Chapter02數學基礎

自動控制
Chapter 2 數學基礎
 本章目的
1. 介紹複數。
2. 介紹頻域分析以及頻率圖。
3. 介紹微分方程式和狀態空間系統。
4. 介紹拉氏轉換的基本理論。
5. 舉例說明應用拉氏轉換求解線性常微分方程式的方法。
6. 介紹轉移函數觀念，及如何應用來建置線性非時變系統的模型。
7. 論述非時變系統之穩定性和羅斯赫維茲準則。
8. 以專案研究方式示範 MATLAB 工具的用法。
本章大部份習題的求解均可用MATLAB 工具
傳統控制理論所需數學工具包括複變數理論、微分和差分方程式、拉氏轉
換、z 轉換等。
現代控制理論需要更多精深的數學背景，諸如矩陣理論、集合理論、線性
代數和轉換、變分法、數學規劃、機率理論及其它更高深的數學。
NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems
_Joe-Air Jiang 2 _F. Golnaraghi & B. C. Kuo
複數
 Rectangular form : z  x  jy , where j  1 (2-1)
x  R cos θ
(2-2)
y  R sin θ
R  x2  y2
y (2-3)
θ  tan 1
x
z  R cos θ  jR sin θ (2-4)
e jθ  cos θ  j sin θ (2-5) Euler formula
z  Re   R
j
(2-6)
z*  x  jy (2-7)
z*  R cos θ  R sin θ  Re  jθ (2-8)
zz*  R 2  x 2  y 2 (2-9) 圖2-1 Complex number z representation
in rectangular and polar forms.

► 例題 2-1-1 Find j 3 and j 4.
π
π π j
j  1  cos  j sin  e 2
2 2
j 3  1 1 1   1   j
3π π
j j
j3  e 2
e 2
j4  j3 j   j2  1
► 例題 2-1-2 Find zn using Eq. (2-6).
z n   Re jθ   R n e jnθ  R n nθ
n
圖2-2 複數平面
複變數
Figure 2-2 illustrates the complex s-plane, in which any arbitrary point s = s1
is defined by the coordinates  = 1, and  = 1, or simply s1 = 1 + j1.

複變函數
 The function G(s) is said to be a function of the complex variable s if for
every value of s, there is one or more corresponding values of G(s).
 The function G(s) is also represented by
G ( s )  Re[G ( s )]  jlm[G(s )] (2-11)
where Re[G(s)] denotes
the real part of G(s), and
Im[G(s)] represents the
imaginary part of G(s).
圖2-3 Single-valued mapping from the s-plane to the G(s)-plane.

複變函數
 If for every value of s there is only one corresponding value of G(s) in the
G(s)-plane, G(s) is said to be a single-valued function, and the mapping from
points in the s-plane onto points in the G(s)-plane is described as single-valued
(Fig. 2-3).
 If the mapping from the G(s)-plane to the s-plane is also single-valued, the
mapping is called one-to-one. However, there are many functions for which the
mapping from the function plane to the complex-variable plane is not single
valued.
 For instance, given the function
1
G(s)  (2-12)
s ( s  1)
it is apparent that for each value of s, there is only one unique corresponding
value for G(s). However, the inverse mapping is not true; for instance, the
point G(s) =  is mapped onto two points, s = 0 and s = –1, in the s-plane.

解析函數(Analytic Function)
 A function G(s) of the complex variable s is called an analytic function in a
region of the s-plane if the function and all its derivatives exist in the region.
1
Ex. G ( s )  (2-12)
s ( s  1)
The function given in Eq. (2-2) is analytic at every point in the s-plane
except at the point s = 0 and s = –1.
Ex. The function G(s) = s + 2 is analytic at every point in the entire s-plane.
 Singularities and Poles of a Function
The singularities of a function are the points in the s-plane at which the function
or its derivatives does not exist. A pole is the most common type of singularity
and plays a very important role in the studies of classical control theory.

Definition of Pole:
If a function G(s) is analytic and single-valued in the neighborhood of si, it is said
to have a pole of order r at s = si if the limit
has a finite, nonzero value.

In other words, the denominator of G(s) must include the factor (s – si)r, so when
s = si, the function becomes infinite. If r = 1, the pole at s = si is called a simple
pole.
10( s  2)
Ex. G (s)  (2-13)
s ( s  1)( s  3) 2
The function in Eq. (2-13) has a pole of order 2 at s = – 3 and simple poles at s =
0 and s = – 1.

Zeros of a Function
Definition of Zero:
If a function G(s) is analytic and single-valued in the neighborhood of si, it is said
to have a zero of order r at s = si if the limit
has a finite, nonzero value. Or, simply, G(s) has a zero of order r at s = si if 1/G(s)
has an rth-order pole at s = si.
Ex. The function in Eq. (2-13) has a simple zero at s = – 2.
 The total numbers of poles and zeros of a rational function is the same, counting
the ones at infinity.
Ex. The function in Eq. (2-13) has four finite poles at s = 0, – 1, – 3, and – 3; there
is one finite zero at s = – 2, but there are three zeros at infinity, since
10
lim G ( s )  lim 0 (2-14)
s  s  s 3

10( s  2)
圖2-4 Graphical representation of G ( s )  in
s ( s  1)( s  3) 2
the s-plane: x poles and O zeros.



Polar Representation
To find the polar representation of G(s) in
Eq. (2-12) at s = 2j, we look at individual
components. That is
1
G(s)  (2-15)
s ( s  1)
2
j
π
tan  1
s  2 j  Re  2e
jθ 2 1

 s  1  2 j  1  Re
jθ
 (2-16)
R  2  1  5
2
圖2-5 Graphical representation of
 2 s1 = 2j + 1 in the s-plane.
θ  tan 1  1.107 (  63.44)
 1
1  j 2  tan1 1 
π 2
1 1  j π2 1  j tan1 12
G(2 j )   e e  e (2-17)
2 j(2 j  1) 2 5 2 5
Ex. 2-1-3
Find the polar representation of G(s) given below for s = jω, where ω is a constant
varying from zero to infinity.
16 16
G ( s)   (2-18)
s  10 s  16 ( s  2)( s  8)
2
To evaluate Eq.(2-18) at s = jω, we look at individual components. Thus,
jω  2  22  ω2 e j 1 (2-19)
ω  R 1sin  1 (2-20)
2  R 1cos  1 (2-21)
R 1 22  ω2 (2-22)
ω R1
 1 tan 1
(2-23)
2 R1

Ex. 2-1-3 (continued)
jω  2  R 1( j sin  1 cos  1) (2-24)
jω  2  R 1e j 1 (2-25)
jω  8  82  ω2 e j 2 (2-26)
ω R2
 2  tan 1 (2-27)
8 R2
16  16e0 (2-28)
See Fig.2-6 for a graphical representation of
components of 16/[(j + 2)/[(j + 8)]. Hence,
1 1

jω  2 22  ω2 e j 1 圖2-6 Graphical representation of
(2-29) components of 16/[(j + 2) /[(j + 8)].
1 1

jω  8 82  ω2 e j 2
As a result, G(s = jω) becomes:
16
G ( jω)  e j ( 1 2)  G ( jω) e j (2 - 30)
2 ω
2 2
8 ω
2 2
16
where R  G( ω)  G ( jω)  (2  31)
2 ω
2 2
8 ω2 2
similarly,we can define

Im G ( jω)
  tan 1  G ( s  jω)   1  2 (2 - 32)
Re G ( jω)
Table 2-2 describes different R and  values as changes. As shown, the magnitude
describes as the frequency increases. The phase goes from 0 to – 180.


Alternative Approach: If we multiply both numerator and denominator of Eq. (2.18)
by the complex conjugate of the denominator, i.e.,
( jω  2)( jω  8)
1
( jω  2)( jω  8)
we get G ( jω )  16(  jω  2)(  jω  8)
( ω  2 )( ω  8 )
2 2 2 2
16
 2 [(16  ω 2 )  j10 ω ]
( ω  4)( ω  64)
2
 Real  Imaginary
(2-33)
16 (16  ω )  (10 ω )
2 2
 e j 10ω / R
( ω  4)( ω  64)
2 2 where   tan 1
(16  ω2 ) / R
16
 e j  Re j
( ω 2  4)( ω 2  64)  Im(G ( jω)) 
 tan 1  
 Re( G ( jω )) 
See Fig. 2-7 for a graphical representation
of 16/[(j + 2) /[(j + 8)] for a fixed value of ω.
圖 2.7 Graphical representation of

16/[(j + 2) /[(j + 8)] for a fixed value of .

Ex. Consider the following second order system:
K
G (s)  (2-34)
( s  p )( s  p )
1 2
where (– p1) and (– p2) are poles of the function G(s). By definition, if s = j,
G(j) is the frequency response function of G(s), because  has a unit of
frequency (rad/s):
K
G(s)  (2-35)
( j  p )( j  p )
1 2
The magnitude of G(j)

K
R  G ( j )  (2-36)
j   p j  p
1 2
And the phase angle of G(j) is

  G ( j )  K  j  p  j  p    
1 2 1 2 (2-37)

 For the general case, where
m
 (s  z )
k
G( s )  K k 1
n (2-38)
 (s  p )
i 1
i
 The magnitude and phase of G(s) are as follows
jω  z1 ... jω  zm
R  G ( jω)  K
jω  p1 ... jω  pn (2-39)
  G( jω)  (ψ1  ...  ψm )  ( 1 ...   n )



頻域圖
 Let G(s) be the forward-path transfer function of a linear control system with
unity feedback. The frequency-domain analysis of the closed-loop system can be
conducted from the frequency-domain plots of G(s) with s replaced by j.
 The function G(j) is generally a complex function of the frequency , and can
be written as
G( j)  G( j) G( j) (2-40)
where G(j)  denotes the magnitude of G(j), and G(j) is the phase of
G(j).
 The following frequency-domain plots of G(j) versus  are often used in the
analysis and design of linear control systems in the frequency domain.

 COMPUTER-AIDED CONSTRUCTION OF THE FREQUENCY-DOMAIN PLOTS

The MATLAB and ACSYS computer programs can be used for this purpose.
 Polar plots
 The polar plot of a function of the complex variable s, G(s), is a plot of the
magnitude of G(j) versus the phase of G(j) on polar coordinates as  is
varied from zero to infinity.
 From a mathematical viewpoint, the process can be regarded as the mapping
of the positive half of the imaginary axis of the s-plane onto the G(j)-plane.
 A simple example of this mapping is shown in Fig. 2-8. For any frequency  =
1, the magnitude and phase of G(j1) are represented by a vector in the
G(j)-plane. In measuring the phase, counterclockwise is referred to as
positive, and clockwise is negative.
圖 2-8 Polar plot shown as a mapping of the positive half of the

j -axis in the s-plane onto the G(j)-plane.

Ex. 2-2-1
To illustrate the construction of the polar plot of a function G(s), consider the function
1
G (s)  (2-41)
1  Ts
where T is a positive constant. Setting s = jω, we have
1
G ( j )  (2-42)
1  j T
In terms of magnitude and phase, Eq.(2-42) is rewritten as
1
G ( j )    tan T
1
(2-43)
1  T
2 2
 When  is zero, the magnitude of G(j) is unity, and the phase of G(j) is at 0.
Thus, at  = 0, G(j) is represented by a vector of unit length directed in the 0
direction.
 As  increases, the magnitude of G(j) decreases, and the phase becomes more
negative. As  increases, the length of the vector in the polar coordinates
decreases, and the vector rotates in the clockwise (negative) direction.
 When  approaches infinity, the magnitude of G(j) becomes zero, and the
phase reaches – 90. This is presented by a vector with an infinitesimally small
length directed along the – 90-axis in the G(j)-plane.
 By substituting other finite values of  into Eq. (2-43), the exact plot of G(j)
turns out to be a semicircle, as shown in Fig. 2-9.
圖2-9

Ex2-2-2
As a second illustrative example, consider the function
1  jωT2
G ( jω)  (2-44)
1  jωT1
where T1 and T2 are positive real constants. Eq.(2-44) is re-written as
1  ω2T22 1 1
G ( jω)  (tan ωT2  tan ωT1 ) (2-45)
1  ω T1
2 2
 The polar plot of G(j), in this case, depends on the relative magnitudes of T1
and T2.
 If T2 is greater than T1, the magnitude of G(j) is always greater than unity as 
is varied from zero to infinity, and the phase of G(j) is always positive.
 If T2 is less than T1, the magnitude of G(j) is always less than unity, and the
phase is always negative.
 The polar plots of G(j) of Eq. (2-45) that correspond to these two conditions
are shown in Fig. 2-10.

 The general shape of the polar plot of a function G(j) can be determined from
The following information.
1. The behavior of the magnitude and phase of G(j) at  = 0 and  = ∞.
2. The intersections of the polar plot with the real and imaginary axes,
and the values of  at these intersections.
圖2-10



Ex. 2-2-3
In frequency-domain analyses of control systems, often we have to determine the
basic properties of a polar plot. Consider the following transfer function:
10
G(s)  (2-46)
s ( s  1)
By substituting s = jω in Eq.(2-46),the magnitude and phase of G(jω) at ω = 0 and
ω = ∞ are computed as follows:
10
lim G ( jω)  lim  (2-47)
ω0 ω0 ω
lim G ( jω)  lim 10 / jω  90 (2-48)

ω0 ω0
10
lim G ( jω)  lim 0 (2-49)
ω ω ω 2
lim G( jω)  lim 10 / ( jω)2  180 (2-50)

ω ω

Thus, the properties of the polar plot of G(jω) at ω = 0 and ω = ∞ are ascertained.
Next, we determine the intersections, if any, of the polar plot with the two axes of
the G(j)-plane. If the polar plot of G(j) intersects the real axis, at the point of
intersection, the imaginary part of G(j) is zero; that is,
Im[G ( jω)]  0 (2-51)
To express G(j) as the sum of its real and imaginary parts, we must rationalize
G(j) by multiplying its numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of
its denominator. Therefore, G(j) is written
10(  jω)( jω  1)
G ( jω) 
jω( jω  1)(  jω)( jω  1)
10ω 2 10ω
 4 j 4
ω ω 2
ω  ω2
 Re[G ( jω)]  j Im[G( jω)] (2-52)
 When we set Im[G(j)] to zero, we get  = , meaning that the G(j) plot
intersects only with the real axis of the G(j)-plane at the origin.
 Similarly, the intersection of G(j) with the imaginary axis is found by setting
Re[G(j)] of Eq. (2-52) to zero.
 The only real solution for  is also  = , which corresponds to the origin of the
G(j)-plane. The conclusion is that the polar plot of G(j) does not intersect any
one of the axes at any finite nonzero frequency.
 Under certain conditions, we are interested in the properties of the G(j) at
infinity, which corresponds to  = 0 in this case. From Eq. (2-52), we see that
Im[G(j)] =  and Re[G(j)] = – 10 at  = 0.
 Based on this information, as well as knowledge of the angles of G(j) at  = 0
and  = , the polar plot of G(j) is easily sketched without actual plotting, as
shown in Fig. 2-11.

Figure 2-11
Polar plot of G(s) = 10/[s(s + 1)].

Ex. 2-2-4
Given the transfer function
10
G (s)  (2-53)
s ( s  1)( s  2)
We want to make a rough sketch of the polar plot of G(jω).The following
calculations are made for the properties of the magnitude and phase of G(jω) at
ω = 0 and ω = ∞:
5
lim G ( jω)  lim  (2-54)
ω0 ω0 ω
lim G ( jω)  lim 5 / jω  90 (2-55)

ω0 ω 0
10
lim G( jω)  lim 0 (2-56)
ω ω ω3
(2-56-a)

 To find the intersections of the G(j) plot on the real and imaginary axes of
the G(j)-plane, we rationalize G(j) to give
10(  jω)(  jω  1)(  jω  2)
G ( jω)  (2-57)
jω( jω  1)( jω  2)(  jω)(  jω  1)(  jω  2)
 After simplification, the last equation is written
30 j10(2  ω 2 )
G ( jω)  Re[G( jω)]  j Im[G( jω)]   2 (2-58)
9ω  (2  ω ) 9ω  (2  ω 2 )2
2 2 2
 Setting Re[G(j)] to zero, we have  = , and G(j) = 0, which means that

the G(j) plot intersects the imaginary axis only at the origin.
 Setting Im[G(j)] to zero, we have  = 2 rad/sec. This gives the point of
intersection on the real axis at
G( j 2)  5 / 3 (2-59)

Figure 2-12
Polar plot of G(s) = 10/[s(s + 1)(s + 2)].


Bode plots
 The Bode plot of the function G(j) is composed of two plots, one with the
amplitude of G(j) in decibels (dB) versus log10  or , and the other with the
phase of G(j) in degrees as a function of log10 or .
 A Bode plot is also known as a corner plot or an asymptotic plot of G(j).
 In simple terms, the Bode plot has the following features:
 Consider the function:

K ( s  z1 )( s  z2 )...( s  zm ) Td s
G( s )  e (2-60)
s ( s  p1 )( s  p2 )...( s  pn )
j

where K and Td are real constants, and the z’s and the p’s may be real or
complex (in conjugate pairs) numbers.
 In Chapter 7, Eq. (2-60) is the preferred form for root-locus construction, since the
poles and zeros of G(s) are easily identified.
 For constructing the Bode plot manually, G(s) is preferably written in the following
form:
K1 (1  T1s )(1  T2 s )...(1  Tm s ) Td s
G( s)  e (2-61)
s (1  Ta s )(1  Tb s )...(1  Tn s )
j
where K1 is a real constant, the T ’s may be real or complex (in conjugate pairs)
numbers, and Td is the real time delay.
 If the Bode plot is to be constructed with a computer program, then either forms
of Eq. (2-60) or Eq. (2-61) can be used.
 Because practically all the terms in Eq. (2-61) are of the same form, then without
loss of generality, we can use the following transfer function to illustrate the
construction of the Bode diagram.
K (1  T1s )(1  T2 s )
G( s )  eTd s (2-62)
s(1  Ta s )(1  2ξs / ωn  s / ωn )
2 2
where K, Td, T1, T2, Ta, , and n are real constants. It is assumed that the
second-order polynomial in the denominator has complex-conjugate zeros.
 The magnitude of G(j) in dB is obtained by multiplying the logarithm (base 10)
of G(j) by 20; we have
G ( jω) dB  20log10 G ( jω)
 20log10 K  20log10 1  jωT1  20log10 1  jωT2 (2-63)
 20log10 jω  20log10 1  jωaTa  20log10 1  j 2ξω  ω2 / ωn 2
 The phase of G(j) is

G ( jω)  K  (1  jωT1 )  (1  jωT2 )  jω  (1  jωTa )
(2-64)
 (1  2ξω / ωn  ω / ω )  ωTd rad
2 2
n

 In general, the function G(j) may be of higher order than that of Eq. (2-62) and
have many more factored terms. However, Eqs. (2-63) and (2-64) indicate that
additional terms in G(j) would simply produce more similar terms in the
magnitude and phase expressions, so the basic method of construction of the
Bode plot would be the same.
 We have also indicated that, in general, G(j) can contain just five simple types
of factors:

 One of the unique characteristics of the Bode plot in that each of the five types
of factors listed can be considered as a separate plot; the individual plots are
then added or subtracted accordingly to yield the total magnitude in dB and the
phase plot of G(j).
 The curves can be plotted on semilog graph paper or linear rectangular-
coordinate graph paper, depending on whether  or log10 is used as the
abscissa.
 We shall now investigate sketching the Bode plot of different types of factors.
 Real constant K
K dB  20log10 K  constant (2-65)
0 K 0
K   (2-66)
 180 K 0
 The Bode plot of the real constant K is shown in Fig. 2-13 in semilog coordinates.



圖2-13 Bode plot of constant K.

圖2-13 Bode plot of constant K.

±p
Poles and Zeros at the Origin, (jω)
 The magnitude of (j)p in dB is given by
20log10 ( jω) p  20 p log10 ω dB (2-67)
for   0.
 The last expression for a given p represents a straight line in either semilog or
rectangular coordinates. The slopes of these lines are determined by taking the
derivative of Eq. (2-67) with respect to log10; that is,
d
( 20 p log10 ω)  20 p dB/decade (2-68)
dlog10ω
 These lines pass through the 0-dB axis at  = 1. Thus, a unit change in log10
corresponds to a change of  20p dB in magnitude. Furthermore, a unit change in
log10 in the rectangular coordinates is equivalent to one decade of variation in ,
that is, from 1 to 10, 10 to 100, and so on, in the semilog coordinates. Thus, the
slopes of the straight lines described by Eq. (2-68) are said to be 20p dB/decade
of frequency.
 Instead of decades, sometimes octaves are used to represent the separation of
two frequencies. The frequencies 1 and 2 are separated by one octave if
2/1 = 2. The number of decades between any two frequencies 1 and 2 is
given by
log10 (ω2 / ω1 ) ω 
number of decades   log10  2  (2-69)
log10 10  ω1 
 Similarly, the number of octaves between 1 and 2 is
log10 (ω2 / ω1 ) 1  ω2 
number of octaves   log10   (2-70)
log10 2 0.301  ω1 
Thus, the relation between octaves and decades is
number of octaves  1 / 0.301 decades  3.32 decades (2-71)

Substituting Eq. (2-71) into Eq. (2-67), we have
20 p dB/decade  20 p  0.301  6 p dB/octave (2-72)
 For the function G(s) = 1/s, which has a simple pole at s = 0, the magnitude of
G(j) is a straight line with a slope of – 20 dB/decade, and passes through the
0-dB axis at  = 1 rad/sec.
 The phase of (j)p is written
(jω) p   p  90 (2-73)
 The magnitude and phase curves of the function (j)p are shown in Fig. 2-14
for several values of p.

Figure 2.14 Bode plot of (j)p.

Figure 2.14 Bode plot of (j)p.

Simple zero,1+jωT
 Consider the function
G ( jω)  1  jωT (2-74)
where T is a positive real constant.
 The magnitude of G(j) in dB is
G ( jω) dB  20log10 G( jω)  20log10 1  ω2T 2 (2-75)

 To obtain asymptotic approximations of G(j) dB, we consider both very large
and very small values of . At very low frequencies, T << 1, Eq. (2-75) is
approximated by
G ( jω) dB  20log10 1  0 dB (2-76)

since 2T2 is neglected when compared with 1.
 At very high frequencies, T >> 1, we can approximate 1 + 2T2 by 2T2; then
Eq. (2-75) becomes

G ( jω) dB  20log10 ω 2T 2  20log10 ωT (2-77)
 Equation (2-76) represents a straight line with a slope of 20 dB/decade of
frequency. The intersect of these two lines is found by equating Eq. (2-76) to Eq.
(2-77), which gives
ω  1/ T (2-78)

 This frequency is also the intersect of high-frequency approximate plot and the
low frequency approximate plot, which is the 0-dB axis.
 The frequency given in Eq. (2-78) is also known as the corner frequency of the
Bode plot of Eq. (2-74), since the asymptotic plot forms the shape of a corner at
this frequency, as shown in Fig. 2-15.
 The actual plot G(j) dB of Eq. (2-74) is a smooth curve, and deviates only
slightly from the straight line approximation.
 The actual values and the straight-line approximation of 1 + jT dB as functions
of T are tabulated in Table 2-3.
 The error between the actual magnitude curve and the straight-line asymptotes is
symmetrical with respect to the corner frequency  = 1/T. It is useful to remember
that the error is 3 dB at the corner frequency, and 1 dB at 1 octave above ( =
2/T) and 1 octave below ( = 1/2T) the corner frequency. At 1 decade above and
below the corner frequency, the error is dropped to approximately 0.3 dB.

 Based on these facts, the procedure of drawing 1 + jT) dB is as follows:

Figure 2.15 Bode plot of G(s) = 1 + Ts and G(s) = 1/(1 + Ts).

Figure 2.15 Bode plot of G(s) = 1 + Ts and G(s) = 1/(1 + Ts).

Table 2-3 Values of (1 + jT) versus T.

Simple pole, 1/(1+jωT)
 For the function
1
G ( jω)  (2-80)
1  jωT
the magnitude, G(j) in dB, is given by the negative of the right side of Eq.(2-75),
and the phase G(j) is the negative of the angle in Eq. (2-79).
 Therefore, it is simple to extend all the analysis for the case of the simple zero to
the Bode plot of Eq. (2-80). The asymptotic approximations of G(j) dB at low
and high frequencies are
ωT  1 G ( jω) dB  0 dB (2-81)
ωT  1 G ( jω) dB  20log10 ωT (2-82)

 The corner frequency of the Bode plot of Eq. (2-80) is still at  = 1/T, except that
at high frequencies the slope of the straight-line approximation is – 20 dB/decade.

 The phase of G(j) is 0 degrees at  = 0, and – 90 when  = .
 The magnitude in dB and phase of the Bode plot of Eq. (2-80) are shown in
Fig. 2-15.
 The data in Table 2-3 are still useful for the simple-pole case if appropriate
sign changes are made to the numbers. For instance, the numbers in 1 +
jTdB, the the straight-line approximation of 1 + jTdB, the error (db), and
the (1 + jT) columns should all be negative.
 At the corner frequency, the error between the straight-line approximation and
the actual magnitude curve is – 3 dB.

Quadratic Poles and Zeros
 Consider the second-order transfer function
ωn 2 1
G( s )  2  (2-83)
s  2ξωn s  ωn 2 1  (2ξ / ωn ) s  (1 / ωn 2 ) s 2
 We are interested only in the case when  ≤ 1, because otherwise G(s) would
have two unequal real poles, and the Bode plot can be obtained by considering
G(s) as the product of two transfer functions with simple poles.
 By letting s = j, Eq. (2-83) becomes
1
G ( jω)  (2-84)
1  (ω / ωn )2   j 2ξ (ω / ωn )
 The magnitude of G(j) in dB is

2
G ( jω) dB  20log10 G ( jω)  20log10 1  (ω / ωn ) 2   4ξ 2 (ω / ωn ) 2 (2 - 85)

 At very low frequencies /n << 1, Eq. (2-85) can be approximated as
G ( jω) dB  20log10 G( jω)  20log10 1  0 dB (2 - 86)

 The low-frequency asymptote of the magnitude plot of Eq. (2-83) is a straight line
that lies on the 0-dB axis. At very high frequencies /n >> 1, the magnitude in
dB of G(j) in Eq. (2-83) becomes
G ( jω) dB  20log10 (ω / ωn )4  40log10 (ω / ωn ) dB (2 - 87)

 This equation represents a straight line with a slope of – 40 dB/decade in the
Bode plot coordinates. The intersection of the two asymptotes is found by
equating Eq. (2-86) to Eq. (2-87), yielding the corner frequency at  = n.
 The actual magnitude curve of G(j) in this case may differ strikingly from the
asymptotic curve. The reason for this is that the amplitude and phase curves of
the second-order G(j) depend not only on the corner frequency n, but also on
the damping ratio , which does not enter the asymptotic curve.
 The actual and the asymptotic curves of G(j) dB are shown in Fig. 2-16 for
several values of .
 The errors between the two sets of curves are shown in Fig. 2-17 for the same
set of values of .
 The standard procedure of constructing the second-order G(j) dB is to first
locate the corner frequency n, and – 40-dB/decade line to the right of n.
 The actual curve is obtained by making corrections to the asymptotes by using
either the data from the error curves of Fig. 2-17 or the curves in Fig. 2-16 for the
corresponding .
 The phase of G(j) is given by
 2ξω   ω 2  
G ( jω)   tan 1  1      (2-88)
 ωn   ωn   
and is plotted as shown in Fig. 2-16 for various values of .
 The analysis of the Bode plot of the second-order transfer function of Eq. (2-83)
can be applied to the second-order transfer function with two complex zeros.

 For the function
2ξ 1
G( s )  1  s  2 s2 (2-89)
ωn ωn
the magnitude and phase curves are obtained by inverting those in Fig. 2-16.
The errors between the actual and the asymptotic curves in Fig. 2-17 are
also inverted.



Figure 2-17 Errors in magnitude curves of Bode plots of



Pure Time Delay, exp(– jωTd)
 The magnitude of the pure time delay term is equal to unity for all values of .
The phase of the pure time delay term is
e jωTd  ωTd (2-90)

which decreases linearly as a function of . Thus, for the transfer function
G ( jω)  G1 ( jω)e jωTd (2 - 91)

the magnitude plot G(j) dB is identical to that of G1(j) dB .
 The phase plot G(j) is obtained by subtracting Td radians from the
phase curve of G1(j) at various .

Ex. 2-2-5
As an illustrative example on the manual construction of Bode plot, consider the
function
10( s  10)
G( s )  (2-92)
s( s  2)( s  5)
 The first step is to express G(s) in the form of of Eq. (2-92) and set s = j
(keeping in mind that for computer plotting, this step is unnecessary); we have
10(1  j 0.1ω)
G(jω)  (2-93)
jω(1  j 0.5ω)(1  j 0.2ω)
 Equation (2-93) shows that G(j) has corner frequencies at  = 2, 5, and 10
rad/sec. The pole at s = 0 gives a magnitude curve that is a straight line with slope
of – 20 dB/decade, passing through the  = 1 rad/sec point on the 0-dB axis.
 The complete Bode plot of the magnitude and phase of G(j) is obtained by
adding the component curves together, point by point, as shown in Fig. 2-18. The
actual curves can be obtained by a computer program and are shown in Fig. 2-18.
Figure 2-18 Bode plot of G(s) = 10(s + 10)/[s(s + 2)(s + 5)]

Figure 2-18 Bode plot of G(s) = 10(s + 10)/[s(s + 2)(s + 5)]


96年臺大生機所入學考
Consider a minimum-phase system whose asymptotic amplitude frequency
response is depicted in Fig. C.【計分：10分】 (1) Determine the transfer function
G(s) of the system. (2) Determine the two gain crossover frequencies g1 and g2.
【計分：10分】<Some useful values: 101.5 = 31.623, log1.5 = 0.1761, log0.2 =
0.699, and log5 = 0.699.>
dB
Fig. C
30
20 dB/decade  20 dB/decade
 40 dB/decade
0 g1 1 5 20 g2

<Sol.>
(1) The low-frequency asymptote has a slope of 20 dB/decade. Ks is a factor of the
transfer function with 20logK = 30. This gives
K =31.623
The transfer function is the obtained as
31.623s
G( s) 
 1  1 
(1  s )  1  s  1  s 
 5   20 
(2) The two gain crossover frequencies g1 and g2 can be determined as follows:
(i) Gain crossover frequency g1:
20log(31.623g1 )  0
This gives
g1  0.0316

(ii) Gain crossover frequency g1:
1   1 
20log(31.623g 2 )  20log g 2  20log  g 2   20log  g 2   0
5   20 
This gives
g 2  56.234
成功大學九十二年度系統及船舶機電工程研究所入學考
Plot the Bode plots of the following cases:
20 2s 2
Case (a) GA (s)  Case (b) GB ( s ) 
s (1  0.5s )(1  0.1s ) (1  0.4 s )(1  0.04 s )
Calculate the magnitude (dB) value and phase angle (degree) values at frequencies
ω  0.1 rad/sec, ω  1.0 rad/sec, ω  2.5 rad/sec and ω  25 rad/sec , respectively for
for Case (b).
<Sol.>



 Magnitude-Phase Plot
 Definition: The magnitude-phase plot of G(j) is a plot of the magnitude of G(j)
in dB versus its phase in degrees, with  as a parameter on the curve.
 One of the most important applications of this type of plot is that when G(j) is
the forward-path transfer function of a unity-feedback control system, the plot can
be superposed on the Nichols chart (see Chapter 8) to give information on the
relative stability and frequency response of the system.
 When the gain factor K of the transfer function varies, the plot is simply raised or
lowered vertically according to the value of K in dB.
 However, in the construction of the plot, the property of adding the curves of the
individual components of the transfer function in the Bode plot does not carry
over to this case. Thus, it is best to make the magnitude-phase plot by computer
or transfer the data from the Bode plot.

GAIN- AND PHASE-CROSSOVER POINTS
Some Definitions:
 Gain-Crossover Point: The gain-crossover point on the frequency-domain plot of
G(j) is the point at which G(j)  = 1 or G(j) dB = 0 dB. The frequency at the
gain-crossover point is called the gain-crossover frequency g.
 Phase-Crossover Point: The phase-crossover point on the frequency-domain
plot of G(j) is the point at which G(j) = 180. The frequency at the phase-
crossover point is called the phase-crossover frequency p.
The gain and phase crossovers are interpreted with respect to three types of plots:
 Polar Plot: The gain-crossover point (or points) is where |G(j)| = 1. The phase
crossover point (or points) is where G(j) = 180 (see Fig. 2-19).
 Bode Plot: The gain-crossover point (or points) is where the magnitude curve
G(j) dB crosses the 0-dB axis. The phase-crossover point (or points) is where
the phase curve crosses the 180-axis (see Fig. 2-18).
 Magnitude-Phase Plot: The gain-crossover point (or points) is where the |G(j)|
curve crosses the 0-dB axis. The phase-crossover point (or points) is where the
|G(j)| curve crosses the 180-axis (see Fig. 2-20).
Ex. 2-2-6
As an illustrative example,
the polar plot and the
magnitude-phase plot of Eq.
(2-92) are shown in Fig. 2-19
and 2-20, respectively. The
Bode plot of the function is
already shown in Fig. 2-18.
The relationships among
these three plots are easily
identified by comparing the
curves in Figs. 2-18, 2-19,
and 2-20.
10( s  10)
G( s )  (2-92)
s( s  2)( s  5)
Figure 2-19 Polar plot of G(s)
= 10(s + 10)/[s(s + 2)(s + 5)]
Ex. 2-2-6
Figure 2-20
Magnitude-phase plot of G(s)
= 10(s + 10)/[s(s + 2)(s + 5)]




Minimum-Phase and Nonminimum-Phase
Functions
Definitions:
 The transfer functions that do not have poles or zeros in the right-half s-plane
are called the minimum-phase transfer functions.
 When a transfer function has either a pole or a zero in the right-half s-plane, it is
called a nonminimum-phase transfer function.
 The magnitude and phase characteristics of a minimum-phase function are
uniquely related.
Given a minimum phase function G(s), knowing its magnitude characteristics
|G(j)| completely defines the phase characteristics, G(j). Conversely,
given G(j), |G(j)| is completely defined.
Nonminimum-phase transfer functions do not have the unique magnitude-

phase relationships.

Ex. Given the function
1
G ( jω)  (2-94)
1  jωT
The magnitude of G(j) is the same whether T is positive (nonminimum phase)
or negative (minimum phase). However, the phase of G(j) is different for
positive and negative T.
 Additional properties of the minimum-phase transfer functions are as follows:

Ex 2-2-7
As an illustrative example of the properties of the nonminimum-phase transfer
function, consider that the zero of the transfer function of Eq. (2-95) is in the right-
half s-plane; that is,
10( s  10)
G( s)  (2-95)
s( s  2)( s  5)
 The magnitude plot of the Bode diagram of G(j) is identical to that of the
minimum-phase transfer function in Eq. (2-92), as shown in Fig. 2-18.
 The phase curve of the Bode plot of G(j) of Eq. (2-95) is shown in Fig. 2-21(a),
and the polar plot is shown in Fig. 2-21(b).
 Notice that the nonminimum-phase function has a net phase shift of 270
(from –180 to + 90) as  varies from  to 0, whereas the minimum-phase
transfer function of Eq. (2-92) has a net phase change of only 90  (from –180
to – 90) over the same frequency range.
• Do not use the Bode plot and the gain-phase plot of a nonminimum-
phase transfer function for stability studies.
Figure 2-21

Figure 2-21

Here are some important notes:
• A Bode plot is also know as a corner plot or an asymptotic plot.
• The magnitude of the pure time delay term is unity for all .
• The magnitude and phase characteristics of a minimum-phase

function are uniquely related.
• Do not use the Bode plot and the gain-phase plot of a

nonminimum-phase transfer function for stability studies.

 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
 A wide range of systems in engineering
are modeled mathematically by
differential equations. These equations
generally involve derivatives and
integrals of the dependent variables with
respect to the independent variable.
 For instance, a series electric RLC
(resistance-inductance-capacitance)
network can be represented by the
differential equation
di (t ) 1
Ri (t )  L   i (t )dt  e(t ) (2-96)
dt C
where R is the resistance; L, the inductance; C, the capacitance; i(t), the current
in the network; and e(t), the applied voltage.
 Equation (2-96) is referred to as a second-order differential equation,
and we refer to the system as a second-order system.
 Linear Ordinary Differential Equations

 The differential equation of an nth-order system is written
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t )
n
 a n 1 n 1
 ...  a1  a0 y (t )  f (t ) (2-97)
dt dt dt
which is also known as a linear ordinary differential equation if the coefficients
a0, a1, … , an–1 are not functions of y(t).
 First-order linear O.D.E.:
dy (t )
 a0 y (t )  f (t ) (2-98)
dt
 Second-order linear O.D.E.:
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
 a1  a0 y (t )  f (t ) (2-99)
dt dt
 Nonlinear Differential Equations
 The differential equation that describes the motion of the pendulum shown in Fig.
A is
d 2θ ( t )
ml 2
 mg sin θ (t )  0 (2-100)
dt
Because (t) appears as a sine function, Eq. (2-100) is
nonlinear, and the system is called a nonlinear system.
 First-Order Differential Equations: State
Equations2
 In general, an nth-order differential equation can be
decomposed into n first-order differential equations.
Because, in principle, first-order differential
equations are simpler to solve than higher-order
ones, first-order differential equations are used in Figure A Simple pendulum
the analytical studies of control systems.
Ex. For the differential equation in Eq. (2-96), if we let
x1 (t )   i (t )dt (2-101)
dx1 (t )
x2 ( t )   i (t ) (2-102)
dt
then Eq. (2-96) is decomposed into the following two first-order differential
equations:
dx1 (t )
 x2 ( t ) (2-103)
dt
dx2 (t ) 1 R 1
 x1 (t )  x2 (t )  e(t ) (2-104)
dt LC L L
Ex. For the differential equation in Eq. (2-97), let us define

x1 (t )  y (t )
dy (t )
x2 ( t ) 
dt State Equation;
(2-105)
 x1, x2, … , xn are called
d n 1 y (t ) the state variables.
xn ( t ) 
dt n 1
then the nth-order differential equation is decomposed into n first-order
differential equations:
dx1 (t )
 x2 ( t )
dt
dx2 (t )
 x3 (t )
dt (2-106)

dxn (t )
  a0 x1 (t )  a1 x2 (t )  ...  an  2 xn 1 (t )  an 1 xn (t )  f (t )
dt
 Definition of State Variables
 The state of a system refers to the past, present, and future conditions of the
system. From a mathematical perspective, it is convenient to define a set of
state variables and state equations to model dynamic systems.
 In general, there are some basic rules regarding the definition of a state variable
and what constitutes a state equation.
 The state variables must satisfy the following conditions:
 The state variables of a system are defined as a minimal set of variables, x1(t),
x2(t), …, xn(t), such that knowledge of these variables at any time t0 and
information on the applied input at time t0 are sufficient to determine the state of
the system at any time t  t0.
 Space state form for n variables:
x (t )  Ax(t )  Bu (2 -107)
where x(t) and u(t) are state vector having n rows and input vector having
p rows, respectively.
 x1 (t )  u1 (t ) 
 x (t )  u ( t ) 
x(t )   2  u(t )   
2
(2 -108) (2 -109)
     
   
x
 n ( t ) u
 p  ( t )
The coefficient matrices A and B are defined as:
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22  a2 n 
A  21  (n  n ) (2 -110)
     
 
 an1 an 2  ann 
 b11 b12  b1 p 
b b22  b2 p 
B  (n  p )
21
(2 - 111)
     
 
 bn 1 bn 2  bnp 
 The Output Equation  c11 c12  c1n 

c c22  c2n 
 An output of a system is a variable  21 
that can be measured, but a state C  (2 -113)
    
variable does not always satisfy this  
requirement. cq1 cq 2  cqn 
 y1 (t )   d11 d12  d1 p 
 y (t )  d d22  d2 p 
y( t )     Cx(t )  Du (2 -112) D   
2 21
(2 -114)
       
   
y
 q  ( t ) dq1 dq 2  dqp 
 For instance, in an electric motor, such state variables as the winding current,
rotor velocity, and displacement can be measured physically, and these
variables all qualify as output variables.
 On the other hand, magnetic flux can also be regarded as a state variable in
an electric motor, since it represents the past, present, and future states of the
motor, but it cannot be measured directly during operation and therefore does
not ordinarily qualify as an output variable.
 In general, an output variable can be expressed as an algebraic combination
of the state variables. For the system described by Eq. (2-97), if y(t) is
designated as the output, then the output equation is simply y(t) = x1(t).

_Joe-Air Jiang _F. Golnaraghi & B. C. Kuo
 拉氏轉換
1. 齊次方程式的解與微分方程式的特解，可於同一運算中求出。
2. 拉氏轉換將微分方程式轉換成含 s 變數的代數方程式。
 拉氏轉換的定義系統稱為因果系統
(causal system) 或
對某個有限的實數 ，函數 f (t) 滿足下列的條件：實際可實現的系統
(physically
(2-115) realizable
system)。
則 f (t) 的拉氏轉換定義為  因果系統的響應不會發
生在訊號輸入之前
(2-116)
單邊拉氏轉換 (one-
之拉氏轉換 (2-117) sided Laplace
transform)
其中，s
其中 =  + j 。
嚴格而言，單邊拉氏轉換應定義成 t = 0  至 t = 。符號 0  代表由 t = 0 的左邊
取 t  0 的極限。
Ex. 2-4-1 條件
假設 f (t) 為單位步階函數
(2-118) (2-120)
f (t) 之拉氏轉換為
(2-119)
Ex. 2-4-2
指數函數 (2-121)
f (t) 之拉氏轉換為

 e( s )t 1
F ( s)   t  st
e e dt    (2-122)
0 s  0
s 
其中  為一實數常數。

 反拉氏轉換
的反拉氏轉換 (2-123) 拉氏轉換表: 附錄 D
反拉氏轉換積分則定義為其中，c 是實常數，它大於
F(s) 所有奇點的實數部份。
(2-124)
★ ACSYS 工具 (Tfsym) 亦可用來解部份分式展開和反拉氏轉換。
 拉氏轉換的重要定理 k 為一常數
■ 定理 1. 乘上常數
f (t ) 
±
 F ( s) ±  k f (t )  kF ( s ) (2-125)
■ 定理 2. 和及差
f1 (t ) 
±
 F1 ( s ), f 2 (t ) 
±
 F2 ( s )
±  f1 (t )  f 2 (t )  F1 ( s )  F2 ( s ) (2-126)
 拉氏轉換的重要定理
■ 定理 3. 微分
 df (t ) 
f (t )  F ( s )
±
±   sF ( s )  lim f (t )  sF ( s )  f (0) (2-127)
 dt  t 0
★ 對f (t) 的高階微分而言
(2-128)
其中， f (i) (0) 代表 f (t) 對 t 之第 i 階微分在 t = 0 時之值。

■ 定理 4. 積分
F ( s)
±   f ( )d  
t
f (t )  F ( s )
±
 0  (2-129)
s
★ 對 n 階積分而言
(2-130)

 拉氏轉換的重要定理
其中，us (t T) 為向右位移
T 時間單位的步階函數。
■ 定理 5. 時間的移位
f (t ) 
±
 F ( s) ±  f (t  T )us (t  T )  eTs F ( s ) (2-131)
■ 定理 6. 初值定理
假設時間極限存在
f (t ) 
±
 F ( s) lim f (t )  lim sF ( s ) (2-132)
t 0 s 
■ 定理 7. 終值定理
f (t ) 
±
 F ( s) lim f (t )  lim sF ( s ) (2-133)
t  s 0
終值定理只有當 sF(s) 在 j 軸和
若 sF(s) 包含了實數部份是零或正值的任 s 平面右半平面沒有極點時才正確
何極點時，終值定理就不適用；亦即在定
理中 sF(s) 必須在s-Plane的右半平面是
可解析的。
 Ex. 2-4-3 由於 sF(s) 在 s 平面的右半邊和虛軸上
(2-134) 是可解析的，故可使用終值定理。
(2-135)
 Ex. 2-4-4 由於 sF(s) 函數有兩個極點位於虛軸上，

故終值定理不能應用於本例中。
(2-136)
■ 定理 8. 複數移位
 為常數
 t
f (t ) 
±
 F ( s) ±  e f (t )   F ( s   ) (2-137)
■ 定理 9. 實數迴旋 (複數乘法)
f1 (t ) 
±
 F1 ( s ), f 2 (t ) 
±
 F2 ( s ) ，且 t < 0 時，f1(t) = 0，f2(t) = 0
F1 ( s ) F2 ( s )  ±  f1 (t )  f 2 (t )  ±  f1 ( ) f 2 (t   )d  ±  f 2 ( ) f1 (t   )d 
  
t t
 0   0 
其中，符號＊代表 t 領域之迴旋 (convolution)。 (2-138)
★ s 領域中兩函數乘積之反拉氏轉換並不等於 t 領域中兩對應函數之乘積，即
± 1 F1 ( s ) F2 ( s )  f1 (t ) f 2 (t ) (2-139)
■ 定理 10. 複數迴旋 (實數乘法)

實數 t 領域的乘積等於複數 s 領域中的迴旋，即
±  f1 (t ) f 2 (t )  F1 ( s )  F2 ( s ) (2-140)
其中，＊代表複數迴旋。
★ 表 2-4 摘錄拉氏轉換的重要定理。

表 2-4 拉氏轉換定理
乘上常數
和及差
微分
其中
積分
對時間移位
初值定理
終值定理若 sF(s) 在 s 平面的虛軸上及其右邊並無極點

複數移位
實數迴旋

以部份分式展開法求反拉氏轉換
有理函數的反拉氏轉換運算可使用部份分式展開法和拉氏轉換表來求出。
 部份分式展開法
其中，P(s) 和 Q(s) 為 s 之多項式
(2-141)
其中， a0，a1，，an1 為實係數
(2-142)
★ G(s) 僅有簡單極點時其中， s1  s2    sn。
(2-143)
(2-144)
Q( s)
其中， K si  ( s  si ) (i = 1，2，，n)
P( s ) s  si
例如，為找出係數 Ks1 ：
(2-145)
 Ex. 2-5-1 求算下列函數的部份分式形式：
(2-146)
(2-147) 係數 K 1，K 2 和 K 3 求法
(2-148)
(2-149)
(2-150)
(2-151)



★ G(s) 有多階極點時極點在 s = si 是 r 階
(i  1，2，，n  r )
(2-152)
G(s) 可展開成：
(n  r) 個係數 Ks1，Ks2，，Ks(n  r)
對應 (n  r) 個單階極點，這些係數可
依 (2-145) 式的方法求之
項單階極點
(2-153)
項重複極點
多階極點的係數 A1，，A r，則如下求算︰
(2-154) (2-156)
(2-155) (2-157)

 Ex. 2-5-2 求算下列函數的部份分式形式：
<Sol.> (2-158)
(2-159)
對應單階極點的係數求法如下：
(2-160)
(2-161)
三階極點的係數則為
(2-162)
(2-163)
(2-164)

(2-165)
完整的部份分式展開式


★ G(s) 有簡單共軛複數極點時
其中，P(s) 和 Q(s) 為 s 之多項式
(2-141)
假設 (2-141) 式的有理函數 G(s) 包括了一對複數極點︰

和
這些極點的對應係數是
(2-166)
(2-167)

 Ex. 2-5-3
考慮 Second-order prototype 函數 (2-168)
若假設  之值小於 1，試求g (t) = ?
<Sol.> 其中，
(2-169)
(2-170)
可解出 (2-169) 式的係數為 (2-171)
(2-172)
(2-173)
(2-174)
反拉氏轉換
(2-175)
n   t
g(t )  e n
sin n 1  2 t t 0 (2-176)
或 1  2

 拉氏轉換在解線性常微分方程式的應用
 Linear ordinary differential equations
First-order linear system :
dy (t )
 a0 y (t )  f (t ) (2-177)
dt
Second-order linear system :
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
 a1  a0 y (t )  f (t ) (2-178)
dt dt
 用拉氏轉換的方法來解線性常微分方程式的步驟如下︰
1. 利用拉氏轉換及轉換表將微分方程式轉換至 s 領域。
2. 處理轉換過後的代數方程式，解出輸出變數。
3. 對此代數方程式進行部份分式展開。
4. 利用拉氏轉換表求解反拉氏轉換。

 First-order prototype system
 The first-order prototype form:
dy (t ) 1
 y (t )  f (t ) (2-179)
dt 
where,  is known as the time constant of the system, which is a measure of how
fast the system responds to initial conditions of external excitations.
 Ex. 2-6-1 求解微分方程式 (2-179) 。
<Sol.>
0, t  0
 For a unit step input f ( t )  us ( t )   (2-180)
1, t  0
Eq. (2-179) becomes
us (t )  τ y (t )  y (t ) (2-181)
． 1
If y(0)=y(0)=0, L ( u s ( t ))  and L (y(t)) = Y(s), we have
s
1
 sτY ( s )  Y ( s ) (2-182)
s
1 1 Pole: s = – 1/
Y (s)  (2-183)
s τs  1
K 0 K 1/
由部分分式，(2-183)式變為 Y ( s )   (2-184)
s s  1
再利用拉氏轉換，由(2-184)式得出 K 0  1 and K 1 /   1
y (t )  1  e t / τ (2-185)
where  is the time for y(t) to reach 63% of its final value of lim y (t )  1.
t 
圖2-22 一階RC電路系統的單
位步階響應。


 Second-Order Prototype System
 The second-order prototype form:
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
 2ξωn  ωn
2
y (t )  f (t ) (2-186)
dt dt
where,  is known as the damping ratio, n is the natural frequency of the
system.
其中，us(t)是單位
 Ex. 2-6-2 步階函數。
求解微分方程式： (2-187)
起始條件為 y(0) = 1 及 y (1) (0)  dy (t ) / dt t 0  2.

(2-187) 式等號兩
<Sol.> 邊取其拉氏轉換
(2-188)
初值代入
(2-189)

部份分式展開
(2-190)
全解
★ (2-191) 式的第一項為穩態解或特殊積分，而後兩項為暫態解或齊次解。
★ 應用終值定理 (2-133) 式，y (t) 的穩態解
(2-192)
 Ex. 2-6-3 求解微分方程式：
(2-193)
y(t) 和 dy(t)/dt 的初值皆為零。其中，  = 0.5455 和 n = 31.62。

<Sol.>
(2-194)

查表法 (2-196)
(2-195)
(2-197)
★ 部份分式展開法：
相對應的極點分別為 s = 0， + j 與  j，其中
(2-198)
部份分式展開式
(2-199)
(2-200)
其中
(2-201)
(2-202)
(2-203)
(2-204)
角度  ，見圖 2-23
圖 2-23 s 平面之根位置

反拉氏轉換
(2-205)
(2-204) 式的  代入 (2-205)式
(2-206)
(2-207)



 線性系統的脈衝響應及轉移函數
★ 脈衝響應輸入 u (t) 輸出 y (t)
LTI System
Impulse  (t) g (t) Impulse response y (t) = g (t)

 Definition of impulse function: Fig. 2-24.
 0 t τε
 uˆ
u(t )   τεt τε (2-208)
 2ε
 0 t τε
 A rectangular function u(t) of a very large
magnitude û/2ε becomes an impulse
function for very small duration as ε  0.
 For û = 1, u(t) = (t) is also known as unit 圖2-24
impulse or Dirac delta function. Graphical representation of an
impulse function.
 For t = 0 in Eq.(2-208), using Eq.(2-116) and
noting the actual limits of the integral are
defined from t = 0– to t = , it is very easy to (2-116)
verify that the Laplace transform of (t) is
unity, i.e.,
± [ (t )]  1 as   0
 The response of any system can be characterized by its impulse response g(t),
which is defined as the output when the input is a unit-impulse function (t).
 Once the impulse response of a linear system is known, the output of the
system y(t), with any input, u(t), can be found by using the transfer function.
 We define
L ( y (t )) Y ( s )
G ( s)   (2-209)
L (u (t )) F ( s )
as the transfer function of the system.

 Ex. 2-7-1 利用 (2-186) 式之二階系統來解 Ex. 2-5-3:
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
 2 n   n
2
y ( t )   2
n u(t ) (2-210)
dt 2 dt
因此， L ( y (t )) 2 Transfer function
G( s )   n
(2-211)
L (u(t )) s 2  2 n s   n 2
Impulse response
n
g (t )  e nt sin n 1   2t t0 (2-212)
1  2
For a unit-step input u(t) = us(t), using the convolution properties of Laplace
transforms,
L  y ( t )   L  us * g ( t ) 
G( s ) (2-213)
 L   us g (t   )d  
t
 0  s
From the inverse Laplace transform of Eq.(2-213), the output y(t) is therefore
t

0
u s g ( t   )d 
  cos 1  .
或
y (t )  1 
e   n t
1 2

sin  n 1   2 t    t0 (2-214)


 轉移函數 (單輸入單輸出系統)
(2-215) 轉移函數 G(s) 的定義假設起始條件為零
轉移函數 G(s) 與輸入和輸出的拉氏轉換的關係
(2-216)
線性非時變系統，其輸入-輸出的關係常以微分方程式來描述。一線性非時變系統
的輸入-輸出關係，為常數實係數 n 階微分方程式
係數 a0，a1，
(2-217) ，an1 和
b0，b1，，
bm 為實數
(2-218)
u(t) 與 y(t) 之間的轉移函數為
(2-219)

★ 轉移函數的性質總結
1. 轉移函數只定義於線性非時變系統，對非線性系統則無意義。
2. 系統的輸入變數與輸出變數之間的轉移函數定義為脈衝響應的拉氏轉換；換言
之，是輸出的拉氏轉換與輸入的拉氏轉換之比。
3. 系統的所有起始條件均假設為零。
4. 轉移函數與輸入無關。
5. 連續資料系統的轉移函數表示成僅為複變數 s 的函數，而非實變數、時間或任
何其它獨立變數的函數。離散資料系統可用差分方程式來表示，當使用 z 轉換
時，轉移函數就變成複變數 z 的函數。
(2-219)
★ 適當轉移函數
如果 (2-219) 式的分母多項式的階數大於分子多項式的階數 (即 n > m)，則稱轉移
函數 (2-219) 式是嚴格適當的 (strictly proper)；若 n = m，則稱轉移函數為適當
的 (proper)，若 m > n，則稱轉移函數為不適當的 (improper)。
★ 特性方程式將轉移函數的分母設為零即可得線性系統的特性方程式
(2-220)
 轉移函數 (多變數系統)
若一線性系統有 p 個輸入和 q 個輸出時，第 i 個輸出和第 j 個輸入之間的轉移函數
可定義為：其中，R (s) = 0，k = 1，2，，p，k  j。
k
(2-221)
系統的第 i 個輸
注意 (2-221) 式之定義僅針對第 j 個輸入的影響，假設其它輸入為零。出轉換與所有的
輸入轉換之關係
(2-222)
矩陣-向量的形式︰
(2-223)
q  1 的轉換輸出向量
(2-224) (2-226)
p  1 的轉換輸出向量
(2-225) q  p 的轉移函數矩陣

STABILITY OF LINEAR CONTROL
SYSTEMS
 前言
1. 對應於系統暫態響應的齊次解是由特性方程式的根來決定。
2. 線性控制系統的設計可視為如何安排系統轉移函數的極點和零點位置，使系統的
表現能依照預先指定的規格。
3. 在多種用於設計的性能規格當中，最重要的要求是︰系統為穩定的。
系統為穩定的
4. 穩定性分為絕對穩定性(absolute stability)和相對穩定性(relative stability)。
絕對穩定性只告訴我們系統是否穩定，其答案為是或非。一旦發現系統是穩定的，
我們所感興趣的是來決定它究竟有多穩定，其穩定程度則以相對穩定性來測定。
5. 針對線性非時變系統來定義下列兩種形式的響應︰
1) 零態響應零態響應是當所有系統的初始狀態為零，只由輸入所引發的響應。
2) 零輸入響應零輸入響應是當所有的輸入為零，只由初始狀態所引發的響應。
當系統同時接受輸入與初始條件時，整體響應可寫成︰離散與連續資料
系統均適用
整體響應 = 零態響應 + 零輸入響應
BOUNDED-INPUT, BOUNDED-OUTPUT
(BIBO) STABILITY－CONTINUOUS-DATA
SYSTEMS
1. 線性非時變系統： u(t) = 輸入、y(t) = 輸出、和 g(t) = 脈衝響應
2. 設初始條件為零，若系統對應於有限輸入 u(t) 的輸出 y(t) 為有限時，則該系統為有
限輸入有限輸出 (BIBO) 穩定，或簡稱穩定。
穩定
3. u(t)、y(t) 和 g(t) 之間關係的迴旋積分為
(2-227) u(t) LTI System y(t) = u(t)  g(t)

g(t)
(2-228)
(2-229)
若 u(t) 為有限的，其中 M 為一有限的正數
(2-230)
(2-231)
若 y(t) 要為有限的，或其中 N 為一正數

(2-232)
則下列條件必須成立︰ (2-233)
亦即，對於任一有限的正數 Q，
(2-234) 式之涵意為︰在 g() 對 
之曲線下的面積必須是有限的。
(2-234)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHARACTERISTIC

EQUATION ROOTS AND STABILITY
1. 特性方程式的根與條件 (2-234) 式之間的關係：
轉移函數 G(s)
(2-235)
上式兩邊取絕對值
(2-236)
2. 當 s 的值為 G(s) 的極點時，G(s) = ，(2-236) 式變為

由於 est  = e t，其
(2-237) 中  為 s 的實數部份。
3. 若一個或多個特性方程式的根在 s 平面的右半邊或 j 軸上，亦即   0；則
(2-238)
違反了 BIBO 穩定的要求
(2-237) 式 (2-239)
4. 因此，若要 BIBO 穩定，特性方程式的根或G(s) 的若要BIBO穩定，特性方

極點，不能落在 s 平面的右半邊或 j 軸上，它們必程式的根必須全部落在 s
須全部落於 s 平面的左半邊。平面的左半部
 一系統若是BIBO穩定，則簡稱為穩定，否則即是不穩定
Ex. 當一系統有根在 j 軸上時，例如在 s = j0 和 s =  j0 上，若輸入為弦波
sin 0t，則輸出將會是 t sin 0t 的形式；這是無限的，因此系統不是穩定的。
ZERO-INPUT AND ASYMPTOTIC
STABILITY OF CONTINUOUS-DATA
SYSTEMS
 連續資料系統的零輸入穩定性與漸近穩定性
1. 零輸入穩定性是指當輸入為零，而系統僅由其初始條件驅動時的穩定狀況。
2. 令一 n 階系統的輸入為零以及由初始條件所引發的輸出為 y(t)，則 y(t) 可表示成
(2-240)
零輸入穩定性也是由特
(2-241) 性方程式的根來決定。
其中
gk(t) 表示由 y(k)(t0) 所引發的零輸入響應。
3. 定義零輸入穩定如下︰
若由有限初始狀態 y(k)(t0) 所引起的零輸入響應 y(t)，在 t 趨近於無限大時，會達到
零，則該系統稱為零輸入穩定或簡稱穩定；否則該系統為不穩定。

數學定義：
若一線性非時變系統對任一組有限的y(k)(t0)，存在一組由 y(k)(t0) 所決定的 M，使得
(2-242)
且 (2-243)
則該系統為零輸入穩定。
零輸入穩定零輸入穩定性又稱為漸近穩定性。
4. (2-240) 式的兩邊取絕對值：
由Condition 2)
(2-244) 所造成
因為所有的初始條件皆假設為有限值，所以 (2-242) 式要求下列的條件要成立︰
(2-245)
5. 令 n 個特性方程式的根以來表示。
若 n 個根當中的 m 個為單根，而其餘則為多重根，則 y(t) 的形式為
(2-246) 其中 Ki 和 Li 為常數係數。

(2-246)  時的響應 y(t) 。所以，為了要滿足

(2-242) 和 (2-243) 式的條件，si 的實部必須是負的。
的實部必須是負的
對線性非時變系統而言，BIBO 零輸入穩定和漸近穩定皆要求特性方程式的根落在 s
平面的左半邊。因此，若一系統為 BIBO 穩定，則它必定也是零輸入或漸近穩定。
對於一不穩定線性系統，是指其至少有一個特性方程式的根不落在 s 平面的左半邊。
6. 當特性方程式有單根落於 j 軸上且沒有根落於右半平面時，我們稱這種情形為
臨界穩定或臨界不穩定。
7. 若系統被設計成一積分器 (或速度控制系統)，則該系統會有根 (s) 在 s = 0 且視為
穩定。
8. 若系統被設計成一振盪器，則特性方程式會有單根在 j 軸上且視為穩定。
 系統特性方程式的根特意放在 j 軸上，則定義為穩定
9. 令一連續資料線性非時變之 SISO 系統，其特性方程式的根或 A 的特徵值為 si =
 i + ji，i = 1，2，，n。若任一根為複數，則其共軛複數必亦為根。
 表 2-5：系統可能的穩定狀況與對應之特性方程式的根。
Table 2-5 Stability Conditions of Linear Continuous-Data Time-Invariant SISO Systems

Ex. 2-11-1
下列有一些閉迴路轉移函數及其相關的穩定性條件。

 決定穩定性的方法
1. 線性非時變 SISO 系統的穩定性，可由檢查系統特性方程式根的位置來得知。
2. 在 s 平面上之穩定與不穩定的區域示於圖 2-25 中。
3. 若系統的參數皆為已知，特性方程式的根可用 MATLAB 內的各種元件，如本章前
面所討論過的各種MATLAB Toolbox 視窗來求解。
4. ACSYS 發展的其它大部份工具同樣也可以用來求取特性方程式之根 (極點)。
轉移函數符號工具 (Transfer Function Symbolic Tool, tfsym)，轉移函數計算器
tfsym
(Transfer Function Calculctor, tfcal)，及控制器設計工具
tfcal (Controller Design
Tool, controls)。利用 ACSYS 元件，如時間響應分析工具 (Time Response
Analysis Tool, timetool) 及頻率響應工具 (Freguency Response Tool,
freqtool)，以及羅斯-赫維茲穩定度常式(Routh-Hurwitz
赫維茲 Stability routine, tfrouth)
同樣也能更深入探討穩定性研究。

圖 2-25 在 s 平面上的穩定與不穩定區域
◆ 無須解根即可決定線性連續資料系統穩定性的幾種知名方法：
1. 羅斯-赫維茲準則此準則是一種代數方法，用來決定具常係數特性方程式之線性
常係數
非時變系統的絕對穩定性。它可測試是否有任何特性方程式的根落於
絕對穩定性 s 平面的右
半邊，而落於 j 軸上及右半平面根的個數亦可找出來。
2. 奈氏準則此為一半圖解法，以觀察迴路轉移函數之奈氏圖的行為，來決定在右半
s 平面中，閉迴路轉移函數之極點與零點數目的差。
3. 波德圖此圖為迴路轉移函數 G( j)H( j) 的分貝振幅及角度相位相對於頻率  的
圖。閉迴路系統的穩定性可由觀察此圖的行為而得知。

其中所有的係
2-13 羅斯-赫維茲準則數都是實數。
因為求根的電腦程式
可以輕易地解出多項
1. 線性非時變 SISO 系統的特性方程式：
式的零點，所以羅
(2-247) 斯-赫維茲準則的最
2. 兩個必要的但非充分的條件：大好處在於可應用到
1) 多項式所有的係數都是具有同樣的符號。至少有一個未知參數
2) 沒有缺項。的方程式。
3. 使(2-247)式中所有的根沒有一個有正實數部份，則需(2-247) 式的係數有下列關係
(代數定律)︰
一個多項式所有的係數
(2-248) 都不為零且均同號，卻
仍可能有零點位於 s 平
(2-249) 面的右半邊。(非充分
的條件 )
(2-250)
除非至少有一個根有正
實數部份，否則所有的
比值必須是正值且非零
(2-251) 值。
6-5-1 羅斯表 [1]
1. 赫維茲準則給定 (2-247) 式的所有根落在 s 平面左半面的充分與必要條件。
2. 赫維茲準則規定了方程式的 n 個赫維茲行列式均必須為正才行。
3. 由高階項開始算，第一列由第一，第三，第五，，等係數組成，第二列由第二，第
四，第六，，等係數組成，如下表所示︰
Ex. 六階的方程式：
(2-252)
羅斯表或羅斯陣列：見下頁
1. 左邊 s 項所形成的行是做為識別參考之用，有助於計算結果的記錄。
2. 羅斯表的最後一列必定是 s0 之列。
3. 若羅斯表中第一行的所有元素都是同號的，則多項式的根全部位於 s 平面的左半
邊。若在第一行中的元素有符號的改變時，則符號改變的次數即為具有正實部份
或在右半 s 平面根的數目。
► 例題 2.13.1 考慮方程式
(2-253)
試判斷根的位置。
<Sol.>
1. 方程式並無缺項且所有的係數都是同號，正好滿足必要條件，所以沒有根位
於 s 平面的右半邊或虛軸上。 (充分條件仍必須檢查。)
2. 羅斯表：
3. 在第一行中有兩次符號改變，所以方程式有兩個根位於 s 平面的右半邊。
4. 解 (2-253) 式的根可得四個根︰s = 1.005  j0.933 和 s = 0.755  j1.444。

2-13-2 羅斯表過早結束的特殊情況
★ 羅斯表可能發生下列的困難：
1) 羅斯表的任何一列的第一個元素是零，而其它的元素卻不是。
2) 羅斯表的一整列元素都是零。
 第一種情況：以一個非常小的正數
第一種情況：  代替第一行中的零，然後繼續羅斯表的進行。
► 例題 2-13-2 考慮一線性系統的特性方程式︰
(2-254)
<Sol.> 因為所有的係數皆不為零且同號，所以我們需要使用羅斯-赫維茲準則。
1. 羅斯表：
2. 以一個非常小的正數  來取代 s2 列中的零，所得結果如下︰
如果方程式有純虛根，則
上述之  法可能會得到不
正確的答案 [19，20]。
3. 在羅斯表的第一行有兩個符號改變，所以 (2-254) 式有兩個根在右半 s平面。

4. 解 (2-254) 式可得根為 s =  0.091  j0.902 和 s = 0.406  j1.293；後面兩個根很
明顯地是在右半 s 平面。
 第二種特殊情況：
在羅斯表正常完成前其中的一整列元素都是零，則表示有下列的一種或多種情形可
能發生︰
1. 方程式至少有一對大小相等、符號相反的實根。
2. 方程式有一或多對虛根。
3. 方程式有對稱於 s 平面原點的共軛複數根對 (例如 s = 1  j1，s = 1  j1)。
◆ 整列都是零的情形，可用輔助方程式 (auxiliary equation) A(s) = 0 來克服。
◆ 輔助方程式必定是偶次多項式，亦即只有 s
的偶數次方出現。輔助方程式的係數，是在羅斯
 輔助方程式的根，必定也滿足原來的方程式表中全列為零的上一列的係數
◆ 想繼續羅斯表的進行，請執行下列步驟︰
1. 利用在零那列的上一列的係數來形成輔助方程式 A(s) = 0。
2. 取輔助方程式對 s 的微分，可得 dA(s)/ds = 0。
3. 以 dA(s)/ds = 0 的係數來取代零的列。
4. 以新形成的係數列來取代零的列，並以平常的方式繼續羅斯表的進行。
5. 照平常的方式來解釋第一行係數的變號，如果有的話。
► 例題 2-13-3 考慮下列方程式，它可能是某一線性控制系統的特性方程式。
(2-255)
<Sol.>
1. 羅斯表：
2. 用 s2 列的係數來形成輔助方程式︰ 3. 以上式的係數 8 和 0 來取代原來表中

(2-256) s1 列的零，則羅斯表的其餘部份為
A(s) 對 s 的微分：
(2-257)
4. 在整個羅斯表的第一行中並沒有符號的改變，所以 (2-257) 式沒有根在右半 s 平面。
5. 解 (2-256) 式中的輔助方程式，可得兩根 s = j 和 s =  j，其亦為 (2-255) 式的根。
 系統有兩個根在 j 軸，系統是臨界穩定。
臨界穩定
► 例題 2-13-4 考慮一個三階控制系統具有特性方程式
(2-258)
<Sol.>
1. 羅斯-赫維茲準則最適用於求出使系統穩定之 K 的臨界值，亦即使至少有一根落於
j 軸上但沒有根落於右半 s 平面的 K 值。
2. 羅斯表如下︰
3. 為使系統穩定，所有羅斯表第一行的係數必須同號。亦即需
(2-259)
和 (2-260) K 使系統達到穩定的條件
(2-261)
4. 將 K = 273.57 代入輔助方程式 (可由羅斯表中 s2 列的係數求得) 。
(2-262)
根在 s = j1097 和 s = j1097
系統的零輸入響應是頻率為 1097.27 rad/sec 的弦波。
► 例題 2-13-5 考慮一閉迴路控制系統的特性方程式
(2-263)
試決定出使系統穩定的 K 值範圍。
<Sol.>
1. 羅斯表如下︰

2. 穩定性的條件：
K>0
(2-264)
(2-265)
若要閉迴路系統穩定，K 必須符合
(2-266) 羅斯-赫維茲準則的另一限制為︰它
羅斯-赫維茲準則只在特性只適用於決定特性方程式的根是在 s
方程式是代數的，且所有的平面的左邊或右邊，穩定邊界為 s 平
係數是實數時才適用。面的 j 軸。

 補充範例 (摘自Nise, 4th ed. 2005.)
► 例題 1 考慮一閉迴路控制系統，Fig. (a). (a)
<Sol.>
1. Equivalent system: Fig. (b).
2. Characteristic Equation:
s3  10 s 2  31s  1030  0
3. Routh table:
Number of
sign changes
= 2.
可以乘上或
除以任意的
正值倍數!!!

► 例題 2 決定下列閉迴路轉移函數的穩定性：
10
T ( s) 
s5  2 s 4  3s 3  6 s 2  5s  3
<Sol.>
1. Routh table:

2. Determining signs in the first column of a Routh table with zero
as first element in a row:
無論   0
+ 或   0
均可
Number of sign changes = 2.

 特性方程式的根取倒數時，其根在 s-plane上的分布區域不變 !!
1. Original characteristic equation:
s n  an 1s n 1    a1s  a0  0
2. Replace s by 1/d:
n n 1
1 1 1
   a n 1       a1    a 0  0
d  d  d 
 1 n 
  
n 1 n
1  
1  
1 1
  1  an1      a1    a0   
d   d  d   d  
1
   1  an1d    a1d  n1  a0d n   0
d 
The polynomial with reciprocal roots is a polynomial with the
coefficients written in reverse order.
► 例題 3 利用反係數方法重做例題 2，判斷T(s)的穩定性。
<Sol.>
1. Characteristic equation with reciprocal coefficients:
D( s)  3s5  5s 4  6 s 3  3s 2  2 s  1
2. Routh table:
Number of
sign changes
= 2.
System unstable!!
Routh table for Example 3

► 例題 4 決定下列閉迴路轉移函數有幾個右半平面的極點?
10
T (s) 
s 5  7 s 4  6s 3  42 s 2  8s  56
<Sol.>
1. Routh table:
Entire row is
zero, then it
needs to be
corrected by
the method
of auxiliary
equation
2. Auxiliary equation:
dP( s )
P( s)  s  6s  8
4 2
 4s 3  12s  0
ds
3. Routh table shows that all entries in the first column are
positive. Hence, there are no right-half-plane poles.
 Remarks
1. 當一純偶或純奇次多項式是原特性多項式的因子時，Routh Table將會出現整列
為零的情況。
2. 偶次多項式具有對稱於原點的根。
3. 此類對稱根有三大類:
1) 對稱根且為實數；
2) 對稱根且為虛數；
3) 對稱象限內的根(共軛複數根) 。

► 例題 5 決定下列閉迴路轉移函數有幾個極點在右半平面、左半平面、及在 j 軸上?
20
T ( s) 
s8  s7  12 s6  22 s5  39 s 4  59 s 3  48s 2  38s  20
<Sol.>
1. Routh table:
Entire row is zero,

then it needs to
be corrected by
the method of
auxiliary equation
2. Auxiliary equation:
P( s)  s 4  3s 2  2
No sign change
dP( s)
 4s3  6 s  0
ds

3. 由於輔助方程式開始之後的Routh Table並無變號，故其根均位於虛軸上。
4. 整體 Routh Table 的第一行變號二次，故其有二根均位於右半平面內。
5. 結論: 見下表
► 例題 6 決定下圖所示系統有幾個極點在右半平面、左半平面、及在 j 軸上?
<Sol.>
1. Closed loop transfer function:
1
T ( s)  5 倒數係數型特
2 s  3s 4  2 s3  3s 2  2 s  1 Two poles
性方程式
in rhp
2. Characteristic equation:
2 s5  3s 4  2 s 3  3s 2  2 s  1  0 or s5  2 s 4  3s3  2 s 2  3s  2  0
3. Routh table:
倒數型 Routh table 較易判定正、負號

► 例題 7 決定下圖所示系統有幾個極點在右半平面、左半平面、及在 j 軸上?
<Sol.>
1. Closed loop transfer function:
128
T ( s) 
s8  3s7  10 s 6  24 s5  48s 4  96 s3  128s 2  192 s  128
2. Characteristic equation:
s8  3s7  10 s6  24 s5  48s 4  96 s3  128s 2  192 s  128  0
3. Routh table: see next page.
4. Auxiliary equation: In the 6th line of Routh Table.
P( s)  s6  8s 4  32 s 2  64
dP( s)
 6 s5  32 s3  64 s  0
ds
 Routh table:
Entire row is zero !
5. 結論: 見下表 (see next page).

► 例題 8 決定下列所示系統有幾個極點在右半平面、左半平面、及在 j 軸上?
 0 3 1 10 
x   2 8 1 x   0 u
   
 10 5 2   0 
y  1 0 0 x
<Sol.>
1. (sI  A):

  s 0 0  0 3 1   s 3 1 
 
( sI  A )   0 s 0    2 8 1      2 s  8 1 
     
 0 0 s   10 5 2   10 5 s  2 
    
2. Characteristic equation det (sI  A):
det( sI  A )  s3  6s 2  7s  52  0
3. Routh table:
4. 結論：Routh Table 第一行變號一次，故有一個極點位於rhp，兩個極點位於lhp.

 MATLAB 工具與個案研究
 轉移函數工具盒的說明與用法
若已進入 MATLAB 符號工具盒，只要在 ACSYS
視窗內按下合適的按鍵式是在 MATLAB 命令視窗
內輸入 tfsym，便可用 ACSYS 轉移函數及符號工
具。此種符號工具視窗如圖 2-26 所示。
點選「初學者說明」(Help for 1st Time User) 鍵來

查閱如何使用此工具盒各項指令。
如圖 2-27 所示圖 2-26 轉移函數符號視窗
圖 2-27 符號協助對話盒
依指示，按下「轉移函數與反拉氏」(Transfer Funciton and Inverse
Laplace) 鍵來執行程式。吾人必須在 MATLAB 命令視窗內執行此程式
才行。輸入如圖2-28 所示的轉移函數即可求得時間響應。
圖 2-28 在 MATLAB 命令
視窗內，G(s) (2-267)針對
脈衝輸入的反拉氏轉換

 Ex. 2-14-1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the transfer function
5s  3 5s  3
G (s)   3 (2-267)
( s  1)( s  2)( s  3) s  6 s 2  11s  6
為了求出 (2-267) 式對不同輸入函數 (如步階或弦波) 的時間表示式，使用者可結合輸入

轉移函數 (例如，1/s 代表單位步階輸入) 與 tftool 輸入視窗的轉移函數。如此一來，如
欲求取 (2-267) 式對單位步階輸入的時間表示式時，便可使用下列的轉移函數：
(2-268) 並重複做先前所述的步驟即可。
1000 n2
Y ( s)   2 (2-269)
s ( s  34.5s  1000) ( s  2n s  n2 )
2
利用 TFsym 工具，可知此系統的時間表示式為

 MATLAB工具的穩定性
 Ex. 2-14-2 重做Ex2-13-1
2 s 4  s 3  3s 2  5s  10  0 (2-270)
輸入至MATLAB,如圖2-29
結果見圖2-30
圖2-29 Entering characteristic

polynomial for Example 2-14-2
using tfrouth module.


 Ex. 2-14-3 重做Ex2-13-2
s 4  s3  2s 2  2s  3  0 (2-271)
結果見圖2-31

 Ex. 2-14-4 重做Ex2-13-3
s5  4s 4  8s3  8s 2  7s  4  0 (2-272)
結果見圖2-32。
A( s )  4 s 2  4  0
(2-273)

 Ex. 2-14-5
Considering the characteristic equation of a
close-loop control system
s 3  3Ks 2  ( K  2) s  4  0 (2-274)
It is desired to find the range of K so that the
system is stable.
See Figs.2-33.2-34 and 2-35 for more details.
圖2-33 Entering characteristic

polynomial for Example 2-14-5 using
tfrouth module

 Ex. 2-14-5
圖2-34

 Ex. 2-14-5
圖2-35

Homework:
2-5: (a), (b), and (d)
2-7: (e)
2-9: (a)
2-16: (d) and (e)
2-18
2-19
2-22: (c)
2-26: (c), (g), and (i)
2-29: (c) and (f)
2-31: (g) and (h)
2-35: (d) and (g)
2-38: (b) and (e)
2-43
2-45: (a), (b), and (c)
2-49: But refer to the figure shown in the next page (即第八版，圖P6-15).
2-50
2-52

Figure 2P-49








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NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

圖2-3 Single-valued mapping from the s-plane to the G(s)-plane.

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

has a finite, nonzero value.

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

the s-plane: x poles and O zeros.

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

To evaluate Eq.(2-18) at s = jω, we look at individual components. Thus,

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

similarly,we can define

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

圖 2.7 Graphical representation of

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

The magnitude of G(j)

And the phase angle of G(j) is

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

 The magnitude and phase of G(s) are as follows

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

 COMPUTER-AIDED CONSTRUCTION OF THE FREQUENCY-DOMAIN PLOTS

圖 2-8 Polar plot shown as a mapping of the positive half of the

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

lim G ( jω)  lim 10 / jω  90 (2-48)

lim G( jω)  lim 10 / ( jω)2  180 (2-50)

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

lim G ( jω)  lim 5 / jω  90 (2-55)

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

 Setting Re[G(j)] to zero, we have  = , and G(j) = 0, which means that

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

 Consider the function:

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

 The phase of G(j) is

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

圖2-13 Bode plot of constant K.

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

圖2-13 Bode plot of constant K.

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

Figure 2.14 Bode plot of (j)p.

NTU-BIME-自控講義 Automatic Control Systems

Figure 2.14 Bode plot of (j)p.

終值定理若 sF(s) 在 s 平面的虛軸上及其右邊並無極點