Basic Physics of CT:

Axial, Helical and MultiDetector

Michael McNitt-Gray, PhD, DABR

Professor
Department of Radiology
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
mmcnittgray@mednet.ucla.edu
 What Will We Cover?
• Review of basic CT physics
• For axial, helical and Multi-Detector CT scanners
(MDCT)

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 Descriptions of CT
"CT marries modern computer technology with
traditional methods of measuring transmission of x-
rays to provide a radically new form of imaging.
Measurements are made from many directions within
a plane through the body. From these
measurements a cross-sectional image of the body is
then reconstructed mathematically" LM Zatz in
chapter 109 "Basic principles of computed
tomography" in Radiology of the brain and skull:
Technical aspects of computed tomography, Newton
and Potts, eds., Mosby Publishing, St. Louis, 1981.

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 Summary

• Narrow Beam X-ray Source

• Multiple rays at a given Angle to form a projection
• Multiple Projections (each from different Angle)
• Measure transmission/attenuation with Detectors
• Computer Reconstruction of data from Projections
• Create a cross-sectional image of anatomy where CT
#s represent linear attenuation coefficients

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1st
2nd

5th

4th
3rd
 X-Ray Tube
• X-ray production just as in radiography: Boil electrons
off cathode, aim at anode; produce bremsstrahlung and
characteristics X-rays.
• Tube Continuously On - So Tube needs Heat Capacity
and significant cooling system
• Rotate Tube around patient to create views. Power to
the tube is an issue (how to power a rotating tube?).

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 Filtration/ Collimation
• Filter X-rays to make beam harder (higher eff. energy)
• Bow Tie filter to flatten field (equalize exposure reaching
detectors due to expected difference in thickness of
attenuation path)
• Collimate in z direction to create slice thickness
(using pre-patient or pre- and post-patient collimation)

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Detector

X-Ray Beam

Z direction

Pre-Patient
Collimator

X-Ray Tube

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 Detectors

X-Ray Beam

Patient
Cross-Section

Bow-Tie or
Equalizing Filter

X-Ray Tube

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 Detectors
Solid State/Photodetector - Detector material is typically
a doped ceramic based material. Detector scintillates
and resulting light is collected by silicon based
photodetectors to produce voltage.

Each produces a voltage which is converted to digital

value through analog to digital converter (ADC)

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 To DAS

X-ray
Scintillator Photodiode

Detector

Integrator

A/D
Converter

Digital Value
to Reconstruction
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 Basic Measurement:
X-Ray Attenuation
For a monoenergetic beam in homogeneous tissue:
I=I0e- _ L
Where:
I = intensity of beam after passing through tissue
I0 = initial intensity of beam
_ = linear attenuation coefficient of tissue
L = length of path in tissue

Thus: ln(I0/I) = _ L

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 Basic Measurement: X-Ray
Attenuation
For slab of homogeneous tissue: ln(I0/I) = _ L

_
I0 I
L

For blocks of tissue: ln(I0/I) = _ 1w + _ 2w + _ 3w +…+ _ nw

(1/w) ln(I0/I) = _ 1 + _ 2 + _ 3 +…+ _ n
_1 _2 _3 _n
I0 w I

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 Basic Measurement: X-Ray
Attenuation
3 3 3
Sum = 9

1 6 2
Sum = 9

Need a large number of independent measurements to

uniquely determine each _.
Also, linear attenuation coefficient is a function of energy,
even in monoenergetic (ideal) setting

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 How to Find _’s
Large Number of Projections; from Different Angles

P
(t) is the projection value occurring at view angle
at

position t.

Take Projection values and Filter, then Backproject

(called Filtered Backprojection)

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P_ (t1)
1

t1

_1

X-ra
y

P_(t) =
ray path _(x,y)

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 P_ (t1)
P_ (t)
1
1

P_ (t)
2

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Simple Backprojection
Filtered Backprojection
Convolve with a filter that:
weights the center and
underweights the periphery
 Effect of Reconstruction Filter
The exact shape of the mathematical reconstruction
filter can affect:
• in plane spatial resolution
• noise

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Water Phantom
Std Algorithm
40 mAs
.625 mm

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Water Phantom
Bone Algorithm
40 mAs
.625 mm

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 Standard
Water Phantom
Bone Algorithm
80 mAs
.625 mm

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 Standard
Water Phantom
Bone Algorithm
200 mAs
.625 mm

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STANDARD ALGORITHM
Bone ALGORITHM
STANDARD ALGORITHM
LUNG ALGORITHM
Spatial Frequency

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Spatial Frequency

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 Image Formation
Once _’s are calculated, normalize to water.

μtissue
μ water
CT number = ( )*1000
μ water

Units are Hounsfield Units (HU)

Water (_ = _ water ) ---> 0 HU

Air (_ ~ 0 ) ---> -1000 HU
Bone (_ ~ 2* _ water ) ---> +1000 HU

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 Image Formation
Voxel (volume element) - for each image slice, there is
an x, y and z dimension. These are coming close to
isotropic (the same in each dimension). A typical
voxel would be created from a 35 cm FOV, 512 x 512
matrix and 0.6 -10.0 mm thick slice.

10 mm
.68 mm μ .6 mm .68 mm μ

.68 mm .68 mm

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 Single and Multi-Slice Spiral CT

From:Principles of Spiral CT, M. Vannier, G. Wang, in Spiral CT of the Chest,M.Remy-Jardin, J. Remy,Eds.Springer Verlag .
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 Single Detector Spiral
Spiral CT Decouples Image Acquisition and Image
Reconstruction. Still tightly linked, but not the same
thing (as they were in axial imaging).

1. Acquire a volume of data

2. Interpolate to Synthesize Projections
3. Filter Back Projection to Reconstruct axial images

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 Data Acquisition

Pitch = Table Movement per Rotation

Beam Collimation
• Contiguous Spiral
Pitch = 1 (10 mm / 10 mm)
• Extended (Non-Contiguous) Spiral
Pitch = 2 (20 mm/ 10 mm)
• Overlapping Spiral
Pitch = 1/2 ( 5 mm / 10 mm)

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Pitch=1; Contiguous Spiral
Width of Spiral Path (From Collimation)
Center of Spiral Path

Direction of
Continuous
Patient Transport

z, mm
t, sec
0
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Pitch=2; Extended Spiral
Width of Spiral Path (From Collimation)
Center of Spiral Path

Direction of
Continuous
Patient Transport

z, mm
t, sec
0
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 Selected Image Plane
(Arbitrary)
Path of Continuously
Rotating X-ray Tube
(and Projection Data)

Direction of
Continuous
Patient Transport

z, mm
t, sec
0
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 Selected Image Plane
(Arbitrary)
Path of Continuously
Rotating X-ray Tube
(and Projection Data) Pitch = 1

Direction of
Continuous
Patient Transport

z, mm
t, sec
0
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 Selected Image Plane
(Arbitrary)
Path of Continuously
Rotating X-ray Tube
(and Projection Data) Pitch = 2

Direction of
Continuous
Patient Transport

z, mm
t, sec
0
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 Image Formation
Because a VOLUME of Data is Acquired and
Interpolation is used, then
Images can be formed ANYWHERE
>> Slice Location is Arbitrary

Therefore, Overlapping Images can be created

(e.g. 10 mm thick, 5 mm apart).

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 Contiguous Reconstruction
Width of Image
Object(lesion)
Center of Image

Each image
Volume Averaged

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Overlapping Reconstruction – Additional Images
Better Z-sampling
No Additional Radiation

Better Alignment
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 MultiDetector Scanners
These scanners typically now have:
•
16 detectors
• Submillimeter resolution in z direction
– Which results in actual or nearly isotropic voxels
• Fast scan times
– Sensation 64 down to 0.33 seconds/full 360° rotation
– Partial scan times of ~ 0.20 seconds

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 Siemens’ Sensation 16
Asymmetric Detector

4 x 1.5 mm
}
} 8 x .75 mm
8 x .75 mm
}
} 4 x 1.5 mm

(Longitudinal or Z direction)
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 Siemens’ Sensation 16
Asymmetric Detector

4 x 1.5 mm
}
16 x .75mm
1.5mm } 8 x .75 mm
8 x .75 mm
}
} 4 x 1.5 mm

(Longitudinal or Z direction)
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 Siemens’ Sensation 64

} 4 x 1.2 mm

} 16 x .6 mm
32 x 0.6mm
(inner) } 16 x .6 mm

24 x 1.2mm
(outer) } 4 x 1.2 mm

(Longitudinal or Z direction)
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 Siemens Sensation 64
How do you get 64 slices from this?
Flying Focal Spot
Double Z sampling

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What Does This Mean?
Get closer to Isotropic Voxels
.6 x .6 x .6 mm

With (Nearly) Isotropic Voxels,

• Scan in Axial Plane
• Reconstruct and View Images in Any Plane:
• Coronal, Sagittal, Arbirtary
• 3-D Visualizations

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1.5mm slice thickness – Axial images

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Large, 10mm slices

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MPR sag & coron, 1.5mm

Coronal Saggital
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MPR sag & coron, 10mm

Coronal Saggital

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 Coronal Views

Reconstructed from 2mm Reconstructed from 0.6 mm

Thick slices Thick slices

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 Radiation Dose
Typical Head CT scan
Radiation dose is approximately 40 mGy (4 rad)

Head does not contain many radiation sensitive organs

Brain is not among top radiosensitive organs
Is listed with “remainder organs” which have a weight of .025 of
total effective dose

Lens of the eye?

Concern there is not carcinogenesis, but of cataracts.
However, this is a deterministic effect
Requires at least 2000 mGy directly to the eye in a single
exposure; more (perhaps much more?) if given over multiple
exposures (some repair occurs)

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 Future of CT
Volumetric coverage (entire organ)

Perfusion applications

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 Summary
Basic Physics of CT
X-ray based
Move X-ray Source and Make lots of measurements
Mathematically Reconstruct Images
Image Data element (voxel) has Hounsfield Unit value (HU)

Extended to Helical and MDCT Scanners

Faster Rotation Times (down to 0.33 s)
Greater Coverage per unit time
More Detectors, Thinner Slices, Isotropic Resolution
Scan in one plane – reconstruct in any plane

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