8/22/2010
Overview Questions
Community Ecology
Core Case Study:
Why Should We Care about the
American Alligator?
Hunters wiped out
population to the
point of near
extinction.
Alligators have
important ecological
role.
Figure 7-
7- 1
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND
SPECIES DIVERSITY
Biological communities differ in their structure
and physical appearance.
Figure 7-
7- 2
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What determines the number of species in a
community?
How can we classify species according to
their roles in a community?
How do species interact with one another?
How do communities respond to changes in
environmental conditions?
Does high species biodiversity increase the
stability and sustainability of a community?
Core Case Study:
Why Should We Care about the
American Alligator?
Dig deep depressions (gator holes).
Hold water during dry spells, serve as refuges
for aquatic life.
Build nesting mounds.
provide nesting and feeding sites for birds.
Keeps areas of open water free of vegetation.
Alligators are a keystone species:
Help maintain the structure and function of the
communities where it is found.
Tropical Coniferous Deciduous Thorn Thorn Tall-grassShort-grass Desert
rain forest forest forest forest scrub prairie prairie scrub
Fig. 7-2, p. 144
1

Species Diversity and Niche
Structure: Different Species Playing
Different Roles
Biological communities differ in the types and
numbers of species they contain and the
ecological roles those species play.
Species diversity:
diversity: the number of different
(species richness)
species it contains (species richness) combined
with the abundance of individuals within each of
those species (species
(species evenness).
evenness).
TYPES OF SPECIES
Native, nonnative, indicator, keystone, and
foundation species play different ecological
roles in communities.
Native: those that normally live and thrive in a
particular community.
Nonnative species: those that migrate,
deliberately or accidentally introduced into a
community.
Indicator Species:
Biological Smoke Alarms
Species that serve as early warnings of
damage to a community or an ecosystem.
Presence or absence of trout species because
they are sensitive to temperature and oxygen
levels.
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8/22/2010
Species Diversity and Niche Structure
Niche structure: how many potential
ecological niches occur, how they resemble
or differ, and how the species occupying
different niches interact.
Geographic location: species diversity is
highest in the tropics and declines as we
move from the equator toward the poles.
Case Study:
Species Diversity on Islands
MacArthur and Wilson proposed the species
equilibrium model or theory of island
biogeography in the 1960’s.
Model projects that at some point the rates of
immigration and extinction should reach an
equilibrium based on:
Island size
Distance to nearest mainland
Keystone Species: Major Players
Keystone species help determine the types
and numbers of other species in a
community thereby helping to sustain it.
Figures 7-
7-4 and 7-
7- 5
2
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Foundation Species: Case Study:

Other Major Players Why are Amphibians Vanishing?

Expansion of keystone species category.

Foundation species can create and enhance
habitats that can benefit other species in a
community.
Elephants push over, break, or uproot trees,
creating forest openings promoting grass growth
for other species to utilize.
Frogs serve as indicator species because
different parts of their life cycles can be easily
disturbed. Figure 7-
7- 3

Adult frog
(3 years) Young frog Case Study:
Why are Amphibians Vanishing?
Habitat loss and fragmentation.
Prolonged drought.
Sperm
Pollution.
Tadpole develops
into frog Increases in ultraviolet radiation.
Sexual
Reproduction Tadpole
Parasites.
Viral and Fungal diseases.
Overhunting.
Eggs Fertilized egg Egg hatches Natural immigration or deliberate introduction
development Organ formation
of nonnative predators and competitors.
Fig. 7-3, p. 147

How Would You Vote? SPECIES INTERACTIONS:

Do we have an ethical obligation to protect shark
COMPETITION AND PREDATION
species from premature extinction and treat them
humanely? Species can interact through competition,
a. No. It'
s impractical to force international laws on predation, parasitism, mutualism, and
individual fishermen that are simply trying to feed their
families with the fishing techniques that they have.
commensalism.
b. Yes. Sharks are an important part of marine Some species evolve adaptations that
ecosystems. They must be protected and, like all allow them to reduce or avoid competition
animals, they should be humanely treated.
for resources with other species (resource
partitioning).

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 8/22/2010

Resource Partitioning Niche Specialization

Each species minimizes

competition with the others Niches become
for food by spending at separated to
least half its feeding time avoid competition
in a distinct portion of the for resources.
spruce tree and by
consuming somewhat
different insect species.

Figure 7-
7- 7 Figure 7-
7- 6
Number of individuals

SPECIES INTERACTIONS:
COMPETITION AND PREDATION
Species 1 Species 2
Region
of
Species called predators feed on other
niche overlap species called prey.
Resource use
Organisms use their senses their senses to
locate objects and prey and to attract
Number of individuals

pollinators and mates.

Some predators are fast enough to catch their
prey, some hide and lie in wait, and some
Species 1 Species 2 inject chemicals to paralyze their prey.
Resource use Fig. 7-6, p. 150

PREDATION

Some prey escape

their predators or
have outer
protection, some
are camouflaged,
and some use
chemicals to repel
predators.

Figure 7
7--8 (a) Span worm Fig. 7-8a, p. 153

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(b) Wandering leaf insect (c) Bombardier beetle

Fig. 7-8b, p. 153 Fig. 7-8c, p. 153

(e) Poison dart frog

(d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly
Fig. 7-8d, p. 153 Fig. 7-8e, p. 153

(g) Hind wings of Io moth

(f) Viceroy butterfly mimics resemble eyes of a much
monarch butterfly Fig. 7-8f, p. 153
larger animal. Fig. 7-8g, p. 153

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SPECIES INTERACTIONS:
PARASITISM, MUTUALISM, AND
COMMENSALIM
Parasitism occurs when one species feeds
on part of another organism.
In mutualism, two species interact in a way
that benefits both.
Commensalism is an interaction that benefits
one species but has little, if any, effect on the
(h) When touched, snake
caterpillar changes shape other species.
to look like head of snake.

Fig. 7-8h, p. 153

Parasites: Sponging Off of Others Mutualism: Win-

Win-Win Relationship
Although parasites can harm their hosts, they
can promote community biodiversity. Two species
can interact in
Some parasites live in host (micororganisms,
tapeworms). ways that
Some parasites live outside host (fleas, ticks, benefit both of
mistletoe plants, sea lampreys). them.
Some have little contact with host (dump-
(dump-nesting
birds like cowbirds, some duck species)

Figure 7-
7- 9

(a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros Fig. 7-9a, p. 154 (b) Clownfish and sea anemone Fig. 7-9b, p. 154

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 8/22/2010

(c) Mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings (d) Lack of mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings
in normal soil Fig. 7-9c, p. 154 in sterilized soil Fig. 7-9d, p. 154

Commensalism: Using without Harming ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:

COMMUNITIES IN TRANSITION
Some species New environmental conditions allow one
interact in a way group of species in a community to replace
that helps one other groups.
species but has Ecological succession:
succession: the gradual change
little or no effect in species composition of a given area
on the other. Primary succession:
succession: the gradual establishment
of biotic communities in lifeless areas where
there is no soil or sediment.
Secondary succession:
succession: series of communities
develop in places containing soil or sediment.
Figure 7-
7-10

Primary Succession:
Starting from Scratch
Primary
succession
begins with an
Lichens
essentially Exposed
and mosses
rocks
lifeless are
where there is
no soil in a
terrestrial
ecosystem
Figure 7-
7-11 Fig. 7-11, p. 156

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Secondary Succession:
Starting Over with Some Help
Secondary
succession
begins in an
area where
the natural
community
has been
disturbed.

Figure 7-
7-12 Fig. 7-12, p. 157

Can We Predict the Path of ECOLOGICAL STABILITY AND

Succession, and is Nature in
Balance?
The course of succession cannot be
precisely predicted.
Previously thought that a stable climax
community will always be achieved.
Succession involves species competing for
enough light, nutrients and space which will
influence it’s trajectory.
SUSTAINABILITY
Living systems maintain some degree of
stability through constant change in response
to environmental conditions through:
Inertia (persistence): the ability of a living system
to resist being disturbed or altered.
Constancy: the ability of a living system to keep
its numbers within the limits imposed by available
resources.
Resilience: the ability of a living system to
bounce back and repair damage after (a not too
drastic) disturbance.

ECOLOGICAL STABILITY AND

SUSTAINABILITY
Having many different species appears to
increase the sustainability of many
communities.
Human activities are disrupting ecosystem
services that support and sustain all life and
all economies.

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