Biofuel PDF

CHE 525 - ChE ELECTIVE II: Renewable Energy Technologies
BIOFUELS
Submitted by:
DIONISIO, Charles Amiel P.
REDUBLO, Anne Paulinne P.
Submitted to:
Dr. Denvert C. Pangayao
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 1

Dionisio, Charles Amiel P. | Redublo, Anne Paulinne P.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Status of Biofuels 4
Global Setting 4
Philippine Setting 6
Impacts of Biofuels 10
Advantages 10
Disadvantages 11
Categories of Biofuels 14
First Generation Biofuels 14
Second Generation Biofuels 14
Third Generation Biofuels 14
Fourth Generation Biofuels 14
Bioethanol Energy Technology 20
Biodiesel Energy Technology 22
References

Known petroleum reserves are limit resources. Various studies put the date of the
global peak in oil production between 1996 and 2035. Biomass energy technologies use
waste or plant matter to produce energy with a lower level of greenhouse gas emissions than
fossil fuel sources. In developed countries there is a growing trend towards employing modern
technologies and efficient bio-energy conversion using a range of biofuels, which are
becoming cost-wise competitive with fossil fuels.
Biofuel is referred to as liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector that are
predominantly produced from biomass. A variety of fuels can be produced from biomass
resources including liquid fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, Fischer-Tropsch diesel,
and gaseous fuels, such as hydrogen and methane. Liquid biofuels are primarily used to fuel
vehicles, but can also fuel engines or fuel cells for electricity generation. There are several
reasons for biofuels to be considered as relevant technologies by both developing and
industrialized countries. They include energy security reasons, environmental concerns,
foreign exchange savings, and socioeconomic issues related to the rural sector. Due to its
environmental merits, the share of biofuel in the automotive fuel market will grow fast in the
next decade.
The biggest difference between biofuels and petroleum feedstocks is oxygen content.
Biofuels have oxygen levels from 10% to 45% while petroleum has essentially none making
the chemical properties of biofuels very different from petroleum. All have very low sulfur
levels and many have low nitrogen levels. Biomass can be converted into liquid and gaseous
fuels through thermochemical and biological routes.

Source: Renewables 2016 Global Status Report
Bioenergy production continued to increase in 2015, helping to meet rising energy
demand in some countries and contributing to environmental objectives. However, the sector
also faced a number of challenges, in particular from low oil prices and policy uncertainty in
some markets.
Bio-heat production for buildings and industrial uses grew slowly in 2015, with modern
uses of bio-heat rising by approximately 3% from 2014 levels.
The use of bio-power has increased more quickly – averaging some 8% annually – with
rapid growth in generation notable in China, Japan, Germany and the United Kingdom.
Ethanol production increased by 4% globally, with record production levels in the United
States and Brazil.
Global production of biodiesel fell slightly due to constrained production in some Asian
markets, although growth continued in the major producing countries (the United States
and Brazil).

As seen in the figure above, bioenergy contributes more to primary global energy
supply than any other renewable energy source. Total energy demand supplied from biomass
in 2015 was approximately 60 exajoules (EJ). The use of biomass for energy has been growing
at around 2% per year since 2010. Bioenergy plays a role in all three main energy-use sectors:
heat (and cooling), electricity and transport. The contribution of bioenergy to final energy
demand for heat (traditional and modern) far outweighs its use in either electricity or
transport.
Solid biomass represents the largest share of biomass used for heat and electricity
generation, whereas liquid biofuel represents the largest source in the transport sector.

Source: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) 2017
The Philippines has three main power grid systems as well as off-grid systems serving
the three major island groups Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Total installed generating
capacity has reached 17,943 MW out of which only 15,933 MW is dependable capacity that
can be made available to generate electricity whenever needed. This accounts for nearly 90%
of the total. Dependable grid-connected capacity is currently 12,970 MW.
Generation capacity based on fossil fuel accounts for 72% of the total, and geothermal
and hydropower account for most of the remainder, as illustrated in Figure 7. This shows the
insignificance of variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power and
biomass in the power system at the moment.
The Philippines produces a large amount of agricultural residues annually from farm
land amounting to 14 million hectares, accounting for nearly half its total area. Rice husk and
straw make up the lion’s share of the residue, while the rest includes coconut shell and
sugarcane bagasse, for instance. Forest residue, municipal solid wastes and animal manure
from the husbandry industry are also part of the biomass feedstock. An investigation on
resource potential conducted by USAID’s Climate Change and Clean Energy (CEnergy) project

in 2013 predicted 4,450MW net available capacity for power generation from different types
of biomass feedstock across the country (De Guzman, 2014). The indicative megawatts were
calculated at a 70% capacity, reflecting biomass resources that can be reasonably collected
and used for power generation. The biomass resources considered in the assessment varied
per main island group, i.e Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao, as shown in Table 3.
In Luzon, the biomass commodities quantified were rice residues, corn residues,
coconut husks, coconut shell, coconut coir and coconut fronds, pig and poultry manure, and
solid waste. Luzon leads on biomass resources with 2,094 MW due to its abundant coconut
(husk, shell and frond) resources followed by rice and livestock manure. Isabela province
alone (the second largest in the Philippines) has the potential to generate about 800 MW
electricity mainly from the by-products of its massive corn production.
Known as the “sugar bowl of the Philippines”, Visayas’ resource base comprises
sugarcane residues, rice residues, corn residues, coconut, poultry and hog animal wastes.
The major sugar mills in the region own and operate their own power-generating boilers.
In Mindanao, the biomass resources quantified include rice residues, corn residues,
sugarcane residues, coconut residues, plantation crops (cassava residues, banana wastes,
pineapple wastes, rubber wastes, empty palm fruit) and emerging energy crops (sweet
sorghum, bamboo, napier grass). Bukidnon has been identified as offering the most abundant
residual rice straw, cornstalk and bagasse that may be utilised for power production. Coconut
has the potential to be the major power generator, particularly in the province of Davao del
Sur, which has 200 MW equivalent (MWe), and Davao City (130 MWe), offering a combined

potential 330 MWe. Corn presents a significant source of power too, especially in Bukidnon,
which has a 90 MWe potential. In addition, Bukidnon produces large amounts of sugarcane
residues, offering a potential 43 MWe. Several energy crop plantations exist in Mindanao,
including at least 440 hectares of Napier grass, 200 hectares of bamboo and sweet sorghum.
Almost all plantations are owned and cultivated by biomass power companies. Some state
universities, as well as the Department of Agriculture, grow sweet sorghum for energy crop
research.
The largest biomass power plant is the 21 MW First Farmers Holding Corporation’s
cogeneration plant, which primarily uses bagasse from its sugar milling operation as
feedstock. Electricity produced is utilized by the sugar mill and refinery while surplus electricity
is sold to the Wholesale Electricity Spot Market.
Rice husks, the by-product of the rice milling process, are used by several rice mills to
fire rice grain dryers and other crops such as corn, coffee, legumes and cassava (Ragudo,
2011).
Similarly, commercial livestock farms generate significant amount of animal wastes.

Biogas recovery to fuel gas engines for power generation is a clean and cost-effective strategy
for managing wastes. The power they generate may be used in farm operations for lighting or
cooling livestock housing, generating power cost savings. Cavite Pig City is a large hog farm

with a population of 100,000 heads, which invested in a 1.1 MW biogas facility to manage its
animal wastes. This generates power used in the farm.
The Biofuels Act of 2006 (Republic Act No. 9367), which entered into force in 2007,
provides the legal mandate for blending bio-liquid fuels, i.e. bioethanol and biodiesel, into
liquid transport fuels. Blending requirements have increased progressively to current levels of
10% for bioethanol and 2% for biodiesel, up from an initial 5% and 1% respectively. This
reflects the enlargement of production and feedstock capacity. Meanwhile, the promotion of
biofuel use in the transport sector has driven growth in the domestic sugar industry and
cultivation of coconut and other oil-rich plants.
Notwithstanding a range of incentive schemes, including a value added tax exemption

and financing through public institutions, the prices of domestically produced biofuels have
increased. This is especially true for biodiesel, discouraging the adoption of a 5% blending
requirement. The government may review its biofuel programmes in the light of experience to
date.

No fuel source is completely positive or completely negative. We need to weigh the pros and
cons of biofuels to determine whether this resource is an effective alternative to traditional
fuels.
ADVANTAGES
Biofuel advocates frequently point out the advantages of these plant- and animal-based fuels,
such as:
1. Source material
Whereas oil is a limited resource that
comes from specific materials, biofuels
can be manufactured from a wide range
of materials including crop waste,
manure, and other byproducts. This
makes it an efficient step in recycling.
2. Renewability
It takes a very long time for fossil fuels
to be produced, but biofuels are much
more easily renewable as new crops are
grown and waste material is collected.
3. Security
Biofuels can be produced locally, which decreases the nation's dependence upon
foreign energy. By reducing dependence on foreign fuel sources, countries can protect the
integrity of their energy resources and make them safe from outside influences.

4. Economic stimulation
Because biofuels are produced locally, biofuel manufacturing plants can employ
hundreds or thousands of workers, creating new jobs in rural areas. Biofuel production will
also increase the demand for suitable biofuel crops, providing economic stimulation to the
agriculture industry.
5. Lower carbon emissions

When biofuels are burned, they produce significantly less carbon output and fewer
toxins, making them a safer alternative to preserve atmospheric quality and lower air
pollution.
DISADVANTAGES
Despite the many positive characteristics of biofuels, there are also many
disadvantages to these energy sources.
1. Energy output
Biofuels have a lower energy output than traditional fuels and therefore require greater
quantities to be consumed in order to produce the same energy level. This has led some
noted energy analysts to believe that biofuels are not worth the work to convert them to
ethanol rather than electricity.

2. Water use
Massive quantities of water are required for proper irrigation of biofuel crops as well
as to manufacture the fuel, which could strain local and regional water resources.
3. Production carbon emissions

Several studies have been
conducted to analyze the carbon
footprint of biofuels, and while they
be cleaner to burn there are strong
indications that the process to
produce the fuel - including the
machinery necessary to cultivate the
crops and the plants to produce the
fuel - has hefty carbon emissions. In
addition, cutting forests to grow
crops for biofuels adds to carbon
emissions.

4. High cost
To refine biofuels to more
efficient energy outputs, and to build
the necessary manufacturing plants
to increase biofuel quantities, a high
initial investment is often required,
making its production currently more
expensive than other ways to fuel
cars, even though this could change
in the future.

Biofuels are derived from biological material,
presently mainly from plants, microorganisms, animals
and wastes. They are based by the photosynthetic
conversion of solar energy to chemical energy.
Depending on the origin and production technology of
biofuels, they are generally called as the first, second and
third generation biofuels, while the fourth generation
biofuels make use of novel synthetic biology tools and are
just emerging at the basic research level.
I. FIRST GENERATION BIOFUELS
The first-generation biofuels refer to the fuels that have been derived from sources like
starch, sugar, animal fats and vegetable oil. They are obtained using the conventional
techniques of production such as transesterification and fermentation. Some of the most
popular types of first generation biofuels are:
A. Biodiesel
This is the most common type of biofuel commonly used in the European
countries. This type of biofuel is mainly produced using a process called
transesterification. This oil is produced after mixing the biomass with methanol and
sodium hydroxide. The chemical reaction thereof produces biodiesel. Biodiesel is very
commonly used for the various diesel engines after mixing up with mineral diesel.

B. Biogas
Biogas is mainly produced after the anaerobic digestion of the organic

materials. Biogas can also be produced with the biodegradation of waste materials
which are fed into anaerobic digesters which yields biogas. The residue or the by
product can be easily used as manure or fertilizers for agricultural use. The biogas
produced is very rich in methane which can be easily recovered through the use of
mechanical biological treatment systems.
C. Bioalcohols
These are alcohols produced by the use of enzymes and micro-organisms

through the process of fermentation of starches and sugar. Ethanol is the most
common type of bioalcohol whereas butanol and propanol are some of the lesser
known ones. Biobutanol is sometimes also referred to as a direct replacement of
gasoline because it can be directly used in the various gasoline engines.

DISADVANTAGES OF FIRST GENERATION BIOFUELS
1. Food shortages
There is concern that using valuable cropland to grow fuel crops could have an impact
on the cost of food and could possibly lead to food shortages.
2. Food prices
As the majority of biofuels are produced directly from food crops the rise in
demand for biofuels has lead to an increase in the volumes of crops being diverted
away from the global food market. This has been blamed for the global increase in
food prices over the last couple of years.
3. Production carbon emissions

Several studies have been conducted to
analyze the carbon footprint of biofuels, and
while they be cleaner to burn there are strong
indications that the process to produce the fuel -
including the machinery necessary to cultivate
the crops and the plants to produce the fuel - has

hefty carbon emissions. In addition, cutting forests to grow crops for biofuels adds to
carbon emissions.
II. SECOND GENERATION BIOFUELS
Second Generation biofuels have been developed to overcome the limitations of first
generation biofuels. They are produced from non-food crops such as wood, organic waste,
food crop waste and specific biomass crops.
COMMON SECOND-GENERATION FEEDSTOCK
To qualify as a second-generation feedstock, a source must not be suitable for human

consumption. Some of them are:
A. Jatropha and other seed crops
Seed crops are useful in the

production of biodiesel. In the early
Part of the 21st century, a plant
known as Jatropha became
exceedingly popular among
biodiesel advocates. The plant was
praised for its yield per seed, which
could return values as high as 40%.
B. Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO)
WVO have been used as a fuel for

more than a century. In fact, some of the
earliest diesel engines ran exclusively on
vegetable o il. Waste vegetable oil is
considered a second-generation biofuel
because its utility as a food has been

expended. In fact, recycling it for fuel can help to improve its overall environmental
impact.
C. Municipal Solid Waste
Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) is the fraction

produced from municipal solid wastes after mechanical
and thermal treatment. It contains mainly paper and
plastic residues. The thermal value of RDF is relatively
low, approximately 9200 kJ/kg. RDF is mainly used in
industrial applications (cement works, etc.) as a fuel.
D. Sewage
It is produced from the municipal or

industrial sewage cleaning process. Its heating
value is approximately 19 000 kJ/kg. It is used in
power generation applications. Though not as
clean as solar and wind, the carbon footprint of
these fuels is much less than that of traditionally
derived fossil fuels.
E. Wood Chips
This category includes not only the wood that is produced from forests but the
agricultural and forestry residues as well. Its typical heating value is approximately 18
600 kJ/kg (on a dry basis) but varies considerably depending upon the biomass’
chemical composition (lignin, cellulose, etc.). Wood and woody residues are mainly
used in power generation and co-generation, industrial heating applications (cement
works, etc.), and central heating systems.

F. Food Crop Waste
The fuel properties of second-generation biofuel from food crop waste such as
bagasse, rice husk, nutshell, and rice straw, are identical to those of the first-
generation equivalents. However, since the starting feedstock is lignocellulose,
fundamentally different processing steps are involved in producing them. The basic
steps for producing these include pre-treatment, saccharification, fermentation, and
distillation.
Pretreatment is designed to help separate cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin

so that the complex carbohydrate molecules constituting the cellulose and
hemicellulose can be broken down by enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis (water
addition) into their constituent simple sugars.

Cellulose (a long chain of glucose sugar molecule) and hemicellulose (5-carbon
sugar molecules) are fermented to ethanol using well-known micro-organisms
Lignin can be recovered and utilized as a fuel to provide process heat and
electricity at an alcohol production facility
III. THIRD GENERATION BIOFUELS

The third-generation biofuels are based on algal biomass production. They are presently
under extensive research in order to improve both the metabolic production of fuels and the
separation processes in bio-oil production to remove non-fuel components and to further
lower the production costs.
These algae are grown and harvested to extract oil within them. The oil can then be
converted into biodiesel through a similar process as 1st generation biofuels, or it can be
refined into other fuels as replacements to petroleum-based fuels.

ADVANTAGES OF THIRD-GENERATION BIOFUEL
Third generation biofuels are cultured as low-cost, high-energy, and completely
renewable sources of energy.
Algae are advantageous in that it can grow in areas unsuitable for 1st and 2nd
generation crops, which would relieve stress on water and arable land used.
It can be grown using sewage, wastewater, and saltwater, such as oceans or salt lakes.
Because of this, there wouldn't be a need to use water that would otherwise be used
for human consumption.
IV. FOURTH GENERATION BIOFUELS
There are two parts to the new generation of biofuels. One part revolves around biomass
crops that act like carbon-capturing machines. The second part revolves around the
revolutionary "solar to fuel" concept.
A. CARBON CAPTURING BIOMASS
How does it work?
1. Crops that are genetically engineered to take in high amounts of carbon are grown and
harvested as biomass.
2. The crops are then converted into fuel using second generation techniques.

3. The fuel is pre-combusted and the carbon is captured.
4. Then the carbon is geo-sequestered, meaning that the carbon is stored in depleted oil
or gas fields or in un-mineable coal seams. It will remain buried and locked up for
hundreds to thousands of years.
The result: carbon-negative fuel. Average biofuel is carbon-neutral, meaning that they do not
add any more carbon into the environment. This method, however, pulls carbon out of the
carbon cycle.
SOLAR TO FUEL METHOD
Although this is still a concept, it has great potential. Joule Unlimited's concept: diesel
made from nothing but microorganisms (cyanobacteria), sun, water, and CO2.

How in the world does that work?
Cyanobacteria are place in a flat panel filled with water. The panels are set up facing
the sun similar to the way solar panels do. The cyanobacteria would then take in solar energy
and carbon dioxide and give off a product that could be processed into fuel.
"Joule claims, that its cyanobacterium can produce 15,000 gallons of diesel full per
acre annually, over four times more than the most efficient algal process for making fuel. And
they say they can do it at $30 a barrel."
By using this method, the middle man is cut out (biomass farmers) and this would
result in a cheaper, more efficient biofuel.
BIOETHANOL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol produced by hydrolysis and then fermentation processes from
biomass is called as bioethanol. Carbohydrates (hemicelluloses and cellulose) in plant
materials can be converted to sugars by hydrolysis process. Fermentation is an anaerobic
biological process in which sugars are converted to alcohol by the action of microorganisms,
usually yeast. Various yeasts are used in the fermentation stage, but the most common is
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The resulting alcohol from the processes is ethanol. The value of
any particular type of biomass as feedstock for fermentation depends on the ease with which
it can be converted to sugars.
Bioethanol is a fuel derived from renewable sources of feedstock; typically plants such
as wheat, sugar beet, corn, straw, and wood. Bioethanol is a petrol additive/substitute. It is
possible that wood, straw and even household wastes may be economically converted to
bioethanol.
Bioethanol can be produced from a large variety of carbohydrates with a general
formula of (CH2O)n. Fermentation of sucrose is performed using commercial yeast such as

Saccharomyces ceveresiae. Chemical reaction is composed of enzymatic hydrolysis of
sucrose followed by fermentation of simple sugars.
First, invertase enzyme in the yeast catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to convert it
into glucose and fructose.
Second, zymase, another enzyme also present in the yeast, converts the glucose and
the fructose into ethanol.
A major processing step in an ethanol plant is enzymatic saccharification of cellulose

to sugars through treatment by enzymes; this step requires lengthy processing and normally
follows a short term pretreatment step. Fig. 3 shows the flow chart for the production of
bioethanol from cereal grain or straw.
E10, sometimes called gasohol, is a fuel mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline that
can be used in the internal combustion engines (ICEs) of most modern automobiles.
Gasohol has higher octane, or antiknock, properties than gasoline and burns more slowly,
coolly, and completely, resulting in reduced emissions of some pollutants, but it also
vaporizes more readily, potentially aggravating ozone pollution in warm weather.

Diesohol is a fuel containing alcohol that comprises a blend of diesel fuel (84.5%),
hydrated ethanol (15%) and an emulsifier (0.5%). The emulsifier that allows the ethanol
and the diesel to blend consists of a styrene-butadiene copolymer which is dissolved in
the diesel fuel and a polyethyleneoxide-polystyrene copolymer which is dissolved in the
hydrated alcohol.
Hydrated (or azeotropic) ethanol is ethyl alcohol that contains approximately 5% water.
Hydrated ethanol derived from sugar, or ethanol derived from wheat starch, may be used
for production of diesohol. Hydrated ethanol production is a one-stage refining.
Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of sugar solutions from sugar cane or grain crops.
The action of yeast on the sugar produces a solution containing about 12% ethanol. The
alcohol can be concentrated by distillation to produce up to 96% ethanol. Removal of the
remaining 4% water requires special treatment.

BIODIESEL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Biodiesel’s production includes the transesterification stage that is followed by
separation and evaporation stages. Any material that contains triglycerides can be used as
raw material for this production. The basic chemical reaction for this production is the
following:
Catalyst: can be either a chemical acid or a base

Reaction temperature: must be greater than 60 °C
Mode of Operation: the production occurs in batches
In a standard biodiesel production process, 1 ton of raw material, containing 2.5% fatty
acids and 135 kg of methanol produce 946 kg of methyl esters, 89 kg of glycerine, and 23 kg
of fatty acids. Byproducts, such as glycerine and animal feed, are exploitable and can add to
the system’s significant incomes.

Vegetable oils are chemically triglycerides molecules in which three fatty acids groups
are esters attached to one glycerol molecule. Vegetable oils from renewable oil seeds can be
use when mixed with diesel fuels.
Vegetable oil (m)ethyl esters, commonly referred to as ‘‘biodiesel,” are prominent

candidates as alternative diesel fuels. The name biodiesel has been given to transesterified
vegetable oil to describe its use as a diesel fuel. There has been renewed interest in the use
of vegetable oils for making biodiesel due to its less polluting and renewable nature as against
the conventional diesel, which is a fossil fuel leading to a potential exhaustion.
Biodiesel is technically competitive with or offer technical advantages compared to

conventional petroleum diesel fuel. The vegetable oils can be converted to their (m)ethyl
esters via transesterification process in the presence of catalyst. Methyl, ethyl, 2-propyl and
butyl esters were prepared from vegetable oils through transesterification using potassium
and/or sodium alkoxides as catalysts. The purpose of the transesterification process is to
lower the viscosity of the oil. Ideally, transesterification is potentially a less expensive way of
transforming the large, branched molecular structure of the bio-oils into smaller, straight-
chain molecules of the type required in regular diesel combustion engines. The biodiesel
esters were characterized for their physical and fuel properties including density, viscosity,
iodine value, acid value, cloud point, pure point, gross heat of combustion and volatility. The
biodiesel fuels produced slightly lower power and torque, and higher fuel consumption than
No. 2 diesel fuel.
Biodiesel is better than diesel fuel in terms of sulfur content, flash point, aromatic
content and biodegradability. The cost of biodiesels varies depending on the base stock,
geographic area, variability in crop production from season to season, the price of the crude
petroleum and other factors. Biodiesel has over double the price of petroleum diesel. The high
price of biodiesel is in large part due to the high price of the feedstock. However, biodiesel
can be made from other feedstocks, including beef tallow, pork lard, and yellow grease. Most
of the biodiesel that is currently made uses soybean oil, methanol, and an alkaline catalyst.
The high value of soybean oil as a food product makes production of a cost-effective fuel very
challenging. However there are large amounts of low-cost oils and fats such as restaurant
waste and animal fats that could be converted to biodiesel. The problem with processing these
lowcost oils and fats is that they often contain large amounts of free fatty acids (FFA) that
cannot be converted to biodiesel using an alkaline catalyst.
Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly alternative liquid fuel that can be used in any
diesel engine without modification. There has been renewed interest in the use of vegetable
oils for making biodiesel due to its less polluting and renewable nature as against the
conventional petroleum diesel fuel. If the biodiesel valorized efficiently at energy purpose, so
would be benefit for the environment and the local population, job creation, provision of
modern energy carriers to rural communities, avoid urban migration and reduction of CO2 and
sulfur levels in the atmosphere.

BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY
Interest in biogas technology is increasing around the world due to the requirements
for renewable energy production, reuse of materials and reduction of harmful emissions.
Biogas technology offers versatile and case-specific options for tackling all of the above
mentioned targets with simultaneous controlled treatment of various organic materials. It
produces methane-rich biogas which can be utilised as renewable energy in various ways. The
residual material, digestate, contains all the nutrients of the original raw materials and offers
a way to recycle them. Along the process steps, also emissions directly from the raw materials
(storage, use, disposal) or from the replaced products (fossil fuels, inorganic fertilisers) can
be reduced. Biogas technology is currently the most sustainable way to utilise the energy
content of manure while also recycling the nutrients and minimising the emissions. In this
report, special emphasis is given to the anaerobic digestion of manure, alone and with co-
substrates.
Biogas is produced in biogas plants by the

bacterial degradation of biomass under anaerobic
conditions. There are three categories of biomass: (1)
substrate of farm origin such as liquid manure, feed
waste, harvest waste and energy crops; (2) waste from
private households and municipalities such as
separately collected organic waste (in organic waste
containers), market waste, expired food or food waste;
(3) industrial by-products such as glycerine, by-products
of food processing or waste from fat separators. The
organic substance is converted to biogas by bacteria in several steps in airtight digesters. The
bacteria are similar to those found in the prestomachs of ruminants.
As with fossil natural gas, the main component of biogas that determines the energy
content of the gas is flammable methane (CH4). Depending on the substrate digested in the
biogas plant, the methane content of the biogas fluctuates between 50% and 75%. The
second main component of biogas is carbon dioxide (CO2) with a share between 25% and
50%. Other components of biogas are water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and traces of sulfur (S2) and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). If biogas is upgraded to biomethane with approximately 98% methane
in a biogas treatment plant, the biomethane has the same properties as natural gas.
Experts are not agreed as far as the

importance of biogas for the sustainable
supply of energy is concerned. Basically, a
difference should be made between two
different origins of the substrate on which
biogas plants feed: waste and energy plants.
Whereas the untapped reserve of digestible
organic waste is enormous on a world scale, large unused areas of land on which energy crops
can be cultivated are also available.
BIOGAS FEEDSTOCKS
Biomass is the general term used to describe all biologically produced matter and
therefore includes all kinds of materials and substances derived from living organisms.
Biomass is widely used for energy purposes and supplies today some 50 EJ globally, which
represents about 10% of the global annual primary energy consumption (World Energy
Council, 2010). According to the World Energy Council, there is still significant potential to
expand biomass for energy use, including for biogas production, by tapping the large volumes
of unused residues and wastes. Biomass originating from forestry and agriculture, along with
industrial and municipal residues and wastes, are the biomass types used as feedstock for
energy generation. Biomass resources suitable as biogas feedstocks, usually named
anaerobic digestion (AD) feedstock are represented by a large variety of organic materials
available on a renewable basis, ranging from simple compounds to complex high-solid

matters. They usually have a high content of sugar, starch, proteins or fats, and a common
feature is their ability to be easily decomposed through AD.
The biomass resources

amenable to biogas production can
be grouped into categories according
to various criteria. According to the
taxonomic rank (Latin regnum) of
their origin, they can be vegetal
(plantae) and animal (animalia).
According to the sector generating
them, they can be agricultural (animal
manures and slurries, vegetable by-products and residues, energy crops), industrial (organic
wastes, by-products and residues from agroindustries, food industries, fodder and brewery
industries, organic-loaded wastewaters and sludges from industrial processes, organic by-
products from biofuel production and biorefineries, etc.), municipal (source-separated
household waste, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste and food residues). Across these
sectors, wastes, residues and by-products of different biomass value chains are the most
sustainable materials now used as AD feedstocks (Table 2.1).

Over the last decade, the potential of aquatic biomass as a feedstock for biogas has
received increasing attention and has become the focus of research efforts around the world
in attempts to develop cost sustainable and technically feasible full-scale applications for the
culture, harvesting and utilization of biogas feedstocks (Wellinger, 2009). Although its
utilization as a biogas feedstock is still in the research phase, aquatic biomass is one of the
biomass types with the highest potential for renewable energy production as well as various
industrial applications and a possible future alternative to energy crops.
AGRICULTURAL FEEDSTOCKS
The feedstock substrates used for biogas are primarily derived from the agricultural
sector, which accounts for the largest potential for biogas feedstocks (Steffen et al., 1998).
These feedstocks consist mainly of various residues and by-products, of which the most
important are animal manures and slurries collected from farms (from cattle, pigs, poultry,
etc.). Along with manure and slurry, crop residues, by-products and wastes (e.g. straw,
grasses, leaves, fruits, whole plants) are also used. Over the last decade, new categories of
feedstocks have been tested and are now used in AD plants; this is the case of energy crops
(maize, grasses, beets, sunflowers, etc.), grown specially for biogas production.

Animal Manure and Slurries
Manures and slurries from a variety of

animals can be used as feedstocks for biogas
production (pigs, cattle, poultry, horses, mink
and many others). They are characterized by
differing dry matter contents: solid farmyard
manure (10–30% dry matter) or liquid slurry
(below 10% dry matter). Their composition also
differs according to the species of origin and
the quality of the animal feed. For simplificity, the general term ‘animal manure’ is
often used. Manure is an excellent feed stock substrate for AD; with a carbon to
nitrogen (C:N) ratio of around 25:1 and rich in various nutrients necessary for the
growth of anaerobic microorganisms. It has a high buffer capacity, able to stabilize the
AD process in the case of a significant pH decrease inside the digester, has a natural
content of anaerobic microorganisms, is highly accessible and is cheap.
Solid manure and slurries also have some limitations as a feedstock for AD. As
noted earlier, animal slurries have a low dry matter content (3–5% for pig slurries and
6–9% for cattle slurries), which gives a low methane yield per unit volume of digested
feedstock, ranging between 10 and 20 cu.m. methane per cubic meter of digested
slurry (Angelidaki, 2002), and biomass transport costs are high. Both slurries and
manures contain various amounts of straw and fiber particles that are high in ligno-
celluloses. The lingocellulosic fractions are known to be recalcitrant to anaerobic
decomposition and usually pass through a biogas reactor undigested, without any
contribution to methane production. As such, although manures have one of the
highest potentials as a feedstock for biogas, their relatively low methane yield does
not provide economic sustainability in the case of monodigestion, so they are
dependent on co-digestion with co-substrates with a high methane yield. A number of
emerging technologies based on chemical, mechanic, thermal or ultrasound

treatments have been tested in attempts to disintegrate the recalcitrant matter in
animal manure (Angelidaki and Ahring, 2000) and make it available for the anaerobic
microorganisms, with the aim of enhancing the methane yield and thus the economic
efficiency of manure mono-digestion.
Crop Residues
The category of plant residues

includes various vegetable agricultural
byproducts and harvest residues, plants and
plant parts, low-quality or spoiled crops,
fruits and vegetables, and spoiled feed
silage. Plant residues are usually digested as
co-substrates with animal manures and
other feedstock types. Most of them need to
be pre-treated before feeding in to a digester.Pre-treatments range from simple
mechanical particle size reduction to more complicated treatments aiming at breaking
the ligno-cellulosic molecul es in order to facilitate the access of anaerobic
microorganisms to these structures. A particle size of 1 cm (Amon and Boxberger,
1999) allows proper handling and mixing with other feedstock types and ensures good
digestion.
Energy Crops
Many varieties of crops, both whole plants and parts of plants, have been tested
and proven to be suitable as biogas feedstock. These include maize, various grasses,
various cereals, beets, potatoes and sunflowers, as shown in Table 2.2.

Some newly introduced energy crops
Silphium perfoliatum, Sorghum bicolor,
Sorghum Sudanese and Helianthus tuberosus.
Mixed cropping with different plant species has
also been considered. Woody crops are
currently not used for AD, as biomass
containing a high percentage of lignin cannot
be effectively decomposed by anaerobic
microorganisms. Ongoing research is currently
focusing on delignification pre-treatments and technologies for efficient utilization of
woody biomass as feedstock for biogas production (Al Seadi et al., 2008).
The use of energy crops as a feedstock for biogas implies some specific
technologic steps prior to digestion: harvesting, pre-processing and storage/ensiling.
Herbaceous energy crops like grass, sunflowers, maize and sugar beet are normally
used fresh or as silage. Maize is the most frequently used energy crop in the majority
of existing biogas plants (Murphy et al., 2011); it can be harvested with ordinary
combine harvesters that simultaneously harvest and chop the whole plant for
subsequent ensiling. Crops for biogas can be immediately fed to the digester or stored
as silage for year-round availability. Grass crops can be harvested 3–5 times per
season (Fig. 2.1). Murphy et al. (2011) have indicated that the composition of crops
and thus their suitability as AD feedstock varies with the stage of maturity. In general,
cellulosic content increases with maturity, negatively affecting the digestibility and the
methane yield of the crop. Less mature crops, however, have a higher moisture
content, making storage difficult.

Sugar beet is harvested in temperate climates later than most crops, usually in
January (Murphy et al., 2011). Beet crops are excellent biogas feedstock, as proven by
trial results obtained in Denmark in 2009, where beet provided 30–40% higher
biomass yields per hectare compared with other annual crops (Table 2.3). Beet crops
also have a good uptake of nutrients until late fall, reducing in this way the risk of
nutrient losses to groundwater.

The cultivation of energy crops requires a high input of fertilizers, pesticides and
energy for harvesting and transport. This reduces considerably the environmental
sustainability of their use for biogas and for renewable energy production in general.
The cultivation of energy crops also implies a paradigm shift for the role of farmers in
society, moving from food and feed producer to energy producer as well. United
Nations statistics estimate that the world population could reach 10.5 billion by 2050
(Felby, 2011).
INDUSTRIAL BIOGAS FEEDSTOCK
Considerable amounts of by-products, residues and wastes are produced by industrial

activities that process agricultural raw materials. These industries include food and beverage,
fodder, fish processing, milk, starch, sugar, pharmaceuticals, biochemicals and cosmetics,
pulp and paper, as well as slaughterhouses (see Table 2.1). Wastes from these industries are
diverse and have various methane potentials, dry matter contents, structures and
compositions, according to their origin. Common for most of them is that they are
homogeneous, easily digestible and rich in lipids, proteins or sugars. Many industrial wastes
are used as ‘methane boosters’, due to their extreme high methane potential. Industrial
organic wastes can be treated by AD as additional feedstocks in smaller decentralized biogas
plants, large codigesting plants or at industrial production locations (e.g. organic-loaded
industrial wastewaters). In the case of organic-loaded wastewaters, the aim is to reduce their
organic loading and make them suitable for further disposal and to use the produced biogas
for process energy.
By-products from Biorefineries and the Biofuels Industry
Biofuel production facilities – and, in the future, the biorefineries that are under
development today – are likely to accumulate very large amounts of organic by-
products, almost all suitable for AD. In grain-processing bioethanol plants, all silage
fractions are typically anaerobically degradable. In sugar cane bio-ethanol plants, the
cane juice silage is also a suitable substrate for AD, whereas the bagasse is mainly
incinerated for energy recovery. In biodiesel production, the glycerol as well as the
wastewaters are suitable substrates for AD, while the residual cake after oil extraction
is often used as animal feed. As the biofuels and biorefinery industries become more
prominent, there will be a greater need for integrating industrial AD processes.
The main limitation for using industrial

organic wastes for biogas production is
related to their potential content of
undesirable matter such as biological,
physical or even chemical pollutants.
Depending on the process of their origin,
industrial wastes can contain physical
impurities, pathogens, heavy metals or
persistent organic compounds in such amounts that they could become sources of
environmental pollution or pose health risks for humans and animals when the
produced digestate is used as crop fertilizer.
MUNICIPAL BIOGAS FEEDSTOCK
Municipal Waste refers to the organic

fraction of household waste such as food
waste, garden waste and other similar organic
wastes, separately collected. Increasing
urbanization and consumption patterns makes
adequate waste management mandatory.
Separate collection is a solution that is capable
of providing clean and high-quality materials for
use as AD feedstock, at the same time reducing
the stream of organic materials going to landfills and incineration (Favoino, 2002; Rutz
et al., 2011) in favor of recycling and nutrients reco very. Separately collected organic

household wastes are often co-digested with animal manure and slurries in
manurebased AD plants.
Organic household wastes have a high biodegradability and methane yield.

Their nutrient content is well balanced and favorable for the metabolism of anaerobic
microorganisms (Zhang et al., 2006). As household waste contains various pathogens,
fungi and other biological vectors, sanitation is required for effective inactivation of the
pathogenic matter.
Sewage Sludge
Anaerobic digestion used to treat

primary and secondary sludge resulting from
the aerobic treatment of municipal
wastewater is a standard technology around
the world. The technology is used in
thousands of installations as part of modern
treatment systems of municipal wastewaters.
Sewage sludge has a methane potential
similar to animal slurries (primary sludge has a higher methane potential than waste-
activated sludge). Various pre-treatments can be applied to increase methane yield,
aiming at disintegration of bacterial biomass and releasing organic substances easily
accessible to the subsequent anaerob ic degradation, for example mechanical
disintegration, chemical hydrolyses, thermal hydrolyses and enzymatic degradation
(Rulkens, 2008).
The limiting factor for the use of sewage sludge as biogas feedstock is the high
content of pollutants and the risks related to their subsequent presence in digestate
used as fertilizer. Because of its origin, sewage sludge contains significant amounts of
biologic and chemical pollutants.

PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
THE CHEMISTRY OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION
Anaerobic processes are quite complex microbial processes that take place in the
absence of oxygen. Bacteria are mainly involved in the process but higher trophic groups such
as protoza and anaerobic fungi may be involved. The microbial population contains many
diverse genera (types) of obligate anaerobic bacteria (strictly anaerobic) and facultative
anaerobic bacteria (i.e. with the ability to function as aerobes in the presence of oxygen).
Hydrolysis
In general, hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which the breakdown of water

occurs to form H+ cations and OH- anions. Hydrolysis is often used to break down
larger polymers, often in the presence of an acidic catalyst. In anaerobic digestion,
hydrolysis is the essential first step, as biomass is normally comprised of very large
organic polymers, which are otherwise unusable. Through hydrolysis, these large
polymers, namely proteins, fats and carbohydrates, are broken down into smaller
molecules such as amino acids, fatty acids, and simple sugars. While some of the
products of hydrolysis, including hydrogen and acetate, may be used by methanogens
later in the anaerobic digestion process, the majority of the molecules, which are still
relatively large, must be further broken down in the process of acidogenesis so that
they may be used to create methane.
Acidogenesis
Acidogenesis is the next step of anaerobic digestion in which acidogenic

microorganisms further break down the Biomass products after hydrolysis. These
fermentative bacteria produce an acidic environment in the digestive tank while
creating ammonia, H2, CO2, H2S, shorter volatile fatty acids, carbonic acids, alcohols,
as well as trace amounts of other byproducts. While acidogenic bacteria further breaks

down the organic matter, it is still too large and unusable for the ultimate goal of
methane production, so the biomass must next undergo the process of acetogenesis.
Acetogenesis
In general, acetogenesis is the creation of acetate, a derivative of acetic acid,

from carbon and energy sources by acetogens. These microorganisms catabolize many
of the products created in acidogenesis into acetic acid, CO2 and H2. Acetogens break
down the Biomass to a point to which Methanogens can utilize much of the remaining
material to create Methane as a Biofuel.
Methanogenesis
Methanogenesis constitutes the final stage of anaerobic digestion in which

methanogens create methane from the final products of acetogenesis as well as from
some of the intermediate products from hydrolysis and acidogenesis. There are two
general pathways involving the use of acetic acid and carbon dioxide, the two main
products of the first three steps of anaerobic digestion, to create methane in
methanogenesis
While CO2 can be converted into methane and water through the reaction, the
main mechanism to create methane in methanogenesis is the path involving acetic
acid. This path creates methane and CO2, the two main products of anaerobic
digestion.

PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS BY ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Anaerobic digester systems for the production of biogas have been used for decades
at municipal wastewater facilities, and more recently, have been used to process industrial
and agricultural wastes (Burke, 2001). These systems are designed to optimize the growth of
the methane-forming (methanogenic) bacteria that generate CH4.
Feedstock (Manure) Collection and Handling. Key considerations in the system design
include the amount of water and inorganic solids that mix with manure during
collection and handling.
Pretreatment. Collected manure may undergo pretreatment prior to introduction in an

anaerobic digester. Pretreatment—which may include screening, grit removal, mixing,
and/or flow equalization—is used to adjust the manure or slurry water content to meet
process requirements of the selected digestion technology. A concrete or metal
collection/mix tank may be used to accumulate manure, process water and/or flush
water. Proper design of a mix tank prior to the digester can limit the introduction of
sand and rocks into the anaerobic digester itself. If the digestion processes requires a
thick manure slurry, a mix tank serves a control point where water can be added to dry
manure or dry manure can be added to dilute manure. If the digester is designed to
handle manures mixed with flush and process water, the contents of the collection/mix
tank can be pumped directly to a solids separator. A variety of solids separators,
including static and shaking screens are available and currently used on farms.
Anaerobic Digestion. An anaerobic digester is an engineered containment vessel

designed to exclude air and promote the growth of methane bacteria. The digester may
be a tank, a covered lagoon (Figure 2-1), or a more complex design, such as a tank
provided with internal baffles or with surfaces for attached bacterial growth. It may be
designed to heat or mix the organic material. Manure characteristics and collection
technique determine the type of anaerobic digestion technology used. Some
technologies may include the removal of impurities such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
which is highly corrosive.
By-product Recovery and Effluent Use. It is possible to recover digested fiber from the
effluent of some dairy manure digesters. This material can then be used for cattle
bedding or sold as a soil amendment. Most of the ruminant and hog manure solids
that pass through a separator will digest in a covered lagoon, leaving no valuable
recoverable byproduct.
Biogas Recovery. Biogas formed in the anaerobic digester bubbles to the surface and
may accumulate beneath a fixed rigid top, a flexible inflatable top, or a floating cover,
depending on the type of digester. (Digesters can also include integral low-pressure
gas storage capability, as described in Chapter 4.) The collection system, typically
plastic piping, then directs the biogas to gas handling subsystems.
Biogas Handling. Biogas is usually pumped or compressed to the operating pressure

required by specific applications and then metered to the gas use equipment. Prior to
this, biogas may be processed to remove moisture, H2S, and CO2, the main
contaminants in dairy biogas, in which case the biogas becomes biomethane. Partial
removal of contaminants, particularly H2S, will yield an intermediate product that we
refer to in this report as partially upgraded biogas).

Biogas Use. Recovered biogas can be used directly as fuel for heating or it can be
combusted in an engine to generate electricity or flared. If the biogas is upgraded to
biomethane, additional uses may be possible.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
The environmental impacts of on-farm anaerobic digestion depend on the manure
management system that the digester amends or replaces as well as the actual use of the
biogas produced. Typically, the anaerobic digestion of dairy manure followed by flaring of
biogas, combustion of biogas for electricity, or production and use of biomethane as fuel can
provide a number of direct environmental benefits. These include:
• Reduced GHG emissions

• Potential reduction of VOC emissions
• Odor control
• Pathogen and weed seed control
• Improved water quality
One potentially negative environmental impact of anaerobic digesters that combust

the biogas is the creation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are regulated air pollutants and an
ozone precursor. Nitrogen oxides are created by combustion of fuel with air. Combustion of
dairy biogas or any other methane containing gas (whether in a flare, reciprocating or gas
turbine engine, or a boiler) will emit NOx. The emission rate varies but is generally lowest for
properly engineered flares and highest for rich burn reciprocating (piston) engines. NOx
emissions are controlled by using lean burn engines, catalytic controls or microturbines. The
latter two methods are fouled by the high sulfur content of biogas, and the H2S must be
scrubbed to prevent the swift corrosion of these devices.

Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The use of anaerobic digestion to create biogas from

dairy manure can reduce GHG emissions in two distinct
ways. First, when used in combination with a manure
management system that stores manure under
anaerobic conditions, it can prevent the release of CH4,
a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Second, the
biogas or biomethane generated by the anaerobic
digestion process can r eplace the use of fossil fuels that
generate GHG
Reduced Volatile Organic Compound Emissions
VOCs are an intermediate product generated by methanogenic bacteria during

the transformation of manure into biogas. It is expected that the total volume of VOCs
generated is related to the total volume of CH4 produced, but the more effective the
methanogenic decomposition, the lower the VOCs as a percentage of the biogas. VOCs
are created by enteric fermentation (the digestion process of the cow) and released
primarily through the breath of the cow. They are also by the anaerobic decomposition
of manure. A well designed and managed anaerobic digester may reduce VOCs by
more completely transforming them into CH4. Some fraction of the remaining VOCs in
the biogas should be eliminated through the combustion of the biogas.
Increased Nitrogen Oxide Emissions
When biogas or any fuel is combusted in an internal combustion engine it

produces NOx, a criteria air pollutant as well as a precursor to ozone and smog.
Control of Unpleasant Odor
Most of the odor problem comes from H2S, VOC, and ammonia (NH3-N)
emissions from dairy manure. While hard to measure objectively, these odors are

perceived as a serious environmental problem by residents in proximity to dairy farms.
Fortunately, anaerobic digestion is a good method for controlling these odors,
particularly if used in conjunction with a system that will scrub the H2S from the biogas.
Control of Pathogens and Weed Seeds
Digesters that are heated to mesophilic and thermophilic levels are very
effective in denaturing weed seeds and reducing pathogens. Pathogen reduction is
greater than 99% in a 20-day hydraulic retention time, mesophilic digester.
Thermophilic temperatures essentially result in the complete elimination of pathogens.
Covered-lagoon digesters, which operate at ambient temperatures, have a more
modest effect on weed seeds and pathogens.
Improved Water Quality
The anaerobic digestion process is an effective way to reduce high BOD in the
effluent. Biological oxygen demand is a measure of the amount of oxygen used by
microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter; BOD concentrations in
dairy wastewater are often 25 to 40 times greater than those in domestic wastewater.
Anaerobic processes can remove 70% to 90% of the BOD in high-strength wastewater
at a lower cost, in terms of both land and energy inputs, than aerated systems.


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CHE 525 - ChE ELECTIVE II: Renewable Energy Technologies

DIONISIO, Charles Amiel P.

REDUBLO, Anne Paulinne P.

Dr. Denvert C. Pangayao

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 1

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 2

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 3

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 4

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 5

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 6

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 7

Similarly, commercial livestock farms generate significant amount of animal wastes.

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 8

Notwithstanding a range of incentive schemes, including a value added tax exemption

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 9

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 10

5. Lower carbon emissions

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 11

3. Production carbon emissions

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 12

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 13

I. FIRST GENERATION BIOFUELS

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 14

Biogas is mainly produced after the anaerobic digestion of the organic

These are alcohols produced by the use of enzymes and micro-organisms

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 15

3. Production carbon emissions

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 16

COMMON SECOND-GENERATION FEEDSTOCK

To qualify as a second-generation feedstock, a source must not be suitable for human

A. Jatropha and other seed crops

Seed crops are useful in the

B. Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO)

WVO have been used as a fuel for

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 17

C. Municipal Solid Waste

Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) is the fraction

It is produced from the municipal or

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 18

Pretreatment is designed to help separate cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 19

III. THIRD GENERATION BIOFUELS

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 20

A. CARBON CAPTURING BIOMASS

How does it work?

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 21

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 22

BIOETHANOL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 23

A major processing step in an ethanol plant is enzymatic saccharification of cellulose

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 24

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 25

Catalyst: can be either a chemical acid or a base

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 26

Vegetable oil (m)ethyl esters, commonly referred to as ‘‘biodiesel,” are prominent

Biodiesel is technically competitive with or offer technical advantages compared to

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 28

Biogas is produced in biogas plants by the

Experts are not agreed as far as the

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 30

The biomass resources

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 31

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOOGIES: BIOFUELS 33