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The drive converter supplies at its output, a voltage which consist of voltage blocks with
the amplitude of the DC link voltage. The rate of rise dv/dt of these voltage blocks is
extremely steep and is determined by the switching speed of the IGBT used. Minimum
switching times range from 0.08 to 0.10 microseconds. The amplitude of the DC link
voltage is 135% of the line supply voltage.
dv /dt > 600 *1.35 / 0.1microsecond ~ 8kV/.usec for a 600 volt supply.
This high dv/dt can, especially for long motor feeder cables, results in additional
stressing at the drive (current spikes) and at the motor (insulation stressing).
Motor cables have a specific capacitance. The longer the cable length, the higher the
resulting cable capacitance. These capacitances are re-charged at each commutation.
This involves a charging current of the cable capacitances which is superimposed on the
actual motor current, see figure 1.
If parallel cables are used, or multiple motor runs, then the total sum of each of the cable
runs must be added together.
If a motor is fed from the output of an AFD via a long cable, several potentially
troublesome effects may become apparent The lumped element equivalent circuit of a
cable is shown in figure A. indicating the presence of series inductance and shunt
capacitive effects. when the steeply rising (and falling) wave fronts of the AFD are
applied to the cable, the resulting capacitor charging current effects result in spikes of
current that can cause the inverter to trip. While the size of the shunt capacitors are
small, the effect is noticeable, particularly in low power inverters. The magnitude of this
current is predictable and can be reduced using a series inductor. The size of the
inductor is proportional to the length of the cable and the degree of current reduction
required.
The object of the application of series inductors is to reduce the charging current to a
value low enough so as not to reduce the reliable current rating of the drive. Drives
above the rating of 50 or 100 horsepower are probably not susceptible to these effects.
As the power of the drive is reduced, more intervention is required. Drive
manufacturers generally provide a table of inductors in a matrix relating specific
inductors to frame sizes as a function of length of cable. As the frame size diminishes
and the length of cable increases, the required series inductance increases accordingly.
The particular selection procedure is a function of "head room" or transient current
margin of the specific drive and other factors. The general effects are as stated above.
During brief transients operations, the DC Link voltage can be increased. At the end of
an acceleration ramp, or during an input line transient or during a regenerative condition
(braking), the bus voltage can be increased to approximately 120% of the normal DC
link value without tripping of the VFD, thus causing increased overshoots. The
following table shows the maximum peak values at the motor terminals without any
smoothing reactors or filters.
• drive overload current is not used by setting torque limiting to the drive rating or less.
{multiple lcable by VFD Rating/VFD Limited}
The equivalent circuit of figure A. can be used to study the transient effects with cables
as discussed in the previous section. One effect involves the development of high
voltages at the motor terminals due to reflections in a power cable as shown in figure C.
Note that the motor voltage tends to double as the reflected waves meet, cancel and add.
Such excess voltages are believed to cause motor insulation failures. The use of series
inductors as discussed above reduces the rise time of motor voltage but does not
effectively reduce the peak voltage.
It can be shown that for a given length of cable, reducing the rise time below a critical
time will eliminate over voltages due to reflections as shown in figure D. This implies
that a filter placed on the output of a fast switching AFD could do the same thing. One
such filter is shown in figure B. Figure E. demonstrates the effects of a typical IGBT
inverter applied to a motor fed by a 150 meter cable. Note the reflections before
applying of the filter. Note further, the successful suppression of over voltage at the
motor by using the filter (figure F.)
The LC or LRC circuit of figure (B.) has proven to be simple, reliable, and produces
effective suppression at relatively low loss as applied by Siemens.
The LRC filter discussed above provides two distinct functions. It reduces the over-
voltages at the motor and reduces the rate of rise of voltage.
Output reactor limit the capacitive output currents and additionally reduce the voltage
rate of rise after the reactor. The following two types of reactors can be used:
Iron Reactors: For output frequencies of less than 120 hertz and a low pulse frequency
of around 3 kHz.
Ferrite Reactors: For output frequencies above 120 hertz and a pulse frequency between
3 and 6kHz.
dv / dt Filters:
The dv/dt filter reduce the voltage rate of rise to values of dv/dt < 500
Volts/microsecond. This means that the capacitive re-charging currents are reduced
significantly. Also the voltage spikes at the motor are reduced to approximately 130%
of the DC Link voltage or 176% of the line supply voltage.
The following is a block diagram of a dv/dt filter comprising of a output filter reactor,
filter capacitors, decoupling capacitors, diode bridge and DC Link Bus capacitors. The
decoupling capacitor network limits the motor voltage to less than 130% of the DC Link
bus voltage. The dv/dt filter is tuned for a maximum of a 3 kHz pulse frequency rate.
Sinusoidal Filter:
The Sinusoidal Filter represents the most complex and expensive filter technique
allowing for cable runs from 250 to over 1000 meters. The use of the Sinusoidal filter
produces a waveform which is practically a sinusoidal voltage at the output. These
filters are tuned for 6kHz at 460 volts and 3kHz at 600 volts. This filter only works on
VFDs with a space vector or sinusoidal modulation scheme. The voltage drop associated
with this scheme limits the output voltage to the motor to approximately 90% of rated
voltage. This voltage limitation must be considered when selecting the motor.
Sinusoidal filters when used on motors in hazardous areas do not create any extra
heating in the motor over that produced by the Utility sinewave.
Assuming that a motor is connected directly to an AFD with short cables to eliminate
the effects discussed above, the effect of applying a high rate of voltage rise to a motor
winding is to concentrate that voltage on the winding of the first coil as shown in figure
(a). This effect acts to stress that portion of the winding leading to premature failure.
This effect can be mitigated by applying a filter as discussed above. The amount of
filtering is dependent on the magnitude of the applied voltage. It must be stressed that
no agency has produced definitive limits to these prospects. However1 NEMA and
other agencies have. proposed that the following criteria is acceptable:
It has been suggested that a straight line be drawn between these two points and applied
at intermediate voltages below 1000 volts peak. The author feels that any motor
supplied for a inverter should survive its normal design life if the applied voltage is
within the envelope suggested above.
Thus, a filter designed to satisfy the particular parameters of the envelope should certify
the motor/drive combination. The use of a simple series reactor is also believed to be
effective in some cases. The determination of the specific size of the reactor is now
under investigation as present methods are empirical or subjective.
There is no such thing as a Part 31 motor that is stocked on the shelf ready to ship to site
as some motor manufacturers will tend to state. A true Part 31 motor can only be
provided after the operating speed and load conditions of the application are confirmed
and the VFD manufacturer selected.
• Minimum Speed
• Base Speed
• Maximum Speed
• Starting Torque requirements
• Intermittent Torque requirements
• Pulsating Torque
• Insulation Ratings
• Temperature Rise
• Insulation Class
• Service Factor
• Insulation Voltage rating for high frequency pulses
• Horsepower requirements over operating range
• Cooling requirements for designated speed range and torque requirements
• Distance between controller and motor
For centrifugal loads such as fans and pumps, a Part 31 motor can be pre-built with
design exceptions or limits to torque, speed range and overload capability. These
limitation will generally allow for proper motor and VFD operation for a 10 - 60 Hertz
speed range. Some motor vendors even require additional filtering (reactors) in the
VFD output circuit to protect their motor for them to meet the remaining Part 31
requirements.
The actual cost difference to upgrade to Part 31 requirements is very little to most
manufacturers, since they build the motors already to satisfy most requirements listed
above and have test data providing Speed and Torque ranges that satisfy the NEMA
requirements for PWM Drives.
Most customers order motors with a conventional 1.0 service factor rating and expect to operate the motor
at or below its rated horsepower. Other customers expect to operate the same way most of the time, but,
like to have some extra margin built-in just in case some overload capability is needed on occasions.
others have the same loads, but, take what they consider a 'safe' approach. They will ask for a 1.15 service
factor rating then specify the temperature rise at the service factor for the next lower insulation class.
Then there are those customers that take the opposite extreme by ordering a motor with 1.15 service factor
and then operating right at the top of this rating.
Assuming each of these customers were purchasing the same speed, horsepower and enclosure type, they
will be receiving completely different motors. The motors will all do the job intended, but, they will be
operating at different temperatures. Their expected insulation lives will differ even more. Information on
insulation and insulation life expectancy can be beneficial in making the decisions described above.
Several classes of insulation are commonly used and each of these has temperature capabilities assigned to
them by standards prepared by The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Manufacturers
have developed systems for these temperature classes using various materials such as mica, glass, epoxy,
polyester, etc. and tests have been made on these systems to determine the operating life at the
standardized temperatures. These tests are made at elevated temperatures and the results are extrapolated
down in temperature and out in time. This method allows a test to be performed in a couple of years rather
than a couple of decades. This same concept of reduction and expansion of insulation life with
temperature will be used in the following to obtain relative life numbers.
The standard temperature rises permitted for the different insulation classes, service factors and voltage
ratings are shown in Table 1. The 1.0 service factor values are those appearing in NEMA MG1 and other
standards. The service factor rise values are those recognized in the AISI C50.41 (Standard on Motors For
Power Plants) and are those used for Siemens motors.
Table 2 illustrates the relative life of motor insulation when a motor with that insulation
system is operated at different temperatures. The Table shows that the relative life of a
system is 1.0 (this is 1.0 per unit or 100%) when operating at its rated temperature.
Operating the motor at higher than rated temperature results in a lower life and this is
reflected by the lower relative lives (or multipliers) in the Table. In the same manner,
the Table shows larger numbers (longer life expectancy) as a result of lower operating
temperatures. The rule that fits most insulation Systems is that the life will be doubled
for each 10oC decrease in total temperature and likewise, the life is cut in half for each
100C increase in total temperature. This "10 degree half-life rule" was used to construct
Table 2.
Using Table 2, the relative lives of the four machines previously mentioned can be
determined. The first machine, with 1.0 SF and no overload, has the standard 1.0 life
rating whether built with Class B insulation with an 80o rise or Class F with a 105o rise.
The life of the motor in the second example will be approximately two times that of the
first. For example, the motor could have Class B insulation and be designed for a 70o
rise at rated load. The Table shows a relative life of 2.0 for this condition.
With all other factors remaining the same, operation as in the third example above will
result in even longer insulation life. The most common situation would be to specify a
Class F system, designed for a rise of 90oC at 1.15 SF and then operate at 1.0 SF. The
rise, as in the second example, is around 70o and Table 2 shows a life rating of over 10
times that of a standard motor. Expecting to actually achieve 10 times the normal life is
perhaps being a little too optimistic, however, increased insulation life can be expected.
The fourth example goes to the other extreme. This motor will be operating at
temperatures that will result in an insulation life of only one-half (0.5 per unit) of the
standard life.
There is nothing wrong with any of these approaches. The user must balance life and
reliability against cost and make the appropriate decision.
The above discussion is concerned with the relative life of the stator insulation at
different temperatures. Other factors also influence insulation life just as there are other
Reciprocating type compressor and pump applications are unique in that, during each
shaft revolution, the amount of torque needed to be developed by the motor driver to
drive the load, varies depending upon the exact position of the pistons within the
cylinders of the compressor or pump. This is in contrast to the constant load
characteristics of most other applications during a single turn of the shaft.
Induction motors respond to the cyclic nature of reciprocating loads with corresponding
changes in torque output and incremental changes in speed during each shaft revolution.
Since the amount of current drawn by the motor is proportional to torque output,
variations in instantaneous torque requirements will be reflected as current pulsations in
the power line supplying the motor. Pulsating currents, if not limited, can cause voltage
variations in the distribution system which, in turn can cause light flicker or improper
operation of voltage sensitive equipment.
These applications are addressed in NEMA MG 1-20.82 with the following statement:
"When the driven load, such as that of reciprocating type pumps, compressors, etc.
requires a variable torque during each revolution, it is recommended that the combined
installation have sufficient inertia in its rotating parts to limit the variations in motor
stator current to a value not exceeding 66 percent of full-load current"
The standard NEMA pulsation current limit of 66% is based on the premise that most
industrial distribution systems have sufficient capacity to absorb such current pulsations
without experiencing objectionable variations in voltage. This is not always the case and
it may be necessary to limit the amount of current pulsation to a value lower than 66%.
This is accomplished with additional system inertia to limit the pulsations to values of
Since inertia energy contained within the motor rotor is used to supplement electrically
developed motor torque during periods of peak load torque demand, this inertial derived
torque is in addition to the torque which would be transmitted through the motor shaft in
constant load applications. The result can be abnormally high transient torque values. A
torsional evaluation of the application could well indicate the need for a larger than
standard shaft extension.