Electronics Class

ELECTRONICS CLASS
10 Lessons Beginner Level
While it may seem intimidating at first, learning electronics is fun and easy.
In the first three lessons I introduce new tools, skills and concepts. In the remainder of the class,
a new electronic component is introduced in each lesson.
In addition to providing an overview of an important aspect of electronics, each lesson concludes
with a project. This allows you to learn about basic electronics in a hands-on manner.
I hope you will take the time and come build a circuit with me.
Enter an Instructables Contest!
If you've used your electronics skills to create an awesome project, write an instructable about it
and try entering entering our Automation
(https://www.instructables.com/contest/automation2017/), or Solar
(https://www.instructables.com/contest/solar2017/) contests to win some great prizes!
Class Author:
randofo (/member/randofo/)
Randy Sarafan is an artist, designer, inventor, and founder of the Instructables Design Studio. Over the last 10 years he has
created hundreds of step-by-step tutorials (https://www.instructables.com/member/randofo/?show=INSTRUCTABLES) on
diverse subjects ranging from pancakes to self-driving robotic queen-sized beds. He has authored two books, 62 Projects to
Make with a Dead Computer (http://www.workman.com/products/9780761152439/) and Simple Bots
(https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/id1107111656).
His work has been showcased by the NY Times, Popular Mechanics, The Today Show, The Tonight Show, NPR, the BBC,
Core77, Boing Boing, and the National Examiner (to name a few). He currently splits his time between Brooklyn, NY and the
internet.
Electronics Class: Page 1

Lessons
Lesson 1: Getting Started With Electronics

Welcome to the wild world of electronics. Learn about what you need
to begin.
Lesson 2: Soldering
This is a crash course in the fundamentals of soldering.
Lesson 3: Electricity
Discover all about electricity while learning the fundamentals
knowledge for building circuits.
Lesson 4: Switches
Here is everything you ever wanted to know about switches and more.
Lesson 5: Resistors
In this lesson we will decipher resistors, learn how they work, and
begin to understand what to do with them.
Lesson 6: Capacitors
This is an introduction to our friend the capacitor, one of the most
commonly encountered electronic components.

Lesson 7: Inductors
Brace yourself as we begin to unravel the mysterious world of
inductors.
Lesson 8: Diodes
In this lesson we will learn about both diodes and LEDs.
Lesson 9: Transistors
Here you will find an overview of transistors, and learn why they are
the basic building block of all modern computing.
Lesson 10: Integrated Circuits

Chips are not just a party snack. Discover what integrated circuits
have to offer.

LESSON 1: GETTING STARTED WITH ELECTRONICS
Whether you have a project in mind, or simply wanted to learn but didn't know where to start, getting into
electronics is much easier than you may think. You don't even need a degree in electrical engineering to
figure this out - I don't! While it may seem foreign and intimidating at first, anyone can do it.
Throughout this class, we are going to cover electronics from the fundamentals of electricity all the way
through to microchips. At each stage you will build a project, and begin to grasp these concepts in a
hands-on practical way.

What Is Electronics?
Electronics is the science and technology concerned with regulating flow of electrical current. Put simply, it
lets you move electrons around. While this may seem like not that big of a deal, the regulation of electrons
has enabled some of the most important innovations of the last century including computers, televisions,
rocketships, electric cars, rocketships, video games, smartphones, Tickle-Me-Elmo, hoverboards (both
those that really hover and those that do not), and - of course - rocketships.

Schematics and Symbols
Schematics are blueprints for arranging components and constructing electronic circuits. They may appear
to be a cryptic mess of indecipherable symbols, but once you get the hang of it, are actually easy to
understand. By the end of this class, you will understand how to read this schematic and build this circuit.
Throughout the class as I introduce each new component, I will also include its schematic symbol. This will
help you begin to understand what these drawings mean.
Materials and Tools
The art of electronics requires you to procure a lot of materials and tools. Some of this you may already
have, but most of it you won't. It's a little bit of an investment and some of it may seem intimidating. Don't
worry if it does. It will all make sense to you in due time.
Below is a list of the tools you will need for this class. We will go over each of them in more depth a
moment.
(x1) Basic electronics kit (https://www.amazon.com/Elenco-Component-Assorted-Electronic-

Components/dp/B0002HBQHC/)
(x1) 22AWG stranded core wire (https://www.amazon.com/Electronix-Express-Hook-Stranded-
Gauge/dp/B00B4ZQ3L0/)
(x1) 22AWG solid core wire (https://www.amazon.com/Electronix-Express--Hook-Wire-

Solid/dp/B00B4ZRPEY/)
(x3) Breadboards (https://www.amazon.com/Frentaly%C2%AE-Solderless-BreadBoard-tie-points-
power/dp/B01258UZMC/)
(x1) Multimeter (https://www.amazon.com/Flexzion-Multimeter-Automotive-Electrical-
Components/dp/B017QR594G/)
(x1) Test amp (https://www.radioshack.com/products/radioshack-mini-audio-amplifier?
variant=5717614213)
(x1) Wire cutter (http://www.amazon.com/Tools-VISE-GRIP-Stripper-Crimper-
2078309/dp/B000JNNWQ2/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Snippers (http://www.amazon.com/Hakko-CHP-170-Stand-off-Construction-21-
Degree/dp/B017ODDPNO/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Heat gun (http://www.amazon.com/Kawasaki-840015-Black-10-Piece-Heat/dp/B000H4I67I/?
tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Shrink tube (http://www.amazon.com/SummitLink-Assorted-Shrink-Colors-Tubing/dp/B00LVFDLUO/?
(x1) Jumper cables (http://www.amazon.com/SE-TL10-10-Piece-Alligator-Clips/dp/B0002KRABU/?
(x1) Battery holders (https://www.amazon.com/3Pcs-Battery-Holder-Standard-
Connector/dp/B014YSFMXI/)
(x1) Power drill (http://www.amazon.com/DEWALT-DC970K-2-18-Volt-Compact-Driver/dp/B002RLR0EY/?
(x1) Drill bits (http://www.amazon.com/DEWALT-DW1354-14-Piece-Titanium-Drill/dp/B0045PQ762/?
(x1) Screwdrivers (http://www.amazon.com/Craftsman-Screwdriver-Phillips-Slotted-
Made/dp/B006YVTAFU/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Mini screwdriver set (http://www.amazon.com/Herco%C2%AE-HE826-Precision-Screwdriver-
Set/dp/B000CCUFT2/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Scissor (http://www.amazon.com/Westcott-13901-Sewing-Scissors-8-Inches/dp/B000P0LNRE/?
(x1) Razor blade (http://www.amazon.com/Stanley-10-099-Classic-Retractable-Utility/dp/B00002X204/?
(x1) Hacksaw (http://www.amazon.com/XtremepowerUS-Adjustable-Hacksaw-Cutting-Bi-
Metal/dp/B00OKXVGR4/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Diagonal cutting pliers (http://www.amazon.com/Channellock-338-8-Inch-Diagonal-
Cutting/dp/B00004SBDD/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Multipurpose tools (http://www.amazon.com/Leatherman-830039-Multitool-Leather-
Combination/dp/B0002H49BC/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Adjustable wrench (http://www.amazon.com/GRIP-87042-Adjustable-Wrench-4-
Piece/dp/B000BN39MC/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) C-clamps (http://www.amazon.com/TEKTON-91809-Heavy-Duty-C-Clamp-3-
Piece/dp/B00BRL59HK/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Zip ties (http://www.amazon.com/Cable-Matters-Combo-Self-Locking-12-Inch/dp/B00L2LGMO4/?
(x1) Hot glue guns (https://www.amazon.com/Surebonder-DT-200KIT-Mini-Dual-
Temperature/dp/B001AQRLM8/)
(x1) Rulers (http://www.amazon.com/Starrett-ASE-48-Anodized-Aluminum-Straight/dp/B002BXPUKO/?
(x1) Permanent marker (http://www.amazon.com/Sharpie-Permanent-Markers-36-Pack-
35010/dp/B001ELJOOM/?tag=instructabl09-20)
(x1) Hammer (http://www.amazon.com/Estwing-E3-16S-Straight-Hammer-Reduction/dp/B0000224VG/?
(x1) Soldering iron kit (https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01M0DLDCG/)
(x1) Desoldering braid (https://www.amazon.com/Aven-17542-Desoldering-2-5mm-
Length/dp/B017ODKIPC/)
(x1) Helping hands (https://www.amazon.com/SE-MZ101B-Helping-Magnifying-Glass/dp/B000RB38X8/)
(x1) Desk lamp (optional) (https://www.amazon.com/Newhouse-Lighting-Energy-Efficient-Architect-
Black/dp/B00EVKU45Q/)
(x1) Exhaust fan (https://www.amazon.com/Weller-WSA350-Bench-Smoke-Absorber/dp/B000EM74SK/)

Basic Components Kit
To begin, it is advisable to get a basic electronics kit (https://www.amazon.com/Elenco-Component-

Assorted-Electronic-Components/dp/B0002HBQHC/) which includes resistors, capacitors, diodes, and
LEDs (amongst other things). There are no hobby kits which are perfect. They will always be missing that
one last thing you need. However, the one I linked to includes a little bit of everything, and is a good place
to start. You will be using lots of different components throughout the course, and having this on hand will
come in useful for experimenting and trying things out.
You should also pick up solid (https://www.amazon.com/Electronix-Express--Hook-Wire-

Solid/dp/B00B4ZRPEY/) and stranded (https://www.amazon.com/Electronix-Express-Hook-Stranded-
Gauge/dp/B00B4ZQ3L0/) wire, a few breadboards (https://www.amazon.com/Frentaly®-Solderless-
BreadBoard-tie-points-power/dp/B01258UZMC/), a multimeter (https://www.amazon.com/Flexzion-
Multimeter-Automotive-Electrical-Components/dp/B017QR594G/), and a test amp
(https://www.radioshack.com/products/radioshack-mini-audio-amplifier?variant=5717614213), all of which,
I am about to explain further.

Wire
One of the most important things to have in your arsenal is wire.
You may be wondering what there is to say about wire? Well - a lot!
In electronics, the wire we will be dealing with is insulated. This means that there is a metal core inside of a
rubber or plastic sheath. This allows electricity to flow, but prevents the wires from shorting if they were to
touch (because they are insulated).
There are two types of metal cores we will be dealing with in this course.
Solid core wire has a single piece of metal inside the insulation. This type of wire is good for electronic
circuit boards or connecting components together on a breadboard because it can easily plug into the
board's sockets. Solid wire keeps its shape when bent, but it's also more prone to break if flexed too often.
Stranded core wire consists of thin metal strands bunched together. This wire is better for connecting to
components which are handled a lot or move around (such as connecting to motors on a robot arm). This
type of wire does not easily plug into a microcontroller's sockets, as the strands spread apart and fray,
making it annoying for prototyping. However, it is very flexible and can be bent a lot without snapping.
The thickness of wire is measured in gauges. The thicker the gauge, and the smaller the number rating, the
more current it can handle. In America, gauge is measured in AWG.
We will largely be dealing with wire in the 20 AWG to 22 AWG range.
Even though all wire essentially works the same regardless of color, there is a generally agreed upon
color-coding system for wire when dealing with DC electronics.
Red indicates a power wire.
Black indicates a ground wire.
Green (or any color not red or black) indicates a signal wire.
While you are probably thinking we've exhausted all that there is say about wire, you would be wrong.
However, there is still a lot more ground to cover and we should probably continue this wire discussion
another day.

Breadboard
When you need to quickly and temporarily prototype a circuit, you will be using a breadboard.
Breadboard are meant to make quick non-permanent connections between electronic components. They
are covered in tiny socket holes which are connected in rows. The board itself is broken into four sections.
There are two inner sections full of short horizontal rows, and two outer sections with longer vertical rows.
The inner sections are typically used for connecting components, and the outer sections are typically used
as power bus lines. In other words, you can connect a battery to one of the outer lines and then power
components on the inner section by connecting a wire to this section.

In the above graphic you can visually get a sense of how the rows on breadboards are electrically
connected. The two inner sections have short horizontal rows repeated down the board. The two outer
sections each have two long vertical rows. These are marked in red and blue and are meant to signify a
row for power (red) and a row for ground (blue). Not all breadboards are marked with lines like this, but
they are all laid out the same way.
To use a breadboard to prototype circuits, you simply insert components or wire into the appropriate
sockets to connect them together.
On account of their ease of use for circuit building, it is best to have 2 or 3 breadboards on hand.

Multimeter
A multimeter is a tool used for a wide range of electronics related measurements. Or you could say they
could meter multiple measurements... multi-meter... painfully obvious - right?
A typical multimeter will measure voltage, current, resistance, and continuity. More advanced multimeters
will also measure a host of other things that are not relevant to get into at this junction.
To set up the multimeter, plug the black probe into the ground / common port. Plug the red probe into the
voltage terminal. It's now all set up.

Test Amp
A test amp is particularly useful when experimenting with components and producing an audible output. As
you begin to learn electronics, you will be amazed how many circuits can make noise, and how frequently
this device will prove useful.
The reason this particular mini amplifier comes in so useful is that it both has an input for audio, and an
amplified output for driving external speakers.

Electronics Toolbox
As mentioned, working with electronics requires its own unique set of tools. We have already discussed a
few, but here are a few more you will want to add to your tool box.
You will want both a wire cutter (http://www.amazon.com/Tools-VISE-GRIP-Stripper-Crimper-

2078309/dp/B000JNNWQ2/?tag=instructabl09-20) and a pair of mini diagonal cutting pliers or "snippers
(http://www.amazon.com/Hakko-CHP-170-Stand-off-Construction-21-Degree/dp/B017ODDPNO/?
tag=instructabl09-20)." The wire cutter used for cutting and stripping insulation off of wires. The snippers
are used for trimming away excess wire leads after you solder. When you are doing this for a while and
start to get the hang of it, you can use snippers for everything (in place of the wire strippers).
Another indispensable set of tools is heat gun (http://www.amazon.com/Kawasaki-840015-Black-10-Piece-

Heat/dp/B000H4I67I/?tag=instructabl09-20) and shrink tube (http://www.amazon.com/SummitLink-
Assorted-Shrink-Colors-Tubing/dp/B00LVFDLUO/?tag=instructabl09-20). These are used for insulating
soldered wire connections and small components. You might be thinking that electrical tape can do the
same thing and is much cheaper. Just - NO! Get that horrible thought out of your head. Electrical tape is
dumb and unreliable. If you want your circuits to break in mysterious ways, use electrical tape. If you want
to make working circuits, then you should purchase shrink tube in a variety of colors and sizes. Shrink tube
is exponentially more reliable and aesthetically pleasing. In terms of a heat gun, they all basically work the
same. Just get something that makes you look cool. For instance, this black and green Kawasaki one is
fairly rad.
Jumper cables (http://www.amazon.com/SE-TL10-10-Piece-Alligator-Clips/dp/B0002KRABU/?

tag=instructabl09-20) (or test leads) are used for connecting wires together without soldering and are
important for prototyping. They have insulated alligator clips on both ends which allow you to easily grab
onto most electrical contacts. It is important to have these lying about to easily test things before making
more permanent connections. Get a set of about a dozen-or-so to start.
Battery holders are used to power your projects. Typically, when one is required it is specified in the list of
materials. However, in some of the lessons we use them for testing and experimenting. That said, it is
recommended that you pick up a few extra 3 X AA and 4 X AA battery holders.
Extended Toolbox

Go get a drill (http://www.amazon.com/DEWALT-DC970K-2-18-Volt-Compact-Driver/dp/B002RLR0EY/?
tag=instructabl09-20). This can be a cordless or corded drill. It does not matter. Cordless drills are more
convenient in some ways, but corded drills are cheaper and just as (or sometimes more) effective. Either
will do the job. We are only going to be drilling through wood, plastic parts and some soft metal like
aluminum.
It is not important to get anything too fancy. Just about any drill will do for the purposes of this class. Albeit,
it couldn't hurt to spend a little extra dough if you plan on continuing building things after this class.
Nevertheless, the most important part is to find something aesthetically pleasing. It is always important to
look good while making things.
Get a set of standard sized multipurpose drill bits (http://www.amazon.com/DEWALT-DW1354-14-Piece-

Titanium-Drill/dp/B0045PQ762/?tag=instructabl09-20). If this is your first time doing something like this,
any old set will do. Don't spend a lot of money. You will likely destroy them and need to buy another set at
some point anyhow. As you start to figure out what you are doing, then you can invest in the fancy
expensive drill bits.

Even though you can technically screw things very tight with your power drill, sometimes you just want to
screw things the old fashioned way. It's good to have a range of screwdrivers
(http://www.amazon.com/Craftsman-Screwdriver-Phillips-Slotted-Made/dp/B006YVTAFU/?
tag=instructabl09-20) in your arsenal. While I am not going to dive too deep into this, I will say that you
should get a set of mini screwdrivers (http://www.amazon.com/Herco%C2%AE-HE826-Precision-
Screwdriver-Set/dp/B000CCUFT2/?tag=instructabl09-20). These will come in particularly handy when
working with electronics.

You will also need a pair of scissors (http://www.amazon.com/Westcott-13901-Sewing-Scissors-8-
Inches/dp/B000P0LNRE/?tag=instructabl09-20). You should already have one of these lying about, and
learned how to use them if you ever attended Kindergarten. So... Moving on...
The other razor sharp tool you should have is a razor blade (http://www.amazon.com/Stanley-10-099-
Classic-Retractable-Utility/dp/B00002X204/?tag=instructabl09-20) or craft knife. It is recommended you get
something with a nice safe handle like a box cutter.
When a razor blade just won't cut it, you can be sure a hacksaw
(http://www.amazon.com/XtremepowerUS-Adjustable-Hacksaw-Cutting-Bi-Metal/dp/B00OKXVGR4/?
tag=instructabl09-20) will. With enough patience you can cut through most anything with a hacksaw. This
hand saw will be extremely handy to have around.
Diagonal cutting pliers (http://www.amazon.com/Channellock-338-8-Inch-Diagonal-

Cutting/dp/B00004SBDD/?tag=instructabl09-20), or put simply, diagonal cutters, are another extremely
useful tool to have at your disposal. It's recommended you get a good solid pair of these, and not one of
those discount ones. These will be used a lot to cut through plastic, and thin metal parts. This tool is a bit
like scissors for solid objects. No - it is exactly like scissors for solid objects.

Speaking of pliers, you are probably more familiar with the kind that don't cut. You should get at least one
pair of general use snub nose pliers. Pictured here is a multipurpose tool centered around a pair of pliers. If
you have the income at your disposal, you may as well invest in a nice multipurpose tool
(http://www.amazon.com/Leatherman-830039-Multitool-Leather-Combination/dp/B0002H49BC/?
tag=instructabl09-20). The added functionality always comes in handy and it will make you seem more
legit to have one of these in your arsenal. Again, I would like to reiterate the importance of looking like you
really know what you are doing.
Adjustable wrenches (http://www.amazon.com/GRIP-87042-Adjustable-Wrench-4-

Piece/dp/B000BN39MC/?tag=instructabl09-20) come in a wide range of sizes. You are likely not building
anything too extreme and will be fine with just a small one (or two). These are largely used for tightening
and loosening nuts and bolts, and you may be able to get away without it for this class.
Having a couple small C-clamps (http://www.amazon.com/TEKTON-91809-Heavy-Duty-C-Clamp-3-

Piece/dp/B00BRL59HK/?tag=instructabl09-20) around can't hurt. In fact, they are meant to hold things
down to prevent injury. It's good to have a few of these about for holding things when drilling or smashing
things. Using your hand for this purpose can end in disaster.
Zip ties (http://www.amazon.com/Cable-Matters-Combo-Self-Locking-12-Inch/dp/B00L2LGMO4/?

tag=instructabl09-20) are the greatest. They are quick, strong, reliable, and dirt cheap. If you make a
mistake, they are exceptionally easy to undo. Building things using zip ties lets you iterate quickly and try
out different solutions. You can chain them together, or trim them down. They can wrap around strange
angles and be used to solve all kinds of problems. If you have not already deduced by my effusive praise,
they will be the fastener of choice in this class. It is important that you get a lot of zip ties in a variety of
sizes.

Less functional than zip ties, hot glue guns (https://www.amazon.com/Surebonder-DT-200KIT-Mini-Dual-
Temperature/dp/B001AQRLM8/) are a quick and dirty way to attach things together. These come in
particularly handy when you need to quickly hold an electronic component in place inside of an enclosure
and don't feel like figuring out a way to mechanically fasten it.
Aside from making great construction material, it is very helpful to have a few rulers
(http://www.amazon.com/Starrett-ASE-48-Anodized-Aluminum-Straight/dp/B002BXPUKO/?
tag=instructabl09-20) around. As they say, 'measure twice - cut once.'
And, of course, if you are going to be employing rulers in your electronics activities, you got to have some
permanent markers (http://www.amazon.com/Sharpie-Permanent-Markers-36-Pack-
35010/dp/B001ELJOOM/?tag=instructabl09-20) to go along with them. We will be making a lot of cut and
drill marks, and your marker will get a lot of mileage.
When all else fails, smash things.
We are only using one smashing tool - the trusty hammer (http://www.amazon.com/Estwing-E3-16S-
Straight-Hammer-Reduction/dp/B0000224VG/?tag=instructabl09-20).
On occasion we will need to smash things. It is unavoidable.

Prepare Yourself
The parts list for each lesson is listed in the second step. I am not going to provide an overall shopping list
for the class because some lessons give you a choice of projects to make, and it is best you review them
before making any purchasing decisions.
Nevertheless, you should now have more than enough items on your shopping list to get going.
Take a deep breath and do whatever you need to do to relax - listen to music, light a candle, eat a
doughnut - and get ready to start soldering.

LESSON 2: SOLDERING
The first thing we will cover before we get into the meat and potatoes of electronic components is
soldering.
While you can learn electronics without ever picking up a soldering iron -- in fact, many electrical engineers
do -- this is a hands-on electronic class. We are going to be soldering in every lesson along the way. Thus,
I am going to get this fundamental skill out of the way from the onset.
This is by no means the definitive guide on soldering, but a brief overview to get you going. By the end of
this lesson you should be able to solder with reasonable proficiency.
Setting Up Your Workspace

To start, you will want a soldering iron. As a beginner, you can get a 40W fixed temperature soldering iron.
These are cheap and will get the job done for what you are doing while you are just getting started. By the
time you decide you want to continue deeper into electronics, it will likely be time to upgrade to something
more refined.
If you already have some experience soldering, or want to start with the luxury model, you can get an
adjustable temperature soldering iron. Having an adjustable temperature is nice because it allows you to
work with different types of solder and components with more precision. These soldering irons also
typically heat up faster. They also tend to have a much wider array of replaceable tips to work with for all
kinds of specialty purposes. As you begin to understand how soldering works, you will eventually want
upgrade to one of these.
The two most popular methods for cleaning the tip of the soldering iron involves using a brass wire pad or
a slightly damp sponge. Both work. However, deciding which works better is a highly contentious topic.
Personally, I feel the the brass wire pad is more effective in quickly cleaning the tip. From what I can tell,
advocates of the damp sponge feel it keeps the tip cleaner for longer.
There are two types of wire you should always have on hand when working with electronics. It is highly
advised to have both solid and stranded 22AWG wire in red, black and green (or - really - any color not red
or black).
Like wire, solder comes in spools and of different thicknesses. The solder I like working with is in the 0.02 -
0.04" range. It is important not to get solder that is too thin because you will have to heat up your parts for
too long in order to melt enough solder onto it. It is also important to not get solder that is too thick or you
will get too much solder all over the board, which aside from being messy can result in mistakes.
The other choice you need to make is to use solder with (pictured left) or without lead (pictured right). It is
recommended that you use lead free solder. However, keep in mind, that just because it is lead free does
not mean it is any better for you. Lead free solder has replaced the lead with other additives and actually

produces more caustic fumes when melted. Lead free solder also melts at a higher temperature and is
harder to work with. On account of this, you might at some point be tempted to work with lead solder. If you
do, remember to always wash your hands after handling it!
Desoldering braid is a copper mesh used to remove solder from a circuit board. When the solder gets
heated up, the mesh wicks the solder away and helps remove excess. This is particularly helpful for trying
to repair soldering mistakes. While this is helpful, it should always be thought of as a line of last defense.
Helping hands is basically a stand with two (or more) alligator clips attached. As the name implies, it is
extremely helpful. These are sometimes called a "third hand," and as you can guess by that, this is
basically used in those instances when a third (or fourth) hand would be handy. This is particularly useful
for holding components in place while soldering. Many come with a magnifying glass, which is great for
inspecting solder pads and reading the tiny print on components.
Depending on your ambient lighting, and overall optical dexterity, you may want to consider getting a desk
light. Electronic components and solder connections are small. To see things well, it sometimes helps to
have more light.

Last, but not least, you will want a fan or some other form of ventilation. I highly recommend one like the
one pictured, with an activated charcoal filter. This will not only suck the air away from you, but filter out
some of the particulates from continuing to circulate in the room.
Holding the Soldering Iron
A soldering iron is held like a pencil, but with one significant difference. Instead of holding it by the tip, you
hold the soldering iron further back by the insulated handle.
That's all there is to that.

Safety Concerns
Never touch the metal part of the soldering iron while it is turned on. This can result in nasty burns, and is
generally unpleasant.
Never leave soldering iron resting on the table. It will burn your work surface and could potentially start a
fire.
Soldering can build up a mighty appetite, but don't eat while soldering. Some solder has lead in it, a known
carcinogen. Even lead free solder has things in it you likely do not want to ingest. Before chowing down on
a slice of pizza, turn off the soldering iron, take a break, and wash your hands with soap and water.
Breathing in the fumes from soldering is bad for you. Always use some sort of ventilation fan to minimize
your exposure. Your lungs will thank you.
While arguably not necessary, it is recommended that you wear safety glasses while soldering. Solder has
been known to splash and splatter. Albeit a rare occurrence, getting burning hot solder in your eye can be
an unpleasant experience (or bits of cut wire, for that matter).
After soldering, you will always want to remember to wash your hands with soap and water.

Tinning the Iron
Turn on the soldering iron and wait for it to heat up. If you splurged on an adjustable temperature model,
you can dial yours in to about 650 degrees.
Once it is heated up, you will want to tin the tip before using it for the first time.
All this involves is thoroughly melting solder all over the tip of the iron. This makes sure the tip has a nice
solder coating, which will make it easier to melt solder the next time you use it.

Cleaning the Iron
Every time you melt solder using the tip, you will want to clean it off.
To do this, simply drag the tip 2 or 3 times across the cleaning pad.
Soldering Wires
Let's start by soldering wires together.

To do this, strip the insulation off of the ends of two pieces of stranded wire using your wire stripper.
Slide a 1" piece of shrink tube onto one of the wires and then twist the two ends of wire together.

Place the soldering iron against the wire to heat it up, and push the solder into the wire. It should start to
melt and get wicked up into the wire, coating it in silver.
Remove the soldering iron to let it cool.
Trim the excess parts of wire so the connection is as compact as possible.

Slide the heat shrink tube over the solder joint.
Shrink it into place with a heat gun.

Congratulations! You have just soldered something together.
Continue practicing this until you feel comfortable.
Through-Hole Soldering
Aside from soldering components together free-form like we did with the wire, the other type of soldering
you will do in this class is to attach components to a circuit board.
There are two types of printed circuit board or PCBs you will encounter when prototyping. There are
boards with bus pads, where multiple holes are connected together electrically with a single piece of
copper. There are also boards with individual pads. These require you to make connections between
components by bridging the different pads with wire, or sometimes just solder.
Regardless of which board you select, the technique we are going to use for attaching components to a
circuit board is called through-hole soldering. It is called this because the components we are using have
wire leads which pass through holes in the PCB before being soldered.

To demonstrate this, let's solder a resistor to a PCB.
To begin, bend the resistor leads to a 90 degree angle and pass them through the PCB from the top silk-
screened side to the side with the metallic pads.
Next, flip the board over, and with the metal pads facing upwards.
Place the soldering iron at the joint between the component lead and the board to heat it up. Push the
solder into this joint until it melts and joins the resistor's lead to the solder pad.
It should look like a shiny, and like a a small pyramid between the solder pad and the component lead.
The last step is always to trim away the excess component leads to make the solder connection as flush to
the board as possible without breaking it. Be mindful that the wire lead may go flying some distance when
you snip it.
Congratulations! You have just soldered something to a circuit board.

Common Mistakes and How to Fix Them
When you are just getting started soldering circuit boards, you are going to make some mistakes.
One of the most common is a cold solder joint. This is caused when the soldering iron is not hot enough,
and the solder isn't able to melt fully. This typically looks like a rounded dull bulbous blob of solder. The
trick to fixing this is simply to reheat the solder and wait for it to cool again without disturbing it as it settles.
Overheating and peeling up the solder pad can be a tricky problem. To fix this, remove any parts of the pad
that might be sticking out or bridging another connection. Then, you can use the component's wire lead, or
a small piece of wire to make the solder connection between the components you are trying to join.
Another common mistake is bridging solder pads or connecting the pads together. This can be solved by
removing solder.
While many mistakes can be fixed by reheating the solder, or adding a little bit more, more often than not,
you will need to remove some solder. There are a number of techniques for doing this, but I have found the
most reliable is desoldering braid. While it might seem complicated, desoldering braid is basically a mesh
of very thin copper wire that wicks up melted solder.
To use it, simply place the braid atop the solder you are trying to remove, and press down upon the braid
with the soldering iron.
You will feel the solder begin to flow and see the braid begin to turn silver. After a moment, lift the soldering
iron and remove the braid from the circuit board before it can re-solidify (and get stuck to the board).
A significant amount of solder should be removed, and the mistake should now be corrected. If the mistake
persists and more solder still needs to removed, wait for the board to cool off, and repeat the process.

LESSON 3: ELECTRICITY
There is nothing remarkably shocking about electricity except electricity itself. If you are reading this on a
computer, you have likely been making use of electricity your whole life. Most of the objects and systems
you encounter are in some way made possible by electricity; whether through the machines that produce
them, the machines that facilitate the organization of goods and people, or the the object itself. Machines
that run on electricity are so ubiquitous, it is important to understand it. Bear with me as we go over some
of the more important concepts.
Charge and Ground

Electricity consists of a charge, which is the build up of positively or negatively charged electrons.
Ground is an area that neutralizes that charge by removing excess charge.
For instance, charged electrons build up in a thundercloud. When it reaches a certain threshold of charge,
the electricity is able to ionize the air and arc across the sky as a plasma. Albeit it could travel in any
direction, it goes towards the Earth because of its large difference in charge between the lightning bolt and
the ground. Just like the north and south poles of a magnet attract, so to do negative and positive charges.
However, unlike magnets which, keep their charge when they meet, electrical charge functions differently.
When the (typically) negative charge from the cloud strikes the much larger positively charged surface of
the Earth, the Earth is able to absorb and dissipate the negatively charged particles from the thunder cloud.
This is what is meant by electric ground neutralizing the charge. The same thing that happens during a
storm also happens on a much smaller scale with all electronics.

Static Vs. Current
There are two types of electricity, static and current.
Static electricity is a buildup of electrons that creates an imbalance and sudden discharge. This is the type
of electrical charge that lightning is, and that you get when you rub your hair against a balloon.
Current electricity is a constant flow of electrons between a source and ground. This is the type of
electricity that power electrical devices. Most importantly, it enables you to make waffles.
In this class we will entirely be dealing with electrical current.

Conductors Vs. Insulators
To put it simply, an electrical conductor allows the flow of electricity through it. Typically electrical
conductors are metal.
An insulator prevents the flow of electricity through it. Typically insulators are materials like rubber, wood,
and plastic.
AC / DC
When we are talking about AC/DC, we are not talking about the Australian hard rock band, but the two
different types of electrical current.
There is alternating current or AC. It is called alternating current because the electrical signal alternates
above and below the electrical ground (0V). So, if you were to look at the picture of the 12V AC waveform

above, you will notice that it alternates above and below the electrical ground (indicated by the little yellow
marker on the left). This type of waveform consists of a current that is constantly fluctuating between a
positive and a negative voltage.
AC electricity is the type of current you will find coming out of your home wall socket. This is because AC
electricity is easier to transmit over long distances than other types.
The other type of current is direct current or DC. It is so named because it travels in a direct line above
ground. If you look at the waveform of a 12V DC voltage supply, you will notice that it's basically a solid
yellow line running parallel above the ground. This type of electricity consists of a steady positive voltage,
set apart from a ground plane.
DC electricity is the type of current that comes from batteries, which are basically special containers that
store a predetermined amount of voltage.
AC wall current can also be rectified (more on this later) to become DC voltage. Just because a device
plugs into the wall does not necessarily make it an AC device. By reading the label on the plug, you can
determine what the output power is.
Aside from just voltage and current, if you look carefully at the bottom of the label, you will also see an
illustration that even tells you the inside of the plug is a positive DC voltage and the outer barrel is ground.

Voltage and Current
Imagine a ball being thrown through the air.
Voltage is the speed the ball is traveling. This is measured in Volts. It's symbol is a capital V.
Current is the size of the ball being thrown. This is measured in Amperes (or Amps for short). Its symbol is
a capital A.
All DC electricity can be thought of as having a voltage and a current. In order to determine what these are,
you can use a multimeter.
To measure voltage, turn the dial to the V with with the straight and dashed lines (not the squiggle). This is
symbol for DC voltage, which we will primarily be working with throughout this course. Plug the red probe
into the volt socket. This is labeled V and/or is red. Plug the black wire into the ground socket. This will
either be labeled ground, COM, and/or is black.
It might also have the ground symbol drawn next to it which looks like a dumbbell that has broken in half
and fallen on its side.
Place the red probe on the positive terminal of the battery. Place the black probe on ground (or "minus")
terminal of the battery. You should get a reading around 1.5V.
If you reverse the probes of the multimeter you will notice that the meter will give you a negative voltage
reading. The reason for this is that DC electricity has a positive voltage and a ground voltage.
You can determine a voltage by subtracting the voltage at the red probe (presumably positive) from the
voltage at the black probe (presumably ground). So, if when power and voltage are read correctly the
formula is:
However, when you touch the red wire to ground and the black wire to the positive voltage, your formula
actually becomes:
The reason for this is that DC electricity has a polarity where one side is always a positive voltage, and one
side (ground) is always 0. When you measure the electricity backwards, you get a backwards reading.
Thus, if you get a negative voltage reading, you are measuring backwards! Reverse your probes.
To measure current, unplug the red probe from the voltage socket, and connect it into the socket rated for
Amps (notice how it says "10A MAX" in the photo above). Next, turn the dial to the A followed by the
straight and dashed line. This is the current symbol. If you need to pick a range for the current you are
reading, the middle setting is a good place to start.
Measuring current is a bit more tricky because to measure current something must be drawing some (i.e.
using the power source). The amount of current flowing from a battery differs depending on what is
connected to it. Some things like a piezo buzzer (pictured left) might draw only a little bit of current. Other
things like a DC motor (picture right) might draw a lot of current from the battery.
For instance, to see how much current a motor is drawing, we disconnect the motor's power wire from the
battery and connect the multimeter in-between. In other words, the multimeter's red probe gets connected
to the positive terminal on the battery, and the black probe gets connected to the red wire on the motor.
Now when the motor is powered up, the current will pass through the multimeter and we will be able to
read it. In this example, the motor is drawing 70 mA (milliamps).
Ohm's Law
Before I dive into ohm's law, let's revisit our ball analogy. If you have a small ball traveling at a very high
speed, it could potentially have as much or more power as a large ball traveling at a very low speed. In this
way, you could say there is a direct relationship between the speed a ball is traveling, the size of the ball,
and the potential power of the ball.
Of course though, we are actually not really talking about balls, but electricity. When dealing with
electricity, voltage and current are in a direct relationship with power. In a circuit, power is expressed in
terms of Watts. The symbol for this is a W.
You likely have heard the term Watts before in relation to light bulbs. All light bulbs are measured in the
amount of power they consume.

If we know how many watts a light bulb can consume, and that it is receiving 120 volts from a wall outlet,
we can then deduce how much current it will require. By dividing 60W by 120V, we are left with the value
of 0.5 amperes of power. On account of this relationship between the three, given any two values, we can
solve for the third.
There is also another factor we have yet to talk about that also plays a role, and that is resistance. In our
analogy, resistance is the headwind that the ball must fight against to move forwards. On a calm day, there
might be little resistance to its flight, but on a windy day, it might have to fight against the wind pretty hard.
Again, we are actually talking about electrical resistance in a circuit and not throwing a ball.
Resistance pushes against the flow of electricity. As such, it is also in direct relationship with Watts,
Voltage and Current. Resistance is expressed in Ohms (after it's discoverer). This mathematical
relationship between Watts, Voltage, Current and Resistance is unsurprisingly called Ohm's Law.
Ohm's Law is not something you must memorize, but it will play an important role later when determining
how much resistance a circuit must have. Thanks to this law, a circuit having a minimum amount of
resistance is not optional, but necessary. The energy in the circuit must encounter resistance in order to
expend itself. The thing in the circuit which uses energy is considered the Load. If an electrical supply is
connected to ground without a load to use up the energy, bad things will happen; but more on that in a bit.
Also, when you encounter staggered lines in a schematic, they represent a battery power supply.
Theoretically each pair of long and short lines represents one battery cell. For example, this rendering
stands for three batteries in series. However, people play fast and loose when drawing batteries into
schematics and this is not always the case. Look for the listed supply voltage.

Series and Parallel
When building a circuit, there are basically two ways in which you can connect a load. They can either be
in series or parallel.
When you wire electrical components in series, they are in a line.
So, if you were to break the circuit in any way -- say by unplugging a light bulb -- electricity has no path to
continue flowing and the whole connection is broken.
Alternately, you can prevent this problem by wiring the light bulbs in parallel. When wired in this way, they
are connected side-by-side and share the same electrical connections on both ends.
Thus, when you unplug one bulb, electricity can continue flowing through the other one unfettered.

All About Batteries
Power supplies such as batteries can also can be connected in series and parallel. However, before we get to that, let us take a
moment and talk a bit more about batteries.
The most common types of batteries you will encounter are standard cylindrical dry cell batteries. Most
notably these consist of AAA, AA, C, and D batteries. What is important to know about these batteries, is
that even though they are different sizes, they are all rated at 1.5V (remember - V is the abbreviation for
volts).
What changes as they get bigger in size is the amount of power they are capable of producing. A D battery
will be able to provide power for much longer than a AAA battery. In other words, a bigger battery can
provide more amperes for a longer amount of time than a smaller battery.
Batteries are measured in Amp-Hours or Ah. This is basically the measure of how many amperes can be
drawn from the battery in an hour. For instance, a 20Ah battery will let you draw 1 ampere for 20 hours.
However, let's say you are building a giant robot and it needs 5 amperes per hour; in this case you can run
that robot for about 4 hours using the same battery until it runs out (20Ah / 5A = 4 hours).

It may have by now dawned upon you that 1.5V is not very much. You might be wondering why we don't
just use a 9V battery instead? Assuredly a 9V battery is producing more power than a 1.5V battery.
This, in fact, is not true. 9V batteries actually are not great in producing power at all. A good way to think of
a 9V battery is to imagine 6 really small 1.5V batteries smushed together inside. In fact, if you take a 9V
apart, that is essentially what you will find inside. Now, compare that to the size of 6 AA batteries for
instance. The 9V batteries are rather tiny by comparison!
The only time 9V batteries come in handy is when you need a relatively high voltage for a project that
doesn't require a lot of current and it needs to fit it into a small enclosure.
Well then, you may be wondering how you can power anything if batteries are only 1.5V? The answer is
rather simple. We connect them in series.What this means is that we connect them front-to back in a row.
So the positive (plus) end of one battery gets connected to the ground (minus) end of the next battery, and
so on, and so forth. We can then calculate the new voltage simply by adding 1.5V for each battery in the
series. So, if you have three 1.5V batteries in series you could multiply 1.5V times three to get a total of
4.5V.
The easiest way to connect batteries in series is to use a battery holder. To calculate the voltage that a
battery holder provides, you simply need to count the number of batteries it holds and multiply it by 1.5V,
just as you would with any other set of batteries connected in series. So, a 4-cell battery holder would
produce 6V of power (1.5V x 4 = 6V).
To access the power provided, simply connect the red wire to the positive terminal on your project, and the
black wire to ground. As a reminder from earlier, red wires always indicate a positive voltage, and black
always indicate ground.
We can also connect batteries side-by-side in parallel so long as they have identical voltage ratings. When
power sources are connected in parallel, the voltage remains the same, but the amount of available current
increases. This is useful when a single battery does not provide enough current to power your circuit.
Keep in mind, this will only work if the batteries are the exact same voltage and should be avoided if
possible. Without the proper diode protection circuit, fluctuation in voltage between the batteries will force
them to try to charge one another, decreasing their lifespan.

Circuits
A circuit is a closed conductive loop in which electricity can flow freely. Basically, a circuit is a bunch of
things connected together in either series or parallel that enables electricity to flow between power to
ground. This can be as simple as a battery source and a motor, or as complex as a cellular phone.
In a DC circuit, power always flows between the power source (positive voltage) and ground.
In order for an electrical circuit to operate, there needs to be a path that the electricity can flow between. In
fact, given the option of multiple paths, electricity will always travel the path of least resistance to ground.
What this means is that electricity will always take the shortest path that offers the fewest number of
obstacles. Every electronic component that creates resistance in a circuit is basically an obstacle to the
flow of electricity.
Upon hearing this, you may think then that you should provide electricity with the easiest path to ground by
removing these obstacles and connecting it directly. However - and this is important to stress - you should
NEVER connect your positive voltage source directly to ground. Aside from the fact that removing all
obstacles entirely defeats the point of electronics in the first place, this is a very bad idea.
One of the other fundamental concepts of Ohm's Law is that electricity must encounter a minimum amount
of resistance in a circuit and be able to expend itself. If you connect power and ground directly together,
there will be a lot of energy that has no way of expending itself. Your circuit will then try to release this
unused energy in highly antisocial ways. Basically, the energy will turn into heat. However, having nothing
in particular to warm, either your power source or wire will start to dramatically heat up. This can potentially
result in a damaged power supply, melted wire, a fire, or potentially an explosion.
Another name of this phenomena is a "short circuit." You likely have heard this term before.
Basically, watch your power and ground connections carefully to prevent them from crossing. Don't release
the circuit's "magic smoke."

LESSON 4: SWITCHES
In your lifetime you have used many thousands of switches. Every time you enter a room and turn on the
light, you are using a switch. When you get into an elevator and press the button, you are using a switch.
When someone cuts you off in your car and you lean on the horn, you are using a switch. When you are
programming the time on the microwave to reheat leftovers, you are using switches. The list goes on and
on.
Almost all electrical devices have at least one switch and they play a vital role in all electronics.
Fortunately, they are extremely simple to understand.

How a Switch Works
A switch is the simplest device you can imagine. It is basically a mechanical device which makes or breaks
a circuit. In other words, a switch consists of two (or more) conductive terminals that can be connected or
disconnected with a mechanism (such as a lever or button).
In this example, you can see that I have replaced the push button of the auto-waving novelty flag with a
knife switch. When the metal bar closes between the terminals, the two wires are connected and the flag
waves. When the bar is lifted, the switch is disengaged and the flag stops.

Poles and Throws
Of course it gets a bit more complicated than that. Switches can make or break more than one connection
at a time. Switches consist of poles and throws. You can think of a pole as the point a switch enters a
circuit and the throw as the potential exit points.
The most basic switch has a single throw and a single pole, since electricity only has a single point of entry
and exit. This is often referred to in shorthand as SPST.
If we were to add another throw or exit point, we have created a single pole, double throw - or SPDT -
switch. This allows you to toggle between two different electrical pathways.
We can also add additional poles. If we were to add another pole to the SPDT switch, we would get a
double-pole double-throw (DPDT) switch. This is basically the same as having two separate SPDT
switches that get toggled by the same lever.
The easiest way of determining poles and throws on a switch is with the continuity setting on a multimeter.
Touch the probes to the different terminals until you get a connection. Once you have determined which
pins are connected, flip the switch to its other position(s) and check again to be entirely certain.
There are all kind of different pole and throw arrangements you will find. For instance, this pushbutton
switch has three input poles, and two output throws. This is what is called a 3PDT switch (three poles,
double throw). On the other hand, this rotary switch has two input pole and six throws. This is a DP6T
(double-pole, six-throw) switch. This type of switch gives you a lot of different output choices.
Which brings us to our next point...
Types of Switches
Switches come in a bonanza of different form factors! This means that they come in all shapes, and sizes.
They also have a host of mechanisms; some of which will be familiar to you and some which you may find
surprising. Here is an extensive, but by no means exhaustive list of common switches you may encounter.

A knife switch is one of the oldest forms of switch, and likely familiar to you if you are a fan of old monster
movies. It's about as simple as switches come, consisting of a metal bar with an insulated handle that
bridges two (or more electrical contacts). In the switch pictures, when you lower the lever onto the terminal,
it makes a connection and completes the circuit. Otherwise, no circuit is made.

Getting a bit more advanced, we have a toggle switch. This type of switch has a little lever that is toggled
back and forth to activate the switch. By flicking the lever back and forth, you can make or break one or
more connections.The nice thing about these is that they are typically mounted to an enclosure using a
round hole, which make installing them a breeze.

The standard light switch is basically little more than just a specialized toggle switch meant to handle a
fair bit of electricity.
Very similarly to the toggle switch, the rocker switch moves back and forth. Instead of being pushed back
and forth, it "rocks" or pivots along its center axis. They are commonly used as power switches and are
sometimes illuminated (i.e. internally light up). These are typically mounting using rectangular holes, which
makes installing them into an enclosure very annoying.

Just like toggle and rocker switches, the slider switch toggles back and forth. Unlike a toggle switch, the
lever switch can have multiple positions to toggle between. However, most of the ones you might
encounter are typically just two positions. These are commonly found as power switches in consumer
devices.

A pushbutton switch is activated when you push down on it. These are found everywhere from elevators,
to arcade machines, to game shows, to consumer products. They share the ease of mounting that we have
come to know and love from the toggle switch.
The tactile switch is basically just a small pushbutton switch that gets soldered directly to a circuit board.
Most small electronics devices with a pushbutton interface are actually using one of these with a custom
molded plastic cab on top of it. These are actually everywhere, but you likely have not seen them
anywhere unless you have a penchant for taking things apart.

The lever switch is like a pushbutton switch, but has a lever which adds a mechanical advantage. The
benefit to this is that it can be activated with very little force.
On the contrary, rotary switches typically require a fair bit of force to operate. However, what they lack in
ease of activation, the more than make up for in number of inputs and outputs. By turning the knob you can
toggle between a massive amount of different configurations of inputs and outputs. These switches are
great when you need to toggle between lots and lots of different circuit combinations.

The DIP switch is another switch with lots of different inputs and outputs. However, instead of toggling
between inputs and outputs, this switch is really just a whole ton of SPST switches jammed together in a
single package and mounted to a circuit board. You normally see these used when you need to configure a
circuit to perform in a different way and leave it. For instance, each tiny switch could represent a different
setting within a circuit. This are commonly used for things such as setting custom security codes for garage
door openers.

Speaking of switches and home access, the reed switch is commonly found as part of many home alarm
systems. While it may seem complicated, it is actually just a switch that is activated by a magnet. In your
home, the way it works is that when people open the window and slide the magnet away, the switch gets
triggered. It's actually a really simple device consisting of two metal plates that are either pulled together or
pushed apart depending on whether a magnet is present. In fact, if you listen very carefully, you can often
hear the switch click when a magnet activates it.

Moving on to other esoteric switches sometimes encased in glass, we have the tilt switch. What is cool
about the tilt switch is that the connection is made depending on what direction it is tilted. Historically these
switches used a mercury bead to make electrical contact between two wires (like the one pictured).
However, in modern times, this has been replaced by a much safer metal ball. You can get switches which
make or break connections at a number of different tilt angles.

We're nearing the end, but before we get there I would be remiss not to mention the pull cord switch. This
type of switch is activated when the cord is pulled and most often used in lamps and ceiling fans. While not
used very often in other projects, it could be a fun switch to add to a project for a zany retro feel.

Now we finally reach the end of our switch-a-palooza with the key switch. This switch is activated when a
key is turned. These are obviously found in cars, alarm systems, and anywhere where you want to control
access. These are always a fun finishing touch to add to hobbyist projects. They make everything seem
important.
Momentary Vs. Latching
There is another distinct aspect of switches worth pointing out and that is the difference between
momentary and latching switches.

A momentary switch is only connected while you are activating it. That means the moment you stop
applying force upon it, it toggles.

A latching switch on the other hand is activated with a force once to toggle one way, and then needs to be
activated again to be toggled back to its initial state.
While there are a few types of switches which can only ever be one type or the other, most switches can
be produced to be either momentary or latching. It is important to pay attention to what type of switch you
get.
Power!
The size of a switch is typically a good indication of how much voltage and current a switch can handle
before it malfunctions. However, to be sure, just look at the switch itself. They typically have their power
rating printed on them.

LESSON 5: RESISTORS
Resistors are ubiquitous in electronics and arguably the first "real" electronic component we will be dealing
with. They are the little pill-shaped stripe-y things found on most circuit boards. These parts in and of
themselves don't do anything remarkably complex, but are vital in purpose. Over the course of this lesson
we will learn what resistors are, how to 'read' them, special ways they can be used, and all about a special
type of resistor called a potentiometer.
Lesson Materials
In this lesson I will be demonstrating how resistors work by making a paper resistor.
While it is optional, if you want to follow along at home and make a paper resistor you will need:
(x1) pencil (preferably 6B, but a #2 will work)

(x1) Paperclips
(x1) 6" x 9" envelope (or piece of paper)

All About Resistors
A resistor is an electronic component that limits the flow of electrons. In doing so, it dissipates energy in
the form of heat. Put into plain English, electricity has to struggle to flow through something with a high
resistance. In doing so, it works up a lot of energy and converts this into heat. It's a little bit like how your
body heats up when you do vigorous exercise.
You can think of a resistor kind of like a fixed workout routine for electricity. It provides a known amount of
resistance to a circuit, and the electricity always has to do the same amount of work to get through it.
The amount of resistance that a resistor offers is measured in Ohms. The symbol for ohms is the Omega
symbol from the Greek Alphabet.
In terms of electronics, the resistor reduces electrical current by a precise amount. If you consider that in a
circuit you typically have a fixed input voltage, and resistors offer a fixed amount of resistance, you can
then use Ohm's Law to determine how much a resistor will limit current. This is useful in a number of
scenarios, including working with LEDs, which will be covered in the diodes lesson.
To measure ohms with a multimeter, turn the dial to the symbol and selecting the proper range (unless
you splurged on an auto-ranging multimeter). To determine the correct range, you will need to be able to
'read' the resistor, which we are going to get to in a moment.
In a circuit, a resistor's symbol looks like a zigzag line. It typically has its value written next to it.

Make a Resistor
To better understand how resistors work, let us make our own resistor.
All we will need is a pencil (a #2 will do fine, but a 6B is better), a sheet of paper, and some paperclips.
Take a 6" x 9" envelope and turn it sideways, and then rub a pencil back and forth along the edge. Create
a one inch wide band of graphite along this edge. Once you are think you are done, keep going. The more
graphite you can put down onto the paper, the better your resistor will work.
Attach paperclips to the probes of your multimeter using jump cables.

Attach one of these paperclips to one corner of the strip.
When you touch the other paperclip anywhere on the strip, you will notice that you get a resistance
reading. Congratulations, you have made a resistor.
Now, attach the second paperclip to the opposite corner.
My resistor gives a reading of about 500,000 ohms. I arrived at this because the multimeter is reading in
the 2000K (hundred thousandths) range. Thus, it is giving a reading of 500K ohm. Your resistor should
roughly be in this range. If your resistor reads much greater than this, add more graphite to increase its
conductivity.
All resistors operate along the same principle. The paper resistor I have created offers the same resistance
to a circuit as a standard carbon film resistor capsule.

Reading Resistors
We can determine what sort of resistor we have by looking at the packaging.
Telling its current rating can typically be established by the size of the resistor. This is something you will
figure out intuitively in time, and not remarkably important for the kind of low-current circuits you will be
working with when getting started.
Determining how much resistance a resistor offers is a little trickier and can be established by deciphering
the colored stripes from left to right towards the tolerance marking. You will typically see four stripes, but
you may also encounter resistors with five.
Resistors with four stripes are the most common. These will likely be the type you are working with most.
When reading a resistor with four stripes, the first two stripes are combined together to form a number
between 1 and 99. The third marking is the multiplier. The last marking determines the tolerance, which will
be discussed further in a moment.

For instance, in the following example, the first two lines represent 1 and 0, which is combined together as
the number 10. This is then multiplied by 10,000 (which is the multiplier). The result is 100,000
However, when a resistor is 1,000 or more ohms, we measure it in kilo-ohms. A kilo-ohm is basically equal
to 1,000 ohms. So, 100,000 is shortened to 100k Basically, it is 1,000 ohms times 100. All we are
essentially doing is removing three zeros from the number, and replacing them with with k.
If that was confusing, let us look at another example. This resistor has the same initial number of 10, but a
multiplier of 1,000. When multiplied together, these numbers yield a resistance of 10,000 or 10K
Now, let's say the first two numbers were to change, and the multiplier were to decrease. In this example,
the first two colors when combined create the number 68. When multiplied by 10, we get the number 680.
Since 680 is less than 1,000, we just call this resistor 680
One last thing, if there is a million or more ohms, we then measure in mega-ohms. For example, this
resistor is worth 1,000,000 This is shortened to 1M
Resistors with 5 stripes are a little less common, but just as easy to read. Let us briefly consider how to
read them. Like the 4 band resistor, you first find the tolerance marking on the far edge, and then read left
to right towards the marking.
However, where they differ is in that the first three stripes get read as a single number, and the fourth stripe
is the multiplier. So, in this case, we can determine the first number is 100 and it gets multiplied by 1,000,
giving us a resistance of 100K.
The fifth stripe is the tolerance marking.

Tolerances
Just like you and I, resistors are not perfect. However, they strive to be as good and as consistent as they
can. This is where the tolerance band on the resistor comes in.
A resistor with a gold band has a resistance with a +/- 5% tolerance or - you could say - margin of error.
What this means is that the resistance can be over or under its value by 5%. So, if you had a 100K resistor
and measured with a multimeter, it could read anywhere from 95K to 105K.
For all of the circuits we will be building here, such approximate values will do fine. We often think of
electronics as an exact science, but the truth is that there is a bit of wiggle room in most of what we make.
As you begin to dive deeper into electronics you will realize that there is enough fluctuation in circuit
building to allow for experimentation and creativity. While this might be a lot to process right now, bury this
idea in the back of your head for later.
Anyhow...
Four band resistors have a typical tolerance of +/- 5% and this is indicated by a gold band on the far right.
Five band resistors have a typical tolerance of +/- 1% and this is indicated by a brown band on the far right.

Variable Resistors
A variable resistor is a resistor whose value varies within a set range.
Some of the most common types of variable resistors you may encounter include photocells which change
in relation to light, bend sensors which change in relation to being flexed, and FSR (force sensing
resistors) that change resistance when you apply pressure upon their surface. You also might encounter a
host of other variable resistors that change in relation to heat, moisture, and gas, to name a few.
Most importantly, there is the potentiometer. This is the most common variable resistor and utterly
ubiquitous in your day-to-day life. Every time you use a slider or knob on an electrical device, you are using
a potentiometer. For instance, every single mechanical light dimmer you have ever used is a
potentiometer.

Potentiometers come in a wide range of resistances, and have a physical actuator that sweeps from 0
ohms resistance to whatever value is marked upon it.
The inside of a potentiometer does not look remarkably different from our paper resistor. In fact, it is
basically just a miniaturized version of what we have made. Instead of moving a paperclip, there is an
actuator knob or sliding lever that moves a conductive element over an electrically resistive surface.
By connecting a wire to either one of its outer terminals, and another to the center terminal, we can wire a
potentiometer as a variable resistor.
In a schematic a variable resistor looks like a normal resistor with a line reaching around and pointing back
at itself.
You may also be wondering why the potentiometer has three legs, when two seems to be enough to work
as a variable resistor. We will get to that in a moment, but first, I need to introduce an important concept.

Voltage Dividers
Let's mirror a potentiometer for a moment and add a third paper clip close to the center of our paper
resistor. Now, if we were to connect voltage across the outer terminals and use a multimeter to measure
from either of the outer terminals to the center terminal, you may notice something interesting. The voltage
reading we are getting is about half of the supply voltage. By "dividing" the resistor in two, we have created
a voltage divider.
Resistors can be placed in series to make voltage dividers. These voltage values are in proportion to the
values of each resistor. The resistance value of the two resistors is less important in determining the
voltage than the ratio of values between the resistors.
https://123d.circuits.io/circuits/2345418-voltage-divider/embed#breadboard
If you run the simulation, you will notice that two 10K resistors in series between 5V and ground will have
the same voltage rating at their midpoint as two 100K resistors between 5V and ground. This is because
there is an equal ratio between both sets of resistors.
https://123d.circuits.io/circuits/2345522-voltage-divider-part-2/embed#breadboard
On the other hand, if we were to change the resistors of these voltage dividers to have uneven values, the
voltage will increase or decrease.
By changing the 100K resistor connected to power to 47K, the voltage reading increases. This is because
there is less resistance between the positive terminal and the midpoint than from the midpoint to ground,
so voltage can flow more easily from power. On the other hand, we have decreased the value of the 10K
resistor connected to ground to a value of 4.7K. In this scenario the voltage decreases because electricity
can flow to ground more freely than power.
These two gnarly looking metal tubes are actually giant resistors used as voltage dividers for converting
the electrical system in a military jeep from 24V to 12V. While crudely effective, it is by no means the best
way to do this. Resistors work by converting energy to heat, which is a wildly inefficient way to solve the
problem of voltage conversion. Additionally, unlike the massive resistors pictured above, standard resistors
are not rated to handle the current that a typical circuit requires. Trying to power electronics through a
voltage divider will in all likelihood release the 'magic smoke' from one component or another.

Potentiometers
When we connect the end of the resistor to power and ground (respectively) and move the probe along the
paper resistor, you may notice that the voltage changes.
If it wasn't clear by now, let me reiterate what is happening. The paper resistor is functioning as a giant
variable voltage divider.
It should now be apparent what the third connection in the potentiometer is used for.
As the potentiometer's knob is turned, the wire connected to the center pin is swept along, creating two
discrete resistance values between power and ground. This pins is basically functioning like the middle
paperclip in the paper potentiometer example. It allows us to change the voltage as it is turned one or
another.
In the following wiring configuration the voltage will increase when the potentiometer is turned clockwise,
and decreased when turned the other way.
It does not matter what the resistance of the potentiometer is, when wired in this manner, the center pin on
all potentiometers will be adjustable between 0 volts and the supply voltage.
In a schematic, a potentiometer looks like a resistor with an arrow pointing towards the center.

Tapers
While the sweep in the potentiometer varies the voltage, not all sweeps are the same. There are two types
of sweeps you will encounter, and they are typically referred to as a potentiometer's taper.
A linear taper has a linear response curve. What this means is that when you sweep the potentiometers
actuator through it's full range, the resistance will increase or decrease steadily.
This type of potentiometer is most common and used in most things.
On the other hand, a logarithmic (or "log") taper has a response curve which looks like a logarithmic curve
(or in layman's terms - this dude's smirk --> ¯\_( )_/¯ ).
The reason you would want this type of potentiometer is largely for adjusting audio volume. Loudness is
not linear, but logarithmic. If you were to use a linear potentiometer for adjusting volume, it would go from
being really quiet to really loud very suddenly. By using a logarithmic potentiometer, you can follow the
curve of the music and have a more gradual increase in volume.
Thus, stereo volume knobs tend to be logarithmic. Although these potentiometers are not prevalent, they
are common enough that you will encounter them. In fact, we will be using them when we build our audio
mixer.

LESSON 6: CAPACITORS
Some of the earliest capacitors were simply glass jars filled with salt water and wrapped in metal foil.
These capacitors - called Leyden Jars - were crude devices which stored high voltage electric charge.
They helped early experimenters gain a grasp on electricity and how to harness it. Over the years the
science behind capacitors has obviously become more refined, and jars have been phased out. Capacitors
can fit onto the smallest of circuit boards and hold varying amounts of charge. In this class we will learn
about capacitors and make a small vibrobot (a robot which moves using vibration).

What Is a Capacitor?
To put it simply, a capacitor is a component that stores electricity and then discharges it back into the circuit when there is a drop
in voltage.
It is important to stress that capacitors do not equal batteries.
The difference between a battery and a capacitor is that in a battery power is generated through a chemical
reaction, and in a capacitor a charge is stored and maintained in an electrical field. A battery can yield
much more energy for a longer period than a capacitor. On the other hand, a capacitor - even with much
less power storage - can discharge considerably more energy exponentially faster than a battery. This is
ideal when you need a lot of energy fast.
A capacitor consists of conductive metal plates separated by an insulating material called a dielectric. The
dielectric can be anything such as ceramics, plastics, oxidizing metals, glass, and paper. For instance, if
you crack open an electrolytic capacitor you will find it's just two metal plates wrapped in a chemically
coated film. When electricity is applied, the metal conductors polarize the electrons in the film and store an
electric field.

If you were to look at this old-fashioned adjustable capacitor you will notice that it is just a series of metal
plates that slide between one another without touching. In this scenario, the air is the dielectric. If it seems
weird that air can be charged to hold an electrical field, think of lightning and the Jacob's Ladder project.
Depending on how much physical overlap there is between plates determines how large of an electrical
field can be held. The more surface area that the two sets of plates shares between them, the greater the
electrical field will be, and the more capacitance it will have.
On account of their unique ability to store charge and maintain an electrical field, capacitors tend to try to
resist changes in voltage within a circuit. As such, capacitors are often connected between power and
ground to maintain a steady power supply and filter out intermittent voltage spikes and drops.
Capacitors are measured in Farads, which simply is symbolized with a capital F. Although, keep in mind
that the values that you will typically encounter are in the picofarad (pF), nanofarad (nF) or microfarad (uF)
ranges.
The two schematic symbols associated with capacitors are pictured above. The less complex one on the
left is for non-polarized capacitors and the more complex one on the right is for polarized electrolytic
capacitors.

Capacitors can be either polarized or non-polarized. Put simply, a polarized capacitor has a positive lead
which needs to be connected to power, and a negative lead which needs to get connected to ground.
Nonpolarized capacitors can be connected any which way.
Ceramic disc and mylar film capacitors are non-polarized.
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized.
Just like resistors, capacitors have markings that need to be deciphered.
Ceramic disc capacitors have two to three digits printed upon them. The first two numbers describe the
value of the capacitor and the third number (should it exist) is the number of zeros in the multiplier. When
the first two numbers are multiplied against the multiplier, the resulting solution is the value of the capacitor
in picofarads. If there is no multiplier, you just read the value of the first two numbers in picofarads.

For instance, if a capacitor says 10 upon it, it has a multiplier of 1 and is simply read as 10pF. On the other
hand, if it followed by a 1, it gets multiplied by 10 to become 100pF. Each subsequent number shifts the
multiplier over one decimal point. By the time you get to 104, 10 is being multiplied by 10,000.
The one tricky bit about capacitors is that they can be described in picofarads (pF), nanofarads (nF) and
microfarads (uF). The measurement you use is determined by whatever makes the most sense to describe
the value. You would not describe a 10pF capacitor as a 0.00001uF capacitor any more than you would
describe a 0.1uF capacitor as a 100,000pF capacitor. As a general rule, any number that requires more
than two zeros to express it is excessive.
Reading electrolytic capacitors is a bit easier. You just literally read them. They have their capacitance and
voltage rating printed directly upon them. We have yet to touch upon voltage rating. Suffice it to say that
the voltage rating is only important in that your supply voltage should never exceed it. This is unlikely for
the type of electronics we are doing.
On electrolytic capacitors, the most important thing to pay careful attention to is the stripe marked with a
minus sign indicating the capacitor's negative lead.

High Voltage Vs. Supercapacitor
Capacitors typically are rated for a small amount of charge and voltage. However, there are two special
types of capacitors that buck this trend.
High voltage capacitors - as the name would imply - are capable of storing a large amount of voltage.
These are often found in camera flashes and some electronic appliances that plug into the wall, such as
old-fashioned tube televisions. You need to be careful when encountering these because they can
maintain charge for quite some time after being charged and will shock the heck out of you if you touch the
leads.
Supercapacitors on the other hand typically are very low voltage, but store a heckuva lot of charge. For
instance, the smallest capacitor you might encounter in working with electronics is 1pF. If we were to
convert this unit to Farads, it would be equivalent to 0.000000000001F. In short, a Farad is really - really -
big. Thus, the 15F supercapacitor we are going to use in the vibrobot project stores a deceptively large
amount of energy.
While you can touch the leads of a supercapacitor without worrying about electric shock, if you were to
accidentally cross the leads of a supercapacitor with something conductive, it could rapidly release enough
energy to melt metal. You may not get shocked, but if you are careless, you could get badly burned.

LESSON 7: INDUCTORS
Of all of the basic electronic components, inductors are probably both the simplest and most confusing to
wrap your head around. Don't worry too much if all of this does not make too much sense. When just
getting started with electronics, diving too deep into this is enough to induce a headache. Besides, they are
not used quite as often as they used to be when building circuits.
Back in the old days when hobby electronics centered around radio, inductors were a big deal. Ever since
everyone moved over to experimenting with microcontrollers and other solid state electronics, they have
seemingly vanished. However, speakers, motors, electromagnets, reed relays, and transformers are all
basically specialized inductors. While you may not often find yourself winding and tuning coils, inductors
hardly went away, and it is still important to have a loose grasp on these concepts.

Coils
An inductor is basically a coil of wire. That's it.
It may be confusing to understand why a coil of wire would have any special properties at all.
Well, all wire creates a magnetic field when electricity flows through it. When the wire is coiled, it shapes
the field and concentrates it towards its core, which increases its magnetic properties. The magnetic field
that is created by the inductor holds energy, and when the current changes, the fields induces more current
back into the circuit to try to keep it stable. Hence, the name inductor.
Whereas capacitors create electric fields and resist changes in voltage, inductors produce magnetic fields
and resist changes in current.
On account of their ability to regulate current, inductors have many special uses in electronics. A majority
of these uses are very complicated and related to their ability to affect AC electrical signals. Since we are
going to largely be dealing with DC electricity, I will not be going over any of this in-depth. If you would like
to read more about inductor theory and the math behind it, check out All About Circuits Vol. 2 (Alternating
Current) (http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/alternating-current/).
There is special type of wire typically used for making inductors called magnet wire. For all intents and
purposes, it looks very similar to regular wire and is measured using the same gauge system. However, it
does not have a rubber insulation like typical hookup wire.
Instead, magnet wire has a hard and extremely thin enamel coating that keeps it insulated without
interfering with its inductive properties. In order to solder to this type of wire, you need to first scrape off the
coating.
Different coils have different amounts of inductance. This is measured in Henries. Typically, most inductors
are measured in the uH (microhenry) range.
You may see an inductor represented in a schematic as a series of squiggly loops or, if there is a core, as
a bunch of squiggly loops cozying up to two parallel lines.

Inductance of a Coil
Not all inductors are created equal. There are four key factors which affect the inductance of a coil.
The first indication that determines the inductance of a coil is the number of turns (or loops) a coil has. As a
general rule coils with more turns have more inductance than coils with less turns.
When dealing with inductors length also matters. Given two coils with the same number of turns, the
shorter one has more inductance. The reason for this is that it's compactness helps it maintain a stronger
magnetic field within it. As it stretches out, its ability to concentrate the field diminishes.
The diameter of the coil also determines the amount of inductance offered. The bigger the diameter, the
greater the inductance.
Many inductors have a solid core at their center. By using a special core such as a ferrite rod (piece of
iron), you can further increase the amount inductance.
Inductors without a solid core are considered to have an "air core." This offers considerably less
inductance.
Working With Inductors
Instead of diving deep into how inductors work, let's discuss common inductors you may encounter when
starting with electronics, and what you might use them for.
Coils are typically what people are referring to when they talk about an inductor. As you already learned, it
is just a coil of wire carefully tuned to maintain a magnetic field of a particular strength. These are
ubiquitous within electronics, particularly when dealing with wireless devices. There are many different
form factors you may encounter when dealing with coils, but they are all ultimately just coils of wire.
Transformers are two coils of wire that have been wound around a common core. The first winding is
considered the primary (or input), and the other coil is the secondary (or output). When a current is sent
through one coil, it induces an electrical field in the other coil. By changing the number of wire turns in each
coil, each one has a different amount of inductance, and in turn - no pun intended - there is a different
amount of voltage on the secondary coil than there is on the primary. The voltage present is in direct
relationship to the difference ratio between the two coils. Put simply, if they have a difference of 10:1
primary to secondary, then there will be 10 times more voltage on the primary than the secondary.
Electromagnets are basically just coils of wire wrapped around a ferromagnetic core which becomes
magnetized when electrically charged. Electromagnets are little different than single coil inductors.
However, they are constructed in such a way that they are meant to function as an electromechanical
device and not play a significant role in regulating electricity within a circuit.
You can experiment with making your own electromagnet very simply by wrapping a tight coil of magnet
wire around a large nail. To power it up, scrape a little bit of coating off the ends of the magnet wire, and
connect it to a 9V battery.
Reed relays are reed switches that have been packaged inside of a coil of wire. When a current is applied
to the coil and it becomes magnetized, and the switch gets triggered. Relays are fantastic because the coil
circuit is electrically isolated from the pins on the reed switch. In other words, you can use one circuit to
control a switch in a completely different circuit without having to worry about them ever getting connected
together. In this way, you can use a low voltage circuit to control an on/off reed switch in a much higher
voltage circuit.
A solenoid is similar to an electromagnet in that it is just a coil of wire. However, it differs in that it has an
unconstrained core. When energized, the core is either pushed or pulled linearly through the body of the
solenoid. Often solenoids have mechanical components such as a return spring and/or lock ring to return
them to their initial position and keep the core from getting entirely free from the coil.
An audio speaker too is actually just an inductor. If you look closely you will see a coil of wire sitting on top
of a large magnet. When power is applied to the coil, it moves back and forth, which vibrates a thin
diaphragm called the cone. The cone then displaces air and creates sound waves in relation to the its
movement.

And if that were not enough, dynamic microphones are basically inductors too. They are constructed very
similarly to speakers, except they work in an opposite manner. When the fluctuating air pressure created
by a sound wave hits a thin diaphragm, it moves it back and forth, which in turn creates a proportional
voltage to the sound. This voltage is typically fairly small and needs to be amplified.
Last, but definitely not least, we have motors. While a bit too complex to be considered a true inductor, just
like everything else listed here, they contain coils and operate based on principles of inductance. To over-
simplify the matter, when power is applied to a DC motor, an electrical field is created which spins the
motor in one direction. When the polarity to the motor is reversed, the magnetic field is flipped and it spins
the motor in the opposite direction.
Transducers
Another interesting (and very important) thing to note about inductors is that they are also transducers. A
transducer is anything that both can be actuated with electricity to create a physical force or, alternately,
create electricity when a physical force is applied upon it.
Look at the inside of this shake flashlight. Notice that there is a coil with a loose magnet inside. When the
magnet passes back and forth through the inside of the coil, it induces an electrical current, which is then
stored by the circuitry inside the flashlight. In a way, this is a little bit like a backwards-operating solenoid,
and is by no means unique to this component.

This may take a moment to wrap your head around, but a passive microphone is just a speaker being used
in reverse. Both components have nearly identical parts. The only difference is the inductance of the coil
and the arrangement of the magnet have been fine tuned for their particular tasks.
If you still don't believe me, try this experiment. Solder two identical small speakers to 1/8" mono plugs.
Insert one speaker into the input of the test amp and the other into the output. Talk into the speaker
connected into the input and notice how the sound is being amplified from the output.
The speaker you are talking into is creating a voltage in the coil when sound waves vibrate its diaphragm.
The output speaker, in turn, is vibrating it's diaphragm and creating sound waves when an amplified
voltage runs through its coil.

LESSON 8: DIODES
Of all of the components — in my mind at least — diodes sound the most futuristic. Even the parts of the
diode — cathode and anode — sound like they have come directly out of a science fiction novel. However,
you don't need a time machine to experience the full glory of diodes. Like all of the other components we
have visited so far, diodes are everywhere. Except, unlike most of them, you actually see diodes all of the
time. If you did not already know, LED stands for light emitting diode. Any time you see an LED display,
you are looking at a diode in action. Although, not every diode lights up, they all do work roughly the same
way. Let's take a moment and learn about what diodes actually are.

What Is a Diode?
A diode is an electronic component that allows electricity to flow through in one direction, and all but stops
it from flowing the opposite way.
Unlike other electrical components we have looked at thus far, whose primary role is to influence the
voltage or current within the circuit, the diode's primary role is to route electricity. This is extremely useful
for preventing an electrical signal from taking unwanted or unexpected routes within the circuit.
Like an electrolytic capacitor, all diodes are polarized. This means they have an anode (positive side) and
cathode (negative side). You can tell the difference because the cathode has a little line painted around it.
In a schematic, diodes look like arrows pointing at a wall. A good way to think of this is that a positive
voltage can flow in the direction of the arrow, but the wall stops it from flowing back the other way.

How Diodes Work
A diode consists of a PN junction made of P-type silicon and N-type silicon separated by a depletion
region. The depletion region acts like an insulator. Put simply, the P-region is connected to the anode, and
the N-region is connected to the cathode. The depletion region sits between the two.
When the P-region is connected to ground and the N-region is connected to a positive voltage, the
depletion region actually grows in size instead of shrinking. This ensures little to no electricity is able to
flow through the diode between power and ground. In this configuration the diode is called reverse biased.
When a positive voltage is applied to the P-region and the N-region is connected to ground, the depletion
region all but disappears and allows electricity to flow. In this state the diode is called forward biased.
In order to overcome the depletion region, a little bit of voltage must be sacrificed. This is called the voltage
drop. In a standard silicon diode this is typically 0.7V. In other words, if you have a 5V signal and it passes
through a diode with a 0.7V drop, the voltage that comes out the other end will be 4.3V. It can fluctuate
above or below this value depending on the type of diode.
If you have three diodes in series, you will lose 0.7V through each diode and the voltage at the far end of
this chain will be 2.9V. This adds up to a significant loss, and is the reason diodes should be used
sparingly.
While diodes charge a toll to cross the depletion region in the form of voltage, they offer no real resistance.
If you put only diodes in a circuit without a load to use up the electricity, it will virtually look like a short
circuit and draw as much current as the power supply is able to provide. Since that is likely higher than the
diode's maximum current rating, it will release the diode's magic smoke.

Deciphering Diodes
There isn't too much to know about reading diodes. Typically, the name of the diode is printed right on it.
The name is its part number, and has nothing to do with the actual value of the component.
Sometimes the name is printed horizontally across the body which makes it very easy to read.
Sometimes it is printed around the circumference which makes it extremely annoying to read, especially
since they tend to be small-ish.

Special Diodes
While diodes by and large all do the same thing, there are certain diodes that perform specialized
functions.
Schottky diodes are very similar to standard signal diodes, but have a very low forward voltage - as little as
0.2V - and a really fast switching action. They are good in applications in which the diode needs to work
very rapidly, and/or a minimal amount of voltage loss is required.
Zener diodes work like normal diodes. However, when a really large voltage is applied to a reverse-biased
zener diode, the aptly named Zener Effect kicks in and allows a fixed amount of electricity to flow the
'wrong way' through the diode. This makes this diode useful as a crude voltage regulator in low-current
applications.
Lastly, the one diode that really shines above the others is the LED.

The LED
LED is an abbreviation for light emitting diode. Of all of the electronic components we are going to
encounter in this course, the LED gets the most fanfare. It is the superstar of electronic components. You
could say it shines brighter than the rest.
An LED is a diode that emits photons when it is forward biased and there is electricity flowing through it.
The photons are simply light particles and what makes it glow.
If you look very carefully inside of an LED you will see a thin wire attached to the center of a small bowl.
The wire bridges the anode and cathode to a semiconductor die located at the bottom of the reflective
bowl. When current flows from the anode to the cathode, the semiconductor material emits photons,
reflects off the bowl, and is further amplified by the plastic material of the cap.
There are typically three ways to tell a standard 5mm LED's anode from its cathode.
1) The leg connected to the anode is typically longer than the one connected to the cathode.
2) The body of the LED typically has a flat spot on the cathode side.
3) If you look inside the LED, the little metal bit connected to the anode lead is much smaller than the
cathode.

Current Limiting Resistors
Since an LED offers no resistance in a circuit, it typically requires a current limiting resistor in series with it.
This prevents the LED from being shorted and - given enough current - literally exploding.
As a general rule of thumb, a 470 ohm resistor should be more than enough to protect just about any low
power LED.
However, should you want to calculate the proper resistor for maximizing brightness, you can calculate this
by using this equation. Even more simply, you can search online for "LED resistor calculator."
For instance, given this LED with a 3v forward voltage, 20mA operating current, and a 9V source, we can
calculate that the proper resistance is 300 ohms. However, that is the absolute minimum resistor, and
since resistors tend to have a tolerance range, it is best to increase the value a little to be on the safe side.
It is safe to say then that a 330 ohm resistor should do the job. However, you don't want to increase it too
much because the more resistance there is, the dimmer the LED becomes.
LED Bonanza
There are so many different types and form factors of LEDs at this point, it is hard to keep up.
LEDs come in different shapes and sizes. The 5mm domed is the most common, but you are likely to also
find them in 3mm domed, 10mm domed, rectangle, oval, and square (to name a few).
LEDs also come in many different colors. Often the plastic is tinted to indicate what color they are.
However, clear LEDs are deceptive in that you might assume they glow white, but can actually glow a host
of different colors.
LEDs have different levels of brightness that are typically measured in MCD (millicandella). One thousand
millicandella is equivalent to the brightness of one candle. So, an LED like the one pictured above with an
intensity of 6,000mcd is equal to the brightness of 6 candles. It is not uncommon to also see extremely
bright high-power LEDs to be measured in Lumens - another unit of light measurement - or Watts.
LEDs have different viewing angles, or beam widths. What this means is that the visible brightness of the
LED seems to decrease when you are looking at the LED from and a spot outside of its ideal viewing
angle. This angle also determines the size of the spotlight created by the LED. Viewing angles on LEDs
can vary widely.
LEDs also draw different amounts of power. In fact, some high power LEDs draw so much power that they
are mounted on metal heatsinks to dissipate heat. While LEDs such as these tend to be very bright, they
sometimes require special circuitry to drive them.
LEDs can come grouped together into display modules. With these LED dot, bar, and 7-segment numerical
displays, each individual light-up segment is a discrete LED. For instance, the 8X8 matrix on the left
actually has 64 separate LEDs inside of it.
LEDs also come packaged in flexible strips. These strips are manufactured in white, solid colors, and
multi-color, which can produce any color in the visible spectrum. Additionally, the multi-color strips either
come in solid colors, or in programmable arrays where each LED can be a different color. Learning how to
control programmable LED strips is beyond the scope of this class, but something you can do if you ever
decide to learn how to use a microcontroller such as an Arduino.
In short, there are a lot of ways you may encounter LEDs. Learning about all of the LEDs could be a class
unto itself!

LESSON 9: TRANSISTORS
The humble transistor is the building block of all digital electronics. By creating different configurations of
transistors (in relation to other electronic components), you can create circuits which provide the
groundwork of binary logic. This is the basis for all modern computing and has helped us do important
things like post pictures of cats on the internet, and put astronauts in space.
Transistors also do some interesting things in the analog world as well. They are also responsible for guitar
effects pedals and helped David Bowie put everyone in space. Throughout this lesson, we are going to
largely be looking at transistors in their simplest analog sense.

What Is a Transistor?
A transistor is an electronic component that takes a small amount of current and amplifies it.
Unlike all of the other components we have looked at where electricity goes in one side and out the other,
a more complicated process is at work within the transistor.
A common transistor has three pins which are the base, collector, and emitter. Since transistors come in all
different shapes and sizes, and the pins are rarely marked, you will need to look up which pin is which. If
you image search for "[INSERT TRANSISTOR NAME] pin diagram" you will quickly find out this
information. For instance, let's find out the pin diagram for a 2N2222 transistor by searching for "2N2222
pin diagram (https://www.google.com/search?
q=2n2222+pin+diagram&biw=1440&bih=794&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwi3wpL
dj-XNAhVFVyYKHSKkCoQQ_AUIBigB)." Easy-peasy.
In a schematic a transistor will be represented as an NPN, which has the arrow pointing outwards away
from the vertical line, or as a PNP, which has the arrow pointing inwards towards the line.
NPN Vs. PNP
There are two types of basic transistors in this world - those which are NPN, and those which are PNP.

To better understand the difference between the two, let us revisit diodes for a moment. Like diodes,
transistors are made up of configurations of PN junctions.
You could hypothetically say that an NPN transistor is basically 2 diodes back to back. In a theoretical
world, you would be right, but in the real world you can't really say that at all. The difference being that not
only are the P-regions in a diode considerably bigger, they are also not actually being directly connected.
Each P-region is actually being connected to a wire lead, which in turn behaves neither like a P-region or
an N-region as far as electrons are considered. This demonstration is more like an NP-WIRE-PN junction.
This is clearly not the same at all. However, this idea of a PN bias is important to consider.
Unlike a diode, an NPN transistor has a very thin P-region - no wider than a couple of wavelengths of light
- sandwiched between two N-regions. When a current is applied to the P-region (connected to the base
pin), it forward biases the base and collector pins, effectively shrinking the depletion zone on both side of
the P-region in relation to the current being applied.
This forward bias arrangement between the base and emitter allows electrons to flow from the base pin to
the N-region connected to the emitter (like a diode). Presuming that the electrical signal at the collector is
also more positive than the one at the emitter, the electrons at the collector are able to take a free ride
through the activated P-region to the emitter. Put another way, the current passing from the base to the
emitter works like a Trojan Horse to activate the P-region and allow the much larger current hanging out at
the collector to pass through the P-region to the emitter.
When a small electrical current is applied at its base pin, it amplifies it such that a much larger current can
pass between its collector and emitter pins. The amount of current that passes between the collector and
emitter pins is proportional to the current being applied at the base pin.
A PNP transistor on the other hand, works opposite of an NPN transistor. It has two P-regions and a very
small N-region in the middle. On account of this it is reverse biased between the base and emitter. Thus,
when a current is applied, this reverse bias works like a diode and stops electricity from flowing. It is only
when the current begins to be removed from the base that electrons can pass freely between the collector
and emitter.
https://circuits.io/circuits/2592104-npn/embed#breadboard
Basically, an NPN transistor allows electricity to flow when a current is applied to its base and stops the
flow of electricity when it is removed. It can let varying amounts of electricity pass through in a direct
relationship to the current on its base pin.

Notice when the button connected to the base pin is pressed, the LED turns on. This is because the
buttons is connecting the base to power. When the button is not pressed, the 10K resistors is connecting it
to ground. This type of resistor configuration is called a "pull-down resistor" because it keeps the pin
grounded when not in use.
If you were to replace the buttons with a variable resistor, you would be able to vary the brightness of the
LED wired to the transistor.
https://circuits.io/circuits/2593134-pnp/embed#breadboard
A PNP transistors does the exact opposite of this. When the button is pressed, voltage is applied to the
base pin and the LED is turned off. It can also be dimmed using a variable resistor.

Power Ratings
While all transistors can amplify current, they all obviously can't handle the same amount of current. Some transistors are
designed to handle much higher amounts of current than others. You can look up a transistor's current rating by simply searching
for the part number online and looking at its specs.
The transistors with the highest current rating typically have metal plates in the back connected to the
collector pin. It is attached to this pin in particular because the most amount of energy passes through it.
These plates dissipate heat and have a hole for attaching the transistor to a heat sink.
A heat sink is a piece of metal (typically aluminum) that has been shaped in such a way to maximize its
amount of surface area. Basically, it has a bunch of little fins which allows air to circulate around the part
and cool it down. The transistor is bolted to the heat sink to transfer the heat outwards and cool off. This
prevents the transistor from overheating and malfunctioning.
Additionally, to maximize heat transfer between the transistor and the heat sink, thermal paste can be
used. Apply a thin coat between the transistor and heatsink before bolting them together.

LESSON 10: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Through the use of integrated circuit chips, creating things with electronics really starts to get interesting.
Integrated circuits add worlds of functionality to your project. To be able to easily reproduce the function of
some of these chips would require complex circuits with hundreds of components. By cramming
complicated processes into these little unassuming computer chips, electronics manufacturers opened up
the gates to the world of modern computing. While they might seem like mysterious black boxes, they don't
need to be. Let's learn how to decipher and use these chips.

What Is an Integrated Circuit?
An integrated circuit is an electronic circuit compressed onto a small piece of silicon. It's packaged into a little box-like thing with
metal legs sticking out of it. These pins allow you to access the circuit inside.
Consider the simplest stereo audio mixer we made earlier that consisted of just four resistors. Imagine the
whole thing was placed inside of a black project box, and there were input and output terminals that let us
access parts of the circuit.
Now, imagine we wanted to add potentiometers to adjust the volume to each input. We would just attach
the potentiometers to the appropriate terminals on the box. Integrated circuits typically require external
components to be attached in order to take full advantage of their functionality.
Now imagine this whole box was squeezed into a tiny computer chip. That is basically all an integrated
circuit is.
Each pin on an integrated circuit represents an input or output to or from a specialized circuit that is build
into the chip itself.
In a schematic, an integrated circuit looks like a box with lines protruding from it. The box is typically
labeled with the name of the chip. The pins will usually be labeled with their number. If not, assume the
one in the left is pin 1, and read it like you would any other integrated circuit (which will be covered shortly).

Types of Integrated Circuits
Just as there are endless circuits you can build using electronics, there are endless amounts of integrated
circuit chips out in the world. There are so many, it is impossible for me to tell you about them all. Even
talking about logic gates, which are amongst the most common integrated circuits, can be an entire class
unto itself. And then, even if you did an entire class on logic gates class, you would still be scarcely
scratching the surface of what integrated circuit chips can do.
The world of integrated circuits is vast, and there is a lot to learn. Fortunately, you do not need to know
everything. Once you learn the basics of deciphering their functionality, it is simply a matter of research,
exploration, and experimentation.

Datasheets
Nearly any electronic component you encounter has a datasheet associated with it.
Datasheets tend to tell you helpful things like the maximum and minimum voltage a part can take, its
absolute current rating, its physical dimensions, and a wide array of other helpful data.
When working with an integrated circuit chip, you absolutely need its datasheet. The reason for this is
because it tells you what each of the pins does. Without this, you would be lost.
As you can see from the first two pages of the 555 datasheet shown here, there is an internal diagram and
pin-out information. If you were to find and download the full datasheet for the 555, you will also find
electrical ratings, application notes, and example circuits.
To find a chip's datasheet, you can either search Google, or find the part on the website of a large
electronics distributor such as Digikey or Mouser. They will have current datasheets for every part in their
inventory.

'Reading' an Integrated Circuit
This is another component that has its name printed directly on it. Sometimes it also has additional
information printed on such as manufacturing codes. The chip above is a CD4017 decade counter. All of
the additional information printed on there is largely irrelevant.
When getting started, you might find yourself looking up the wrong numbers. As you get the hang of it, you
will begin to understand which ones are meaningful and which are not.
Once you know what the chip is, the next thing to do is determine which end is up by finding the chip's 'top'
marking. This marking is typically a little U-shaped notched into the top of the chip. On smaller chips it can
also be a small round indent near one of the corner pins.
Once you find the marking, rotate the chip so that the marking is pointed either upward or away from you.
Now, if you were to look at the furthest pin on the top left, that is pin 1. The pin numbers increase
sequentially down the left side until you reach the end.
Once you reach the last pin on the left side, begin again on the right side with the pin closest to you. This is
whatever number is next in the sequence from where you left off. Then, to determine the remaining pin
numbers, you can then count sequentially away from you on the right side.
Basically, you read the pins in a big counterclockwise U-shape like the notch at the top (likely
coincidental).

Deciphering
Let's take a moment and look at a 555 chip. This chip was first produced back in 1971. Nearly 50 years
later it is still widely popular, and with over a billion manufactured yearly it is one of the most common
chips you may encounter.
The chip is basically a timer chip. This doesn't mean it tells time, but does something at a programmable
interval. In other words, this can be used to create a pulse generator and produce square waves by turning
the output on and off rapidly.
The square wave is a digital waveform because it is either entirely on or entirely off. The 555 chip serves
as a transition between the now familiar world of analog electronics to the strange new world of digital
computing. For this reason, it is perhaps a fitting component to end the class with.
Once you identify the top of the 555 chip and can read the pin numbers, you can cross reference them with
the datasheet to figure out what the pins actually are. There will often be a chart on the datasheet which
looks something like this. Note that some of the pins are abbreviated. Until you get familiar with
electronics, you may need to play detective on the datasheet to figure out what these abbreviations mean.
Feel free to examine an actual 555 datasheet (http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm555.pdf).

Let's take a trip around the chip for a moment and discuss what each pin is.
Pin 1 - This is the ground pin. You connect it to ground. Most integrated circuits typically have a ground
pin.
Pin 2 - The trigger pin is the input. When this pin gets connected to ground, it triggers the output to turn on
at the supply voltage.
Pin 3 - The output is where the result of the chips inner workings is output. The pin is either entirely on at
the supply voltage (high) or entirely off at ground (low).
Pin 4 - As the name implies, the reset pin resets the chip when connected to ground. It is not used often
and in many circuits connected to power to prevent accidental resetting.
Pin 5 - The control pin allows the chip to be controlled by external voltages. This is typically electric
waveforms created by other integrated circuit chips and is not commonly used.
Pin 6 - The threshold pin looks for changes in voltage from an external timing capacitor and both grounds
the output pin and resets pin 7 when a voltage crosses a threshold of 2/3 the supply voltage.
Pin 7 - This pin discharges an external timing capacitor to ground when triggered. This pin is crucial in
determining the timing on the output pin.
Pin 8 - VCC is simply another way of saying power. This pin is simply connected to the power supply and
used to power the board.
While this may seem intimidating right now, all of this will be explained further later. I just wanted to
illustrate that even though it may look like a black box, each pin serves a purpose in the greater whole. It's
just a matter of looking at the datasheet and researching the internet to understand what each pin does.
The pin functionality is not happening arbitrarily or by magic. As mentioned earlier, there is actually a circuit
that has been miniaturized and jammed onto the chip. You can see here how the circuit relates to the
different pins. When you look closely, you will see it is just a bunch of transistors, resistors and diodes.
If you were particularly enterprising, you could use the knowledge you have just acquired and build this
circuit. However, it would be a gigantic mess of wires and take a long time. Besides, there is really no
need. Thanks to this tiny integrated circuit chip, you can incorporate this whole circuit into your project with
one simple part.

Breadboarding
(https://www.instructables.com/id/Atari-Punk-Console-Synthesizer/)
If you wondered why breadboards are laid out in the manner they are, it is to allow for integrated circuits to
straddle the center. You can insert a chip in the middle, and each pin will have its own bus line that you
can connect additional components to. This makes it easy to experiment with connecting different
components to integrated circuit chips.
If you want to try working with, check out my Atari Punk Console Synthesizer instructable
(https://www.instructables.com/id/Atari-Punk-Console-Synthesizer/).

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ELECTRONICS CLASS

10 Lessons Beginner Level

Electronics Class: Page 1

Lesson 1: Getting Started With Electronics

Electronics Class: Page 2

Lesson 10: Integrated Circuits

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Materials and Tools

(x1) Basic electronics kit (https://www.amazon.com/Elenco-Component-Assorted-Electronic-

Electronics Class: Page 6

Electronics Class: Page 8

To begin, it is advisable to get a basic electronics kit (https://www.amazon.com/Elenco-Component-

You should also pick up solid (https://www.amazon.com/Electronix-Express--Hook-Wire-

Electronics Class: Page 9

One of the most important things to have in your arsenal is wire.

We will largely be dealing with wire in the 20 AWG to 22 AWG range.

Red indicates a power wire.

Black indicates a ground wire.

Electronics Class: Page 10

Electronics Class: Page 11

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Electronics Class: Page 13

Electronics Class: Page 14

You will want both a wire cutter (http://www.amazon.com/Tools-VISE-GRIP-Stripper-Crimper-

Another indispensable set of tools is heat gun (http://www.amazon.com/Kawasaki-840015-Black-10-Piece-

Jumper cables (http://www.amazon.com/SE-TL10-10-Piece-Alligator-Clips/dp/B0002KRABU/?

Electronics Class: Page 15

Get a set of standard sized multipurpose drill bits (http://www.amazon.com/DEWALT-DW1354-14-Piece-

Electronics Class: Page 16

Electronics Class: Page 17

Diagonal cutting pliers (http://www.amazon.com/Channellock-338-8-Inch-Diagonal-

Electronics Class: Page 18

Adjustable wrenches (http://www.amazon.com/GRIP-87042-Adjustable-Wrench-4-

Having a couple small C-clamps (http://www.amazon.com/TEKTON-91809-Heavy-Duty-C-Clamp-3-

Zip ties (http://www.amazon.com/Cable-Matters-Combo-Self-Locking-12-Inch/dp/B00L2LGMO4/?

Electronics Class: Page 19

When all else fails, smash things.

On occasion we will need to smash things. It is unavoidable.

Electronics Class: Page 20

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Setting Up Your Workspace

Electronics Class: Page 22

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Holding the Soldering Iron

That's all there is to that.

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Let's start by soldering wires together.

Electronics Class: Page 28

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Remove the soldering iron to let it cool.

Trim the excess parts of wire so the connection is as compact as possible.

Electronics Class: Page 30

Shrink it into place with a heat gun.

Electronics Class: Page 31

Continue practicing this until you feel comfortable.

Electronics Class: Page 32

Congratulations! You have just soldered something to a circuit board.

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