Thesis On Energy Conservation On Plant Utilites

1 Energy Scenario
1.1 Introduction
Energy is the one of the most important resource necessary for us. Energy is also known as
‘Strategic Commodity’, as the economic functionality of any country depends on it. Proper
strategy should be made to have a balance between demand & supply of energy, as a little
uncertainty about its supply can threaten the functioning of entire economy.
Fossil fuel is used for about 70% power generation in India, in which 60% of India’s total
energy consumption is from coal, which is also being imported from Australia and
Indonesia; which is followed by hydro power by 15% and renewable energy which is 13%
of the total power generation. India relies on the import of a large amount of fossil fuels, the
average import of crude oil is 16.44 Ton Million per month in 2014-2016.
Power Capacity in India
The energy generated by using different resources is given in the table below. The table also
shows the installed power capacity in different regions across India.
ALL INDIA INSTALLED CAPACITY (IN MW) OF POWER STATIONS

(As on 30.11.2015)
(Courtesy: Wikipedia)
Modewise
Ownership/
Region Therm breakup RES * Grand Total
Sector al Diesel Nuclear Hydro
Coal Gas Total (MNRE)
State 16538.00 2879.20 0.00 19417.20 0.00 7502.55 662.06 27581.81

Northern Private 13065.00 108.00 0.00 13173.00 0.00 2478.00 7187.08 22838.08
Region Central 12000.50 2344.06 0.00 14344.56 1620.022 8266.22 0.00 24230.78
Sub Total 41603.50 5331.26 0.00 46934.76 22222222
1620.00 18246.77 7849.14 74650.67
State 21630.00 2993.82 0.00 24623.82 22222222
0.00 5480.50 311.19 30415.51
Western Private 34271.00 4288.00 0.00 38559.00 22223333
0.00 447.00 13061.98 52067.98
3330
Region Central 12238.01 3533.59 0.00 15771.60 1840.00 1520.00 0.00 19131.60
Sub Total 68139.01 10815.41 0.00 78954.42 1840.00 7447.50 13373.17 101615.09
State 14182.50 556.58 362.52 15101.60 0.00 11478.03 491.37 27071.00
Southern Private 6030.00 5557.50 554.96 12142.46 0.00 0.00 14968.59 27111.05
Region Central 11890.00 359.58 0.00 12249.58 2320.00 0.00 0.00 14569.58
Sub Total 32102.50 6473.66 917.48 39493.64 2320.00 11478.03 15459.96 68751.63
State 7040.00 100.00 0.00 7140.00 0.00 3168.92 225.11 10534.03
Private 8541.38 0.00 0.00 8541.38 0.00 195.00 234.43 8970.81
Eastern Region
Central 13001.49 90.00 0.00 13091.49 0.00 845.20 0.00 13936.69
Sub Total 28582.87 190.00 0.00 28772.87 0.00 4209.12 459.54 33441.53
State 60.00 445.70 36.00 541.70 0.00 382.00 253.25 1176.95
North Eastern Private 0.00 24.50 0.00 24.50 0.00 0.00 9.37 33.87
Region Central 250.00 1192.50 0.00 1442.50 0.00 860.00 0.00 2302.50
Sub Total 310.00 1662.70 36.00 2008.70 0.00 1242.00 262.62 3513.32
State 0.00 0.00 40.05 40.05 0.00 0.00 5.25 45.30
Islands Private 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.85 5.85
Central 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sub Total 0.00 0.00 40.05 40.05 0.00 0.00 11.10 51.15
State 59450.50 6975.30 438.57 66864.37 0.00 28012.00 1948.23 96824.60
Private 61907.38 9978.00 554.96 72440.34 0.00 3120.00 35467.30 111027.64
ALL INDIA
Central 49380.00 7519.73 0.00 56899.73 5780.00 11491.42 0.00 74171.15
Total 170737.88 24473.03 993.53 196204.44 5780.00 42623.42 37415.53 282023.39
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1.2 Energy Audit: A Tool
Energy audit is a tool for energy management, which helps in improving the performance of
equipment that tends to reduce energy cost and save energy. Energy audit is also known as
“Energy Study” or “Energy Assessment”, it comprises of systematic study of any plant
facility or equipment which consumes energy.
The study involves three main points:
 Data Collection
 Analysis
 Recommendations
Energy Audit concentrates on the study of energy consumption pattern and data of various
equipment in a plant. On the basis of that performance analysis is done. Analysis helps in
finding the gap between the energy usage and delivery of work according to the usage. This
helps in identifying the opportunities for conservation of energy in that particular facility,
process or equipment which is also known as “Energy Conservation Opportunities”. Energy
Audit is a complete analysis and provides a clear picture of energy saving opportunities.
The study was done on various utilities for a facility in which various promising areas for
energy conservation were identified. Energy conservation opportunities and
recommendation were given on the basis of performance analysis of these utilities.
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2 Literature Review
a) Bhansali V.K. et al. (1995): This paper presented the various energy conservation
opportunities which were very effective with short payback period and reasonable
monetary investment.
b) Khan Atif Zaman (1996): This paper deals with the study of energy consumption
pattern of Sheet-Glass industry, various Energy Conservation measures which can
reduce the energy consumption from industrial perspective, which can also be
implemented in various other industries.
c) ZAINUDDIN ABDUL MANAN et al. (2003): This paper outlines the methodology
& scope of saving with the case study energy audit of two different industries; Textile
& Oleo-chemical.
In the textile industry, the study was done in which it covers the Boiler House,
Refrigeration System & Compressed Air System. Various Energy Conservation
Opportunities are emphasized based on the analysis as well as observation.
In the Oleo-Chemical Plant, the site studies comprised two plants which were
manufacturing fatty acids & fatty alcohol as main products. The study was focused
on the efficiency improvement of various utilities in plant.
d) Ch. Kiran Kumar (2013): This paper deals with the results of the energy audit
conducted in KOTHAGUDEM Thermal Power station, Andhra Pradesh. This paper
deals with the various areas involved in power generation. The paper deals with
complete study of boiler efficiency and factor leading deterioration of the boiler
efficiency.
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3 Study of Pumps
3.1 Introduction
Pumps are the devices which transfer fluid from one place to another. The pumps transform
mechanical energy of a rotating impeller to kinetic and potential energy according to the
system requirement. The fluid to be transferred could be anything such as water, oil, slurry
etc.
The pump can be used for transferring fluid from ground or sump to overhead tank or it can
be used for circulating the fluid in a continuous closed cycle.
3.2 Types of Pumps
According to operating principle, pumps can be classified as:
1. Dynamic Pump
2. Displacement Pump
Dynamic pumps generally provide a higher flow rate and a steadier discharge (as compared
to the Positive Displacement Pumps that frequently deliver the flow in pulses), but dynamic
pumps are ineffective in handling high viscosity fluids. Dynamic Pumps can be further
classified into two types:
a) Centrifugal Pump
b) Special Effect Pump
Positive-displacement pumps have a moving boundary that forces the fluid to flow by
changes in the volume of one or more chambers within the pump. The advantage of PDPs is
that they are capable of delivering almost any fluid regardless of viscosity. Positive
Displacement Pumps are also classified into two types:
a) Reciprocating Pumps
b) Rotary Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are the commonly used & economical pumps, followed by reciprocating
and rotary pumps. Although, positive displacement pumps are more efficient as compared
to centrifugal pump but they have high maintenance cost.
Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pumps as shown in Figure 3-1, are simple in design and have two main parts-
impeller, and diffuser. The impeller is the only moving part, connected to the shaft and driven
by a motor. The water enters at the center of the impeller and leaves the impeller along the
direction of centrifugal force. As the water exits the impeller, a low-pressure side is created
near the impeller eye which results in the flow of more water entering the impeller eye.
Centrifugal Pumps are also subdivided into three categories according to the nature of flow:
o Axial Flow Centrifugal pumps

o Vertical Flow centrifugal pumps
o Mixed flow centrifugal pumps
The Head and flow are the main factors on which the capacity of pump and motors depends.
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Figure 3-1 Centrifugal Pump with closed impeller casing & its parts
3.3 Pump Characteristics
The main objective of any pumping system is to transfer fluid from one place to another or
circulating it according to the requirement. The flow of fluid requires pressure which should
be higher than the head losses.
There are two kinds of loss:
1. Static head loss

Static head is simply the distance between the source of the fluid from where water
is sucked and discharge point is where it is to be delivered. It is the head which is
required to overcome the effect of gravity.
2. Frictional head loss
The Frictional head is the loss which occurs when the fluid moves in pipes and
fittings due to friction.
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A graph is plotted between Head & Flow of the pump which is called system curve, as shown
in Figure 3-2 . This curve varies with applications, thus signifies the actual demand of the
system. The performance of pumps expressed graphically between head and flow of the
pump is termed as Pump curve, as shown in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-2 System Curve of Pump
Figure 3-3 Pump Performance curve
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3.4 Selection of Pump
A proper pump can be selected by combining the system curve and pump curve. The point
at which both the curve meets is the operating point. The pump manufacturers give a point
on pump curve, known as Best Efficiency Point (BEP), it is a point where both flow and
head are optimum.
Figure 3-4 Pump Characteristic Curve
The pump selected according to the graph in Figure 3-4, is supposed to meet the system
requirements. A pump is selected on the basis of operating point which is achieved by
matching the pump curve and system curve.
3.5 Affinity Law
The performance of centrifugal pump and selection according to the system need can be
done with the help of Affinity law. The affinity law relates pump speed and impeller diameter
to pump flow, pressure developed across the pump, and BHP (power) of the pump.
Affinity law is useful in estimating pump performance at various rotating speeds or impeller
diameters.
Figure 3-5 Affinity Law
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3.6 Operating characteristics of Pump
o During operation of a pump, the pump must run constantly with the speed of the
prime mover; this constant speed is usually the design speed. The main
characteristics correspond to the design speed are mostly used in pump operation,
and hence are known as the operating characteristics of pump.
o The efficiency of the pump tends to decrease on both sides of the Best Efficiency
Point (BEP).
3.7 Performance of Pump
Pump Efficiency (ƞpump ) = Hydraulic Power / Shaft power x 1000

Hydraulic Power = Q x ρ x g x H
Shaft Power = ƞmotor x Motor input power
Where,
Q= Mass flow rate of fluid,
ρ= Density of fluid,
g= Acceleration due to gravity,
H= hd-hs = Differential Head,
hd= Suction head
hs= Discharge head
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3.8 Field Testing Of Pumps
Performance Evaluation of single Pump:
First of all, we will note down the nomenclature of the pump available on the Name-plate of
the pump, which contains various rated parameters engraved on it. The parameters on
Nameplate would be Make, Model, RPM, Type (end suction, split casing, etc.), Capacity,
Head, Power, and Impeller Diameter.
1. Flow Measurement, Q (m3 /s):

Ultrasonic Flowmeter is used for flow measurement. There are two types of ultrasonic
flowmeters Transit-time & Doppler flow meters.
Transit-time flowmeters are used to measure the flow rate of clean water. There are one
transmitter and other receiver and they measure the transit time taken by the ultrasonic pulses
propagating in and against the direction of flow from sending end to receiving end. This
time-difference measures the average velocity of the fluid in the path of the ultrasonic beam.
Doppler Flowmeter measures the flow rate of dirty water and slurry. Doppler Effect flow-
meter transmits high-frequency sound through the pipe wall into the flowing liquid, as shown
in Figure 3-6. The signal impacts with solid particles and gas bubbles suspended in the liquid
line and reflects back to the sensor. When ultrasonic sound reflects back, it reflects back with
altered frequency. This frequency shift is known as Doppler Effect and the sensor
continuously measures the alteration in received frequency from transmitted frequency to
measure flow accurately.
Figure 3-6 Doppler Effect Flowmeter mechanism
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Step by step approach to flow measurement:
 Measure Line circumference, 𝜋𝐷

𝜋𝐷 1
Find diameter, 𝐷(inches) = 3.14 ∗ 25.4
a) Determine spacing between the sensors. Line Spacing
According to the line size, we can determine the spacing between the
Sensors.
 Sensor positioning:
The positioning of sensor plays an important role in flow measurement, as we should
place the sensor at a point where the signal sent by the transmitter is received by the
receiver with maximum signal strength. The signal strength should be 85% or more
for accurate readings.
Formula used to find Sensor positioning is given by
𝜋𝐷
− 13
4
 The sensor positions are marked and the paint & rust is removed from the line so that
there is no distortion in signal transmission.
 After that, the sensors are positioned & reading is taken.
2. Determination of Total Head
 Suction Head (hs): We can measure suction head with the help of inlet pressure gauge
or we can simply measure the difference between the pump center line and sump
water level. 1kg/cm2 pressure is considered as 10 m head.
 Discharge Head (hd): Discharge Head is measured with the help of discharge pressure
gauge.
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
3. Hydraulic Power, Ph (kW) = ρ = Density of fluid (kg/m3 )
1000
g=Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2 )
H= hd - hs = Differential Head
4. Motor Power, Pm (kW): Motor input Power can be measured using a portable power
meter.
5. Pump Shaft Power, Ps (kW) = Pm x ƞmotor
6. Pump Efficiency, ƞpump = Ph / Ps
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3.9 Case Study of Pump
Performance Evaluation of Process Cooling Water Pumps
Measurements of pressures, water flow, and electrical power were made on cooling
water pumps to estimate the operating efficiencies. Measurements and operating
parameters are shown in Table 3-1 Performance of Process cooling Tower Pumps.
Observations & Comments
a) In Plant A, the process cooling water pump 101A has rated head and flow of 25m
and 192 m3 /h respectively. This pump was operating with discharge pressures of 1.8
kg/cm2 (g) and flow of 240 m3 /h, consuming power in the range of 19.4 kW,
indicating pump efficiencies in the range of 60.5%, which is poor.
Standby pump 101B was OFF.
b) In Plant A, the process cooling water pump 102A has rated head and flow of 25m
kg/cm2 (g), consuming power in the range of 19.4 kW; flow measurement was not
possible, hence pump efficiency could not be estimated.
Standby pump 102B was OFF.
c) In Plant B, the process cooling water pump 301A has rated head and flow of 35m
Standby pumps 301B & pump 301C were OFF.
d) In Plant C, the process cooling water pump 201A has rated head and flow of 35m
Standby pumps 201B & pump 201C were OFF.
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Table 3-1 Performance of Process cooling Tower Pumps
Pump Pump Rated Values Estimated Pressure Diff. Motor Motor Pump Pump
Pump
Make Model S peed Head Flow Flow suction Discharge Head input Efficiency Input Efficiency Remarks
Name
Rpm M m3/h m3/h m kg/cm2 m kW % kW %
Plant A
Standby pump
Pump UP
Kirloskar 1475 25 192 240.0 0.0 1.8 18.0 21.6 90.0% 19.4 60.5% 101 B was
101 A 125/30
OFF.
Standby pump
Pump UP
Kirloskar 1475 25 192 - 0.0 1.3 13.0 11.7 88.0% 10.5 - 102 B was
102 A 125/30
OFF.
Both pumps
Pump
- - - - - - - - - - - - - 103A &103B
103 A
was OFF.
Plant B
Parallel pumps
Pump BST
M &P 1450 35 250 255.0 0.0 2.3 23.0 35.9 91.0% 32.7 48.9% 301 B and 301
301 A 125/150
C were OFF.
Plant C
Parallel pumps
Pump BST
M &P 1450 35 250 200.0 0.0 2.6 26.0 25.2 90.0% 22.7 62.4% 201 B and 201
201 A 125/150
C were OFF.
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3.10 Energy Conservation Opportunities (ECOs)
a) Replacement for Process Cooling tower pump (Plant-A)

In Plant A, the process cooling water pump 101A has rated head and flow of 25m and 192
m3/h respectively. These pump was operating with discharge pressures of 1.8 kg/cm2 (g)
and flow of 240 m3/h, consuming power in the range of 19.4 kW, indicating pump
efficiencies in the range of 60.5%, which is poor. The efficiency of the pump is due to the
fact that it is operating at off-point, the operating head is 18m, while the rated head is 25m.
The actual flow of 240 m3/h is also significantly higher than the rated flow of 192 m3/h.
Replacement of the pump is recommended.
a) The recommended specifications of the new pump are as follows:
Pump Type End Suction Back Pullout

Make KSB
ETN 150-125-250 GG 11GD301854B (or
Model equivalent from other manufacturer)
Speed 1473 rpm
Impeller Diameter 265 mm
Head 20 m
Flow 250 m3 /h
Efficiency 86.20%
Pump Shaft Power 15.8 kW
Likely Motor Efficiency 88%
Expected Motor Input 17.95 kW
No. Of Pumps 2 (1 working, 1 Standby)
b) Presently, Pump 101A is consuming 19.4 kW. The power saving potential is 3.65
kW. The energy saving potential is 28,000 kWh/annum i.e. Rs. 1.73 lakhs per
annum.
c) The investment for 2 nos. pumps is expected to be Rs. 1.80 lakhs, with a payback
period of 13 months.
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Figure 3-7: Typical Performance Characteristics of Recommended Process Cooling tower Pump in
Plant-A
14
Replacement for Process Cooling tower pump (Plant-B)
a) In Plant B, the process cooling water pump 301A has rated head and flow of 35m
and 250 m3/h respectively. These pump was operating with discharge pressures of
2.3 kg/cm2 (g) and flow of 255 m3 /h, consuming power in the range of 32.7 kW,
indicating pump efficiencies in the range of 48.9%, which is poor. The efficiency of
the pump is due to the fact that it is operating at off-point, the operating head is 23m,
while the rated head is 35m.
b) The recommended specifications of the new pump are as follows:
Pump Type End Suction Back Pullout
Make KSB
ETN 150-125-315 GG
AA11GD502204B (or equivalent
Model from other manufacturer)
Speed 1471 rpm
Impeller Diameter 294 mm
Head 25 m
Flow 260 m3/h
Efficiency 81.50%
Pump Shaft Power 21.64 kW
Likely Motor Efficiency 90%
Expected Motor Input 24.04 kW
No. Of Pumps 2 (1 working, 1 Standby)
c) Presently, Pump 301A is in operation consuming 35.9 kW. The power saving
potential is 11.86 kW. The energy saving potential is 85,300 kWh/annum i.e. Rs.5.28
lakhs per annum.
d) The investment for 2 nos. pumps is expected to be Rs. 2.40 lakhs, with a payback
period of less than 6 months.
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Figure 3-8: Typical performance characteristics of recommended Process Cooling tower pump at
Plant-B
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4 Study of Dust Collectors
4.1 Introduction
A dust collector is a system, which helps in trapping the dust coming out from the plant
processes and improve the quality of air and prevent the environment from pollution.
A dust collector can also be used to collect the granular particles from the process stream. A
dust collector mainly works as an air pollution controlling device.
4.2 Types of Dust Collector
Inertial Separator
Fabric Filters
Wet scrubbers
Electrostatic Precipitators
Unit collectors
Inertial Separators
Inertial separators are kind of dust collector which uses a combination of forces;
gravitational, centrifugal and inertial to separate dust from gases. The dust separated by
forces is moved to the hopper by gravity, where it is temporarily stored.
There are three main types of primary separators:
a) Gravitational settling chambers

b) Baffle chambers
c) Centrifugal collectors
i. Gravitational Settling chamber:

A gravitational settling chamber consists of a large area with duct work open at both
ends. When the contaminated gas enters the duct the area is small and as it moves
forward, the area increases which decreases the velocity of the dust-filled air stream
and heavier particle settle out due to gravity.
Figure 4-1 Gravitati onal Settling Chamber
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ii. Baffle Chambers:
Baffle chamber uses baffle plate for the collection of dust particles of large diameters.
When the gas stream flows into the chamber and has to suddenly change its direction
due to baffle, due to this sudden change large diameter dust particles couldn’t follow
the gas streams and settle in the dead end space.
Figure 4-2 Baffle Chamber

iii. Centrifugal collectors:
Centrifugal collectors use cyclonic action to separate dust from the gas stream. The
gas enters the collector and is spun rapidly which creates a vortex. The centrifugal
force occurs by the spinning action throws the particles towards the wall of the cycle,
after striking the wall, the dust settles down in the hopper.
Types of Centrifugal collector:
a) Single Cyclone Separator

b) Multiple cyclone separator
a) Single Cyclone separator:

In Single cyclone separator, the contaminated air enters tangentially, where it is spun
rapidly. Vortex is formed which moves downward taking the coarse dust particles, which
makes the particles strike the cyclone and they settle down in the hopper.
With the same direction of rotation, the air is redirected inwards and upwards. Chips and
dust are carried to the outer wall of the cyclone the effect of centrifugal force and deposited
below by the force of gravity.
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Figure 4-3 Single cyclone separator
Multiple Cyclone Separator:

Multiple cyclone separators consist of a combination of small diameter single cyclone
separator, which is longer in length. The mechanism of the multiple cyclone separators is
similar to the single cyclone separator. These cyclone separators work in parallel, having
common gas inlet and outlet.
Multiple Cyclone separators can collect more dust as they have longer length cyclones and
are smaller in diameter. These two factors provide better separation of particulates as the
longer length of cyclone provides longer residence time and smaller diameter provides the
higher centrifugal force.
Fabric Filters
These are commonly known as filter-bag, fabric collectors use filtration to separate dust from
contaminated gas. Fabric filters are most efficient and cost effective type of dust collector
and can achieve a collection efficiency up to 99% of very fine particles.
These filter bags are pre-coated with a filter enhancer. Generally, inert limestone is used as
filter enhancer which improves the collection efficiency and also protects the bag from
moisture, oil etc. and improves its life.
Types of Bag cleaning:
a. Bag Shaking
b. Reverse air
c. Pulse Jet
d. Sonic
e. Cartridge Collectors
a. Bag Shaking: The bag is connected to a rod

which is powered by a motor. This helps in
removing the dust particles. The filter bag is Figure 4-4 Fabric Filter Bag
19
closed from the top and is open from the bottom. When it is shaken the dust is
removed.
b. Reverse Air: As we know, the dirty air flows inside the bag and dust is collected in
the interior surface of the bag. During cleaning, the dirty gas is not allowed to pass
through the bag & the bag relax during that time. Clean air is blown in the reverse
direction by a fan. The reverse air flow and relaxation helps in removing the dust
from the bag.
c. Pulse Jet: This is the very common type of bag cleaning system. High pressurized
air blast is used to clean the bag. The bag is connected with Solenoid valves, which
purges compressed air in the bag from the top side and develops a shock wave which
takes a few microseconds to travel the length of the bag.
d. Sonic: Sonic is the least common method of bag cleaning. Sonic vibration is used
for shaking, in which vibration is achieved by a low-frequency sound generator and
leads to vibration of bags. This is not as efficient as Pulse jet cleaning, so we combine
sonic cleaning with other bag cleaning method for thorough cleaning.
e. Cartridge Collectors: Cartridge collectors are those which uses perforated metal
cartridges which are made up of folded nonwoven fabric. This folded fabrics
provides larger filtering surface area as compared to the conventional bag. The
greater surface area results in a reduced air to cleaning media ratio, pressure drop,
and collector size.
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Wet Scrubbers
The dust collectors which use liquid are known as wet scrubbers. In this kind of dust
collector, water is used for dust collection. The water and dirty gas stream come in contact
with each other, and greater contact of these two yields higher efficiency.
There are many types of Wet scrubbers, but however, they all have one of three basic
configurations:
a) Gas-humidification:
The gas humidification process collects fine particles, increasing the collection
efficiency and making collection easier.
b) Gas-Liquid Contact:
This is one of the most important factors affecting collection efficiency. The Dust
particle and water droplet come into contact by four primary mechanisms.
i. Inertial impaction- When water droplets come in the path of the dirty gas stream, the
stream separates and flow around them. But due to inertia, the larger the same straight
path and will hit the droplet and get encapsulated.
ii. Interception – The Finer particles moving along with larger particles in a gas stream
do not hit water droplets directly but brush against and follow them.
iii. Diffusion - When water droplets are spread among dust particles, the particles get
encapsulated on the droplet surfaces by Brownian movement or diffusion. This is the
principal behind the collection of sub micro-meter dust particles.
d) Condensation nucleation – If the gas passing through the scrubber is cooled below
its dew-point, the moisture is condensed over the dust particles which increases the
size of the dust particles. This increase in particle size makes collection easier.
c) Gas-liquid separation:
Regardless of contact mechanism used, the main objective is to maximize the
efficiency by removing as much dust as possible. When water droplets and dust
particles come in contact, they combine to form agglomerates. As they start
combining, they start growing larger and finally settle down in the collector.
Figure 4-5 Wet Scrubbers

Types of scrubber
On the basis of Pressure drop, Spray tower can be categorized as under:

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1) Low-energy scrubbers (0.5 to 2.5 inches water gauge - 124.4 to 621.9 Pa)
2) Low- to medium-energy scrubbers (2.5 to 6 inches water gauge - 0.622 to 1.493 kPa)
3) Medium- to high-energy scrubbers (6 to 15 inches water gauge - 1.493 to 3.731 kPa)
4) High-energy scrubbers (greater than 15 inches water gauge - greater than 3.731 kPa)
4.2.1.1 Low-energy scrubbers
This is simple gravity-spray-tower scrubber, in which the liquid droplets are formed by
atomization of liquid in spray nozzles fall through rising exhaust gases. The dust is trapped
and dirty water is drained at the bottom. These scrubbers are operated at the pressure drops
of 1 to 2 in. water gauge (¼ to ½ kPa). These scrubbers can trap up to 10 µm particles with
an efficiency of approximately 70%, which reduces for the particle size below 10 µm. These
scrubbers can treat dust in high concentration without becoming plugged.
4.2.1.2 Low - Medium energy scrubbers
Wet cyclone spins and throws the dust particles to the wetted wall by using centrifugal force.
When water is introduced from the top, they carry out all the dust along with them. These
collectors can collect dust particles of size 5 μm and above pressure drops for these collectors
range from 2 to 8 in. water (½ to 2 kPa).
4.2.1.3 Medium- high-energy scrubbers co-current-flow scrubber
This is also known as Packed-bed scrubbers, the bed is packed with packing elements, such
as broken rock, rings, coke, saddles, etc. This packing doesn’t allow the liquid to flow
continuously but the liquid get spread over high surface area film. When the dusty gas passes
through the bed, it comes maximum in contact with the liquid film and the dust gets
deposited over the packing elements.
Packed bed scrubbers can be classified into three types:
 Cross-flow scrubbers
 Co-current flow scrubbers
 Counter-current flow scrubbers
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4.2.1.4 High-energy scrubbers
High energy scrubbers are also known as Venturi scrubbers. Venturi scrubbers are highly
efficient gas cleaners, which traps the suspended dust particles in the gas by the droplets
formed by liquid atomization. The size of the droplets formed plays a key role in the pressure
drop and collection efficiency. Due to the high-gas velocities the coarse water spray, which
is injected radially gets atomized into fine droplets. The dust particles and water droplets
collide due to high energy and extreme turbulence in the throat. The accumulation process
continues in the diverging section of the Venturi. The inertial separator is used for removing
the large agglomerates formed in Venturi. Venturi scrubbers have high collection efficiency
and as we know its efficiency depends on the pressure drop, manufacturers are now
providing Variable throat Venturi scrubbers which can maintain the pressure according to
the need.
Figure 4-6 High Energy Scrubbers
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Electrostatic Precipitator
Electrostatic Precipitators are kind of dust collector which uses electrostatic forces to collect
dust particles from gases. Electrostatic Precipitators work on the principle similar to home
“Ionic” air purifiers. There contain a number of high-voltage, direct-current discharge
electrodes placed between grounded collecting electrodes. The contaminated gases flow
through the passage formed by the discharge and collecting electrodes.
When the airborne particles pass through the ionized field between the electrodes, they
receive a negative charge and get attracted towards a grounded or positively charged
electrode and stick to it.
The material collected on the electrodes is removed by vibrating the collecting electrodes
either continuously or at a predetermined interval. We can clean the precipitator without
interrupting the airflow. The four main components of all electrostatic precipitators are:
 Power supply unit ( high voltage DC Power)

 Ionizing section
 A Dust removal mechanism
 A casing to enclose the precipitator zone
Figure 4-7 Working Diagram of Electrostatic Precipitator
24
Unit collectors
The contamination is controlled at its source by unit collectors. They are small in size and
available in complete package with a fan and dust collecting system. As they are smaller in
size, they can be easily used at isolated places and can be moved where dust producing
operations are frequent such as remote belt conveyor transfer points or silos and bins.
Advantages:
 Smaller in size and portable.
 Less space requirements
 Dust can be reutilized in main stream material flow line.
25
4.3 Components of Dust Collector
There are four main components of dust collector:
a) Blower
b) Dust Filter
c) Filter cleaning system
d) Dust removal system
Figure 4-8 A Dust Collector with Filter Bag and it

components
4.4 Field Testing
The field testing was done for a dust collector having fabric filter bags as dust collecting
system and Pulse jet system for bag cleaning mechanism. In field testing we concentrate on
two main components to evaluate the performance of Dust Collector:
1. Dust Extraction Blower
2. Filter cleaning system
Dust Extraction Blower Field Testing:
For performance evaluation of blower, we measure three parameters, Pressure and Mass
flow rate of air and input power in actual operating condition. We measure the inlet static
and the velocity pressure as well as outlet static & velocity pressure. Mass flow rate is
measured with the reference to air velocity & area of the duct.
Pressure measurement:
 Static Pressure is measured with manometer

 Velocity pressure is measured by the help of Pitot tube, the Pitot tube includes both
static pressure and the total pressure in a single unit. The Pitot tube is connected to
the manometer, as the static pressure acts on the both side of manometer so it cancels
out and the difference between the total & static pressure is Velocity pressure is
shown on the manometer.
26
 The Pressure should be measured near the suction & discharge Point
Mass flow rate:

Mass flow rate is calculated by calculated by using velocity of air through velocity pressure.
Mass flow rate, Q = Velocity of Air (m/s) x Area (m2 )

Velocity of Air = Cp √(2𝑥9.81𝑥∆𝑝)/𝛾
Cp = Coefficient of Pitot tube
𝛾=Gas density at flow conditions
∆𝑝= Avg. Velocity pressure measured by Pitot tube
Input Power: Input power can be measured by using suitable clamp-on power meter.
Now we can calculate the blower efficiency by using the formula

Air Power
ȠBlower= 𝑆h𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Air Power = [9.81 x ∆𝑝 (𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑐) x Q (m3 /s)]/1000

Shaft Power = ƞmotor x Motor input power (kW).
Estimation of Compressed Air required for Pulse Jet Bag Cleaning
Step-1 We will be needing data, which are as under:
Description
Rated Flow m3/h
No of solenoid valves
no of Nozzles per Solenoid valves
Total no of Cartridges
Pulsing Time (sec)

Pulsing Frequency/minute
Step-2 Total number of cartridges= No. of solenoid valves x No. of nozzles per solenoid
valves
Step-3 The compressed air required to clean the bag would be double the air coming from
the plant.
𝑚3
2 𝑥 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤( )
ℎ
Required Compressed Air (m3 /min)/cartridge =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑥 60
Step-4 Air Quantity (m3 /pulse)/cartridge

𝑚3
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ( )/ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (sec )
min
=
60
𝑚3
Step-5 Air Quantity (cft/cartridge) = 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 )/𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑥 35.31
Step-6 As we know, compressed air is required in only one solenoid valve at a time
27
Compressed Air required (cfm) =
𝑐𝑓𝑡
[𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ]
𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠
28
4.5 Case Study
5 nos. of dust collector blowers are in operation. In PFIKC, there are 3 nos. of blowers (2x50
hp and 1x10 hp); in RBIKC, there are 2 nos. of blowers (40hp and 100hp)
The performance of these blowers was studied by measurement of flows, pressures, power
and efficiency has been estimated. The pressures were measured with electronic Manometer,
air flows were measured with Anemometer and Pitot tube and Power with portable Power
Analyzer. The details of the measurements, analyses and energy saving opportunities are
discussed in subsequent sections.
Performance Evaluation of Dust Extraction Blowers
Table 4-1 shows information on the dust extraction blowers and connected machines;
Table 4-2 shows the measured parameters and estimated efficiencies of the dust extraction
blowers.
Table 4-1: Dust Extraction Blowers and Connected Machines

Dust Extraction Blower Connected Equipment Name
PFIKC (Old Plant)
Band Saw 1
10 HP Blower Router (new)
Band saw 2
M illing M achine
50 HP Blower Table Saw M achine
Grinding Station
CNC M achine-1
50 HP Blower
CNC M achine-2
RBIKC (New Plant)
Panel Beam Saw M achine
CNC Router M achine
40 HP Blower
Band Saw-1
Band Saw-2
M illing M achine-1
M illing M achine-2
Four Spindle M achine-1
100 HP Blower
29
Table 4-2: Performance of Dust Extraction Blowers
Pressure
Sr. Dust Inlet O utlet Basic Motor Like ly Like ly Like ly

No. Colle ctor Rated Air Air input motor be lt Like ly fan fan
Tag no. Flow flow Static Velocity Total Static Velocity Total Diffe rential Powe r e fficiency e fficiency shaft e fficiency
Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pre ssure powe r
m 3 /h m 3 /h mmWC mmWC mmWC mmWC mmWC mmWC mmWC kW kW % % kW %
1 PU-DC-U35 13250 10281 -536 41 -496 72 41 113 608.0 17.03 26.0 90 95 22.23 76.6
2 PU-DC-U37 4000 2968 -366 54 -312 33 54 87 399.0 3.23 5.2 92.5 95 4.57 70.6
3 PU-DC-U36 13250 9139 -523 32 -491 0 32 32 523.0 13.02 25.0 90 95 21.38 60.9
4 RB-U-10 12700 9959 -495 28 -467 18 61 79 546.0 14.82 19.6 90 95 16.79 88.2
5 RB-U-9 33400 18595 -177 31 -146 22 37 59 205.0 10.39 15.6 90 95 13.34 77.9
30
Observation and Comments
a) Dust Extraction blower PU-DC-U35 is having a static suction pressure of -

536mmWC, air flow of 10,281m3 /h and operating efficiency of 76.6%, which is
reasonably good.
b) Dust Extraction blower PU-DC-U37 is having a static suction pressure of -

reasonably good.
c) Dust Extraction blower PU-DC-U36 is having a static suction pressure of -

reasonably good.
d) Dust Extraction blower RB-U-10 is having a static suction pressure of -495mmWC,

air flow of 9,959m3 /h and operating efficiency of 88.2%, which is reasonably good.
e) Dust Extraction blower RB-U-9 is having a static suction pressure of -177mmWC,

air flow of 18,595m3 /h and operating efficiency of 77.9%, which is reasonably good.
It is observed that during the recess time when machines are not in operation, all dust
collector blowers, shutdown automatically by using timer switch, which is
appreciable.
4.6 Compressed Air Use in Dust Collectors

The dust collectors use compressed air for pulse cleaning of bags. The pulsing mechanism
is timer controlled; we understand that the pulsing frequency is “one minute per solenoid
valve”. Table 4-3 shows the information regarding the number of solenoid valves and
nozzles in Dust Collectors.
Table 4-3: Details of Solenoid Valves & Nozzles on Dust Collectors

Sr. Dust Number Number
No. Collector of of
Tag no. Solenoid Nozzles
valves
Nos. Nos.
1 PU-DC-U35 9 10
2 PU-DC-U37 2 18
3 PU-DC-U36 9 10
4 RB-U-10 6 20
5 RB-U-9 14 20
The compressed air consumption will depend on the solenoid valve “open time”, number of
nozzles, nozzle size and the operating pressure. Assuming the fact, that to blow off dust
from the filter surface, compressed air pulse must be opposite and twice the volume of the
upward filtered air flow. Based on the assumption, estimation of compressed air
consumption for pulsing in dust collectors is shown in
31
Table 4-4. The total compressed air consumption for 5 nos. of dust collector is estimated to
be 44 cfm.
Measurement of pressure drop across dust collector RB-U-9 and RB-U-10 were 30mmWC
and 7mmWC respectively; these pressure drops are very low and are usually expected to be
in the range of 100mmWC to 150 mmWC; the recommended control point is 125 mmWC.
The pressure drops in other dust collectors could not be measured due to poor accessibility.
32
Table 4-4: Estimation of Compressed Air Consumption of Pulse Jet System in Dust Collectors
Sr. Rated No. of No. of Nozzles No. of Pulsing Required Compresse d Air Air Numbe r Total Compressed
No. De scription Flow Solenoid per Solenoid Valve Cartridges Time Air Flow Q uantity Q uantity of Pulse s Air Re quire d
m 3 /h Valves Nos. Nos. Sec (m 3 /min)/cartridge (m 3 /pulse)/cartridge cft/cartridge pe r minute cfm
1 PU-DC-U35 (50 HP) 13250 9 10 90 0.25 4.91 0.020 0.72 1.00 7.22
2 PU-DC-U37 (10 HP) 4000 2 18 36 0.2 3.70 0.012 0.44 1.00 7.85
3 PU-DC-U36 (50 HP) 13250 9 10 90 0.25 4.91 0.020 0.72 1.00 7.22
4 RB-U-10 (40HP) 12700 6 20 120 0.25 3.53 0.015 0.52 1.00 10.38
5 RB-U-9 (100 HP) 33400 14 20 280 0.25 3.98 0.017 0.58 1.00 11.70
33
4.7 Energy Conservation Opportunities
Increase Operating Time Interval of Sequential Timers of Dust Collectors
a) Measurement of pressure drop across dust collector RB-U-9 and RB-U-10 were
30mmWC and 7mmWC respectively; these pressure drops are very low, usually
expected to be in the range of 100mmWC to 150 mmWC; the recommended control
point is 125 mmWC. The pressure drops in other dust collectors could not be
measured due to poor accessibility.
b) It is suggested that, with the help of vendors of dust collectors, the pressure drops of
all dust collectors be measured accurately. It is suggested that, for all dust collectors
with pressure drops less than 100mmWC, the operating time interval of sequential
timers may be increased from 1 minute to 2 minutes or more. Assuming that the air
consumption for dust collectors will drop by 50% i.e. 22 cfm, the energy saving
potential is 16,000 kWh/annum i.e. 1.16 lakhs/annum. This is operational energy
saving opportunity, no investment is involved.
c) For achieving additional savings, solenoid valve operation can also be controlled
based on differential pressure across the dust collectors. In this case, the solenoid
valve operation is controlled to maintain the pressure drop @ 125 mmWC. This
measure can be considered, only if the pressure drop across the dust collectors
continues to be low, in spite of increasing the operating time interval of sequential
timers.
Central Dust Collector System for Multiple Machines with Isolation Dampers & Oversized
Blower with Electronic Variable Speed Drive in PFIKC
When Central Dust Collector systems are connected to multiple machines, air flow will be
excessive in the main duct and sub-ducts, when some of the machines are idle. An accepted
method of isolating idle machines is to install pneumatically controlled Air Blast dampers at
the machine sub-duct which close when a particular machine is not in operation. But closure
of many such dampers (when many machines are idle) leads to reduced air flow in the main
ducts, which in turn can lead to settlement of chips or dust in the main duct. This problem
can be solved by opening the air blast dampers of all machines, including idle machines,
once in a shift. Alternatively, an oversized blower with an electronic variable speed drive
can be used. Under normal condition, when all machines are operating, the variable speed
will run at a normal (less than rated) speed maintaining the required velocity in the main
duct. When some machines are idle, the air blast dampers of the idle machines will be closed
and the velocity in the main duct will drop. Some settlement of dust/chips in the main duct
will be allowed to take place for short period of time, say 50 minutes. The electronic variable
speed drive will be programmed to run at maximum speed for a period of about 10 minutes
every hour; this will evacuate any dust/chips which have accumulated in the duct. This
system will ensure satisfactory performance of the dust collector system without paying a
huge penalty.
34
5 Study of Compressed Air System
5.1 Introduction
Compressed air is one of the most expensive utilities which plays a vital role in the
manufacturing process of any Industry. It was first used more than a century ago in
pneumatic drills for mining. Compressed air system has now become an indispensable and
a productivity improvement tool for a number of applications ranging from air powered hand
held tools to advanced pneumatic robotics. The generation of compressed air is one of the
major energy consuming activity-taking place in any industrial operation. The energy
content in the compressed air is at least 5 times that of electricity. Often 'Compressors' are
referred to as 'Power Guzzlers'. Moreover, the use of compressed air is increasing linearly
with our industrial growth.
Figure 5-1 Compressed Air system
5.2 Types of Compressors
Reciprocating air compressors
Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement compressors which are intermittent
flow machine and operates at a fixed volume. This means they are taking in successive
volumes of air, which is confined within a closed space, and elevating this air to a higher
pressure. The reciprocating air compressor accomplishes this by using a piston within a
cylinder as the compressing and displacing element. This may be single acting and double
acting according to the capacity required.
In a single acting compressor, the entire compression is accomplished in the first stroke out
of two strokes with a single cylinder or a group of cylinders in parallel, it is used for small
capacities.
35
A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered double acting. In a double acting
air compressor, for the same speed and cylinder volume, air delivery is double that of single
acting compressors, hence these are large capacity machines.
For practical purposes, most plant air reciprocating air compressors over 100 horsepower are
built as multi-stage units in which two or more steps of compression are grouped in series.
The air is normally cooled between the stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering
the following stage.
For higher pressure requirement (generally above 4 bar), multistage compressors are used.
The compressors may be lubricated or non-lubricated. Reciprocating air compressors are
available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and non-lubricated
configurations, may be packaged, and provide a wide range of pressure and capacity
selections. The useful energy available for mechanical work is 5-10% of input power to the
motor of air compressor. Rest of the power is converted to heat which is carried away by
cooling water.
Figure 5-2 Reciprocating Air Compressor

Rotary Air Compressors
Rotary air compressors are positive displacement compressors. These air compressors have
increased overall efficiency up to 15% of the total full load kilowatt consumption. These
compressors are basically oil cooled (with air cooled or water cooled oil coolers) where the
oil seals the internal clearances. As the cooling takes place inside the compressor, the
working parts never experience extreme operating temperatures.
Rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain, operate and provide great installation
flexibility. In rotary screw compressor, compression is achieved by intermeshing of the male
and female rotor in a combined air-end assembly.
The oil free rotary screw air compressor utilizes specially designed air-ends to compress air
without oil in the compression chamber yielding true oil free airscrew air compressors and
are available in air cooled and water cooled, oil flooded and oil free, single stage, and two
stage.
36
Figure 5-3 Rotary Screw Compressor
Centrifugal air compressor
The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor which depends on the transfer of
energy from a rotating impeller to the air. Basically, these are used for high airflow
requirements (greater than 3000 cfm). These compressors could be single stage or multi-
stage depending on the pressure requirement. The rotor accomplishes this by changing the
momentum and pressure of the air. This momentum is converted to useful pressure by
slowing the air down in a stationary diffuser. Capacity control is achieved by inlet throttling
or inlet guide vane control. The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by
design. Centrifugal air compressors are water cooled and may be packaged; typically the
package includes the aftercooler and all controls.
37
Table 5-1 Relative comparison of Compressors
Type Advantage Disadvantage
Wide operating range Unstable at low flow
Centrifugal Low Maintenance
Moderate efficiency
High reliability
High-efficiency Low pressure ratio per stage
Axial High-speed capability Narrow flow range

Fragile & Expensive
Higher-flow for given size Blading
Pressure ratio capability not
Positive affected by gas properties Limited Capacity
Displacement Good efficiency at low specific High-weight-to capacity
speed ratio
Simplex design
Low Efficiency
inexpensive
Ejector
No moving Parts requires high pressure
High-pressure ratio source
5.3 Components of Compressed Air System
Accessories like filters and dryers are used in the compressed air system to remove the
contaminants like water or moisture, oil and dirt. These accessories are very important from
the point of energy conservation
Moisture separators
The presence of moisture in the pipeline will lead to corrosion of pipes, pipe fittings valves,
and the pneumatic appliances. The condensed moisture or water is removed in the moisture
separators. There are four different types of moisture separators available in the market. They
are described below.
a) Baffle type- When the compressed air impinges over a series of baffle plate moisture
separators, the condensed air gets separated and drained out at the bottom.
b) Centrifugal type- When air passes centrifugal moisture separator, it is allowed to
move in a circular way and centrifugal force acts on it. These moisture particle gets
separated and thrown out to the internal walls of the moisture separator as it is heavier
than air. The separated water is drained out at the bottom.
c) Demister pad type- The design of demister pad type moisture separators is kind of
wire mesh. When air impinges this separator, the moisture gets separated.
d) Centrifugal cum demister pad type - This is the combination of both centrifugal type
and demister pad type. The moisture separators of these types are efficient and are
also capable of removing the oil particles.
Dryers
Dryers are also used to remove the moisture present in the vapor form in the compressed air
system. Dew point of the compressed air is the measure of moisture content. The dew point
is the temperature at which moisture in the air starts condensing. Lower is the dew point,
drier is the air. The dryers are basically of two types –
38
a) Desiccant
b) Refrigerated
In desiccant dryers, the compressed air is passed through the high pressurized evaporator,
which is filled with material like activated alumina, silica gel, or other desiccant material.
These desiccant materials have high affinity to water and they separate the moisture from
compressed air through adsorption.
The refrigerated air dryer removes moisture from the compressed air by lowering down its
temperature below its dew point temperature. These type of dryers comprise a refrigerator
unit; a compressor, an evaporator, a condenser and a throttle valve. The air which is to be
dried is passed through the evaporator unit and gets cooled below its dew point temperature.
Filters
Filtration of oil, water aerosols, and dust and dirt particles up to 0.01 microns is achieved by using
filters. Filter is a device to separate the solid or liquid particles from a fluid stream in which they are
suspended. The filters used in .the compressed air pipeline system are of three types.
Coarse Particle Filters: The filtering elements of these fillers are made out of materials like
ceramics, sintered bronze, non-woven Celt clothes or plastics. These filters are capable of
removing the particles of size 5 microns or greater and should have an automatic drain valve
for draining the contaminants.
Micro Filters: These filters are capable of removing all dirt particles and oil of size greater
than 0.01 microns. They are to be installed after the coarse particle filter.
Activated Carbon Filters: This type of filter is capable' of removing the hydrocarbon vapor
and odor effectively from the compressed air.
Intercoolers & Aftercoolers
An intercooler cools the compressed air before it enters the next stage. Compressed air when
cooled becomes denser thus increasing the mass flow rate and thereby increasing the
capacity of the compressor. For positive displacement compressors, the inlet compressor
capacity, icfm, would be constant. This would mean some power consumption at the motor.
To deliver the same compressed air load, the operating time will reduce thus saving energy.
Intercooling reduces the specific power consumption, which means less power is required to
produce the same mass flow of air at the end use equipment.
39
Compressed Air Receiver
Compressed air receiver is necessary for reciprocating compressors to dampen the pulsation
of air. It also helps in dropping the temporary pressure drop during sudden short term
demand. Also, since the air entering the receiver is reduced in velocity and cooled, some of
the moisture may condense and fall to the bottom of the receiver where it can be removed
by trapping.
5.4 Performance Evaluation & Field Testing of Air Compressor
Estimation of capacity of Compressors
The estimation of the capacity of the compressor is done by a test which is called Pump Up
test, which determines the Free Air Delivery. Free Air Delivery determines the pumping
capacity of the compressors i.e. air pumped at atmospheric conditions. This test is conducted
by isolating the receiver of the compressor from the system. After that, we drain the air
receiver completely and switch ON the compressor and monitor the time taken by the
compressor to maintain the working pressure in the air receiver. In other words, note down
the time taken by the compressor to fill the air receiver up to required pressure. Minimum
three readings are required to calculate an average value of time in minutes. Feed this average
value in minutes and other values such as receiver diameter, length or volume in the formula
to determine the pump-up capacity of the compressor.
The following are different formulas used to evaluate the performance of Compressor:
(𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏)
𝑭𝑨𝑫 = 𝑽 𝒙
(𝑷𝟎 𝒙 𝒕)
Where, FAD - Free Air Delivery (CFM)
V - Volume of the receiver (cft) + volume of the pipeline connected from compressor to air
receiver (cft)
Po - Atmospheric Pressure,
P1 - Initial Pressure of the receiver (Kg/cm2 ),
P2 - Final Pressure of the receiver (Kg/cm2 ),
t - Average Time taken to raise the pressure from P 1 to P2 (min)
Specific Power (kW / 100 CFM) = Actual Power x 100 / FAD (CFM)
kW - Actual Power drawn by compressor
Leakage Detection Test
The leakage in the Compressed air system is the major reason for the poor overall efficiency.
The leaks are the significant source of energy wasted in industrial compressed air system.
The leakage is unavoidable but we need to reduce it to minimum possible level. The leakage
can occur in various areas of system, they are:
 Coupling, hoses, tubes & fittings
 Pressure Regulators
40
 Pipe joints, disconnects & thread sealants.
The leakage level can be estimated by observing the average compressor loading and
unloading time when there is no legitimate use of compressed air on the shop floor. In
continuous process plants, this test can be conducted during shutdown or unexpected
production stoppages.
𝐹𝐴𝐷 𝑥 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑈𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Where, FAD = Free Air Delivery (CFM)
Leakage test can be easily conducted, the identifying the leakage points and plugging them
is laborious work. The obvious leakage points can be identified from audible sound, the
small leakage can be identified with the help of ultrasonic leakage detector. Soap solution is
the easiest and cheap way to identify small leaks.
41
5.5 CASE STUDY
Introduction
a) 5 nos. screw compressors with rated capacities of 111 cfm are installed for instrument
air and 2 nos. compressors of 111 cfm are used with PSA plant. Compressed air is
used mainly for pneumatic controls in process plants and boiler bag filter.
b) During the energy audit, the power consumption of compressors was measured,
operating pressures reviewed and the operating pattern of compressors was
understood from the utility reports.
Performance of Air Compressors
The rated capacities of the compressors were correlated with power consumption to
understand the specific power consumption of the compressors; Table 5-2 shows electrical
measurements on air compressors and Table 5-3 shows the details of the specific power
consumption.
Table 5-2: Electrical Measurements on Air Compressors

Compressor No. Voltage Current Power Power Frequency Remarks
V A Factor kW Hz
AC INST-1 425 32.5 0.91 21.8 49.9 Loaded
426 13.1 0.60 5.6 49.9 Unloaded
AC-N2-1 425 33.3 0.91 22.3 49.9 Loaded
424 22.3 0.86 14.6 49.9 Unloaded
AC-N2-2 421 34.4 0.92 23.0 49.5 Loaded
423 24.8 0.88 15.8 49.9 Unloaded
Table 5-3: Estimation of Performance of Air Compressors

Description Unit Instrumentation Instrumentation PSA Plant PSA Plant
Compressor Tag no. AC INST-1 AC INST-2 AC-N2-1 AC-N2-2
M ake Atlas Copco Atlas Copco Atlas Copco Atlas Copco
Type GAE 18 FF GAE 18 P GAE 18 P GAE 18 P
Rated capacity cfm 111 111 111 111
2
Rated max. pressure kg/cm (g) 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5
Rated motor power kW 18.5 18.5 18.5 18.5
M easured motor power kW 21.6 21.8 22.3 23.2
M otor efficiency % 91% 91% 91% 91%
Compressor Shaft Power kW 19.66 19.68 20.29 20.93
Specific Power Consumption kW/100cfm 17.71 17.71 18.28 18.86
42
a) Screw air compressors #AC INST-1 and #AC INST-2 have rated capacities of 111
cfm each; it operates in the pressure band of 5.2 bar(g) to 6.8 bar(g), consuming the
loaded power of 21.6 kW and 21.8 kW respectively. The specific power consumption
is estimated to be 17.71 kW/100cfm, which is reasonable for screw air compressors
operating at 6.8 bar (g).
b) Screw air compressors #AC N2-1 and #AC N2-2 have rated capacities of 111 cfm
each; it operates in the pressure band of 6.5 bar(g) to 7.5 bar(g), consuming the loaded
power of 22.3 kW and 23.2 kW respectively. The calculated specific power
consumption is nearly 18.7 kW/100cfm, which is reasonable for screw air
compressors.
Normal Compressed Air Consumption
a) The power measurements on running air compressors are summarised in Table 5-2.
The normal air consumption was estimated from data of operating hours of the air
compressors from Aug-15 to Dec-15; this information is summarised in Table 5-4,
including peak production month (Sep-15) and low production month (Apr-15).
b) It may be noted that during the peak load period, the instrument air requirement is
around 93 cfm and that of PSA plant is nearly 183 cfm. During off-peak periods, the
instrument air requirement is around 91 cfm and that of PSA plant is nearly 155 cfm.
c) The average compressed air demand is nearly 105 cfm for instrument air and 166
cfm for PSA plant. The average total air consumption is about 272 cfm.
d) The monthly variation in demand is shown in Table 3-2. During the period from Aug-
15 to Dec-15, the air compressors #AC INST-1, #AC Boiler-1 and #AC Boiler-2
have operated in unloaded condition for 15%, 0% and 4% of the time respectively,
consuming 4382 kWh during the unloaded period. Similarly, the PSA air
compressors #AC N2-1 and #AC N2-2 have operated in unloaded condition for 13%
and 18% of the time respectively, consuming 24880 kWh during the unloaded period.
Figure 5-4: Average Compressed Air Flow
43
Table 5-4: Instrument Air Consumption during Peak & Off-Peak months
Description Unit Instrument Air Boiler Old Bag Filter Overall
AC INS T-
Air compressor AC INS T-1 AC Boiler-1 AC Boiler-2 Total
2
Actual capacity cfm 111 111 111 111 444
Loading % 70% (505 h) - 1% (7h) 13% (90 h) -
Unloading % 15% (106 h) - 0% (2 h) 4% (32 h) -
Peak
production Off % 15% (109 h) - 99% (711 h) 83% (598 h) -
month Compressed air
cfm 98.51 - 1 14 115
consumption
Unloading energy penalty kWh 594 - 11.20 179.20 784
Loading % 72% (534 h) - 8% (60 h) 2% (13 h) -
Unloading % 6% (47 h) - 3% (22 h) 0% (2 h) -
Off peak
production Off % 22% (163 h) - 89% (622 h) 98% (729 h) -
month Compressed air cfm 80 - 9 2 91
consumption
Unloading energy penalty kWh 263.20 - 123.20 11.20 398
47% (1740
Loading % - 36% (1313 h) 0.4% (13 h) -
h)
Overall Unloading % 5% (182 h) - 4% (144 h) 0.1% (2 h) -
from last 5 48% (1750 99.5 % (3657
Off % - 60% (2215 h) -
months h) h)
data Compressed air
cfm 64 - 41 0.7 105
consumption
Unloading energy penalty kWh 1019.20 - 806.40 11.20 1837
Table 5-5: PSA Air Consumption during Peak & Off-Peak months
Description Unit PS A Plant Overall
Air compressor AC N2-1 AC N2-2 Total
Actual capacity cfm 111 111 222
Loading % 84% (605 h) 81% (585 h) -
Unloading % 11% (81 h) 13% (92 h) -
Peak
production Off % 5% (34 h) 6% (43 h) -
month
Compressed air consumption cfm 93 90 183
Unloading energy penalty kWh 1182.60 14353.60 2636
Loading % 53% (385 h) 54% (392 h) -
Unloading % 23% (169 h) 12% (88 h) -
Off peak
production Off % 26% (190 h) 35% (264 h) -
month
Compressed air consumption cfm 57 58 115
Unloading energy penalty kWh 2467.40 1390.40 3858
Loading % 67% (2478 h) 64% (2343 h) -
Overall Unloading % 13% (465 h) 18% (650 h) -
from last 5 Off % 20% (729 h) 18% (679 h) -
months
data Compressed air consumption cfm 85 81 166
Unloading energy penalty kWh 6789 10270 10759
44
Consider Installation of VFD driven Screw Compressor for PSA Nitrogen Plant
The compressed air requirement for PSA Nitrogen plant ranges from 105 cfm to 190 cfm
peak; the average compressed air consumption of the PSA Nitrogen plant was 166 cfm. 2
nos. 111 cfm air compressors are in operation for meeting this air demand, implying that
these fixed speed compressors have operated in unloaded condition for 31% of the time.
During the period from Aug-15 to Dec-15, PSA air compressors #AC N2-1 and #AC N2-2
have operated in unloaded condition for 13% and 18% of the time respectively.
Presently, both air compressors are supplying air independently to 2 nos. PSA plants. We
suggest that both air receivers supplying air to the PSA plants may be interconnected and
one additional 120 cfm variable speed screw compressor may be installed. So a combination
of one existing, fixed speed 111 cfm air compressor and a new 120 cfm variable speed
compressor can cater to this variable air demand both PSA plants, without unloading; one
existing 111 cfm air compressor will be available as spare.
The energy saving potential, for existing prevailing air demand, is around
40,000kWh/annum i.e. Rs. 2.47 lakhs/annum. The investment for a 120 cfm variable speed
air compressor is expected to be Rs. 5 lakhs; the payback period is expected to be about 25
months i.e. slight over 2 years.
The capacity of the new VFD driven screw compressor may be reviewed, keeping in view
expansion plans. If necessary, a higher capacity air compressor may be selected to cater to
likely increased demand for nitrogen in future.
45
6 Study of Boiler
6.1 Introduction
A boiler is an enclosed pressure vessel that provides the means where the heat generated
during combustion, could be transferred to water and convert them into hot water or
steam. The boiler generates steam at the desired pressure & temperature efficiently with
low operating cost. Steam is very effective and efficient way to transfer heat from a
central location (boiler) to other places for heating, power generation or other processes.
The manufacturers give various information like thermal efficiency, combustion
efficiency, and boiler efficiency. The thermal efficiency shows how efficiently the
vessel can transfer the heat to the water, the combustion efficiency shows how
efficiently the burner will burn the fuel without formation of CO, SOx, or without
leaving unburnt hydrocarbon while boiler efficiency is the ratio of heat output by the
boiler to the energy input through combustion.
6.2 Specifications of Boiler
Typical Boiler Specification

Boiler M ake & Year: XYZ,20xx
M aximum Continuous Rating (M CR): XX TPH
Rated Working Pressure: ZZ kg/cm2
Type of Boiler: Fire Tube/Water Tube
Fuel Fired: Coal/Gas/LDO/FO/BIOM ASS
6.3 Classification of Boiler
Boilers have various design but they all come under one of the two categories, they are:
a) Fire Tube
b) Water Tube
Fire Tube Boiler
In Fire Tube boilers long steel tubes are present through which the hot combustion gases
coming from furnace passes and heats up the water present outside the tube in the vessel and
convert them into steam.
 Lower initial cost

 High fuel efficiency
 Easier to operate
 Lower capacity; can’t cater large quantity of steam which is generally up to
25Tonne/hour and pressure 17.5 kg/cm2 .
46
Figure 6-1 Fire Tube Boiler
Water Tube Boiler
In water Tube boilers, the water flows inside tube and the hot combustion gases are outside
the tube. The boiler could be of single or multiple drum type and can cater any quantity of
steam and are more efficient as compared to Fire tube boilers.
Figure 6-2 Water Tube Boiler
47
6.4 Few Other types of Boilers
Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boiler
A fuel bed is formed by coal & inert materials, such as sand, limestone, alumina etc. on the
fine mesh. When evenly distributed air is passed through this bed, the particles remain
undisturbed at low velocity. As we increase the velocity gradually the system reaches a stage
where all the individual particles get suspended in the air stream. A further increase in
velocity results in bubble formation & turbulent mixing, which is good for combustion. This
is the stage when the bed is called fluidized. The amount of fluidization depends on the
velocity of air and size of the inert materials & coal.
At this stage, if the sand is heated to the ignition temperature of coal, and pulverized coal is
injected continuously into the bed. As the coal will enter the system, it will burn rapidly and
the bed will attain uniform temperature due to air distribution in an effective manner. The
coal can also burn at lower temperature say, 1400-1500 °F due to uniform fluidization. The
gases released after combustion like sulfur oxide combines with limestone to form calcium
sulfite & sulfate particles and can be collected in dust collectors.
Figure 6-3 Fluidized Bed boiler
Packaged Boiler
48
Packaged boiler comes in a package, we just need to do the connections of pipe work,
electrical connections, steam etc. They are of shell type boilers with fire tube design. These
boilers can be of one pass, two passes or three passes depending on the need. In the first
pass, combustion gases is fired and in the last pass flue gases exits the boiler.
 Higher the number of passes, better is heat transfer.
 High heat release rate leads to faster evaporation.
 The draft system is better, resulting better combustion efficiency.
 Thermal efficiency better due to better heat transfer.
Figure 6-4 Packaged Boiler
49
Stoker Fired Boiler
Stoker Boilers are classified according to the mechanism of fuel feeding to the furnace and
grate type. There are several designs, but there are two main types of stoker-fired boilers:
a) Chain Grate Stoker
b) Spreader Stoker
a) Chain Grate Stoker

Chain grate stoker system has a stainless steel bed type structure which acts as a bed
for pulverized coal and rotates on a fix axis like conveyor in the entire furnace. Coal
is fed from one end and ash is dumped at the other end. The design should be so
précised so that the amount of coal fed should get burnt till the end of the stoker so
that they is no unburnt carbon in ash and thickness of the coal bed on the stoker
should be in that way too. The sizing of the coal is really important, the positioning
of air inlet ports and dampers should be taken care as they ensure complete
combustion.
Figure 6-5 Chain Grate Stoker Boiler
50
b) Spreader Stoker Boiler
In spreader stoker boiler, the coal is fed continuously on the burning bed of coal. In
this type of stoker feed system, the coal gets the advantage of both suspensions as
well as grate burning. In this, the feeder feeds the coal and the spreader spreads it.
When it is spread by spreader the smaller sized coal ignites in the air while the bigger
size coal falls on the thin burning coal bed and ignites. This helps in providing the
heat accordingly in varying load.
Figure 6-6 Spreader Stoker Boiler
51
6.5 Performance Evaluation
There are two methods to find out boiler efficiency.
a) Direct Method
b) Indirect Method
Direct Method
The Direct method is quite easier and requires fewer data.

𝑄 ( ℎ𝑔−ℎ𝑓 ) 100
ȠBoiler= 𝑞 𝑥 𝐺𝐶𝑉
Where, Q = Amount of steam generated Kg/hr
q = Amount of fuel consumed Kg/hr
hg = Enthalpy of steam kcal/kg
hf = Enthalpy of water kcal/kg
Indirect method
This method was given by BS-845 and is also known as heat loss method. In this
method, we find out the various heat losses occurring in the boiler. We add all the
losses and then subtract them by 100 and we get the efficiency of Boiler by the
indirect method. These losses don’t include boiler blow down losses. The various
heat losses occurring in boiler are as under:
a) Heat loss due to dry flue gas (L1 )
b) Heat loss due to evaporation water due to H2 in fuel (L2 )
c) Heat loss due to evaporation of moisture in fuel (L3 )
d) Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion air (L4 )
e) Heat loss due to partial conversion of C to CO (L5 )
f) Heat loss due to radiation & convection and other unaccounted losses (L6 )
g) Heat loss due to unburnt carbon in fly ash (L7 )
h) Heat loss due to unburnt carbon in bottom ash (L8 )
Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method = 100 – (L1 +L2 +L3 +L4 +L5 +L6 +L7 +L8 )
Calculation of Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method
1. First of all, we need to collect the data of proximate & ultimate analysis of fuel
done in a laboratory. The analysis of fuel gives the following detail of fuel.
52
Fuel Composition &
Calorific Value
Fuel Used
% Carbon
% Hydrogen
% Sulfur
% Oxygen
% Nitrogen
% Ash Content
% M oisture Content
Higher Heating Value of fuel
2. After getting these data, we will calculate the Theoretical Air requirement for
complete combustion of fuel
Theoretical Air required = [(11.6 C) + {34.8 x (H2 – O2 /8)} + (4.35 x S)] kg/kg
of fuel
Here, C, H2 , O 2 , S are taken from fuel analysis data.
3. We will now find out percentage of excess air required for combustion
𝑂2 %
% of Excess Air (EA) = ( ∗ 100
21−𝑂2%)
Here, O 2 is taken from the data calculated by Flue gas analysis
4. Now we will find out Actual Mass of Air supplied per kg of fuel for complete
combustion
𝐸𝐴
AAS = (1 + ) ∗ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟
100
5. Now we can calculate the various heat losses occurring in a boiler.
a) Heat loss due to Dry Flue Gas (L1 )
L1 = m x Cp x (Tf –Ta) x 100

GCV of Fuel
Here, m = Mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel

= %C x 44/12 + N 2 % in fuel + AAS x 0.77 + (AAS-TA) x 0.23+mass of SO 2
x 64/32
Cp = Specific Heat of Flue Gas (kCal/kg/°C)
Tf = Flue Gas temperature °C
Ta = Ambient Temperature °C
b) Heat loss due to evaporation of water due to presence of H2 in fuel (L2 )
L2 = 9 x H2 x {584 + Cp (Tf –Ta)} x 100

GCV of Fuel
53
Here, H2 = kg of hydrogen in fuel/kg of fuel
Cp = Specific Heat of superheated steam (kCal/kg°C)
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapor
kCal/kg
c) Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel (L3 )
L3 = M x {584 + Cp (Tf –Ta)} x100

GCV of fuel
Here, M = kg of moisture in fuel/kg of fuel
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapor
kCal/kg
Cp = Specific Heat of superheated steam (kCal/kg/°C)
d) Heat loss due to Moisture present in combustion air (L4 )
L4 = AAS x humidity factor x Cp (Tf – Ta) x 100

GCV of Fuel
Humidity factor = kg of water/kg of dry air (this is calculated from

psychrometric chart using dry & wet bulb temperature of air)
AAS = actual air supplied
Cp = Specific Heat of superheated steam (kCal/kg/°C)
e) Heat loss due to partial conversion of C to CO (L5 )
L5 = %CO (ppm) + % C x5654 x100

%CO (ppm) x % CO 2 GCV of fuel
Here, CO = Volume of CO in flue gas leaving economizer (%)

CO2 = actual volume of CO 2 in flue gas (%) (From Flue gas Analysis)
C = Carbon content kg/kg of fuel
f) Heat loss due to radiation & convection & other unaccounted losses
This loss is assumed between 0.5% - 3% according to the size of boiler and
type of boiler.
g) Heat loss due to unburnt in bottom-ash (L7 )

54
L7 = Total Bottom Ash collected/Kg of fuel burnt x GCV of bottom ash x 100
GCV of fuel
h) Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash (L8 )
L8 = Total fly ash collected/kg of fuel x GCV of fly ash x 100

GCV of fuel
The Fly ash and Bottom ash losses are to be calculated for solid fuels.
If we don’t know the composition of fuel, we can’t calculate the efficiency of the boiler by
the indirect method, then we need to calculate the composition of fuel by proximate &
ultimate analysis of fuel.
55
6.6 Field Testing of boiler
First of all, we need to do the site survey, to see the various equipment and provision of
measurement of various data.
Then we firstly collect the detailed design specification of boiler such as make, Model, rated
capacity, rated pressure-temperature etc.
Then we collect the specification of Economizer such as feed water inlet & outlet pressure-
temperature, flow etc.
Find out the point where there is provision of putting the probe of flue gas analyzer. Check
if it is before APH or after APH.
We can measure the various parameters of flue gas with the help of flue gas analyzer such
as O2%, Flue gas Temp., CO ppm, CO2%, ambient Temperature.
We collect data various parameters of the fuel.
56
6.7 Case Study
The case study was done from the onsite visit to a chemical plant, which manufactures
insecticides, pesticides & herbicides.
 1 no. 12 TPH Coal Fired Fluidized Bed Boiler is installed. The operating steam
pressure is 14.5 kg/cm2 (g). The generated steam is used in the processes at Plant-A,
Plant-B & Plant-C. The specifications of the boiler are as follows:
Make: Rajdeep Boilers Private Limited
Type: Fluidized Bed Boiler (Water Wall/Tube & Smoke Tube)
Model: RB-120 MCA-5-FBC
Fuel: Coal
Capacity: 12 TPH
Pressure: 14.5 kg/cm2 (g)
 The efficiency of the boiler was estimated by indirect method i.e. based on flue gas
analysis and fuel composition.
Fuel consumption in Boiler
As seen from Annual Coal consumption data, the total coal consumption in Fluidized Bed
Boiler is 9980900 kg. Since plant throughput was satisfactory during August 2015 to
December 2015, same period is considered for Annual Coal consumption. The Annual Coal
consumption during Aug-15 to Dec-15 was 651600 kg and average consumption is 923700
kg.
Table 6-1 Monthly Steam Generation and Coal Consumption

S team
Coal consumption
Months Generation S team to Fuel Ratio
kg
Kg
Jan-15 1050000 228000 4.61
Feb-15 4136000 850000 4.87
M ar-15 4597000 866000 5.31
Apr-15 4568000 844500 5.41
M ay-15 5012000 895000 5.60
Jun-15 4170000 809400 5.15
Jul-15 4353000 869500 5.01
Aug-15 5217000 1046500 4.99
Sep-15 4888000 990500 4.93
Oct-15 5155000 984000 5.24
Nov-15 4597000 861500 5.34
Dec-15 3844000 736000 5.22
57
Since plant operations were stabilized from Aug-15 to Dec-15, this data of this period is
considered for further analyses.
6.8 Performance of Boiler
The efficiency of boiler is estimated by indirect tests involving measurement of % O 2 , CO

(ppm) and temperature of the flue gas before and after Air Pre-heater (APH); the heat losses
are calculated based on the fuel composition and Gross Calorific Value (GCV) of Coal.
Table 6-2 shows the composition and GCV of coal. Table 6.3 Shows the measurements and
results of the indirect test for boiler efficiency.
Table 6-2 Composition of Coal
Composition UOM Quantity
Carbon % 38.70
Hydrogen % 3.47
Sulphur % 0.02
Oxygen % 21.10
Nitrogen % 0.70
Ash % 3.77
M oisture % 32.12
Higher Heating Value of fuel kcal/kg 4210
a) The Fluidized bed boiler was operating at inlet and outlet temperatures of 79.6°C and
192.6°C respectively.
b) The %O 2 in the boiler is 6.20%, which indicates excess air levels of 41.89% which
is reasonable for a fluidized bed boiler. The CO content in the flue gas was 228 ppm,
which is within permissible limits.
c) The measured flue gas temperature after APH is 140.70°C, which indicates good
performance of APH. The %O 2 before and after the APH was same, implying that
there is no leakage in the APH.
d) The estimated efficiency of the boiler is 84.32%, which is excellent. The steam-to-
fuel ratio, also known as Evaporation ratio, works out to be 6.06, during steady
operation. The overall monthly average steam-to-fuel ratios are in the range of 4.93
to 5.34; this is on expected lines as the boiler is having frequent starts/stops due to
highly variable steam load. We understand that the condensate recovery is good.
58
Table 6-3: Estimation of Efficiency of Coal fired Fluidized Bed Boiler
Observations, Measurements & Assumptions
Operating Steam Pressure 12.50 kg/cm2g
Operating Steam Temperature 192.60 °C
Enthalpy of Steam 665.86 kcal/kg
Feed water temperature 80.20 °C
Feed Water Pressure 14.50 kg/cm2g
Feed Water Enthalpy 80.20 kcal/kg
%O 2 in Flue Gas (before APH) 6.20 %
%CO 2 in Flue Gas (before APH) 13.02 %
CO in Flue Gas (before APH) 228.00 Ppm
Flue Gas Temp. (T f ) (after economiser, before APH) 217.00 °C
%O 2 in Flue Gas (after APH) 6.50 %
Actual Flue Gas Temp. (T f) (after APH, diluted by air leakage) 140.70 °C
Ambient Dry Bulb Temperature (T DB) 25.20 °C
Ambient Wet Bulb Temperature (T WB) 17.10 °C
Humidity of air 0.00888 kg/kg of dry air
Specific Heat of Flue Gas (Cp) 0.24 kcal/kg/°C
Distribution of Fly Ash (assumed) 80.00 %
Distribution of Bottom Ash (assumed) 20.00 %
Specific heat of fly ash 0.16 kcal/kg°C
Unburnt Carbon in Fly Ash - %
Unburnt Carbon in Bottom Ash - %
Ash Temperature at Bottom Ash Hopper (assumed) 600.00 °C
Calculations
Stoichiometric air requirement 4.71 kg of air/kg of fuel
Excess air 41.89 %
Actual air supplied 6.68 kg of air/kg of fuel
Unburnt Carbon in Ash 0.00 kg/kg of fuel
(1) Heat Loss Due to Dry flue Gas 5.41 %
(2) Heat Loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H 2 in fuel 4.72 %
(3) Heat loss due partial conversion of C to CO 0.09 %
(4) Heat loss due to moisture in air 0.07 %
(5) Heat loss due to moisture in fuel 4.85 %
(6) Sensible Heat loss due in bottom ash 0.02 %
(7) Sensible Heat loss due in fly ash 0.01 %
(8) Heat Loss due to radiation & convection (assumed) 0.50 %
(9) Heat Loss due to unburnt carbon in ash (assumed) 0.00 %
Boiler Efficiency = 100 - (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9) = 84.32 %
S team to fuel ratio 6.06 kg steam /kg fuel
59
Concluding Remarks:
The boiler efficiency has been estimated to be 84.34%, during steady state operation,
indicating a steam-to-fuel ratio of 6.06. However, since the boiler is cycling ON & OFF, with
ON time of about 50%-55%, the average efficiency will lower due to cooling of stack. The
monthly average steam-to-fuel ratio varies from 4.93 to 5.34.
60
7 Study of Refrigeration & Air-conditioning System
7.1 Introduction
The term air conditioning generally refers to a lot more than just cooling the air inside a
room/closed area. The comfort of the human beings and the equipment depends on three
main factors:
a) Temperature
b) Relative Humidity
c) Air Movement
We need to control these three factors to achieve total comfort in the building. The
equipment that provides total comfort for the occupants is generally called a complete air-
conditioning system. The must be capable of cooling, heating, purifying, ventilating,
humidifying, dehumidifying, and circulating air in the building. This kind of system is quite
rare and difficult to find which can perform all these functions effectively. The system which
can perform all these functions is known as Heat Pump. A heat pump can effectively achieve
cooling and heating with the same equipment. Comfort air-conditioning requires refrigerant
temperatures in the range of 0°C to 5°C. Air-conditioning generally implies cooling of room
air to about 24°C and relative humidity of 50%-55%.
Refrigeration and Air-conditioning system account for a major portion of the energy
consumption in many manufacturing industries and commercial establishments like hotels,
hospitals, office buildings, shopping complex etc. The Refrigeration system is used for
process cooling by chilled water or brine, ice plants, cold storage, freeze drying, air-
conditioning systems etc. The refrigerant temperatures for process cooling applications may
range from 15°C to as low as -70°C.
7.2 Classification of Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning system
Generally, the summer air conditioning system can be classified into three categories
according to equipment:
a) Central Air-conditioning system
b) Unitary Air-conditioning system
c) Combinational Air-conditioning system
Central Air-conditioning System

Central air-conditioning system is quite costly and huge form of an air-conditioning system.
These systems are designed and installed by an engineer, and are purchased directly from
the manufacturer and is erected in the building. There is a central mechanical room for
equipment and the distribution of the air is done through ducts. These system starts from 25-
50 TR and ends up to several thousand Tons of refrigeration.
These systems are huge in size so all the components such as the chiller controllers, air
handling units, cooling towers make it complex for installation on site.
Unitary Air conditioning System
Unitary systems are most commonly used system everywhere. These system comes installed
in a complete package along with all the equipment. This system just needs to install and
ready to use. A unitary system can serve for entire building with the help of suitable duct
work or by installing multiple units. The condenser side of the unitary air-conditioning
system is located outside the conditioned room.
61
Combinational Air-Conditioning system
The Combinational air-conditioning system is combined version of central and unitary air
conditioning system. These system are smaller and compact in design along with features of
central air conditioning system. The components of this air conditioning system are installed
in a mechanical room. Hot water or steam is supplied through ducts for heating units and
chilled water is distributed over the same network from refrigerating units. Thermostatic
controls are used to control the operation of the system in every room.
On the basis of different method of cooling, air-conditioning system can be classified

into following
a) Vapor compression refrigeration
b) Vapor absorption refrigeration
c) Evaporative cooling
d) Cold water cooling
7.2.1.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System

Generally heat flows from hotter body to colder body, but in a refrigeration system heat
flows from colder to the hotter body with the help of refrigerant. The refrigerant absorbs the
heat at low temperature and evaporates to form a gas. This gas is compressed to very high
pressure and it dissipates the heat absorbed to ambient air or water and condenses back to
liquid form. This is how heat is transferred from low temperature source to high temperature
source.
Figure 7-1 Circuit diagram of Vapor compression cycle

Thermodynamic Analysis of System
Process 1-2 Low pressure semi liquid-vapor enters the evaporator and gets evaporated to gas
as it absorbs heat from the surrounding and exit the evaporator in the superheated state.
Process 2-3 Refrigerant will enter the compressor, where it is vigorously compressed. The
increase in pressure will lead to increase in temperature accordingly due to the effect of
compression work.
62
Process 3-4 Hot compressed refrigerant enters the evaporator, where in the first phase (3-3a)
it gets de-superheated and in the second phase (3a-3b), it gets converted from gas to liquid.
In the last phase (3b-4), it gets sub-cooled due to pipe work in the system.
Process 4-1 High pressure sub-cooled refrigerant enters the expansion valve, which reduces
the pressure and controls the flow of refrigerant in the evaporator.
Figure 7-2 Schematic Diagram of Vapor Compression Cycle
7.2.1.2 Vapor-Absorption System

In absorption refrigeration system, the cooling is done by using heat and not by electricity
as a source of energy. In vapor absorption refrigeration system, the compressor is replaced
with absorber and generator. In this refrigeration system, there is one absorbent and one
refrigerant. The absorbent absorbs the refrigerant and allows it to flow from absorber to
generator. Generally, Lithium Bromide & water is used for this system. The water serves
like refrigerant and LiBr serves as absorbent.
63
Figure 7-3 LiBr-H20 Vapor Absorption cycle
Components of Vapor Absorption Cycle

 Evaporator
 Absorber
 Generator
 Separator
 Condenser
Working
The refrigerant (water) evaporates in the evaporator under the high vacuum 754 mmHg and
at 4°C. The refrigerant evaporates to cool the chilled water running in the heat exchanger.
This refrigerant is now allowed to move in the absorber and here it gets mixed with the LiBr.
Lithium Bromide absorbs the refrigerant vapor and heat released is absorbed by cooling
water in the absorber. After absorbing the refrigerant, the absorbent gets diluted, to gain back
its concentration, the mixture is transferred to Generator. In the generator, the solution is
heated at high pressure and high temperature, which makes the solution evaporate at low
temperature as compared to water. The evaporated gas reaches Separator. The separator is
basically a receiver tank type structure, providing one inlet and two outlets. Since LiBr gets
evaporated at much lower temperature than that of water, water vapor rises and flows into
the condenser, while the LiBr condenses into liquid in the separator and settles down in the
bottom of separator tank and eventually after sometime it returns back to the absorber. In
condenser the vapor cools by either air or water circulating outside the surface.
Evaporative Cooling Systems

Evaporative cooling system, cool the building by lowering its dry-bulb temperature. The
dry-bulb temperature can be lowered by evaporating water in the surrounding. This can be
achieved by either spraying water in the air or water can be used to saturate a fibrous pad.
The main components of evaporative cooler are as under:
 Blower
64
 Water pump
 Water pads
 Water distribution Tubes
 Cabinet with louvered sides
Figure 7-4 Evaporati ve Cooling System
The air is sucked from the outside through louvers, where the water comes in contact with
moist water pads. The water present in the pad gets evaporated due to certain heat transfer
between the water and air and lowers the dry bulb temperature. The whole system is kept
outside the building, where cooling is to take place and the air is sucked and cooled down
before transferring them to the building. The evaporative cooling system is not very effective
in humid climates.
65
Cold-Water Cooling Systems
In this type of cooling system, the cooling is achieved by circulating the warm air over the
cooling water coil and again circulating air back to the room. The system requires natural or
artificial source of cold water. The components of cold water cooling system are as under
 The cooling water pump
 Duct Cooling coil
 Water discharge sump
Figure 7-5 Cold Water cooling system
The cold water of temperature between 1-13°C is circulated in the duct cooling coil by water
supply pump. The warm air from the room circulates around this cooling coil. When the air
gets cooled it is transferred to space, where it is required.
66
7.3 Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants
The cooling effect of refrigeration systems is generally quantified as tons of refrigeration

(TR).
1 TR = 3023 kCal/hr heat rejected.
= 3.51 kWthermal
= 12000 Btu/hr
The commonly used figures of merit for comparison of refrigeration systems are Coefficient
of Performance (COP), Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) and specific power consumption.
If both refrigeration effect and work done are taken in same units (TR or kCal/hr or kW or
Btu/hr), the ratio is given by
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒
If the refrigeration effect is take in Btu/hr and work done is taken in Watts, the ratio is given
by
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( ℎ𝑟 )
𝐸𝐸𝑅 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
Higher is the COP or EER, better is the efficiency.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊)

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑇𝑅)
A lower value of specific power consumption shows better system efficiency.
Estimation of capacity of Refrigeration System & Air-conditioning systems
Heat Load (TR) = Q x d x s x (Ti – To)

3023
Where, Q = mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr

d = density, kg/m3
Cp = coolant specific heat in kCal /kg/ °C
Ti = Inlet temperature in °C
To = outlet temperature in °C.
The above TR is also called as chiller tonnage.
67
7.4 Case Study- Chilled Water System/ Brine water system
The chilled water system comprises of 2 nos. chillers: Chiller-A and Chiller-B/C. Both
chillers have flooded evaporators with Ammonia (R-717) as the refrigerant.
Chiller-A has 2 nos. compressors: compressor-1/1 is connected to a flooded evaporator with

water on the tube side. Compressor-1/2 is connected to Ice Bank Tank (IBT). This system
caters the chilling requirements of Plant-A. Both compressors share a common evaporative
condenser.
Chiller-B/C has 2 nos. compressors; both are connected to a common flooded evaporator,
with water on the tube side; this system caters the chilling requirements of Plant-B and Plant-
C. Both compressors share a common evaporative condenser.
The specifications of the chillers are shown in Table 7-1.
Table 7-1: Specifications of the Chillers

Chiller Chiller- Plant B/C Chiller- Plant A (including IBT)
Make System & Comp. System & Comp.
Compressor Type Screw Screw
Nos. of Compressors 1+1 1+1
Capacity 222 TR (Chiller) 111 TR (Chiller) +111 TR (IBT)
Refrigerant R-717 R-717
Condenser Evaporative Water Cooled Evaporative Water Cooled
The hot wells & cold wells of both chillers are interconnected and the valves are operated as
per requirements in the plants.
Both chillers have separate hot wells & cold wells. In the case of Chiller-A, the Ice Bank
coil is installed in the cold well. The cold well of chiller-A (Ice Bank Tank) is further divided
into two divisions’ i.e. downing water (low temperature) and general chilled water.
The Ice Bank Tank (IBT) system is ammonia based. The refrigerant tubes (Ammonia) run
across both divisions. Compressor-1/1 (Chiller-A) discharges cooling water to the IBT for
both divisions. During the study, it was observed that the IBT system failed to meet the
system parameters during high production loads due to some system deficiencies and
improper load distribution on the compressors. The specifications of Ice Bank Tank are as
follows:
Ice Storage Capacity: 1,440,000 kcal

Dimensions (LxWxH): 7980 x 4500 x 2975 mm
Number of coils: 22
Number of rows: 14
Coils Running meters (RMT): 1848
During the energy audit, the performance of chillers and pumps were evaluated by
measurements of various operating parameters like power, pressures, flows and
temperatures.
68
Table 7-2: Performance of Chilled Water Pumps
Pump Pump Rated Values Estimated Pressure Diff. Motor Motor Pump Pump
Pump Name Make Model S peed Head Flow Flow suction Discharge Head input Efficiency Input Efficiency
Rpm M m3/h m3/h m kg/cm2 m kW % kW %
Plant-A
Pump 406 (Primary) Kirloskar CE 80/20 1440 10 62 25.0 0.0 1.2 12.0 2.0 84.0% 1.7 48.4%
Pump 401 (Secondary) Johnson CN 80/160 2900 35 120 85.0 0.0 3.7 37.0 19.2 91.0% 17.5 49.0%
Pump 402 (Secondary) Johnson CN 80/160 2900 35 120 85.0 0.0 3.7 37.0 19.2 91.0% 17.5 49.0%
Pump 404 (Secondary) Kirloskar UP 125/30A 1440 25 160 65.0 0.0 2.5 25.0 14.5 90.0% 13.1 33.9%
Plant-B/C
Pump 407 A Primary Kirloskar CE 125/26 980 10 134 101.0 0.0 0.9 9.0 4.7 85.0% 4.0 61.8%
Pump 407 B Primary Kirloskar CE 125/26 980 10 134 103.0 0.0 0.9 9.0 4.9 85.0% 4.1 61.1%
Pump 408 Kirloskar DB 80/16 2900 35 134 145.0 0.0 2.7 27.0 17.0 91.0% 15.5 68.9%
*Plant-A (revised)
Pump 406 (Primary) Kirloskar CE 80/20 1440 10 62 60.0 0.0 1.1 11.0 2.54 84.0% 2.1 84.2%
*Flow measurement of Primary Pump 406 - Plant A was measured again after the cleaning of Evaporator tubes
Table 7-3: Estimation of Performance of Chiller-A and Chiller-B/C

Rated Chilled Temperature Evaporator Motor Likely S pecific COP Pressures
Motor
Capacity water Inlet Outlet cooling input compressor power
Equipment Efficiency Evap. Cond. Refrigerant
flow Load shaft load cons.
% kg/cm2(g) kg/cm2(g)
TR m3/h °C °C TR kW kW kW/TR
Chiller- 3.71 11.6
111 25 11.2 8.2 24.81 32.76 89 29.2 1.18 2.99 R-717
Plant A (2.5°C) (32.5°C)
3.5 10
Chiller IBT 111 94.87 61.16 93 56.9 0.60 5.85 R-717
(1.3°C) (28°C)
Chiller-Plant 4.1 11.5
222 103 10.9 8.2 91.99 60.45 92 55.6 0.60 5.81 R-717
B/C (4.6°C) (32.3°C)
* Chiller- 4.7 13
111 60 10.1 7.3 55.57 43 92 39.6 0.71 4.39 R-717
Plant A (8°C) (36°C)
* The measurement was taken after cleaning of evaporator tubes.
69
Performance of Chilled Water System
The chilled water flow rate was measured with an ultrasonic flow meter. The chilled water
inlet and outlet temperatures were directly measured by digital thermometer. The capacities
(TR) of the chillers were estimated from the chilled water flow rate and temperature
difference across the chillers. The compressor motor input power was measured with a
portable power analyzer. After accounting for motor losses, the specific power consumption
(kW/TR at compressor shaft) was calculated. The performance has also been cross checked
by simulation, using the values of refrigerant temperatures and pressures in the evaporator
and condenser.
We understand that ice formation is not taking place in the Ice Bank Tank; the primary reason
is the high temperature of water in the Ice Bank Tank. The plant return temperature of
downing water goes upto 13ºC, which is discharged directly in the Ice Bank Tank.
Even under low load condition, the chilled water supply temperature from the Ice Bank was
never less than 5ºC. Normally, Ice Banks are designed to provide chilled water at 1-2ºC. The
efficient working of the Ice bank tank can reduce the load on the brine chilling system to
some extent.
For the IBT Chiller, the capacity (TR) has been estimated by simulation. The summary of
measurements and calculated results of performance of chilled water pumps is shown in
Table 7-2. The summary of measurements and calculated results of performance of chillers
is shown in Table 7-3.
Chiller-A (rated capacity of 111 TR) was in operation. From the measured chilled water flow
of 25 m3/h and chiller inlet and outlet temperatures of 11.2ºC and 8.2ºC respectively, the
chiller load is estimated to be 24.81 TR. The chiller compressor power (at motor input) is
32.76 kW. Assuming motor efficiency 89% (part load), the compressor shaft power is 29.16
kW. The specific power consumption is 1.18 kW/TR, which is very high for the operating
chilled water temperature of 8.2°C (compressor suction refrigerant pressure of 3.7 kg/cm2g
and saturation temperature of 2.5°C). The compressor discharge pressure was 11.6 kg/cm2g
and saturation temperature of 32.5°C. The expected specific power consumption for an
efficient chiller is 0.60-0.65 kW/TR (at compressor shaft).
The most probable reason for the poor performance of this chiller is that the primary pump
is delivering only 25 m3/h instead of the rated 62 m3/h, which is required for a 111 TR
chiller. Since the screw compressor has sliding valve control, the compressor will
automatically respond to the low chiller outlet temperature; with lower chilled water flow,
the set outlet temperature will be attained quickly, resulting in the sliding valve bypassing
partially compressed refrigerant gas back to suction, even before the chiller can attain its full
load. This may be the reason for the high specific power consumption.
70
Figure 7-6: T-S Diagram for Chiller-A
b) Primary Pump no. P-406 (of Chiller-A) is rated for head and flow of 10 m and 62
m3 /h respectively; it is operating at a discharge pressure of 1.2 kg/cm2 g (estimated
differential head of 12 m) and flow of 25 m3 /h, consuming power (motor input) 2.0
kW. Assuming motor efficiency of 84%, the likely pump shaft power is 1.7 kW,
implying pump efficiency of 48.4%, which is very poor.
The pump flow may be low due to the following reasons:
Choked strainer
Blockages in heat exchanger
Worn out impeller
Increased clearances in pumps
c) Secondary Pump nos., P-401 and P-402 (of Chiller-A) are rated for head and flow of
35 m and 120 m3 /h respectively; these pumps circulate chilled water in Plant-A. Both
pumps are operating at same discharge pressure of 3.7 kg/cm2 g (estimated
differential head of 37 m) and same flow of 85 m3 /h, consuming power (motor input)
19.2 kW each. Assuming motor efficiency of 91% for both pumps, the likely pump
shaft power is 17.5 kW, implying pump efficiency of 49.0%, which is poor.
d) Secondary Pump no. P-404 (of Chiller-A) is rated for head and flow of 25 m and 160
m3 /h respectively; this pump caters the requirement of chilled downing water to
Plant-A. It was operating at a discharge pressure of 2.5 kg/cm2 g (estimated
implying pump efficiency of 33.9%, which is very poor. This pump is VFD driven,
it was operating @ 46.68 Hz.
e) During audit only one reactor R-102B was in operation whereas the pump is designed
to cater the demand of three reactors. The flow measured was less, still VFD was
operating at 46.68 Hz, it is recommended to check operating control logic of VFD,
so that operating frequency should decrease proportionally with decreasing flow and
maintain necessary head.
71
There appears a scope for saving by proper selection of the pump; however, the best
and worst operating cases have to be understood through more discussions before
finalizing selection of new pump.
Chiller-B/C (rated capacity of 222 TR) was in operation. From the measured chilled water
flow of 101 m3 /h and chiller inlet and outlet temperatures of 10.9ºC and 8.2ºC respectively,
the chiller load is estimated to be 91.99 TR. The chiller compressor power (at motor input)
is 60.45 kW. Assuming motor efficiency 92% (part load), the compressor shaft power is
55.61 kW. The specific power consumption is 0.6 kW/TR, which is very good for the
operating chilled water temperature of 8.2°C (compressor suction refrigerant pressure of 4.1
kg/cm2 g and saturation temperature of 4.6°C). The compressor discharge pressure was 11.5
kg/cm2 g and saturation temperature of 32.3°C.
Figure 7-7: T-S Diagram for Chiller-B/C
Primary Pump no. P-407A (of Chiller-B/C) is rated for head and flow of 10 m and 134 m3 /h
respectively; it is operating at a discharge pressure of 0.9 kg/cm2 g (estimated differential
head of 9 m) and flow of 101 m3 /h, consuming power (motor input) 4.7 kW. Assuming motor
efficiency of 85%, the likely pump shaft power is 4.0 kW, implying pump efficiency of
61.8%, which is reasonable.
Primary Pump no. P-407B (of Chiller-B/C) is rated for head and flow of 10 m and 134 m3 /h
respectively; it is operating at a discharge pressure of 0.9 kg/cm2 g (estimated differential
head of 9 m) and flow of 103 m3 /h, consuming power (motor input) 4.9 kW. Assuming motor
efficiency of 85%, the likely pump shaft power is 4.1 kW, implying pump efficiency of
61.1%, which is reasonable.
Secondary Pump no. P-408 (of Chiller-B/C) is rated for head and flow of 35 m and 134
m3 /h respectively; this pump caters chilled water requirement to plant-B. It is operating at a
discharge pressure of 2.7 kg/cm2 g (estimated differential head of 27 m) and flow of 145
m3 /h, consuming power (motor input) 17.0 kW. Assuming motor efficiency of 91%, the
likely pump shaft power is 15.5 kW, implying pump efficiency of 68.9%, which is
reasonable.
72
Secondary Pump no. P-409 (of Chiller-B/C) is rated for head and flow of 35 m and 134 m3 /h
respectively; this pump caters chilled water requirement for drinking water jackets. It is
operating at a discharge pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2 g (estimated differential head of 35 m) and
flow of 135 m3 /h, consuming power (motor input) 17.5 kW. Assuming motor efficiency of
91%, the likely pump shaft power is 15.9 kW, implying pump efficiency of 80.8%, which is
good.
Secondary Pump no. P-410 (of Chiller-B/C) is rated for head and flow of 35 m and 134 m3 /h
respectively; this pump caters chilled water requirement for plant-C. It is operating at a
discharge pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2 g (estimated differential head of 35 m) and flow of 130
m3 /h, consuming power (motor input) 17.9 kW. Assuming motor efficiency of 91%, the
likely pump shaft power is 16.3 kW, implying pump efficiency of 76%, which is good.
2 nos. Evaporative Condensers with a single fan (9.3 kW) are installed for the chilled water
system; one each for Chiller-B/C and Chiller-A. The measurements on the evaporative
condensers are mentioned in the Table 7-4.
Table 7-4: Performance of Evaporati ve Condenser of Plant-B/C & Plant-IBT Chillers
Outlet air
Inlet air condition
Air condition Fan
Evaporative
Flow Dry Wet Dry Wet Power
Condenser RH RH
m3 /h bulb bulb bulb bulb kW
% %
°C °C °C °C
Plant A 31369 26 21 64.2 25.5 23 81.1 6.09
Plant B/C 35007 27.5 20 50.3 28 24 72.0 6.09
Performance of Chiller A after cleaning of Evaporator tubes
a) Chiller-A (rated capacity of 111 TR) was in operation. After cleaning of evaporator
tubes the measured chilled water flow of 60 m3 /h and chiller inlet and outlet
temperatures of 10.1ºC and 7.3ºC respectively, the chiller load is estimated to be
55.57 TR. The chiller compressor power (at motor input) is 43 kW. Assuming motor
efficiency 92%, the compressor shaft power is 39.6 kW. The specific power
consumption is 0.71 kW/TR, which is very good for the operating chilled water
temperature of 7.3°C (compressor suction refrigerant pressure of 4.7 kg/cm2 g and
saturation temperature of 8°C). The compressor discharge pressure was 13 kg/cm2 g
and saturation temperature of 36°C. The expected specific power consumption for
an efficient chiller is 0.60-0.65 kW/TR (at compressor shaft).
b) During audit chilled water flow from Primary Pump- 406 was 25 m3 /h, accordingly
the chiller load is estimated to be 24.81 TR and specific power consumption of
Chiller A was 1.18kW/TR, which was poor.
c) After audit, overhauling of chiller A was carried out due to which, chilled water flow
from Primary Pump- 406 has increased to 60m3 /h, accordingly the chiller load is
estimated to be 55.57 TR with specific power consumption of Chiller A is 0.71
kW/TR, which is good
d) Primary Pump no. P-406 (of Chiller-A) is rated for head and flow of 10 m and 62
m3 /h respectively; it is operating at a discharge pressure of 1.1 kg/cm2 g (estimated
73
implying pump efficiency of 84.2%, which is excellent.
e) Earlier flow for Primary Pump no. P-406 (of Chiller-A) was measured to be 25 m3 /h,
implying the pump efficiency of 48.4%, which was poor, but after cleaning of
evaporator tubes the measured flow is improved to 60 m3 /h, implying the pump
efficiency of 84.2%, which is excellent.
7.5 Brine Chilling System
The Brine Chilling System comprises of 3 nos. chillers: Chiller-A, Chiller-B and Chiller-C.
These chillers have flooded evaporators and they use R-717 (Ammonia) as the refrigerant.
All three Chillers have one compressor each. Dedicated chillers for each plant are designed
to cater the brine chilling requirement. Each chiller has a separate evaporative condenser.
The specifications of the chillers are shown below in Table 7-5.
Table 7-5: Specifications of Brine chillers

Make System & Comp.
Compressor Type Screw
Nos. of Compressors 1
Capacity 111 TR
Refrigerant R-717
Condenser Evaporative Water Cooled
During the energy audit, the performance of chillers and pumps were evaluated by
measurements of various operating parameters, namely, power, pressures, flows and
temperatures.
7.6 Performance of Brine Chillers
a) The brine flow rate was measured with an ultrasonic flow meter. The brine solution
comprises of ethylene glycol (60% concentration). The brine inlet and outlet
temperatures were directly noted from the digital panel of the chiller. The capacities
(TR) of the chillers were estimated from the brine flow rate and temperature
difference across the chillers. The compressor motor input power was measured with
a portable power analyzer. After accounting for motor losses, the specific power
consumption (kW/TR at compressor shaft) was calculated. The performance has also
been cross checked by simulation, using the values of refrigerant temperatures and
pressures in the evaporator and condenser.
b) The summary of measurements and calculated results of performance of chilled
water pumps is shown in Table 7-2. The summary of measurements and calculated
results of performance of chillers is shown in Table 7-3.
c) Chiller-A (rated capacity of 40 TR @ -20°C) was in operation. From the measured

brine flow of 16 m3/h and chiller inlet and outlet temperatures of -9ºC and -16.9ºC
respectively, the chiller load is estimated to be 42 TR. The chiller compressor power
(at motor input) is 56.75 kW. Assuming motor efficiency 90% (part load), the
compressor shaft power is 51.08 kW. The specific power consumption is 1.22
kW/TR, which appears to be too low for the operating brine temperature of -16.9°C
(compressor suction refrigerant pressure of 0.5 kg/cm2g and saturation temperature
of -25°C). The compressor discharge pressure was 11.6 kg/cm2g and saturation
temperature of 32.6°C. For the operating conditions, simulation shows (refer Figure
74
7-8) shows that the expected specific power consumption is 1.6 kW/TR (at the
compressor shaft). The low value may be due to errors in temperature indications in
the chillers; direct measurement of brine temperatures was not possible due to the
absence of functional thermowells.
Figure 7-8: T-S diagram for Brine Chiller-A
d) Chiller-B (rated capacity of 43 TR @ -30°C) was in operation. From the measured

brine flow of 16 m3/h and chiller inlet and outlet temperatures of -12.7ºC and -18.9ºC
respectively, the chiller load is estimated to be 47 TR. The chiller compressor power
(at motor input) is 84.41 kW. Assuming motor efficiency 90% (part load), the
compressor shaft power is 75.97 kW. The specific power consumption is 1.61
kW/TR, which is reasonable for the operating brine temperature of -23.8°C
(compressor suction refrigerant pressure of 0.2 kg/cm2g and saturation temperature
of -30°C). The compressor discharge pressure was 11.5 kg/cm2g and saturation
temperature of 32.5°C. For the operating conditions, simulation shows (refer Figure
7-8) shows that the expected specific power consumption is 1.6 kW/TR (at the
compressor shaft), which agrees closely with the measurements.
e) 3 nos. Evaporative Condensers are installed at the brine chilling system; one each for
Brine Chiller-A, Brine Chiller-B and Brine Chiller-C. Brine Chiller-C was not in
operation during the energy audit.
Figure 7-9 T-S diagram for Brine Chiller-B
75
Table 7-6Estimation of Performance of Brine Chiller-A and Brine Chiller-B
Equipment Rated Brine Density S pecific Temperature Evaporator Motor Motor Likely S pecific COP Pressures
Capacity flow heat Inlet Outlet cooling input effi. compressor power Evap. Cond.
Load shaft load cons.
TR m3/h kg/m3 kcal/kg/°C °C °C TR kW % kW kW/TR kg/cm2(g) kg/cm2(g)
Brine 40
16 1092 0.69 -9 -16.9 42 56.75 90 51.08 1.22 2.87 0.5 (-26) 11.6 (32.5)
Chiller-A (@ -20°C)
Brine
111 22* 1092 0.69 -12.4 -18.9 47 84.41 90 75.97 1.61 2.19 0.2 (-29.9) 11.5 (32.3)
Chiller- B
Brine
111 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Chiller-C
76
7.7 Energy Saving Opportunity
Improve Performance of Chiller-A by Increasing Primary Chilled Water Flow
The primary flow of the 111 TR Chiller-A is only 25 m3/h, while the required rated flow is 62
m3/h. The refrigeration load delivered is about 24.81 TR only, with specific power consumption
(at compressor shaft) of 1.18 kW/TR. It may be noted that Chiller-B/C has a specific power
consumption (at compressor shaft) of 0.60 kW/TR, with chilled water at 8.2°C.
The monthly heat load on the IBT & water chillers has been estimated by using the energy
consumption data and estimated specific energy consumption data.
Table 7-7: Estimated Refrigeration Load on Chilled Water System

IBT Chiller Chiller A Chiller B/C
Running Refriger Energy Running Refriger- Energy Running Refriger- Energy
Month hours -ation Consump- hours ation Load Consump- hours ation Consump-
Load tion, kWh TR-h tion Load tion
TR-h kWh TR-h kWh
Aug-15 743 96748 63303 0 0 6013 638 60459 40064
Sep-15 704 91771 60092 205 9173 14995 765 80184 53035
Oct-15 699 91306 59792 386 16135 22006 709 70143.8 46431
Nov-15 492 57401 37918 21 1656 5698 740 70455 46670
Dec-15 482 51922 34980 0 0 4736 414 41495 27455
Total 3120 389148 256085 612 26964 53448 3266 322737 213655
The pump flow may be low due to the following reasons:

Choked strainer
Blockages in heat exchanger
Worn out impeller
Increased clearances in pumps
Repair and maintenance of the primary pump in maintaining internal tolerances and, if required,
replacement of the impeller, should help in increasing the flow from the existing value of 25
m3/hto the rated value of 62 m3/h. This will help improve the performance of the chiller and
reduce the specific power consumption from the existing value of 1.18 kW/TR to 0.60 kW/TR
(at the compressor shaft). During the period from Aug-15 to Dec-15, the total refrigeration load
on Chiller-A has been estimated to 26,964 TR-h. Considering a similar trend throughout the
year, the refrigeration load on Chiller-A is expected to be 64,700 TR-h. The direct energy saving
potential is 40,000 kWh/annum i.e. Rs. 2.47 lakhs/annum.
The investment for maintenance and impeller replacement required is likely to be about Rs.
10,000/-, with a payback period is expected to be less than one month.
We understand that ice build-up does not take place in the IBT tank. The operating control
strategy appears to operate the IBT chiller continuously and Chiller-A depending on the chilling
demand, based on chilled water temperature in the tank. We feel that the correct control strategy
77
would to ensure that Chiller-A operates continuously to reduce the chilled water temperature to
6°C and the IBT chiller should pull down the chilled water further down to 0°C and also build
up ice storage. This issue needs to be discussed further.
We understand that deficient performance of the IBT chiller and chiller-A combination is
leading to drop in process productivity due slower rate cooling. Since in some of the equipment,
chilled water cooling is followed by brine cooling, insufficient cooling by the chilled water
system is also likely to increase the load on the brine system. The specific power consumption
of the brine chillers is in the range 1.22 kW/TR (with brine @ 16.9°C) and 1.61 kW/TR (with
brine @ -18.9°C).
7.8 Energy Conservation Opportunities implemented
a) During audit chilled water flow from Primary Pump- 406 was 25 m3/h, accordingly the
chiller load is estimated to be 24.81 TR and specific power consumption of Chiller A
was 1.18kW/TR, which was poor.
b) After audit, overhauling of chiller A was carried out due to which, chilled water flow
from Primary Pump- 406 has increased to 60m3/h, accordingly the chiller load is
estimated to be 55.57 TR with specific power consumption of Chiller A is 0.71 kW/TR,
which is good.
78
8 Study of Cooling Tower
8.1 Introduction
A cooling tower is a heat removal device for industrial purposes, which releases waste heat to
the atmosphere after extracting heat and cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. It can
be defined as open water recirculation devices, which uses natural draft or mechanical draft;
fans to force the air to come in contact with water and cool it.
Cooling towers are mostly used for providing cooled water to air-conditioning, manufacturing
and power generation. A cooling tower can be both, Open loop and closed loop heat rejection
equipment. The kind of heat dissipation done in cooling tower is evaporative. The heat
transferred from water stream to air stream leads to rise in its temperature and relative humidity
up to 100%.
8.2 Components of a Cooling Tower
All the cooling towers have few basic components, which are as under
a) The Tower Structure

b) The cold water basin
c) Fill structure
d) Fans
e) Drift Eliminators
Figure 8-1 Typical Cooling Tower
79
8.3 Classification of cooling Tower
Cooling towers can be classified on the basis of Draft, Flow & loop. On the basis of Draft,
Cooling Tower can be classified into following:
a) Natural Draft
b) Mechanical Draft
Cooling Tower can be characterized by the way air is moved.
Natural Draft cooling towers are huge structure made of concrete in large surface area. They use
large convective airflow moving up in the chimney to cool the water. The system is large in size
and can exceed the flow of 500,000 gpm. They are mostly used by power generating company.
Natural Draft Cooling Tower offers the following advantages:

 Power saving (no power consumption to induce air flow- no fan)
 Environmental friendly
 No mechanical noise (no fan)
 Safety of operation
 No recirculation as the plume is rejected at high level
 Limited maintenance
 Payback period between 8 and 16 years depending on several factors
Figure 8-2 Natural Draft Cooling Tower
80
Mechanical Draft Cooling towers use fans to move air in the system and cool water. Mechanical
draft tower are of two types; induced draft and forced draft.
Forced Draft mechanical tower utilizes the fan at the entrance of air and bottom of the tower.
The fan pushes the air upwards in the stack and work at high effective pressure in the system.
Figure 8-3 Forced Draft Cooling Tower
Induced Draft cooling tower utilizes the fan mounted in the top of the deck and pulls the air
upwards to the stack. This leads to low entering and high exiting velocity of the air and also
prevents recirculation.
Figure 8-4 Induced Draft cooling Tower
81
On the basis of Flow, Cooling towers are classified into two:
a) Cross Flow Cooling Tower
b) Counter Flow Cooling Tower
Cross Flow Cooling tower
In cross flow, air and water mixes at 90-degree angle. The water flows down the fill vertically
due to gravity and air flows horizontally.
Advantages of Cross Flow Cooling Tower:
 Low pumping head due to low tower height.
 Lower annual energy consumption
 Easy to maintain
 Fans with large diameter can be used, so that fewer cells are required for given
capacity.
Figure 8-5 Cross Flow Cooling Tower
82
Counter Flow Cooling Tower
In the counter flow cooling tower the water is falling through the fills and air is rising i.e.; air
and water flow in vertically opposite direction. In this type of arrangement water and air get
mixed efficiently and maximize the performance of the cooling tower. The air is drawn to an
open area beneath the fill media and transferred upward, at the same time pressurized water
from nozzles near the top of the tower is sprayed, which flows downward through the fill.
Advantages
The air moving vertically across the fill allows the driest air to be in contact with coldest water,
hence maximizing the performance of cooling tower.
Figure 8-6 Counter Flow Cooling Tower
83
8.4 Components of Cooling Tower
The basic components of cooling tower are briefly discussed:

Frame & Casing: Frame & Casing are the components which provide support to the exterior
enclosures of the various components of the cooling tower such as, motor, fans etc.
Fills: Fills are the wooden or plastic structure, which helps in maximizing the heat transfer
between air & water.
Drift Eliminators: Drift eliminators capture the water droplets going out along with the air
stream.
Fans: Centrifugal and axial fans are used in cooling towers according to the requirement and
design. Axial fans are used in induced draft cooling tower while Centrifugal fans are used for
forced draft cooling tower.
Louvers: Louvers are corrugated structure which helps in maintaining the air quantity inside the
cooling tower and also prevents the water from going out of the tower. Basically these are used
in cross flow cooling towers.
Nozzles: These help in maintaining uniform distribution of water over the fill. The water should
be sprayed over the fill in such manner that the fill is always wet.
Cold Water Basin: Cold water basin is located below the cooling tower. The cold water coming
from the tower and fill goes down to the cold water basin.
8.5 Selection of Cooling Tower
The selection of cooling tower is influenced by several factors. Proper selection of cooling tower
is important for the better performance of cooling tower from the production and electricity
consumption point of view. Improper selection of cooling tower will lead to loss in production
due to increase in circulating water temperature and electrical costs. The following factors help
in proper selection of cooling tower:
a) Mass flow rate of water

b) Cooling tower inlet temperature
c) Cooling tower outlet temperature
d) Range
e) Approach
f) Air Flow rate
g) Water Quality
h) Type of Fill (splash or film)
i) Tower Type
j) Wet Bulb temperature
84
Performance of Cooling Tower
There are various important parameters which should be determined for performance evaluation
of cooling tower:
a) Temperature Range: Temperature range is the difference between the cooling tower
water inlet and outlet temperature.
Temperature Range = Cooling Tower inlet Temp.(Thot) – Cooling tower outlet
Temp.(Tcold)
b) Temperature Approach: Temperature range is the difference between the cooling tower
cold water temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature. Approach is better indicator
of cooling tower performance, lower the approach, and better the cooling tower
performance. For lowering Approach, for the same heat load, water flow and fill material
will require larger size of the cooling tower and higher air flow.
Temperature Approach=Cooling Tower outlet Temp (Tcold) – Ambient Wet Bulb Temp.
c) Heat Load: The heat load of a cooling tower depends upon the process for which it is
being used. The degree of cooling required depends upon the operating temperature of
the process being served. Generally, low operating temperature is considerable of better
efficiency and to maintain good quality and quantity of the product.
Heat Load (TR) = Cooling Water flow rate x 1000 x Temperature range / 3023
d) L/G Ratio: It is the ratio of the mass flow rate of water and air. Seasonal variations
requires tuning against the design value for proper cooling.
L/G Ratio = Mass flow rate of water/ Mass flow rate of Air
85
8.6 Field Testing of Cooling Tower
Cooling Tower inlet and outlet Temperature is measured with the help of pen type thermometer.
Mass flow rate of water is measured with the help of ultrasonic flow meter.
Mass Flow of Air:
Mass flow rate of air is measured in following steps-
Air Velocity (m/s) is measured with the help of anemometer.
The diameter of the fan and hub was measured and area of fan and motor were calculated. The
area of hub was subtracted from area of fan to the area in which air is flowing.
Mass flow rate of air (m3 /h) = Vair (m/s) x (Area fan – Area hub) m2 x 3600
The Wet Bulb and Dry bulb temperature are measured through sling Psychrometer.
Fan power is measured with the portable power logger.
86
8.7 Case Study
Introduction
a) 2 nos. Cooling Towers are installed for meeting cooling water requirements in Line-1,
Line-2 and Line-3.
b) There are 3 nos. submersible pumps installed for supplying cooling water to the plant.
Warm return water from the plant flows back into the sump of the cooling tower; 2 nos.
submersible pumps are installed for circulation within the cooling tower (refer Figure
8-7).
Figure 8-7 Existing Cooling Tower Pumping Scheme
Performance of Cooling Towers
a) The performance of Cooling Tower-1 and Cooling Tower-2 was reviewed; the
measurements and results are summarized in Table 8-1. The summary of measurements
for the Cooling Water submersible pumps is shown in Table 8-2; the performance of the
pumps could not be evaluated, as there is no provision for pressure measurements.
b) Summary of plant return flow and temperature measurements for Cooling Tower-1 and
Cooling Tower-2 are shown in Table 8-3 and Table 8-4 respectively.
87
Table 8-1: Estimated Performance of Cooling Towers
UNIT 1
Cooling Tower- Cooling Tower-
1 2
Air flow m3/h 1301 3114
Air flow cfm 768 1837
Fan power kW 0.235 0.371
kW/1 lakh
Fan performance 30.6 20.2
cfm
CT outlet temp. °C 32.9 33.1
CT inlet temp. °C 33 33.8
Dry bulb temp. °C 30 30
Wet bulb temp. °C 23 23
Density of air kg/m3 1.154 1.154
Temp. range °C 0.1 0.7
Temp. approach °C 9.9 10.1
Cooling water flow m3/h 9* 9*
CT heat load kcal/h 900 6300
L/G ratio 5.99 2.50
Air flow to water flow ratio cfm/USGpm 19.4 46.4
* Estimated from power input

Table 8-2: Flow measurements of CT pumps
Measured Flow Motor Input
Pump
m3/h kW
Cooling Tower #1
Submersible Pump-1 9.39 2.73
Circulation Pump-1 - 3.45
Cooling Tower #2
Circulation Pump-2 - 3.47
88
Table 8-3: Summary of Flows and Temperatures in Cooling Tower #1
Temp Flow Flow
S ubmersible #1
°C m3/h %
Banbury #1 (Return) 39.1 5.40 77.8%
Extruder/silo #1 (Return) 33.8 1.54 22.2%
Pump discharge bypass 33.0 2.45 35.3%
TOTAL PUM P FLOW 9.39 100%
Total Useful Flow 6.94 73.9%
Table 8-4: Summary of Flows and Temperatures in Cooling Tower #2

Temp Flow Flow
Equipment
°C m3/h %
Banbury M ixer #2 (Return) 35.5 5.99 72.7%
Extruder #2 (Return) 35.0 2.25 27.3%
TOTAL PUM P FLOW 10.58 100.0%
Banbury M ixer #3(Return) 35.2 6.75 66.7%

Extruder/silo #3 (Return) 37.0 3.37 33.3%
TOTAL PUM P FLOW 13.30 100.0%
Observation & Comments

a) The ambient dry and wet bulb temperatures were 30°C and 23°C respectively.
b) The primary (recirculation) cooling water flow of Cooling Tower-1 is estimated to be

9 m3 /h; the cooling tower inlet and outlet temperatures were 33°C and 32.9°C
respectively, indicating a cooling load of about 900 kcal/h. The temperature range and
temperature approach were 0.1°C and 9.9°C respectively.
The secondary cooling water flow is 9.39 m3 /h at a supply temperature of 33.8°C, after
mixing up with warm plant return water, which is higher than the cooling tower outlet
temperature. The discharge valve is of the plant circulation submersible pump is 60%
closed.
c) The cooling tower air flow was 1301 m3 /h, implying a water-to-air flow ratio (L/G) of
5.99, indicating very low air flow in relation the water flow.
d) The primary (recirculation) cooling water flow of Cooling Tower-2 is estimated to be

9 m3 /h; the cooling tower inlet and outlet temperatures were 33.8°C and 33.1°C
respectively, indicating a cooling load of about 6300 kcal/h. The temperature range and
temperature approach were 0.7°C and 10.1°C respectively.
The total secondary cooling water flow (supplied by two submersible pumps) is
23.79 m3 /h at a supply temperature of 34.2°C, after mixing up with warm plant return
water, which is higher than the cooling tower outlet temperature. The discharge valve
is of the plant supply submersible pump #2 does not have any valve, while that of
submersible pump #3 is 45% closed.
89
e) There is a big mismatch between the primary flow of 9 m3 /h and secondary flow of
23.79 m3 /h.
The cooling tower air flow was 3114 m3 /h, implying a water-to-air flow ratio (L/G) of
2.50, indicating low air flow in relation the water flow.
f) The lower air flow may be due dual reasons: poor fan performance and choking of fills.
Choking of fills may be due to higher hardness of untreated make-up water and improper
water blowdown practice. For Indian tropical weather, the desirable L/G ratio is about
1.0 to 1.2.
g) In both cooling towers, the warm cooling water returning from the plant falls in the sump
and it is recirculated in the cooling tower by a separate circulation pumps.
h) Cooling towers should always being in open space to allow free flow of air in to the
cooling tower. However, in Unit-1, the roof has been provided to shade the cooling
towers. This leads trapping of warm humid air exiting from the cooling tower and results
in its recirculation back into the cooling tower, which is not desirable. The roof may be
removed.
90
Install Single Common Secondary Pump with Variable Speed Drive
Presently, 3 nos. submersible pumps are being used, with total water flow of 33.27 m3 /h and
total power consumption of 7.49 kW. The useful flow actually providing cooling to equipment
is 25.3 m3/h, the balance 7.97 m3 /h is bypassed back into the cooling tower sump tank. This
discharge bypass indicates that about 1.8 kW power is being wasted. Secondly, the use of very
small pumps leads to poorer overall pump operating efficiency.
We recommend that the secondary water flow be supplied by a single pump. The pump may be
provided with a variable speed drive so that pump discharge flow bypass can be totally
eliminated.
We understand that cooling water flow starts in Banbury mixers only when the polymer
temperature exceeds 120°C. During each operating cycle, the filling time of the Banbury mixers
is about 30%, when there is surely no cooling water flow; during this period when the valve is
closed, the system pressure will rise, leading to excessive flow in other equipment and wastage
of energy. Programming the variable speed drive to maintain constant header pressure, higher
pressure operation will be avoided whenever there is no flow through the jackets of the Banbury
mixers; this will lead to additional energy savings.
The recommended specifications of the new pump are as follows:
Pump type: End suction (back pullout)

Make: KSB
Model: ETN 065-040 GG AA11GD200302B
Speed: 2928 rpm
Impeller diameter: 138 mm
Head: 25m
Flow: 250 m3/h
Efficiency: 68.7%
Pump shaft power: 2.46 kW
Likely motor efficiency: 85%
Expected motor input: 2.89 kW
Recommended motor rating: 3.7 kW
Number of Pumps: 2 nos. (One working, one standby)
Presently, 3 nos. pumps are in operating consuming 7.49 kW. With the single pump consuming
only 2.89 kW, the energy saving potential is 33,000 kWh/annum i.e. Rs. 2.39 lakhs per annum.
The investment for 2 nos. pumps with variable speed drives is expected to be Rs. 4 lakhs, with
a payback period of 21 months.
91
The savings are expected to be more than the projected number, as the variable speed drive will
reduce the speed of the pump to avoid over-pressurization, whenever the water flow to the
Banbury mixer stops; at least 30% of the Banbury mixer operating time, this additional saving
is expected to accrue.
92
Figure 8-8: Typical performance characteristics of recommended plant-supply pump as a replacement
for existing Submersible pump
93
9 CONCLUSION
This paper deals with the study of various energy guzzling utilities in a facility. Energy audit
was conducted for determining the performance of these equipment and area was identified for
energy conservation in them. Accordingly various recommendations & Energy Conservation
opportunities are found for improvement of the performance and better functioning of these
equipment. The important findings and recommendations of the study is as under:
9.1 PUMPS
In Plant A, Pump 101A which was consuming 19.4 kW with poor efficiency and was running
is replaced by another energy efficient Pump. By replacing the Pump, a saving of 28,000
kWh/annum is found i.e. Rs. 1.73 lakhs/annum in terms of monetary savings. Total investment
for 2 pumps (1 running & 1 standby) is Rs. 1.8 Lakhs, with a payback period of 13 months.
In Plant B, Pump 301A which was consuming 35.9 kW with very poor efficiency of 48.9% was
replaced by energy efficient pump. By replacing the pump, a saving of 85,300 kWh/annum is
found i.e. Rs. 5.28 lakhs/annum in terms of monetary savings. Total investment for 2 pumps (1
running & 1 standby) is Rs. 2.4 Lakhs, with a payback period less than 6 months.
9.2 Dust Collector

There are 5 nos. of dust collector blowers (2x50hp, 1x10hp, 40hp & 100hp) with efficiency
which is reasonably good. Pressure drop across dust collector RB-U-9 and RB-U-10 were
30mmWC and 7mmWC respectively; these pressure drops are very low, usually expected to be
in the range of 100mmWC to 150 mmWC; the recommended control point is 125 mmWC.
Compressed air consumption for cleaning the filter bags is calculated. The pulsing frequency of
compressed air in cartridge for cleaning the bag is 1/minute, which should be reduced to 1 in 2
minutes or more. Assuming reduction in compressed air consumption by 50%, i.e. 22 cfm. The
energy saving would be 22,000 kWh/annum, i.e. Rs. 1.16 lakh/annum without any investment.
9.3 Compressed Air System

The Screw Air Compressors AC Inst.#1 & AC Inst.#2 of rated capacity 111cfm for instrument
air operates under 5.2 bar(g) to 6.8 bar(g) with loaded power of 21.6 kW and 21.8 kW. Specific
Power Consumption of these compressors is 17.71 kW/100 cfm which is reasonable for screw
air compressors operating at 6.8 bar(g).
Screw Air Compressors AC N 2 -1 & N 2 -2 for Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Plant of rated
capacity 111 cfm operates at pressure 6.5 bar(g) to 7.5 bar(g) with loaded power 22.3 kW and
23.2 kW. The Specific Power Consumption of these compressors is 18.7 kW/100 cfm which is
reasonable for screw compressors operating at this pressure.
The compressed air requirement for PSA Nitrogen plant ranges from 105 cfm to 190 cfm peak;
the average compressed air consumption of the PSA Nitrogen plant was 166 cfm. 2 nos. 111
94
cfm air compressors are in operation for meeting this air demand. During the period from Aug-
15 to Dec-15, PSA air compressors #AC N2-1 and #AC N2-2 have operated in unloaded
condition for 13% and 18% of the time respectively.
Presently, both air compressors are supplying air independently to 2 nos. PSA plants. We
suggest that both air receivers supplying air to the PSA plants may be interconnected and one
additional 120 cfm variable speed screw compressor may be installed. So a combination of one
existing, fixed speed 111 cfm air compressor and a new 120 cfm variable speed compressor can
cater to this variable air demand both PSA plants, without unloading; one existing 111 cfm air
compressor will be available as spare.
The energy saving potential, for existing prevailing air demand, is around 40,000kWh/annum
i.e. Rs. 2.47 lakhs/annum. The investment for a 120 cfm variable speed air compressor is
expected to be Rs. 5 lakhs; the payback period is expected to be about 25 months i.e. slight over
2 years.
9.4 Boiler
The boiler efficiency has been estimated to be 84.34%, during steady state operation, indicating
a steam-to-fuel ratio of 6.06. However, since the boiler is cycling ON & OFF, with ON time of
about 50%-55%, the average efficiency will lower due to cooling of stack. The monthly average
steam-to-fuel ratio varies from 4.93 to 5.34.
9.5 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

a) In the Ice Bank Tank (IBT), the ice build-up does not take place. The operating control
strategy appears to be to operate the IBT chiller continuously and Chiller-A depending
on the chilling demand, based on chilled water temperature in the tank. We feel that the
correct control strategy would to ensure that Chiller-A operates continuously to reduce
the chilled water temperature to 6°C and the IBT chiller should pull down the chilled
water further down to 0°C and also build up ice storage. This issue needs to be discussed
further.
b) The deficient performance of the IBT chiller and chiller-A combination is leading to
drop in process productivity due slower rate cooling. Since in some of the equipment,
chilled water cooling is followed by brine cooling, insufficient cooling by the chilled
water system is also likely to increase the load on the brine system. The specific power
consumption of the brine chillers is in the range 1.22 kW/TR (with brine @ 16.9°C) and
1.61 kW/TR (with brine @ -18.9°C).
c) More importantly, efficient operation of Chiller–A will improve the process productivity
due to faster cooling; it may also facilitate increasing the load on the chilled water system
and reducing the load on the brine system. Alternatively, it may help maintain lower
95
brine temperatures, which can reduce process batch times and increase productivity of
the process.
The recommendations for Chiller –Plant A, was implemented after audit and following are the
observations:
a) During audit chilled water flow from Primary Pump- 406 was 25 m3/h, accordingly the
chiller load is estimated to be 24.81 TR and specific power consumption of Chiller A
was 1.18kW/TR, which was poor.
b) After audit, overhauling of chiller A was carried out due to which, chilled water flow
from Primary Pump- 406 has increased to 60m3/h, accordingly the chiller load is
estimated to be 55.57 TR with specific power consumption of Chiller A is 0.71 kW/TR,
which is good.
9.6 Cooling Tower
There are 2 nos. of cooling tower, with heat load of 900 kCal/h & 6300 kCal/h for cooling tower
#1 & #2 respectively. The temperature range is 0.1 & 0.7, approach is 9.9 & 10.1 for cooling
tower #1 & #2 respectively.
The L/G ratio for cooling tower #1 is 5.99 & for cooling tower #2 is 2.5 which is very high.
Normally desirable L/G ratio is 1.0 to 1.2 in Indian tropical regions. The lower air flow may be
due to poor fan performance or choking of fills. Choking of fills may be due to higher hardness
of untreated makeup water and improper water blowdown practice.
96
10 References
10.1 Study of Pumps
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_measurement#Ultrasonic_flow_meters_.28Doppler
.2C_transit_time.29
Pump Handbook- Igor J. Karassik, Joseph P. Messina, Paul Cooper, Charles C. Herald
10.2 Study of Dust Collectors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_collector
http://www.dynavac.in/dust-collectors/cartridge-filter-dust-collectors/
http://www.dynavac.in/dust-collectors/cyclone-dust-collector/
http://www.dustcollectionbags.com/dust-collection-systems/
https://www.forbesmarshall.com/fm_micro/news_room.aspx?Id=Boilers&nid=165
10.3 Study of Compressed Air System
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_compressor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_compressor
https://beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/3Ch3.pdf
http://energy.gov/eere/amo/compressed-air-systems
https://www.compressedairchallenge.org/library/factsheets/factsheet07.pdf
http://www.airbestpractices.com/system-assessments/leaks/finding-and- fixing-leaks
Energy Conservation manual of Devki Energy Consultancy Pvt. Ltd.
10.4 Study of Boiler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler
http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/pages/steam-engineering-tutorials/the-boiler-
house/miscellaneous-boiler-types-economisers-and-superheaters.aspx
http://www.power-technology.com/contractors/boilers/thermax/
97
10.5 Study of Refrigeration & Air conditioning system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioning
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC
https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Basic_Refrigeration_and_Air_Conditioning.ht
ml?id=gniJE5lK0YAC
http://www.airconditioning-systems.com/air-conditioner-refrigerant.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_tank
http://www.calmac.com/how-energy-storage-works
http://www.calmac.com/icebank-energy-storage- model-c
http://www.frigomech.com/en/main/systems-and-equipment/industrial-
refrigeration/brine-chillers.html
10.6 Study of Cooling Tower
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_tower
http://www.cti.org/whatis/coolingtower.shtml
http://spxcooling.com/coolingtowers
http://insights.globalspec.com/article/2427/cooling-towers-design-operation-and-
specifications
http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/manufacturing_process_equipment/heat_transfe
r_equipment/cooling_towers
http://www.me.ua.edu/me416/s09/pdf/ASHRAE2008Equipment-CoolingTowers.pdf
http://ishrae.in/programsconferencesdetails/COOLING-TOWER-TECHNICAL-
DISCUSSION/2100#
98

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1 Energy Scenario

ALL INDIA INSTALLED CAPACITY (IN MW) OF POWER STATIONS

State 16538.00 2879.20 0.00 19417.20 0.00 7502.55 662.06 27581.81

3.2 Types of Pumps

According to operating principle, pumps can be classified as:

o Axial Flow Centrifugal pumps

3.3 Pump Characteristics

There are two kinds of loss:

1. Static head loss

Figure 3-2 System Curve of Pump

Figure 3-3 Pump Performance curve

Figure 3-4 Pump Characteristic Curve

3.5 Affinity Law

Figure 3-5 Affinity Law

3.7 Performance of Pump

Pump Efficiency (ƞpump ) = Hydraulic Power / Shaft power x 1000

Performance Evaluation of single Pump:

1. Flow Measurement, Q (m3 /s):

Figure 3-6 Doppler Effect Flowmeter mechanism

 Measure Line circumference, 𝜋𝐷

a) Determine spacing between the sensors. Line Spacing

2. Determination of Total Head

5. Pump Shaft Power, Ps (kW) = Pm x ƞmotor

6. Pump Efficiency, ƞpump = Ph / Ps

Performance Evaluation of Process Cooling Water Pumps

Standby pump 101B was OFF.

Standby pump 102B was OFF.

Standby pumps 301B & pump 301C were OFF.

Standby pumps 201B & pump 201C were OFF.

a) Replacement for Process Cooling tower pump (Plant-A)

a) The recommended specifications of the new pump are as follows:

Pump Type End Suction Back Pullout

Speed 1471 rpm

Impeller Diameter 294 mm

Flow 260 m3/h

Pump Shaft Power 21.64 kW

Likely Motor Efficiency 90%

Expected Motor Input 24.04 kW

No. Of Pumps 2 (1 working, 1 Standby)

4.2 Types of Dust Collector

There are three main types of primary separators:

a) Gravitational settling chambers

i. Gravitational Settling chamber:

Figure 4-1 Gravitati onal Settling Chamber

Figure 4-2 Baffle Chamber

a) Single Cyclone Separator

a) Single Cyclone separator:

Multiple Cyclone Separator:

a. Bag Shaking: The bag is connected to a rod

Figure 4-5 Wet Scrubbers

On the basis of Pressure drop, Spray tower can be categorized as under:

Figure 4-6 High Energy Scrubbers

 Power supply unit ( high voltage DC Power)

Figure 4-7 Working Diagram of Electrostatic Precipitator

There are four main components of dust collector:

Figure 4-8 A Dust Collector with Filter Bag and it

4.4 Field Testing

 Static Pressure is measured with manometer

Mass flow rate:

Mass flow rate, Q = Velocity of Air (m/s) x Area (m2 )

Now we can calculate the blower efficiency by using the formula

Air Power = [9.81 x ∆𝑝 (𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑐) x Q (m3 /s)]/1000

Step-1 We will be needing data, which are as under: