EAS458 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN 2017/2018

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSING

1.1 PRINCIPLE OF PRESTRESSING

The idea of prestressed concrete has been around since the latter decades of the 19th century, but its use
was limited by the quality of the materials at the time. It took until the 1920s and „30s for its materials
development to progress to a level where prestressed concrete could be used with confidence. Freyssinet
in France, Magnel in Belgium and Hoyer in Germany were the principle developers.

What is “pre-stressed concrete”?

Prestressed concrete (PSC) can most easily defined as a “precompressed concrete”. This means that a
compressive stress is put into a concrete member before it begins it working life and is positioned to be in
areas where tensile stresses will develop under working load. [Why?]

Basic Concept
Consider an unreinforced concrete beam carrying a load (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1

As the load increases, the beam deflects slightly and then fails abruptly. Under load, the stresses in the
beam will be compressive in the top fibers, but tensile in the bottom fibers. Concrete is strong in
compression, but weak in tension. As can be expected, the beam cracks at the bottom and break, even
with a relatively small load.

There are two ways of countering the phenomenon of “low tensile strength in concrete structures”:
(1) Reinforcement reinforced concrete (RC)
(2) Prestressing prestressed concrete (PSC)

Steel is strong in tension. Hence, steel bars are used as reinforcement. In RC, reinforcement is placed in
areas where tensile stresses will develop under load. RC uses concrete to resist compression and to hold

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steel bars in position, and uses steel to resist tension. Reinforcement absorbs all the tension, by limiting
the stress in this reinforcement, the cracking of the concrete is kept within acceptable limits (Fig. 1.2).

Figure 1.2

Why need to limit the stress of the reinforcement in the RC?

Although the steel reinforcement provides the cracked beam with flexural strength, it is not preventing
cracking to occur and subsequently the loss of stiffness during cracking. Crack widths are proportional to
the strain, hence stress, in the reinforcement. Steel stress must therefore be limited to some appropriately
low value under in-service conditions in order to avoid excessively wide cracks. In addition, large steel
strain in a beam is the result of large curvature, which in turn is associated with large deflection.

Therefore, it is little benefit to be gained by using higher strength of steel or concrete since in order to
satisfy serviceability requirements, the increased capacity afforded by higher strength steel cannot be
utilized.

What is “prestressing”?
Prestressing is the introduction of the initial compressive stress into the area where tensile stresses
develop in a concrete under working load. It can be defined (properly) as the application of a force to the
structure, other than the applied force, for the purpose of introducing the internal stresses of suitable
magnitude and distribution, which assists the performance of the structure.

So the concrete now behaves as if it had a high tensile strength of its own, and provided the tensile
stresses due to working load do not exceed the precompression stress, cracking cannot occur in the
bottom of the beam (Fig. 1.3).

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Figure 1.3

Hence, the main purpose of prestressing is to cancel the tensile strength in the concrete developed due to
working load and subsequently, eliminate the failure (cracking).

Following example will clarify the basic theory of prestressing.

Consider a simply supported rectangular beam carrying a uniformly distributed vertical load (Fig. 1.4):

2
9.6 N/mm

2
– 9.6 N/mm
Cross-section Stress distribution
Figure 1.4

The pattern of stress distribution at any section in a beam will be compression in the top and tension in
the bottom both of equal value.

Now, we are aiming to put an initial compression in the beam so that the tension stress (due to external
loads) will cancel out.

If “the prestress force P” is introduced and applied along the CoG.

This will give a uniform compression on the section. The stress diagram as shown in Fig. 1.5 below:

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Figure 1.5

The applied prestressing force, P, required to cancel out the tensile stress is:

( )

In conclusion, to increase the concrete's strength further, a compressive stress (pre-stressing) is induced
into a concrete member before it begins its working life. The compressive stress is positioned to be in
areas where tensile stresses will develop under working load. The initial load or „pre-stress‟ is applied to
enable the structure to counteract the stresses arising during its service period.

Advantages and Limitations of Prestressing

The prestressing of concrete has several advantages as compared to traditional reinforced concrete (RC)
without prestressing. A fully prestressed concrete member is usually subjected to compression during
service life. This rectifies several deficiencies of concrete. The following text broadly mentions the
advantages of a prestressed concrete member with an equivalent RC member. For each effect, the benefits
are listed.

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1. Section remains uncracked under service loads

 Reduction of steel corrosion
a. Increase in durability.
 Full section is utilized
a. Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness)
b. Less deformations (improved serviceability).
 Increase in shear capacity.
 Suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid retaining structures.
 Improved performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading.

2. High span-to-depth ratios

Larger spans possible with prestressing (bridges, buildings with large column-free spaces).
Typical values of span-to-depth ratios in slabs are given below.
Structure Span to depth ratio
RCS 28:1
PSC 45:1

For the same span, less depth compared to RC member.

 Reduction in self-weight.
 More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections
 More economical sections.

3. Suitable for precast construction

The advantages of precast construction are as follows.
 Rapid construction
 Better quality control
 Reduced maintenance
 Suitable for repetitive construction
 Multiple use of formwork
o Reduction of formwork
 Availability of standard shapes.

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Limitations of prestressing
Although prestressing has advantages, some aspects need to be carefully addressed.
 Prestressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced concrete.
 The use of high strength materials is costly.
 There is additional cost in auxiliary equipments.
 There is need for quality control and inspection.

1.2 METHODS OF PRESTRESSING

This sub chapter describes and illustrates the basic forms of prestressing and the components used for
prestressing.

1.2.1 FORMS OF PRESTRESSING STEEL

There are 3 basic types of high-strength steel commonly used as tendons in prestressed concrete
construction;
i). Cold-drawn stress-relieved round wire;
ii). Stress-relieved strand;
iii). High-strength alloy steel bars.

Tendon is defined as a wire, strand, cable or bar (or any discrete group of wires, strands or bars) that is
intended to be either pretensioned or post-tensioned.

Wires
Wires are cold-drawn solid steel elements, circular in cross-section, with diameter usually in the range of
2.5 – 12.5 mm. The different types of wires are as follows.
1. Plain wire: No indentations on the surface.
2. Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations on the surface.

Cold-drawn wires are produced by drawing hot-rolled medium to high carbon steel rods through dies to
produce wires of the required diameter. The drawing process cold works the steel, thereby altering its
mechanical properties and increasing its strength. The wires are then stress-relieved by a process of
continuous heat treatment and straightening to improve ductility and produced the required material
properties (such as low relaxation).

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a) Plain wire b) Indented wire

Figure 1.6

The typical characteristic tensile strength fpk for wires is in the range of 1570 – 1860 MPa. Wires are
sometimes indented or crimped to improve bond characteristics.

Strands
A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a prestressing strand. The different types of
strands are as follows.
1. 2-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand.
2. 3-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand.
3. 7-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire. The central wire is
larger than the other wires.
4. 19-wire strand: 19 wires are spun together to form the strand.

Figure 1.7

Stress-relieved strand is the most commonly used prestressing steel. 7-wire strand is widely used in both
pretensioned and post-tensioned applications. 19-wire strand consists of 2 layers of 9 wires or 2 layers of

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6 and 12 wires spirally wound around a central wire. The 19-wire strand is used in post-tensioned
application, and not recommended for pretensioned applications due to relative low surface area to
volume ratio.

Tendon
A group of strands are placed together to form a prestressing tendon. The tendons are used in post-
tensioned members. The following figure shows the cross section of a typical tendon. The strands are
placed in a duct which may be filled with grout after the post-tensioning operation is completed.

Figure 1.8 Cross-section of a typical tendon

Cables
Cables consist of a group of tendons formed by multivire strands woven together as shown in Fig 1.9
below.

Figure 1.9

Stay cables used extensively in cable-stayed and suspension bridges.

Bars
A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much larger than that of a wire.
Bars are available in the range of diameter 20 – 50 mm with typical characteristic minimum breaking
stresses in the range of 1030 – 1230 MPa.
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1.2.2 PRETENSIONING

Prestressing systems have developed over the years and various companies have patented their products.
Detailed information of the systems is given in the product catalogues and brochures published by
companies.

Example of Prestressing Contractors in Malaysia:

1. Freyssinet PSC (M) Sdn Bhd;
2. VSL Engineers (M) Sdn Bhd;
3. BBR Construction System (M) Sdn Bhd.

The standards for prestressing steel are:

1. BS 5896 Specification for high tensile steel wire and strand for the prestressing of concrete, gives the
requirements for steel wire and 7-wire strand.
2. BS 4486 Specification for hot rolled and hot rolled and processes high tensile alloy steel bars for the
prestressing of concrete, gives the requirements for preferred sizes of bars, with two nominal strength
levels (835 and 1080 N/mm2).
3. Test methods to determine the properties of steel sheaths for tendons are covered by BS EN 524 Steel
strip sheaths for prestressing tendons: test methods.

Note that these Standards are in the process of being replaced by BS EN ISO 15630, Steel for the
reinforcement and prestressing of concrete.

Stages of Pretensioning
In pre-tensioning system, the high-strength steel tendons are pulled between two end abutments (also
called bulkheads) prior to the casting of concrete. The abutments are fixed at the ends of a prestressing
bed. Once the concrete attains the desired strength for prestressing, the tendons are cut loose from the
abutments.

The prestress force is transferred to the concrete from the tendons, due to the bond between them. During
the transfer of prestress, the member undergoes elastic shortening. If the tendons are located eccentrically,
the member is likely to bend and deflect (camber). The various stages of the pre-tensioning operation are
summarised as follows.

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1. Anchoring of tendons against the end abutments (Fig. 1.10 (a));

2. Placing of jacks (Fig. 1.10 (b));
3. Applying tension to the tendons;
4. Casting of concrete;
5. Cutting of the tendons.

During the cutting of the tendons, the prestress force is transferred to the concrete with elastic shortening
and camber of the member.

(a) Anchoring of tendons against the end (b) Placing of jacks

abutments
Figure 1.10

The stages are shown schematically in the following figure (Fig. 1.11).

Figure 1.11 Stages of pretensioning

(Source: http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/105106117)
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Devices
The essential devices for pre-tensioning are as follows (Fig. 1.12):
1. Prestressing bed;
2. End abutments;
3. Shuttering/mould;
4. Jack;
5. Anchoring device;
6. Harping device (optional).

Figure 1.12 Prestressing bed, end abutment and mould

An extension of the previous system is the Hoyer system. This system is generally used for mass
production. The end abutments are kept sufficient distance apart, and several members are cast in a single
line. The shuttering is provided at the sides and between the members. This system is also called the Long
Line Method. The following Fig. 1.13 is a schematic representation of the Hoyer system.

Figure 1.13 Schematic representation of Hoyer system

The end abutments have to be sufficiently stiff and have good foundations. This is usually an expensive
proposition, particularly when large prestressing forces are required. The necessity of stiff and strong
foundation can be bypassed by a simpler solution which can also be a cheaper option. It is possible to
avoid transmitting the heavy loads to foundations, by adopting self-equilibrating systems. This is a
common solution in load-testing. Typically, this is done by means of a „tension frame‟ (Fig. 1.14). The
following figure shows the basic components of a tension frame. The jack and the specimen tend to push

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the end members. But the end members are kept in place by members under tension such as high strength
steel rods.

Figure 1.14 A Tension Frame

The frame that is generally adopted in a pre-tensioning system is called a stress bench. The concrete
mould is placed within the frame and the tendons are stretched and anchored on the booms of the frame.
The following figures show the components of a stress bench.

Figure 1.15 Stress bench – Self straining frame

The following figure shows the free body diagram by replacing the jacks with the applied forces.

Figure 1.16 Free body diagram of stress bench

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Figure 1.17 The stress bench after casting concrete

The jacks are used to apply tension to the tendons. Hydraulic jacks are commonly used. These jacks work
on oil pressure generated by a pump. The principle behind the design of jacks is Pascal‟s law. The load
applied by a jack is measured by the pressure reading from a gauge attached to the oil inflow or by a
separate load cell. The following figure shows a double acting hydraulic jack with a load cell.

Figure 1.18

Anchoring devices are often made on the wedge and friction principle. In pre-tensioned members, the
tendons are to be held in tension during the casting and hardening of concrete. Here simple and cheap
quick-release grips are generally adopted. The following figure provides some examples of anchoring
devices.

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Figure 1.19

Harping Devices
The tendons are frequently bent, except in cases of slabs-on-grade, poles, piles etc. The tendons are bent
(harped) in between the supports with a shallow sag as shown below.

Figure 1.20 Harping of tendons

The tendons are harped using special hold-down devices as shown in Fig. 1.21.

Advantages and disadvantages of pretensioning

The relative advantages of pre-tensioning as compared to post-tensioning are as follows.
 Pre-tensioning is suitable for precast members produced in bulk.
 In pre-tensioning large anchorage device is not present.

The relative disadvantages are as follows.

 A prestressing bed is required for the pre-tensioning operation.
 There is a waiting period in the prestressing bed, before the concrete attains sufficient strength.
 There should be good bond between concrete and steel over the transmission length.

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Figure 1.21 Harping of tendons

1.2.3 POST-TENSIONING

Stages of Post-tensioning
In post-tensioning systems, the ducts for the tendons (or strands) are placed along with the reinforcement
before the casting of concrete. The tendons are placed in the ducts after the casting of concrete. The duct
prevents contact between concrete and the tendons during the tensioning operation.

Unlike pre-tensioning, the tendons are pulled with the reaction acting against the hardened concrete. If the
ducts are filled with grout, then it is known as bonded post-tensioning. The grout is a neat cement paste or
a sand-cement mortar containing suitable admixture. The grouting operation is discussed later in the
section.

In unbonded post-tensioning, as the name suggests, the ducts are never grouted and the tendon is held in
tension solely by the end anchorages. The following sketch shows a schematic representation of a grouted
post-tensioned member. The profile of the duct depends on the support conditions. For a simply supported
member, the duct has a sagging profile between the ends. For a continuous member, the duct sags in the
span and hogs over the support.

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Figure 1.22 Post-tensioning

Among the following figures, the first photograph shows the placement of ducts in a box girder of a
simply supported bridge. The second photograph shows the end of the box girder after the post-tensioning
of some tendons.

Figure 1.23 Post-tensioning ducts in a box girder

Figure 1.24 Post-tensioning of a box girder

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The various stages of the post-tensioning operation are summarised as follows.

1. Casting of concrete.
2. Placement of the tendons.
3. Placement of the anchorage block and jack.
4. Applying tension to the tendons.
5. Seating of the wedges.
6. Cutting of the tendons.

The stages are shown schematically in the following figures. After anchoring a tendon at one end, the
tension is applied at the other end by a jack. The tensioning of tendons and pre-compression of concrete
occur simultaneously. A system of self-equilibrating forces develops after the stretching of the tendons.

Figure 1.25 Stages of post-tensioning (shown in elevation)

Devices
The essential devices for post-tensioning are as follows.
1. Casting bed
2. Mould/Shuttering
3. Ducts
4. Anchoring devices
5. Jacks
6. Couplers (optional)
7. Grouting equipment (optional).

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Casting Bed, Mould and Ducts

The following figure shows the devices.

Figure 1.26 Casting bed, mould and duct

Anchoring Devices
In post-tensioned members the anchoring devices transfer the prestress to the concrete. The devices are
based on the following principles of anchoring the tendons.
 Wedge action
 Direct bearing
 Looping the wires

Wedge action. The anchoring device based on wedge action consists of an anchorage block and wedges.
The strands are held by frictional grip of the wedges in the anchorage block. Some examples of systems
based on the wedge-action are Freyssinet, Gifford-Udall, Anderson and Magnel-Blaton anchorages. The
following figures show some patented anchoring devices.

a) Freyssinet “T” system anchorage cones

b) Anchoring devices
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c) Anchoring devices VSL International Ltd

Figure 1.27 Anchoring devices

Direct Bearing. The rivet or bolt heads or button heads formed at the end of the wires directly bear against
a block. The B.B.R.V post-tensioning system and the Prescon system are based on this principle. The
following figure shows the anchoring by direct bearing.

Figure 1.28 Anchoring with button heads

Couplers
The couplers are used to connect strands or bars. They are located at the junction of the members, for
example at or near columns in post-tensioned slabs, on piers in posttensioned bridge decks.

Figure 1.29 Coupler for strands

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Grouting
Grouting can be defined as the filling of duct, with a material that provides an anticorrosive alkaline
environment to the prestressing steel and also a strong bond between the tendon and the surrounding
grout. The major part of grout comprises of water and cement, with a water-to-cement ratio of about 0.5,
together with some water-reducing admixtures, expansion agent and pozzolans.

Figure 1.30 Grouting equipment

1.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PRESTRESSING

Prestressing of concrete can be classified in several ways. The following classifications are discussed.
1. Source of prestressing force
This classification is based on the method by which the prestressing force is generated. There are
three sources of prestressing force: Mechanical, hydraulic and electrical.
2. External or internal prestressing
This classification is based on the location of the prestressing tendon with respect to the concrete
section.

Figure 1.31 External prestressing of a box girder

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Figure 1.32 Internal prestressing of a box girder

3. Pre-tensioning or post-tensioning
This is the most important classification and is based on the sequence of casting the concrete and
applying tension to the tendons.
4. Linear or circular prestressing
This classification is based on the shape of the member prestressed.

Figure 1.33 Circularly prestressed containment structure

5. Full, limited or partial prestressing

Based on the amount of prestressing force, three types of prestressing are defined.
6. Uniaxial, biaxial or multi-axial prestressing
As the names suggest, the classification is based on the directions of prestressing a member.

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Figure 1.34 Biaxial prestressing of a slab

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