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Research Methods of Professor Alavi@Sharif University of

Technology
Meisam Hejazinia

12/22/2012

1 First Session We will also discuss about case study, and the way
it is conducted.
Course in the form of general understanding of
research and methods. Quantitative: try to analyze a model over data.
Qualitative: try to create questionaire.
Goal of the course:
Reference book: cooper.
Create understanding of research proposal, detail,
methodology and components of research.
Objectives of course: 1. Create research proposal
2. Understand structure of research paper.
Topics that would be covered:
Theory, and approaches of research. How the
framework of research is created, and why theoritical Theory is story that you have built to explain.
background and argument.
Two types of research exists including:
General framework for creating research proposal.
1. Explanatory: Interpretation of photos of an
Basics of qualitative and quantitative research. accident, and what has happened between them.
These images are our data. Prescriptive and saying
How to collect data, and how analyze the results. what would happen if we change the configuraiton.
You will try story telling approach in this case. You
General understanding of important statistical will think about facts, and how to put them together
techniques. Not detail, but only general under- in a systematic way using methods and make sure
standing. It is only to help you know what is the that they are repeatable. Test should always have
technique and how the outcome should look like, method.
and explain its usability. 2. Confirmatory:

Goal of some of researches, called relational, is to Important feature of scientific research is that it is
understand the relation between different variables, systematic, has method, and steps. We also need to
saying that this behavior is function of that level of sample and collect limited data, yet generalize, and
behavior. However, there are some researches called extend it to other cases. This generalizability is very
experimental that check the the difference between important, since there should be theory building.
means.
Any research has limitation, no matter

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whether it is quantitative or qualitative. specially when there his huge chunk of data and you
have myriad variables. Still many people believe that
Empiricality is also very important, since you need even for this approach you need to have approach,
to be able to find data and test your research on. for example a Mandalyof table.
Creating a system from couple of promises is not
empirical. 2. Deduction: You will have theory with variables
that you know will have effect, and you try to detail
Whether model is working fine or not could be theory to check and predict based on. There is a loop
revealed only by testing. Induction method of here that you will test the theory, and based on new
mathematic is used hear by mean of creating theory observation revise the theory. In research there is
from facts. Deduction yet is different method that loop of interaction between mind and outside world.
suggests to break detail of the current theory and During this interaction you will revise your theory
integrate them to create another theory and new multiple times, for example entrance of attitude
model. first, then norm and so on on consumer behavior. In
summery in deductive method I got theory and will
Another important feature of good research is to go over data to reconfirm it, then I will decide based
have contribution, for example adding new dimen- on its prediciton.
sion to current dimensions. Sometimes contribution
is in terms of technique, a new research method Pure exploratory is not recommended, since it is
as an example. We sample since checking all the like reinventing the wheel. In many field rather it is
population is not possible. better to go over litrature review and create powerful
background, although it may limit your creativity.
Next a research should have history, and usually
it takes 6 to 7 month to research and understand
concept via litrature review. 2 Second Session
Observation is also an important issue, since for Approach deductive and inductive. Deductive try to
example questionaire could be biased with wrong define story from your observations. Interpretation
structure. Objectivity is very important feature of of relation between phenomenon. Try to say that
research. There is always subjectivity and bias in based on signals of first image what should have
data collection and interpretation, yet you should try happen in the first image that created the next
to control it. Chronological bias, context preserving image, and iterate the same process for other images
or selection bias are coupld of examples of biases then it would be deductive research.
that could exist in your research.
Theory has its components, and you could take
Patience is another important characteristic of theory and exhume its component and instead of
researcher, people may not attend on time, and there invent the wheel from scratch do the rearchitecture
are many challanges, yet you need to be hardheaded of the theory. To do this you need to test the theory
and be greatly motivated to not become upset. prediction in the new context.

There are two approaches for research: Exploratory: create theory from data. Confirma-
tory approach: does not create theory from scratch,
1. Induction: Try to leverage observation to just check it in context.
find out the system that generates these data of
observation. This is exploratory that you try to Only when current theories do not work in specific
find things out without any theory. It is very hard, context probably exploratory approach could make

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sense.
2. Qualitative: Interview are in this form, yet
Paradigms of research: we can also quantify them as well. We have a
phenomenon that we need to describe.
1. Positivist: job satisfaction and inflation for
example, and the researcher will stand out and just These two type of researches could be combined;
observe. This stemmed from generalization that you this happens for example when you have limited
take sample and generalize to greater population quantiative data, and try to overcome dearth of data
(e.g. leadership approach and job satisfaction). by appending the other type of approach to your
Interview is in this form. study.
Another classification based on time of data
2. Phenomenological: Tries to observe from collection:
the point of view of a person under study. This
appraoch is used in the form of case study, and is 1. Cross sectional: collect data about the field
not generalizable most of the time. They do not without considering about dynamic and causal
find generlizing approach valid (e.g. growth of one effect. Things do not happen simultaneously, and
company is totally different from growth of another). their effect in long run happens will happen. This is
in the form of a snapshot.
In interpreting behavior usually we see hybrid of
both paradigms. Generally if the phenomenon is 2. Time series, longitudinal: Collect data during
repeatable then positivist approach is valid, while time, daily, weekly, or monthly. We would be able
when it is unique phenomenological approach is to see dynamics of phenomenons, and will discuss
exercised. causality which is not same as correlation. There is
considerable complexity in this approach, specially
Type of research (based on primary goal): for management style of specific person, since people
change place and may have engaged in this survey
1. Basic: Create theoritical understanding of a 10 times.
phenomenon.
Another classification:
2. Applied: Spcific usage. Nature of prescriptive.
1. Experimental: Researcher could control and
3. Developmental change variables. This could be done in the form
of control group versus test group. There are
Another classificaiton of research: limited research in this form in management, since
it is extremely hard. Sometimes it is sensitive, for
1. Quantitative: counting nature. Mostly they example people may have not thought about this
should be objective, but some times we have per- revolutionary aspect previously. They try to control
ception and not objective value for example for other influential factors that could affect the result.
job satisfaction. We measure this by checking the
how it appears, for example from questionaire. We 2. Non experimental: Not able to control vari-
can quantify job satisfaction using tools that come ables, for example in their regression.
from manifastation. As a result data can be either
objective, preferable, or perceptive, if former not Collecting quality data really needs enough
available. As a result measureable researchs are in thought prior to collection, yet data collection is
quantitative research category. Number of variables not difficult job. The important point is to collect
are limited in these researches. quality data.

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3 Third Session
Another classification:
Is there any routine for research? Each research
based on its nature its routine and methodology
1. Exploratory: tries to provide causal ex- would be different, yet we may find some common
planation. This is in the form of relational and elements.
correlational. There could be correlation between
two variables, yet there would be another variable What is our research question? this question is
behind them that has its shadow on them, and you about what we are looking for. No matter whether
need to discover them as well. pure or applied this research question should be
clear, and you should be able to explain it. The
2. Descriptive: tries to create interpretation of the position of this element is in the introduction of
phenomenon which may not necessarily be about the research.
relations.
When it would become clear that this research is
Case study: case could be a person, organization looking for answering the problem in the organiza-
or an industry. We can use longitudinal, cross tion or relation between touched phenomenon and
sectional, exploratory, descriptive, or experimental, untouched one.
and they say they are not looking for generalization
in the form of extending statistically, but extending The number of these research questions should
theoritically. They call it research since it has be limited, and increasing the number of questions
method and is systematic. You must have design is not feasible, due to the scarcity of resources for
and evaluate it, and research again. research.

Action research in organizational development is We will discuss about litrature review. We need to
in this form, for example creating share vision in an read litrature and critically. Find models, method-
organization using specific model. ologies, techniques, and results that practitionaires
has reached. Another important thing is having a
framework. When reading litrature we are getting
There are limited number of people who are expert
knowledge, yet when we are thinking about our
in all of these types of researchs, yet you need to
question we must have framework to choose model
have general understanding about them, and try to
that would be more helpful for our research. Which
gain expertisie in specific one.
approach is more useful, and organization and its
characteristics require which model. You need to
You just go over exploratory analysis only when have model with boundary that would be contigent
you do not have framework, or framework is danger- upon your research question. You need to select
ous; otherwise, exploratory is really hard and you or integrate models based on your question, or you
become drown in the data. Framework helps you by may develop rather than integration that does not
giving you a glasses that tells you what information have considerable contribution. We are looking
to collect, and what not to. In positivist approach a glasses to look outside world with it. We need
they say that for any data collection you must have to explain why we are measuring specific variable.
justification, since measuring is really costly. If you Answering to this why question is identified within
be unaware and don’t understand context you will our framework.
encounter serious errors.
Person may have mistook and may find out that
its framework needs renovation. Framework gives

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you direction that limits your work and look at the (not itself) are in methods chapter. In discussion
phenomenon from that view. Theoritical framework they will go over non-statisitcal part and explain the
is not litrature but summery of it, integration of it, results.
or development over it.
In suggestion there could be two kind of sug-
Now that we have framework we will look for gestion, some for execution, and some for future
method. We will discuss about sample, characteris- research. Somethimes most of suggestions are about
tics of people, variables, and how we measure them. limitations of the research that has been result of
In this case, how will be clear. This will help others specific reason.
to repeat in systematic form. In other word, method
helps others to repeat in empirical. Then we will Validation will be discussed in method, that my
discuss about how sample should be formed and instrument is valid. Whether model is valid is
how collect data. When data would be ready, then whether my outcome answers my research question.
the question is about result, and how our data, and It is kind of validation of theory, since data behavior
analyze can help our research question. In dicussion complies with theory behavior.
we will discuss, how our data had success to answer
our question, and results. After litrature review, you may need to limit
theoritical framework, for example in one you may
You will have dicussion, conclusion and summary. go over interview with company for company growth
At last you should have independent part, and say modl to filter your theoritical framework and focus
that the general structure, and goal was this, and on specific aspect due to resource limitation.
this was the result, and we propose future research
in this way, and it is our executive implication. In discussion you critic your theoritical framework,
We try to define research question, and make it and you may come to future research suggestion that
communicable. Most probably previously people may modify your theoritical framework. Usually
have worked on this problem. You need to select time limitation results in reduced theortical frame-
your view from litrature, and create new perspective, work that gots modified during time.
and select your method. There should be strong
theoritical framework, and not general framework Each journal has specific priorities, some journals
that exploratory research is conducted based on. focus on theoritical framework and some value
methodology more. Each journal has its own norm.
Case study may have have minor variation in Some journals are more applied, and some are more
terms of these states, but normally you will have pure. Some start with theory, for example cooper
research question, introduction, data collection, book will say what is theory and how it works, yet
result, and discussion. another book may be focused on the methodology.
Some journals do not publish unless your paper has
Theoritical framework may be in the from of spe- a theory, yet some do not conern so much about
cific classification of litrature. We may have group theory, and framework of study.
variables, or organizational variables, and on those
cases you may need to highlight your contribution in Any research should either have scientific model or
terms of theoritical framework, yet if it is only in the you are thinking about resolving practical problem,
form of just selection that you pick specific research and you must be able to sunccinctly explain what
method, you will put it in the concluding part of you want to do with your research in the elevator.
litrature review in the last paragraph. Methodology For example based on understanding from the com-
has different chapter than methods. Data collection, pany a person wants to define reward system. In the
instrument, measures, and method of data analysis pure form you may want to evaluate different models

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for assesing service quality based on perception and qualitative approach as well.
of customers, that you may be able to add new
dimensions to it. These things are from different Today it may be important to think about what
nature within applied and pure research. You must not to read, instead of looking for what to read. In-
have a problem. You need to have a problem. If you dexing and title as a result is very important.
want to define pure research it is not simple, but If your title would not be good, people may not read
there should be minimum level of understanding in your paper. Keywords are also very important,
the domain, and you need to know what has been due to their role in the indexing.
done in the field and what are elements. You need to
have some understanding to create research question, Consequently, method was one important element
and without it you can not ask even a question. As in title, and another is sample. It may be important
a result your research should have question, which to talk about your samples in your title. Detail is
may be broad. put in the title based on contribution, for example
technology, culture, or date may be important to
If the research is applied you need to also un- put in the title.
derstand the field. Proper title usually is chosen
when research is finished, yet you must have kind In proposal introduction, you may need litrature
of broad title such as ”survay, compare, evaluate, review in limited form, four or five papers, and it
consider the relation” to start the research. Some helps to clarify what we want to do. Intorudction, no
people the title name is in the form of methodology matter whether in proposal, or research paper, there
and it is not clear what is objective, so you need to should be couple of constructs, such as motivation of
have objective explicitely expressed in the title of importance, and definition of key concepts. Report
the research. Next step is that when you read it the of research is very important, and you need to
goal would become clear. For example management define concepts. You need to define keywords
style is result of personality or not. Some styles in introduction, so that reader would be able to
are pedagogical, and some are personal based. For do systematic reading. Your research should be
example you may be introvert, and the question is developed in the mind of reader. For example if you
whether you can be transformation leader. Some are starting from quality discuss about definition
people say that title should be matchable with and its history. You will explain what is the problem
related titles, and the difference should be explicit that you try to answer in your research in the
with them, so it should not be considerably broad introduction. In systematic writing you will try to
that expert could not distinguish them. Title should reduce reading cost of reader, and not ask him to
not be so broad that it would be discernible, and it go back and forward in your paper to understand
should not also be so detail that it would become a it. This is the may reason that your paper should
paragraph. be like a story. You will try to explore and explain
the elements that will affect your dependant variable
The second concept is about communicating it. If that is under study. You need to then flow into the
research has contribution, it should be in the title so significance of the research, and then you will try
that it distinguishes it from other related researchs. to define the questions after the definition of the
For example it could be contribution of model or context. As a result a person who reads your paper
method. It could be from specific perspective, e.g. first will face the context. Questions may not be
from managerial perspective. A good research is really specific, and each question may be broke down
multi method and multi source. Some researches to seven questions, and seven topics. Introduction
have 360 degree approach, and it has perceptional should give background, history, and help reader to
perspective. In other word good research should be locate the subject, and should not overflow the mind
include experimental, non-experimenta, quantitative of the reader.

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different instruments and techniques. In litrature
You will explain that if you find the answer to the you will see paradigm, and fraemworks, but at last
question that what would be the significance. If it you need to create your own theoritical framework.
would be pure research significance may be contribu- If it would become more comprehensive then you
tion, sayin that we do not have any cognition about would be able to select the framework that matches
this aspect, and if I answer it a new facade will be properly with your context. It would be like a pool
open. For example we explain metnal model to find that you would have better access, and you will
out how we can measure shared mental model. If it get better understanding. You will understand for
would be applied you will say that this problem will example customer perception does not have only one
be resolved, and this policy will be operationalized. instrument and there are couple of other instruments
Your proposal should answer these questions of and each have its own pros and cons.
the audiances. Later in litrature you may un-
derstand that for example for trust we have six We have kind of papers that are called review
models, but he should understand that we will talk articles. There are couple of ways to conduct
about trust models. At the end of introduction you litrature review: one approach is to search based
will explain what would be the structure of the paper. on keywords based on your understanding of the
filed, and the second is to use review article. For
example before doing empirical study, they went over
litrature and reviewed considerable article review
4 Fourth Session to understand the gaps, and integrate them. They
read abstract and write key ideas. You can search
This session we will discuss about litrature review. untargetted based on your topic, or search review
Last session we discussed about the main concept articles. There is theoritical interest in these cases.
and elements that need to exist in introduction of They check whether they are able to integrate them.
research method. We explained that in proposal Some may not develop model, but say that in this
minimal of this should be prepared, but in the aspect myriad work has been done, yet there is a
main paper you may find out that there are other gap in this part. This is kind of stating state of art
dimensions that this research also may be significant of specific domain of study.
in, yet before starting the research you need to have
minimum of it. This kind of paper usually will reach some proposi-
tions, and suggests others to continue their research
Litrature review dimensions first will be discussed. over them. In litrature review you can search based
The first dimension is in what domain the research on keyword, title, and abstract, and you can also
is conducted, and what has been previous results. search for review article. They are invaluable source
This will help you to create theoritical framework. for your work usually, due to the strategic view of
It will help you to understand what approach and a practitionaire who has created the review article.
perspectives has been examined for understanding Emerald you can search for specific kind of paper,
the phenomenon. Another benefit is about the for example review article, or case study. This
methodology, showing that for example experimental categorization will save your time. As a result try
and correlational methodology for example exists. to consider review article. Going to the references
You will also understand the instruments and in review article would be next step, concurrent
techniques that is used in the field. with direct search. Review article helps you to
map top papers. These key articles are milestone of
For example someone is studying organizational development of the field.
efficacy, and understands that there are different per-
spectives, and each have different methodology, and As a result these review articles are like geograph-

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ical map that can help you to locate your research. social science section. Tomson cooperation created
You need to know the practitionaires of your field ISI, and they use impact factor and other criteria
of study to be deemed as expert in the field, and to rank journals. Impact factor explains number of
you need to read their paper critically. We will talk citations. They have other criterion as well, and do
about valid paper, and how it is measured and how classification based on. ISI gives you citation as
we can measure it. ISI is usually deemed as rating well, and will help you to know what is the paper
site for valid papers. that has the highest citation. It gives your abstract
and will tell you where is the journal. You may want
If the problem would specific, then you will to to search from different aspects in the tree form
understand which article not to read. Litrature may to find your papers. There is another section in ISI
start widely but needs to become specific to your called journal citation report. In this section based
field as you go forward. You need to write topics of on impact factor and other related criterion will give
litrature, and write it in the form that your objective you sorted journals. Acception rate of some journals
is writing review article. Mark the relevant ones, are 2 to 3%, and you should not be unhappy about
categorize them, and integrate them. rejection due to the intensive compeition.

Review article is not opposit to searching papers Science direct has alert part that you can subscribe
by keywords, but it is only an accelerator. Resource to in order to recieve information about upcoming
types will be discussed now. The first type is resarches.
textbook. Second type is research book, that group
of researchers are convoked to write papers and
the result would be a book. Emerald, science
direct, ebsco, Jstore, ProQuest, Prowess, 5 Fifth Session
Capitaline are search engines for research. You
must have enough keyword to search. Advance We talked about litrature review, and we will discuss
search of Emerald helps you to search for specific couple of points today. Last session we focused on
type of paper for example review paper, or case review article and their characteristics. Another
study. Searching hierarchically to search for example point is critical reading. Today we will discuss
in abstract, based on type and so on makes your about theory and it will be delineated in that section
search more efficient. Conceptual paper are papers as well. Ciritical reading means to always think
that introduce new concept, and try to differentiate about against when reading a text, and put why
it with other concepts. For example it could be just next to it when reading it. This needs skills.
about technological environment, and conceptualizes When you write why next to things you will find
it. General reviews are like litrature review yet are out that it is not really clear. Another is plagiarism,
generalized and not specific in the field. Research which suggests you respect the write, and do not
paper are for empirical study, has method, and copy from somewhere else. This has two extreme
theory. Technical paper may not be research and it which includes: not referencing, and reference for
would be about instruments. For example for job any sentence. If premise has been tested empirically
satisfaction study, using the main keyword leads it should be referenced. If the premise is not tested
to thousands of papers, and you need to add other you should write it in uncertain way saying ”it may
keywords to narrow down. ISI has higher weight for suggest that”, or seems, and possibly. This has
American journals, and Emarald has inclination to value since it shows objectivity, unlike professional
Europian journals. word that may look at this as uncertainty showing
incapability.
Some universities have softwares and it searches
for all publishers by itself. For ISI you need to search Critical writing means, when there would be a

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premise then it should become balanced. You need should have method and methodology, by mean of
to read against when you read fors. If there would be repitition, and it may be his finding but everybody
no against, then your text would be biased. Another could repeat it, and they suggest not to use I found,
thing in critical writing is that people do chrono- or We found, and it should be passive for result of
logical and historical review. This kind of review method. This approach was European, yet Ameri-
is based on publication. Today theme and critical can approach is different and is okay with using them.
writing in litrature review is valued. In other word,
you need to start from the most important idea, and You need to communicate what you are looking
then show for and against. For and against in a for and what is the context in your introduction. For
paragraph is called critical writing. Your report example when you are studying driving behavior,
is usually judged, and sometimes examiner does not there may be risky behavior, and other behaviors.
see you, and will write three times your paper a You need to explain what is the problem in your
critic. Your writing as a result should communicate introduction. Writing helps you to understand
with audiance. You may not mean something, what is in your mind, and unless you write it
but your text would be indicative of another you will not understand the gap. You finalize
meaning. Your text should be organized and your introduction with couple of questions.
proper structure. Writing litrature based on
paragraphs that have idea nad have for and We will now discuss about theory, and its signifi-
against shows that researcher had thought cance in research. Even in consulting profession you
critically. Reading the text in this case would be need to have theory, and you need to at least review
mind challange according to themese, and not like it in your mind, yet you may not find it in this con-
color shots for a drawing with no result. text.It may be unconcious for example based
on experience you know what on this specific
Systematic writing is another case. You must phenomenon three other phenomenon will
start from context and general explanation, and have effect. Theory that you would not be able to
create definitions. Your text should be development, use it in practice is not theory. Theory should explain
and anything the reader is reading now should have the phenomenon. Scientific work is to take the the-
been prepared before. In other word you should ory and try to make theory and reality close together.
make reader ready by providing definitions
in previous sections. Texts such as ”I strongly Theory can be viewed from two perspectives. We
believe”, and superlatives should not be used in had two approaches: the first one was exploratory to
the litrature. In research paper, based on the the create interpretation from data, and it is really hard
empirical evidance, to suggest something. It is in since you do not have framework to know what to
the form of suggestion, and you will have error consider and what not. Another approach was that
percentage. When you don’t have evidance the you got theory, and you want to check on data. For
only criteria is that you need to logically move the example motivation of people who study MBA. You
audiance in the way that he concludes that logically will say that I got 30 theories for motivation. You
you can reach this evidance. Empirical work is in may need to select theory from this pool, and you
the form of proposition. Proposition means idea is will go over the theory and evaluate the phenomenon
developed that suggests that this phenomenon will based on that theory. At that point you will need to
have an effect over another, yet it does not have decide, or you may take a theory that does not match
evidance yet. This will sequester research context the context. Theory that matches the context could
from managerial environment, and it would be in be brought, or you may read couple of theories and
the form of: it seems, it seems to be. do the interview to modify the theory for the context.

We have two approach is that your research For example we got a theory and you assess it;

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then you will draw the theory and think about how phenomenon, doing prediction and then data
it predicts in this context. For example does MBA collection. Some people may be listless, and
create orientation and value for different people. As due to lethargy do not review litrature and
a result it may have effect on motivation. This is go over exploratory approach, to invent the
in the form of prediction, saying that if MBA can wheel from scratch. As a result be apprehensive
satisfy needs of people, I will predict that it will to not start from the end and do the backward, and
affect their motivation based on expectancy theory. choose the proper approach to start from litrature
Second step is that you say that the problem is not review and theory.
expectation, the problem is that my age hinders
me from understanding, and become successful in Sometimes, afte prediction why is also very impor-
courses. As a result this is indicative of resource tant. Answering why shows theoritical prediction,
limitation and is prediction, based on expectancy and indicates existance of theory.
and instrumentality. Instrumentality is that my
peformance will help me to reach that point. Instru- Now we will discuss about concept and construct.
mentality here means that if I tried even with my Concept and construct relation is like data and
high capability I will not reach the peformance. The information. Data is like concept, and has less com-
result would be couple of hypothesis. This will help plexity. For example cost is concept. It is objective
me to predict. This prediction will be basis for my and simpler, like market share, need, emotion, and
empirical study. Prediction could be that people who memory. Construct, is is a concept, but has higher
are busy have lower expectancy, based on expectancy complexity. Construct is defined based on concepts.
theory. This will guide you to measure how many For example in behavior of management you can find
hour a person studies, and works. Performance constructs more. For example service quality could
would be perception of himself or friend. This be defined by concepts such as our visual perception
theoritical framework creats systematic way that and couple of other things. Constructs are not
explains. There would be a question that whether observable directly. For example organizational
other theory have any implication for our study. As citizenship that for definition you need to explain
a result deductive method different models will be details. Theory means interpretation that connects
seen in litrature and the simplest way is selection. coupld of concept and constructs in meaningful way,
You may found out that one of the variables has and creates interpretation.
greater effect on result, using your quantitative
approach, and you can use qualitative approach to
understand how we can modify these variables.
6 Sixth Session
If you do not have theory, you will not know what
you should measure, and you will be very inefficient, There is not a big problem to see things in general
since you need to ask people to allocate time and in proposal, yet your approach should be specified.
cost. Theory is story. Theory creates limitation. We will continue our discussion over theory.
Theory limits understanding, for naive peo-
ple. Experienced people will know many Last session we discussed about role of theory
theories and will take theoritical components in research. Posited that theory that does not
from couple of theories and combine them explain practice is not good theory. If theory does
to create new theory. Limitation pushes you to not explain phenomenon it should be curtailed.
choose limited theory and choose couple of variable Discussed about induction and deduction, and
out of 150 variables that may only improve your explained expectancy theory, saying that in theory
prediction only 20% with considerable cost. As a work you will predict according to theory, and then
result you will have the process of: explaining based on prediction do the analysis.

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organizational citizenship. As a result you need
Prediction should comply coupld of theories that to understand the meaning of conceptualization
explain the phenomenon. You need to say why you of constructs that researcher is using. You need
thought that this should exist, so you need to have to create concepts that forming the constructs
theory for the reason of this effect. In the model for the constructs, telling what we mean by the
that it develops you may have 5 to 7 phenomenon, constructs. When evaluating the constructs, since
and this will form a theoritical framework. This will it is not measurable directly, you need to work over
explain why you go to measure some variables. It it facets mean concepts that build it up. Using
is due to specific interpretation of the phenomenon, these concepts and operationalizing them we go over
and the data may tell you whether this theory is cor- measurement, else you will not be able to study the
rect or not. Theory helps us to explain phenomenon constructs. You need to read result of each research
or contextualize it. based on its conceptualization. Behavior may be de-
fined for example by concepts that are its component.
We then explained the second function of theory
is guide for data collection, while the first function You need to detail constructs to measure, else
was explaining phenomenon and conceptualizing it. you would not be able to measure them. Behavior
measurement has its own limitation. Perception is
Each theory has building block. These building based on self reported. Behavior could be observed,
blocks include concept and construct that their could be self reported, or ask others to express
relation is like data and information. Complexity their opinion about the other person in 360 degree
of construct is higher, and should be explained by form. This is important for measurement. Many
concepts. We said service quality construct is defined instruments of questionaires are not all self reported,
with conscepts of reliability and empathy. Construct but are in 360 degree form. Essense of these shows
of m-government is defined in terms of concepts of which method is better for measurement. Concept
signifiance, authority, and so on. Construct may and constructs are building block. Now we will
be things that are not directly observable, mean define theory in addition to previous function of it
we would not be able to observe them directly. In that we discussed previously. Theory connects these
measurement we will face this. How we can measure concept and constructs toghether. If I use argument
the constructs that are not directly observable, for and use other researches to strengthen argument
example job satisfaction. I say before data collection I have this reason for
relation of one construct over another, the person is
In organizational citizenship, you may have defini- creating a theory.
tion that behavior that are higher that expected be-
havior. It may not be palpable. Conceptualization Theory is systematic interrelated relationship
is to tell how the construct is manifested. In between concept, construct, definitions, and theo-
many fields we measure manifestation of constructs, ritical arguments. We will discuss about theoritical
for example altruistic behavior is manifestation argument today. Theoritical argument is logical
of organizational citizenship. Percision, and not reason about the relation among phenomenons.
nagging would be another manifestation. When they say that your claim does not have
theoritical argument, it means it is in your mind
Construct in itself may not be clearly, and if and they do not have reason to explain it, and it
you need to conceptualize it, you will go over is only my feeling. However, in research this does
concepts that are observable, and do not have not make sense and you must have reason. The
complexity of constructs. From one constructs you objective is to increase your understanding from
may have different conceptualization. You need to phenomenon. If I would not be able to explain it
know what is conceptualization of researcher from properly, this does not create understanding. We will

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discuss about causality and correlation, since third a theory we need to show support behind
phenomenon may have an effect of one phenomenon explanation, and we need to show how we reached
with another. You may say that there is correlation the theory, and if it does not have enough support
between water and coke, but you may not have seen it would be week theory. Theory should have
that hot whether is the reason. In social science we strong argument behind. Sometimes you may
say that correlation does not indicate causality, and have multiple explanation behind your theory, and
if you don’t know reason it is not significant since there would be multiple interpretation and theory,
it is only a correlation. If the other phenomenon and you don’t have enough evidance in your data
was significant in regression, then the other relation that which one is better. When you go over theories,
would become insignificant. you need to look at the argument behind them by
critical reading. You use the prediction to test,
Proposition is a scientific prediction. If one said yet if you don’t use strong theory, and use weak
that based on this reason charismatic leader will theory you are risking your research. Strong theory
be developed with higher probability in critical is prominant indicator of quality of research.
condition. This is proposition that is scientific
prediction and has the basis of theoritical argument. Each discipline may have its own definition of
Explanation of proposition would be in the form constructs. Theoritical argument is the logic that
of theoritical argument. Hypothesis is statistical we brought to reach conclusion from premises. For
presentation of proposition. To test proposition you example if the leader would be more confident then
need to convert concepts to variables. In other word its leadership would be more effective. We need to
proposition is statistical presentation of proposition. give reasons in theoritical argument that you could
Hypothesis has methodological language, and propo- deduct something from. In scientific word your
sition has scientific language. prediction should have theoritical support. Theory
should be reasonable logic that moves you from
You must have strong propositions first that deductions to predictions.
based on them hypothesis will be created that guide
you to the method. Finally theory should explain
this propsotion. Last test should be done based
on facts. Good theory should create fitness. In
other word good theory should fit data. Theory has
explanation, and explains why specific phenomenon
has happen. For example a theory says that people
have understanding that affect their culture. Based
on the study Japenese women describe themselves
based on their relation, and another way is they
describe themselves independently. Based on self
perception people will have different behavior. We
have a culture as construct, and there are around
700 description. We need to conceptualize it in some
way. Theory gives you a story and explains
why this is happening. You will have prediction,
and based on different research you will collect data,
and based on level of data support the theory will
recieve acceptance.

Theory should have support. When we hear

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