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© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 l Slide 1
ABB Protective Relay School Webinar Series
Disclaimer
ABB is pleased to provide you with technical information regarding protective
relays. The material included is not intended to be a complete presentation of
all potential problems and solutions related to this topic. The content is
generic and may not be applicable for circumstances or equipment at any
specific facility. By participating in ABB's web-based Protective Relay School,
you agree that ABB is providing this information to you on an informational
basis only and makes no warranties, representations or guarantees as to the
efficacy or commercial utility of the information for any specific application or
purpose, and ABB is not responsible for any action taken in reliance on the
information contained herein. ABB consultants and service representatives
are available to study specific operations and make recommendations on
improving safety, efficiency and profitability. Contact an ABB sales
representative for further information.
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 l Slide 2
ABB Protective Relay School Webinar Series
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 4
Learning objectives
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 5
Distance and impedance relays
ZS
~
VR IR ZL
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 6
Distance and impedance relays
Brief History
ZS
~
VR IR ZL
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 7
Impedance relay
Simple balance beam
ZS
~
VR IR ZR X
ZR
R
Restraint Operate
Torque Torque
VR IR*ZR
Need
Fault levels are higher on high voltage transmission lines
Faults need to be cleared rapidly to avoid instability, and
extensive damage
Advantages
The impedance zone has a fixed impedance reach
Greater Instantaneous trip coverage with security
Greater sensitivity
Easier setting calculations and coordination
Fixed zone of protection that are relatively independent of system
changes
Higher independence of load
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 9
Distance relay application
G ZR H
ZG ZH
ZL
Relay Relay
X ZH
Impedance H
Plane
ZR
Operating
Characteristic ZL
R
G
ZG
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 10
Distance relay characteristics
Impedance
X ZH
No operation region ZR H
Operate ZL
MTA
R
G
32 (Directional unit)
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 11
Distance relay characteristics
Mho distance, self (fault voltage) polarized
ZH
X
ZR H
No Operation Region
ZL
Operate
MTA
R
G
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 12
Distance relay characteristics
Mho distance, (healthy) voltage polarized
ZH
X • Typical polarizing
Quantities
ZR H • Cross
No Operation Region
ZL • Positive Sequence
• Memory
Operate
R
G
ZG
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 13
Distance relay characteristics
Offset mho distance
ZH
X
No operation region ZR H
ZL
Operate
G MTA R
Close-in faults
32 (Directional unit)
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 14
Distance relay characteristics
Reactance
X ZH
No operation region H
XR ZR
Operate
ZL
Load
MTA supervision R
G R
32 (Directional unit)
- XR
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 15
Distance relay characteristics
Quadrilateral
X ZH
No operation region
XR ZR H
Operate Good
ZL resistance
coverage
MTA MTA
R
G RR
32 (Directional unit)
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 16
Distance relay characteristics
Switched zone quadrilateral
No operation region X
Zone-3 Operate
Zone-2
Zone-1
R
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 17
Distance relay characteristics
Mho distance with switched reactance
X
Zone-2
Zone-1
Operate
R
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 18
Distance relay characteristics
Lenticular
ZH
X
H
No operation region Multi-phase
faults
MTA R
G
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 19
Phase comparators
S1 PHASE 1/0
COMPARATOR
S2
S2
S1
Compares the phase
angle of two phasor OPERATE RESTRAIN
quantities to determine Apply Apply
operation operating opening
torque torque
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 20
Distance relay characteristics
KD-10 cylinder unit (comparator) and compensator
IA
IB X
VA ZR CYLINDER
UNIT
S1
XZY
IC
Z FZY
VC ZR
COMPENSATOR
S2
Y
VB
Phase-to-phase unit FXY
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 21
Distance relay characteristics
KD-10 cylinder unit
Compensator
IA - I B VXY = VAB - (IA - IB)ZR
(IA - IB)ZR
VAG X VZY = VCB - (IC - IB)ZR
FXY
IC - IB
VXY
VCG FZY Trips when
Z VXY leads VZY
VCB (IC - IB)ZR VZY
Y XZY
VBG
Cylinder unit sequence
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 22
Distance relay characteristics
Mho distance phase comparator principle
Generic single phase self polarized without zero sequence compensation
IX IX
IZC – IZ
IZC
ß > 90°
IZC - IZ ß IZC ß < 90°
S2
IZ S1
IZ
IR IR
V V
(a) Self (faulted phase) Polarized (b) Internal and External Fault
Trip b < 90O
ZC = impedance reach setting
Z = fault impedance S1 V f IZ
Vf = fault voltage at relay S 2 IZ C V f IZ C IZ
I = fault current
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 23
Distance relay characteristics
Mho distance phase comparator – cross polarized
Generic single phase (healthy) voltage
IX
polarized without zero sequence
IZC - IZ
compensation
IZC
IZ
I(Z+ZS)
V IR
S1 I ( Z Z S );VBC , V1 , VMem
IZS S 2 IZ C IZ
VS
© ABB Group
Positive Sequence Polarizing, VPOL == sub jVZY with VX1
October 7, 2014 | Slide 25
Distance relay characteristics
Mho distance phase comparators
VOP VPOL Comments
VXG – VZY X = A, B, C Three units required for phase-to-
YZ = BC, CA, AB ground (A, B, C)
Zc*(IX + K0I0) zero sequence (I 0)compensation
I0 = 1/3(IA+IB+IC)
Cross Polarizing
K0=(Z0 - Z1)/Z1 Source Impedance expansion
Requires directional unit
supervision
VOP leads VPOL
VXG – jVZY X = A, B, C Three units required for phase-to-
YZ = BC, CA, AB ground (A, B, C)
Zc*(IX + KNIR) Residual ground (I r=3I0)
IR = IA+IB+IC
compensation
KN = (Z0 - Z1)/3Z1 Cross Polarizing
Source Impedance expansion
Requires directional unit
supervision
VOP leads VPOL
S2 RC RF
S1
q Z
R
-XC
Operate q < ± 90O q
© ABB Group
I2 used for load compensation
October 7, 2014 | Slide 27
Quadrilateral characteristics
Resistance (current polarized)
RCF RCF q
S2
S1 q Z
R
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 29
Apparent impedance of fault loops
AG
6 fault loops measured for
each zone
BG
Fault Types
CG
• Phase-to-ground
• Phase-to-phase
AB
CA • Two phase-to-ground
• Three phase
BC
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 30
Apparent impedance of fault loops
Three phase
X ZL1
ZR1
IN = 0
ZLN
MTA R ZL1
Relay Phase Impedance
Characteristic ZL1
Apparent impedance (per Fault applied on line at ZL1
phase)
VA= IA ZL1
Phase reach is set in terms of
Z3P = ZL1 =VA/IA positive sequence impedance, ZL1
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 31
Apparent impedance of fault loops
Phase-to-phase
X ZL1
ZL1
ZLN
MTAP
R ZL1
Relay Phase-to-phase
impedance characteristic ZL1
Apparent impedance, ZPP
VAB = (IA - IB ) ZL1 = 2IA ZL1
ZPP =ZL1 = VAB/(IA - IB ) = (VA - VB )/(IA - IB )
Phase reach is set in terms of positive sequence impedance, ZL1
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 32
Apparent impedance of fault loops
Phase-to-ground
X Z ZL1
L1 ZG = ZL1 + ZLN
MTAP
ZLN
MTAG
R ZL1
Relay Phase-to-ground
ZL1
impedance characteristic
Apparent impedance (no load IA = 3I0 )
ZL0
VA Z I I
L1 A 0 - 1
ZL1
Zero sequence current compensation
ZL0
K0 -1
K0 compensates for I0 ZL1
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 37
Faulted phase selection
Issues
The FF unit may operate for close-in reverse FF, FFG, or
FG faults
The FF unit may operate for close-in forward FG faults
The FG units may operate for close-in reverse FG faults
The FF unit of a non-faulted loop may operate for FFG
faults with high fault resistance
e.g. CA unit for a BCG fault
The CA operation will occur with the expected BC operation
giving the appearance of a three phase fault.
These issues are resolved with directional and/or sequence current supervision.
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 38
Faulted phase selection
Issues
The FG unit of the leading phase will overreach for
forward external FFG faults with any measurable fault
resistance
e.g. BG unit for a BCG fault
The FG unit of the lagging phase will underreach for
forward internal FFG faults near the reach setting with any
measurable fault resistance
e.g. CG unit for a BCG fault
This is generally of no consequence
These issues are the result of FFG faults and must be resolved by accurate phase
selection.
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 39
Faulted phase selection
Response of BG, CG and BC units to BCG fault
5
2
SIRz
3
Fault Location in PU of Zone Reach Setting, Zc
Error Zone of FG
1.5 B units for FFG faults
BG is operated
1
0.5
Overreaching BG Units
1
BC Unit
Underreaching CG Units Operates f or all
parameters at 1.0
A 0.5
0.5 1
CG is operated
3
5
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
© ABB Group Per Unit Fault Resistance, Rg
October 7, 2014 | Slide 40
Faulted phase selection
Reference
E. Price, T. Einarsson, “The Performance of Faulted phase
Selectors used in Transmission Line Applications,” 62nd
Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference,
Atlanta, Georgia, 2008.
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 41
Application
Location of cts and vts
Reach of a distance relay is measured from the
location of the voltage transformer
Directional sensing occurs from the location of the
current transformer
In most applications vts and cts are usually at same
location (no measurable impedance between them)
Their location should always be considered
especially for applications with transmission lines
terminated with transformers
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 42
Application
Step distance protection
T3
Z3
T2 Z2
T1 Z1
G H
Z1
Z2 T1
Z3 T2
T3
G H
Z1
Z2 T1
Z3 T2
T3
Do not want Zone 1 to reach beyond remote bus
10 to 20% is safety factor
Inaccuracies
Relays
© ABB Group
Line impedances
October 7, 2014 | Slide 44
Step distance protection
Zone 2
T3
Z3
T2 Z2
T1 Z1
H
G H Z1 R
Z1
Z2 T1
Z3 T2
T3
Operates through a timer (T2)
Timer set for Coordination Time Interval (CTI) that allows
remote relay zone 1 [Z1] and breaker [at H] to operate with
margin before zone 2 [Z2] relay
Z2 at G must overreach the remote bus H, but should not
overreach the closest far bus at R
© ABB Group
Z2 at G is remote backup to Z1 at H
October 7, 2014 | Slide 45
Step distance protection
Zone 3
T3
Z3
T2 Z2
T1 Z1 R
G H
H Z1
Z2
Z1
Z2 T1
Z3 T2
T3
Operates through a timer (T3)
Timer set for Coordination Time Interval (CTI) that allows
remote relay zone 2 [Z2] and breakers [at H and R] to
operate with margin before the zone 3 [Z3] relay
Z3 at G is also remote backup to Z1 and Z2 at H
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 46
Step distance protection
Zone 3
T2
T3
Z3 Z2
T1 Z1
Z1 R G H
Z1
T1
Z2 T3
T2
Z2 T3
T2
Z1
Z2 Z2
Z1 Z1
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 48
Step distance protection
Infeed [from remote bus]
Z2
Z1
IG
G
IIN
Reduces the apparent reach measured by distance relays
Depends on the ratio between current going through relay
(IG) and current from infeed (IIN)
Usually not a factor on Zone 1 [Z1] relay unless tapped line
[or appreciable fault resistance for ground faults]
Zone 2 may underreach remote bus
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 49
Step distance protection
Infeed [from remote bus]
VG Z2
ZG ZH
G IG K
G IG+ IIN
H
IIN
With Zero voltage fault and Z2 = ZG + ZH
VG = IGZG + ( IG + IIN ) ZH
ZA (Apparent) = VG / IG
ZA = ZG + (1 + IIN/IG) ZH
1W 2W
2a 1a
G
1W
1W
1a 1a
Usually associated with three terminal line applications and paralleling of line segment
Example: VG = 2(1) + 2(1 ) = 4
ZG (Apparent) = VG / IG
ZG = 4/2 = 2 W
Z1 will overreach and see the fault
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 51
Step distance protection
Tapped transformers and loads
m
mZL (1-m)ZL
G IG IH
ZT IG + IH
VG = IGmZL + ( IG + IH ) ZT
ZG (Apparent) = VG / IG
ZG = mZL + (1 + IH/IG) ZT
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 54
Source impedance ratio
Recommended applications
Short Line SIR > 4.0
Current Differential
Phase Comparison
Pilot (POTT, DCB)
F
A B C D
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 56
Non-pilot applications
Zone 1 extension
Z2
Z1 Z1
Z1
Z1
F
A B C D
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 57
Non-pilot applications
Load loss trip
Z2
Z2
Z1
Z1
F
A IL B
CLOSING I OPEN
A V B
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 60
Pilot relaying schemes
Communication assisted schemes
Goal - High speed simultaneous tripping of all line
terminals for internal line faults
STATION C STATION D
A X B
P&C
STATION E
P&C
C
P&C
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 61
Pilot relaying schemes
Communication assisted schemes
Goal - High speed simultaneous tripping of all line
terminals for internal line faults
STATION C STATION D
A X B
P&C
STATION E
P&C
C
COMMUNICATIONS
P&C
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 62
Pilot Communications
63
Pilot Communications
64
Directional Comparison
Directional Comparison relaying determines the fault direction at each line
terminal and compares the results to determine the fault to be internal or
external to the protected line.
STATION C
REV Element (RP-B)à
65
Distance Protection
Directional Comparison Schemes
66
DUTT – Direct-underreaching Transfer Trip
STATION C STATION D
A B
FINT
21-1
Underreaching
21-1
Must Distance Relay
Overlap
Tx f1 Tx
Comm Comm
Rx Rx
67
DUTT – Direct-underreaching Transfer Trip
Advantages
Fast method for clearing end zone faults
Single communications channel
Disadvantages
Cannot protect full line if one terminal is open or has
weak infeed
Requires ground distance relays for accurate reach on
ground faults (no overcurrent)
Subject to 21-1 overreaching issues (e.g. ccvt
transients)
Spurious communication channel noise may cause
undesired trip (secure channel desired – FSK, digital)
68
PUTT – Permissive-underreaching Transfer Trip
STATION C STATION D
A B
Must FINT
Overlap
21-1
Underreaching
21-1
Distance Relay
Overreaching 21-2
Distance Relay
21-2
Tx f1 Tx
Comm Comm
Rx Rx
69
PUTT – Permissive-underreaching Transfer Trip
Advantages
More secure than DUTT requiring a 21-2 operation for
permission to trip
Single communications channel
Disadvantages
Cannot protect full line if one terminal is open or has
weak infeed
Requires ground distance relays for accurate reach on
ground faults (no overcurrent)
70
POTT – Permissive-overreaching Transfer Trip
STATION C STATION D
A B
FINT
FP-A
Overreaching Distance
FP-B and OC Relays:
21-2, 21N-2, 67N
f1 f2
Tx Tx
Comm Comm
Rx Rx
Tx [f1 to B] Tx [f2 to A]
71
POTT – Permissive-overreaching Transfer Trip
Advantages
More dependable than PUTT because it sees all line
faults.
Open terminal and weak-end infeed logic can be applied.
Forward and reverse ground directional overcurrent
relays may be applied for greater sensitivity to high
resistance ground faults
Disadvantages
Requires a duplex communications channel (separate
frequency/signal for each direction)
Will not trip for internal fault with loss of channel (but
usually applied with a zone-1/2 step-distance
relay)
72
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB) and Unblocking (DCUB)
DCB and DCUB schemes are specifically intended to be used with systems where
communications is less secure (likely to be lost) during line fault conditions
Transmission Line
A B
Power Line
Carrier
Channel
Relay Relay
73
The PLC Channel
Station A Bus
Signal:
Fault Line Trap
30 to 500 kHz 2 1
1 to 100 Watts
(7 to 70 V rms) Signal Path
Switchyard
Control
House Relay PT Coupling Capacitor
inputs Voltage
Protective T Transformer (ccvt)
Coaxial Cable
Relay H
System R Drain
Coil
Line
Tuner
DCUB – Directional Comparison Unblocking
fB1 and fB2 are continuous block signals until a fault is detected and
the frequency is shifted to the unblock (trip) f1 and/or f2.
75
DCUB – Directional Comparison Unblocking
Advantages
Very secure at it requires receipt of Unblock signal for
tripping.
Has logic to handle loss of channel during faults.
Open terminal and weak-end infeed logic can be applied.
Forward and reverse ground directional overcurrent
relays may be applied for greater sensitivity to high
resistance ground faults
Security logic for loss of channel (carrier holes) only
delays trip during loss of channel
Disadvantages
Requires a duplex communications channel (separate trip
and guard frequencies for each direction)
76
DCB – Directional Comparison Blocking
77
DCB – Directional Comparison Blocking
Advantages
Very dependable – does not depend on channel for tripping for internal
faults
Open terminal and weak-end infeed are handled by scheme
Forward and reverse ground directional overcurrent relays may be applied
for greater sensitivity to high resistance ground faults
Low cost communications channel – single frequency channel On/Off PLC
Disadvantages
Not as secure – tends to overtrip for slow channel or loss of channel
Security logic for carrier holes may be required – slows tripping.
Channel is normally off so periodic checking is required
78
References
© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 79
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© ABB Group
October 7, 2014 | Slide 82