failure etc.
b) Composition of the fuel
c) Composition of the flue gas
d) Amount of excess combustion air
e) Analysis of feed water and steam condensate type and amount of contaminants in make up water
f) Normal power output and fluctuation in steam demand
g) Frequency and method of cleaning water side and fire side surfaces of tubes.
REPAIR GUIDELINES
Introduction
All plant personnel should bear in mind the legal formalities involved in the repair of boiler
pressure parts. The responsible parties, before making repairs or alterations of a pressure part, must
notify the legally responsible inspection agency and obtain approval before starting the work. The
responsible inspection agency may be the boiler insurance carrier or state or municipal inspection
agency. In some cases, it may be a federal agency. The responsible parties must follow this procedure
even though a pressure part fails during the manufacturer's warranty period. The boiler manufacturer
may recommend a repair procedure, but it must be approved by the responsible inspection agency.
Generally, the manufacturer's recommendation will be accepted, but the inspection agency still has the
legal responsibility for approval.
Welding Repair or Low Carbon Steel Tubes
Cut out a damaged tube at least 50 mm (2') on each side of the defective area. The minimum
replacement tube length should be not less than 152 mm (6'). Do not use backing rings to weld any heat-
absorbing tubes carrying water or a mixture of steam and water. Without a backing ring, make the first
pass of the weld using gas tungsten arc or oxyacetylene. The weld passes may be completed by either
process, or by shielding metal arc. If access is difficult, use window welds for repair work. The first pass
of a window weld must be made by gas tungsten arc of oxyacetylene (Fig. 1).
Fit-up of the weld joints is important. Although it is difficult to obtain accurate cuts on furnace
tubes, it is important to get the existing tube ends squared and correctly chamfered and to cut the
replacement tube to the correct length. Use a tube-end scarfing tool when possible. Allow for shrink in
welding. Remember that the weld metal and parent metal are melted in the welding process and the
molten metal shrinks as it solidifies.
A butt weld in a tube will shorten the total length about 1.6 mm (1/16").
Use a clamp or guide lug to hold one end of the replacement tube in alignment while the first weld
is made.
Do not tack weld both ends of the replacement tube, particularly if the existing tubes are rigidly
supported.
As a general rule, first complete the weld at the lower end of the replacement tube.
Do not start welding the upper end of the replacement tube until both the replacement and
existing tubes have cooled to ambient temperature.
Alloy Tube Repairs
If a damaged alloy tube must be replaced, it is always preferable to weld the replacement tube to
an existing tube end of the same alloy and the same wall thickness. Before removing the damaged tube,
check the manufacturer's unit material diagram and locate shop welds used to join the damaged length to
tubes of different material or different wall thickness. If at all possible, make the cuts to remove the
damaged tube at least 152 mm (6") from the shop weld, thus leaving a "Safe end".
If necessary to cut out a shop weld joining tubes of different material and/or wall thickness, pay
special attention since all qualified but-welding procedures require the two tube ends to have the same
internal diameter (ID) as the weld root.
In some cases, the thicker wall tube may be bored to match the ID of the thinner wall tube
But the thicker wall tube may be bored only if the strength of the tube, after reducing the wall
thickness, is at least equal to the strength of the thinner wall tube at the same operating temperature.
o A ferritic alloy tube must not be bored to match a thinner wall austenitic alloy tube.
The only satisfactory method is to use a connector of austenitic alloy tube having the same wall
thickness as the ferritic alloy tube.
One end of the connector is bored to match the wall thickness of the existing austenitic alloy tube.
o Shrinkage in welding alloy tubes is similar to that for carbon steel tubes. Allowance must be made for
expansion from preheating which will close the root gap slightly.
For shielded metal arc welding with a backing ring, it is essential that the root gap opening be
sufficient to assure full penetration and fusion with the backing ring during the first pass.
For gas tungsten arc welding, a zero root gap opening is permitted.
There must be no pressure exerted between the two tubes.
It is advisable to allow enough clearance to avoid actual contact at the root gap opening after the
two tubes are preheated.
3. Repair of Tube Blisters
Internal deposits cause blisters on the furnace wall or boiler tubes.
Generally, they occur in boilers operated with a high percentage of make-up feed water.
A blister forms because an internal deposit increases tube metal temperature until metal creep
occurs.
As the heated area swells, the internal deposit cracks off and the tube metal temperature returns
to normal.
The process may be repeated several times before the blister ruptures.
Commonly, a large number of tubes are blistered and not noticed until one of the blisters cracks
open. To avoid a massive tube replacement job, particularly where replacement tubes are not
immediately available, work the blisters down to the original tube radius. Follow these general
guidelines:
Remove the damaged tube, then carefully cut away enough of the bar or fin to allow chamfering
the tube end for welding around the sides of the replacement tube joint
After the tube welds are completed, weld the bar or fin to the replacement tube.
If the gas between bar or fin is too great for easy bridging, insert a low carbon steel welding rod
for a fin is too great for easy bridging, insert a low carbon steel welding rod for a filler.
The spaces in the bars or fins, at the tube joints, are built up with deposited weld metal.
Be sure no cracks exist in the these deposits before making the final weld to the tubes.
In oil fired boilers too much of excess air is favourable to the formation of SO3 due to the increased
availability of O2 thereby promoting a higher rate of low temp. corrosion. To avoid such failure O2
content in flue gases should be measured periodically during operation & adjustments made to
achieve design values as closely as possible. Further, to avoid overheating the flue gas temperature in
different zones should be closely monitored & kept within the design limits.
Internal Deposits
Inferior quality of feed water leads to internal deposits of salts & silica in the water wall tube. This
internal deposit will cause overheating of water wall tubes leading to failure. To avoid this, the feed
water of boiler water quality should be maintained within the allowable limits as per the international
standards.
The carryover of salts by steam can cause deposits in the tubes with consequent overheating &
failure. To avoid this, the salts, content in the drum water should be maintained as per the standard
operation with high water levels in drum could lead to carryover of water drops & dissolved solids
leading to internal tube deposits in SH tubes. These deposits hinder heat transfer & lead to increase in
metal temperature & consequent tube failure. Hence it is necessary to restrict the drum WATER
LEVEL TO THE prescribed limits under all operating conditions.
Other causes
Mal-operation can sometimes leads to overheating & results in tube failure. When high-pressure
heaters are out of service, the convection SH O/L temperature can shoot up leading to overheating of
tubes. This can be avoided by suitable control of the excess air & the boiler load. During hot restart if
the flow of auxiliary steam from the drum tap off point is high it will result in a reduced flow through the
SH which in turn will lead to overheating.
EROSION
Erosion is a second major cause of tube failure. The tube wall thickness gets reduced due to erosion
& when the thickness is not sufficient to withstand the operating pressure and temperature of the tube,
the tube will fail.
Erosion of SH & economiser tube may be due to following reasons
Flue gas erosion.
Erosion due to steam or water.
Flue gas Erosion
The rate of erosion is proportional to the cube of velocity. The ash content of the Indian coals is of
more abrasive in nature containing high silica & alumina. Due to the above, if the velocity of the flue gas
at narrow gaps between coils & walls & SH coils and ash hoppers below them is high, then erosion may
occurs in these zones. Therefore the boiler have to be designed with 15m/s velocities as for as possible.
A typical ash analysis data is given below :
The flue gas erosion in the horizontal SH & economiser can be prevented by providing baffles.
The flue gas erosion in the bands of the convection SH in the horizontal pass can be prevented by
increasing the height of refractory lining of the ash hoppers in front of the coils.
Erosion due to steam or water
Whenever there is a tube failure the water or steam from the faulty tube escapes in the form of a
high velocity jet & when it impinges on the adjacent tube they get eroded. If the boiler is not shutdown
immediately after detection of the failure & allowed operating for a protected period the damage due to
steam or water erosion will be considerable.
Additionally, sometimes leakage from the soot blowers or wall blowers causes erosion of water
wall, SH or economiser tubes. In some boiler, vertical bar type soot blowers have caused tube failures in
the horizontal SH & RH & to overcome this the sort blowers should be moved from the ceiling to the
sidewalls.
Corrosion
This can be mainly grouped into two types
1) External corrosion due to depositing of chemicals.
2) Internal corrosion taking place inside the tube due to impurities in steam and water.
1) External corrosion due to depositing of chemicals carried by ash.
On review of ash analysis detailed under flue errosion, it can be seen that ash consists of sulfate
up to 0.5 to 0.681. This type of corrosion results mainly from the deposits of ash on tube surface. The
deposits may be classified either as slagging or fouling.
Slagging
This is the deposition of molten or partially fused particles of fuel constituents (non-combustible)
on furnace tube surface. Though it is usually is associated on furnace tube surface, slagging can also
occurs in screen tube and in the super heater when molten ash carried over into these solutions and is
exposed to excessively high gas temperature.
Fouling
Fouling on other hand is the condensation of combustible constituents such as sodium sulphate
on fly ash particles and on boiler tube in area of the unit where temperature are such that the constituents
are remain in the liquid state. The combustibles, fly ash, and flue gas react chemically to form the
deposit.
Phosphate deposit
This is also similar to the sodium deposits fouling, which are initiated by the attack of acidic
phosphorous compounds on the tube metal & the fly ash particles. Indian coals do not contain
phosphorous as one of the major constituents and as such this type of corrosion is rarely expected.
Low Temperate Corrosion
This is caused by sulphuric acid, & can occur in the economisers of some units if the feed water
temp. is lower than about 150C. However the feed water temperature is most of the utility boilers & the
sulphur content of the coal burnt are such that dew point problems already rarely encountered.
Condensation problem further down stream where lower temperature exists may corrode air heater,
precipitator, hoppers, fans, ducts & stacks. As the sulpher content is more in the fuel oil & also as the flue
gas temperature will be low during starting usually the air preheaters will be experiencing the cold
corrosion problems. To overcome this problem, steam coiled Air preheater should be kept in service till
flue gas temperature rises above 300C.
Remedy
All the deposits, which cause corrosion of the above types, are easily soluble in water & will be
loose also. This deposit can be cleaned by normal operation of soot blowers. When this method is not
totally effective, water washing during outage is recommended. It is very important to schedule water
washing so that the tube surfaces can be dried out immediately after cleaning, as otherwise corrosion will
occur. A good approach is to water just before returning a boiler to service. If this is not possible, fire at a
low rate until tubes are dry.
Design Improvements
In coal fired boilers most major corrosion problems are caused by coal ash with in a specific temp.
range certain coal produce liquid ash compounds that are very corrosive to all conventional boiler
materials. This temp. range normally extend from about 1000F to 1200F essentially restricts attack to
the SH & RH .
Engineers weigh carefully the four major factors that influence the severity of coal ash corrosion
viz. Ash properties, ash deposition rate, tube external temperature, & tube chromium content, before
finalizing the design of SH & RH surfaces. If the high temp. Corrosion occurs inspite of design efforts, the
option for correcting the problems are limited; for example the following remedial measures may be
resorted to.
Replace damaged tubes with one of higher Chromium Content.
1) Switch to a fuel with more favourable ash characteristics.
2) Install stainless steel tube shields. These shields will effectively keep the liquid ash
from the tube surface & operate at temperature above that at which liquid phase can
exist. Extensive shielding however, inhibits heat transfer performance.
Internal corrosion due to impurities in water & steam
Internal corrosion is mainly due to improper feed water treatment. The most prevalent forms of
waterside attack in the drumtype utility boiler are,
i) Hydrogen damage.
ii) Bulks under deposit corrosion.
iii) Corrosion fatigue.
iv) Stress corrosion.
v) Steam blanketting.
vi) Oxidation.
vii) Pitting.
viii) Galvanic attack.
ix) Caustic embrittlement.
i) Hydrogen Damage
This induces brittle fracture & will occur beneath a relatively dense deposit when boiler water pH
is too low. The accepted thereby of this type of attacks is that the hydrogen atoms are produced between
the deposit and the tube surface. They in turn react with cementite a hard brittle iron compound at the
grain boundaries of the tube material to form molecular methane gas, which removes carbon from metal
weakening it by creating fissures in its grain structure.
The pressure of the gas that is formed literally blows the material apart. This damage is most
common where condenser leakage occurs in units cooled by sea water. Some metal loss may be
caused by corrosion mechanism, but the tube which failure would occur.
ii) Bulk Under deposit Corrosion
This is caused by the concentration of traces amounts so soluble corrosive compounds usually
strong alkalies, such as sodium hydroxide between the tube walls & a relatively porous deposit. (60-90 %
porosity compared to theoretically dense magnetite). The term “caustic gouging” is sometimes used to
describe this form of corrosion, which is characterised by rapid attack & subsequent tube failure.
iii) Corrosion Fatigue
Material that undergoes cyclic strain may suffer fatigue failure. The strain can be mechanical in
nature such as vibration or thermal such as soot blower condense quenching, corrosion or oxidation can
accelerate failure in other words, failure may occur after fewer cycles at a lower level or strain in a
corrosive environment.
iv) Stress Corrosion Cracking
Portion of austenitic stainless steel SH elements containing residual stress such as stress
supports & ring welds are susceptible to cracking in high temp. Water containing chloride or hydroxide
compounds & oxygen. Though such condition is relatively uncommon, they do occur after because of
operator error. Stress corrosion attack on the secondary SH tube was caused by inadvertent use of a boil
out cleaning solution containing caustic. The boiler was fired only a few hours, but the damage was
significant, and tube replacement was required.
v) Steam Blanketing: -
Steam blanketting phenomenon occurs in tubes, which are slightly inclined, for example flow
started slag screen tubes since the steam flow in some what restricted resulting in obstruction for heat
transfer. In such environment if the feed water possesses caustic soda, it may give rise to general
wasting of the crown of the tube or the formation of grooves at the water line.
vi) Oxidation
Oxidation of low alloy ferritic steels operating at temp. above about 450C is a natural
phenomenon in the boiler water side environment. All materials used in high temp. SH & RH tubing are
subjected to oxidation, although at different rates. Problems arise when oxide scale on the tube’s internal
surface become so thick that differential expansion between the oxide and the parent metal results in
spalling of the oxide from the metal surface a process called “exfoliation”. The loose flakes are hard &
brittle & generally range from the size of a match HEAD to that of a quarter. Loose scale can clog tubes
at bends causing their failure by overheating.
vii) Pitting
This is mainly due to the difference in effective electrode potential between adjacent areas of the
metal surface. This can result due to the following reasons.
1. Differential heat treatment resulting in localised difference in stress concentration.
2. Surface irregularities such as scratches & cuts developing during manufacturing.
3. Different concentration in dissolved compounds. The effect of individual factor depends upon their
relative magnitude & most of them are independent.
viii) Galvanic Attack
The corrosion of the less noble member of a pair of metal which are joined together is called
“Galvanic corrosion” or “Dissimilar metal corrosion”. The effects of galvanic corrosion are often serious
especially in sea water power station as feed water conditions are conductive, since at temperature that
occurs in the high pressure boiler tubing, are very high Galvanic attack will be more severe in these
areas.
ix) Caustic embrittlement
This is due to the caustic ALKALINITY formed in the drum & the scale of this caustic soda reacts
with the metal & may result in cracking at welding joints where the welding is weak
Material Defects
Some of the tube failures in the boiler may be due to the usage of the defective raw materials.
Though different quality control measurements are adopted in various stages of the manufacturing,
defective materials may find there way in rare cases and cause failure. High quality of the materials can
be ensured by selecting tubes, which have undergone ultrasonic tests, & by resorting to strict quality
control inspection procedure. Successful waterside corrosion control requires careful selection of the
material used throughout the steam cycle including the feed water heaters & condensers.
Manufacturing defects
Tube failure may occur due to the defect in the manufacturing process, such as weld defect, &
improper heat treatment. Mix up of material sometimes lead to failure because of the wrong usage of
materials.
Creep and fatigue are very important factors while designing the thermal power plant equipment.
Metals undergoing high temperature will also be subject both creep and fatigue.
Creep
When metal stressed at sufficiently high temperature it will continue to deform with time although
at a relatively low rate. This process is known as “creep” and is of major importance in selecting metals
for service in power plant. This is because at temperature much above 350C (660F) steels are
subjected to this phenomenon. The figure illustrated that the creep process can be viewed in three
stages. The primary stage in which the initially high rate of strain remain constant over a period of time,
the second stage in which strain rate remain constant over a period of time, and the tertiary stage in
which strain rate increases continuously and which culminates in rupture.
This behavior may be explained in terms of a balance between the effect of straining which are to
be strengthen the material and increase its resistance to further deformation and effect of heating which
are to be softening the material and decrease resistance to deformation. Thus strain hardening
predominates initially until the strain rate falls to level at which the opposing influence are in balance
accompanied by continuous deformation until the tertiary stage is reached, where loss of strength leads
to fracture.
Fatigue
Metals undergoing high temperature service may also be subjected to fatigue. This process is one
in which failure may arise exposer to many cycle of alternating stress, with or without super imposition of
mean stress. This type of failure is comparatively rare in power plant. The predominant failure is creep
not fatigue.
In power plant, it is possible to encounter situation that are classified as thermal fatigue. In these
frequency of straining is given by the number of stops and starts endured the full life of plant (say 5000 to
10,000). The level of strain is enhanced by the creation of thermal gradient during operation, and/or by
geometric strain concentration. This problem is believed to involve both creep and fatigue process.
Factors affecting fatigue life
The rate of cycle loading has only small effect on fatigue strength. Fatigue strength increase with
increasing rate of cycling probably because of the increased strain rate.
i) The form of the stress cycle such as square, triangular or sinusoidal wave has no effect on the
fatigue life.
ii) The environment in which component undergoes stress reversal has marked effects on fatigue
life. The fatigue life in vacuum is about 10 times more than that in moist air. This clearly indicates
that the environment has a corrosive effect and reduce the fatigue life. Fatigue occurring under
the specific corrosive environmental is caused corrosion fatigue.
iii) Size of component has no effect on fatigue life if component is identical one another in all
respects such as defect microstructure, inclusion, etc. except size. However in certain cases it
has been observed that larger size less is a fatigue life. The decrease fatigue strength is more for
high strength material. This is due to more chance of imperfection or stress rises in large size
components.
iv) Stress gradient has strong effect on fatigue life. Higher stress gradient, lesser is fatigue life.
v) An increase in temperature above room temperature decreases the fatigue life to increase in the
crack growth rate. Decrease in temperature below room temperature increase the fatigue life.
Procedure for Failure Investigation & Collection of Failed Samples
The causes for failures are evaluated by removing carefully the failed material (eg.tube) along
with deposits if present. It is preferable to pack them with polythene wrappers & box, such that no
corrosion & mechanical damage occur during transits. If the deposits are loose, water side & fire side
deposit are collected in separate polythene bags with rigid tags. The flame cut region should be at least
200mm away from the region of failure since heat produced during flame cutting will change the
microstructure, if the cut region is closed to fail region. For comparison, it is preferable to have good
portion (about 300mm) of the tube (along with the deposit if it is present) which is considerably away from
the failed region.
The samples of material, which failed due to brittle fracture, should be taken out (if it is possible) &
using rust preventive coatings should protect fractured facets. In some cases in site micro examination is
carried out when specimen could not be cut or removed. This technique is also used for fracture analysis.
In certain cases it becomes essential for the metallurgist or chemist to visit the site & have first hand
information regarding the location and overall nature of failed tubes or any other components. These
have to watch the performance under the existing condition at site. This will help in the interpretation of
complex failures.
Procedure of Metallurgical Analysis
1. Visual Inspection.
2. Hardness Test.
3. Dimension & thickness measurement at critical section.
4. Then take the sample of tube of unfractured zone and fractured zone. Then with the help of grinder,
grind it to remove rust and scale & then polish it to get scratch free surface. The polishing method is
known as buffing.
For which Diamond paste & metsesfluid (lubricant) is used & after that apply etching agent (nitol
or picrol) for 30sec & then clean the surface by acetone. Then watch the prepared sample under
microscope.
Analysis to Find out Cause of Failure
The metallurgist can conclude the cause of failure by studying the microstructure of the material
of both, fractured & unfractured zone.
The normal microstructure of the material consists of ferrite & pearlite, with the dispersed grain
boundaries. In case of failure the microstructure of the material changes & depending upon the change of
microstructure, metallurgist can conclude the cause of failure.
1. Corrosion
Due to corrosion the normal structure of the material which consists of ferrite & pearlite will
change from ferrite to ferritic & spheroidisition of carbides occur along the grain boundaries.
2. Erosion
Due to erosion the normal structure will change from pearlite to pearritic & spheroidisition of
carbides occur along the grain boundaries.
3. Creeps
Due to creep the grain growth occurs along the boundaries which weakness the material
strength & due to which the voids are formed along the boundaries & in case of prolonged period these
voids combine & fracture takes place.
Remedial Measures
The corrosion in general is resulting due to the oxygen present in feed water & the pH value of
feed water. Oxygen may be carried over into boiler through make up water leaks, etc. Even the minute
quantity of O2 is capable of causing sever corrosion in the boiler working at high pressure. Since the O2
content carried over the steam will go on increasing as the pressure of the boiler increases.
The table below shows how the O2 content carried over to steam increases as the pressure
increases.
Boiler pressure kg/cm2 O2 in feed water: O2 in steam
12.6 5000:1
42 5000:3.2
70 5000:5.3
140 5000:10