Journal of Friction and Wear Trenie i Iznos

Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 98-102, 2002 UDC 539.3:621.897

THE ROLE OF FRICTION IN MECHANICAL

TESTS OF MATERIALS

S.V. Shilko

An effect of friction on the mechanical characteristics of materials determined in exper-

iments is discussed. The stress-strain state of specimens with consideration for friction
and slippage in the region where the test load is applied at static tension-compression is
analyzed.

Introduction. Mechanical tests for strength and deformability of materials, as a rule, are based on
the contact transmission of load to specimen (Table 1).
The role of contact friction varies depending on test type. The friction at tension is the necessary
condition for transmission of load from grips and clamps of friction type to the specimen [1]. Given this,
more uniform stress-strain state of material can be obtained by the control of slippage in the specimen
fixings [2]. At the same time, friction can adversely affect the required uniform stress state, because a stress
gradient extending to the working part of the specimen should be expected from the combined action of
interference and shear loads in the griping parts of the specimen of constant thickness and width (strips).
Clearly this effect is less pronounced for the blade specimen with wide griped parts.
Friction in compression tests leads to distortion of the specimen shape and, therefore, it is a rea-
son for an error when the main mechanical characteristics (modulus of elasticity, strength, and yield
point) are determined [3—7].
The constrained deformation of near-surface volumes of material at its indentation with friction
increases the contact stiffness as compared to the variant of free slippage. Given this, the extent of the
increase is governed by the relation between the shear moduli G1, G2 and Poisson’s ratios 1, 2 of
bodies in contact [8, 9]:
Table 1

Friction at Transmission of Test Load

Test type Tension Compression Indentation

Loading scheme

Modulus of elasticity at compression,

Modulus of elasticity Normal modulus of elasticity,
Characteristic compression strength, and yield point
at tension hardness, contact strength
at compression

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Journal of Friction and Wear Vol. 23, No. 3

Fig. 1. Load-displacement curves at tension: a — without slippage, b, c — with slippage

Fig. 2. Slippage in grips before (a) and after (b) application of tensile load to specimen

k 
1  21  / G1   1  2 2  / G 2  . (1)
1  1  / G1   1   2  / G 2 
Moreover, as was noted in works [8, 9], friction has a strong effect on the critical load resulting
in formation of cracks on surface of specimens made of brittle materials when they are tested by in-
dentation.
Therefore, the study of friction effect is topical for mechanical tests, because such study allows
one to increase the accuracy of measurement and improve the efficiency of test load transmission. It
seems possible to estimate the role of friction using the numerical analysis of stress-strain state of the
specimens under test when the conditions of friction are varied.
Investigation Methods. Because analytical solutions to the contact problem with friction for finite
bodies at elastoplastic deformation are unavailable, the calculation part of the present study was con-
ducted by the finite element method in the finite number of iterations. Particularly, the software
ANSYS was used for computation of stress-strain state of specimens at tension and compression [10].
The experimental study of the friction effect was conducted on computer-aided stands ComTen
94C [11] and Instron 5567 [12].
Analysis of Results. Tension. The force-displacement curves obtained at axial tension tests of elas-
toplastic polymer under the condition that the interference in the contact between grip and end part
of specimen varies are shown in Fig. 1.
The contact shears are very small at sufficient interference, and the displacement of active grip re-
sults from volume deformation of the specimen allowing us to reveal the characteristic portions of P—
relationships (Fig. 1, a). A reduction of the interference below the minimum acceptable level results in
the marked distortion of the relationship (Fig. 1, b, c). Particularly even moderate slippage leads to the
underestimated modulus of elasticity if it is determined when using motion of the active grip.
The finite element method enables us to calculate the slippage for different shapes of contact
surfaces and thereby to optimize the way by which the specimens under test are fixed.
The results given in Fig. 2 correspond to the plane strain and the scheme of tension tests using
typical plane-parallel straps (see Fig. 1) with specimen thickness and interference equal to 3 and
0.3 mm, respectively. Friction was described by the Amontons law with friction coefficient f = 0.3.
The tensile load P was 2/3 of the limiting friction force in the grip (Fig. 2, b). Therefore, the prelimi-
nary displacement stage when slip develops on the significant part of the contact surface was modeled.

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P, N
600

500 3

400
2
1
300

200

100
1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 , mm4

Fig. 3. Effect of displacement  on compressive load P for different coefficients of friction: 1 — f = 0; 2 — 0.5; 3 — 0.8

An error of the finite element solution was estimated by the residual of boundaries of mating
bodies in the contact region. The residual appears after completion of iterations.
The distributions of shear displacements on both contact surfaces and tension in material show
that the slippage contributes significantly to the displacement of active grip (Fig. 2). In order to im-
prove the accuracy with which the deformation characteristics are determined using the grip dis-
placement, the slippage in the contact should be minimized. This is achieved by the use of higher
friction coefficient or design measures (application of wedge clamps, cavities in the near-surface layers
of end parts of specimen, gripping jaws, etc.). It should be noted that the test feature of auxestenic
materials with negative Poisson’s ratio is the self-locking effect [13], assisting in the transmission of
significantly higher loads on the tested specimen without use of wedge clamps.
Compression. Let us consider a contact loading of the standard cylindrical specimen with plane-
parallel faces, which is mounted between the supporting plates of test machine (Fig. 1). Even with
absence of shearing force on the specimen faces, the friction stresses originate due to the radial dis-
placements of specimen faces, which result from volume deformation and they are directed from the
axis of rotation. These displacements in the region of elastic deformation are governed by the material
compressibility estimated by Poisson’s ratio .
These stresses produce a deviation of the stress state of specimen from the axial state required for
the standard tests. The given heterogeneity manifests itself as a distortion of original cylindrical shape
to barrel one when the cross-section of specimen varies in height [3—7]. This distortion is most pro-
nounced when Poisson’s ratio approaches its upper limit 0.5 for isotropic material. Such situation
takes place at determination of the yield point of metals because of their incompressibility in the plas-
tic state as well as it is typical for polymers and elastomers, especially rubbers having both low com-
pressibility and high friction coefficient [5].
The heterogeneity of the stress state may also present in localization of plastic flow at elasto-
plastic deformation. For example, the plasticity zone in the axi-symmetrical contact of bodies of rota-
tion typical for compression tests develops under the surface on the axis of symmetry [5].
Yet, the features of the stress state caused by the contact friction on faces of specimens subjected
to compression tests are analyzed only in individual cases (e.g. in the numerical study [14]).
In this connection two series of calculations were performed for the case of axi-symmetrical
problem.
The first series concerned the study of the friction effect on stress-strain relationship for the
specimen of practically incompressible elastomer (  0.5), which has near-linear elasticity in the wide
range of strain. The geometric nonlinearity of the problem was taken into account because of the
great compression strains (up to 15%). The calculated results obtained at variation in the friction co-
efficient are compared in Fig. 3.
Friction in flat joint leads to marked rise in the specimen stiffness. When the stick zone in the
contact is developed, the further rise in the friction coefficient f does not vary noticeably the curve
P() (for the given example this is attained at f = 0.5). The numerical results are supported by the
compression tests of model rubber specimens of height 27 mm with and without lubricant. In the lat-
ter case the stiffness rise is  7%.
The second series of calculation present more complex analysis of the stress-strain state of elas-
toplastic specimen.

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Table 2
The Maximum Values of Stress-Strain State Components in Specimen at Compression

Deformation mode
Stress-strain state component
Elastic Elastoplastic
Contact pressure, MPa 27.2/70.0 13.2/41.7
Tangential contact stress, MPa 0/13.1 0/11.7
Slippage, m 168/103 171/69.1
Residual, m 1.07/1.77 3.68/7.04
Note. Numerator is f = 0, denominator is f = 0.3

Fig. 4. Contact pressure distribution at compression of standard specimen: a, c — elastic problem; b, d — elastoplastic problem;
a, b — f = 0; c, d — f = 0.3

Von Mises’ shear strain-energy criterion was used as the condition for yielding of material at
combined stress state which originate at contact deformation:

 
2
J2 
1
1   2 2   2   3 2   3  1 2  Y , (2)
6 3

where 1, 2, 3 are the principal stresses; Y is the yield point at axial tension.
The initial data for the calculation corresponded to the standard specimen (diameter and height
are 10 and 15 mm, respectively) made of polymer with elastic modulus E = 384 MPa, Poisson’s ratio
 = 0.48, yield point Y = 5 MPa, and modulus of hardening Eh = 130 MPa.
The components of stresses and displacements on surface and in the specimen are given in Ta-
ble 2 and Fig. 4 for the level of compression  = 1 mm. The obtained results allow us to estimate the

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effect of friction on the stress-strain state in the specimen and on the contact surface. The friction
assisting the constrained deformation causes the significant rise (several times) in the maximum pres-
sures on the edges of contact region. The rise is somewhat lowered due to the yielding (Table 2,
Fig. 4, b, c). Also, the concentration of effective stresses governing the onset of plastic flow and fail-
ure of specimen occurs in the vicinity of the specimen faces.
Therefore, in order to improve the accuracy of determination of the mechanical characteristics of
polymers and elastomers using compression tests, the methods reducing friction which were described
elsewhere [3—7] should be used.
The conducted study of the stress-strain state of specimens subjected to standard mechanical
tests on tension-compression allows us to make the following conclusions;
— slippage in grips causes an underestimated modulus of elasticity at tension of materials, especially
rigid ones;
— friction is a reason of an overstated estimate of elastic modulus, strength and yielding at com-
pression, particularly elastomers and polymers with high Poisson’s ratio.
An estimate of the friction effect at indentation is the subject of separate investigation, which will
be discussed in the following publication.

NOMENCLATURE
G — shear modulus;
 — Poisson’s ratio;
P — test load;
 — displacement;
 — inteference;
1, 2, 3 — principal stresses;
Y — yield point at axial tension;
Eh — modulus of hardening.

REFERENCES
[1] Yu.M. Tarnopolskii and T.Ya. Kintsis, Methods of Static Tests of Reinforced Plastics (in Rus-
sian), Moscow, 1975.
[2] Belarus Patent 20000457, Int.Cl.7, G 01N, Method for Determination of Mechanical Characteris-
tics at Tension.
[3] G.A. Smirnov-Alyaev, Resistance of Materials to Plastic Deformation (in Russian), Moscow-
Leningrad, 1968.
[4] V.A. Krokha, Curves of Metal Hardening at Cold Deformation (in Russian), Moscow, 1968.
[5] V.N. Poturaev, Rubber and Rubber-Metal Elements of Machines (in Russian), Moscow, 1966.
[6] Belarus Patent 20000164, Int.Cl.7, G 01N, Method for Determination of Strength and Yield at
Compression of Polymers.
[7] Belarus Patent 20000234, Int.Cl.7, G 01N, Method for Determination of Mechanical Characteris-
tics at Compression.
[8] K.L. Johnson, Contact Mechanics, Cambridge, 1987.
[9] I.G. Goryacheva and M.N. Dobychin, Contact Problems in Tribology (in Russian), Moscow,
1988.
[10] ANSYS Program. Revisions 5.3, 5.5.
[11] ConTen 94C. User’s Guide, 1999.
[12] Instron 5567. User’s Guide, 2001.
[13] S.V. Shilko, Journal of Friction and Wear, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 19—25, 1995.
[14] Chen Fuh-Kuo and Chen Cheng-Jun, ASME J. Eng. Mater. and Technol., vol. 122, no. 2,
pp. 192—197, 2000.

27 May 2002 V.A. Belyi Metal-Polymer Research

Institute of Belarus National Academy
of Sciences, Gomel, Belarus

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