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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

PAVEMENT DESIGN

Analysis of the measured performances


of High Modulus Asphalt (HMA) and
Road Base Asphalt (RBA) and a proposal
for a compensation principle
Pavement design - Fundamental Characteristic
Michel CHAPPAT
Director of Research
and Development
Modulus and fatigue
COLAS

Analysis of the Measured Performance


(France)

Xavier CARBONNEAU
Head of the Asphalt mixes
Department 1
COLAS CST
(France)
of High Modulus Asphalt (HMA)
Yann LEFEUVRE
Head of the Structural
and Road Base Asphalt (RBA)
Design Department
COLAS Expertise
and Documentation Centre
(France)
and a Proposal for a Compensation Principle
It is becoming increasingly frequent to perform full mix design
studies which include the determination of fundamental
characteristics such as the modulus and fatigue strength as
defined in the standard NF EN 13108-1 [1]. Historically, these
have been known as level 4 studies. The Colas Group possesses
a large database which provides the basis for a preliminary
detailed analysis dealing essentially the importance of the
nature of the binder and design possibilities. We shall begin
by describing recent changes in standards, and the concept of
critical distance, which is essential when the results from
different laboratories are compared. We shall then present
our results for two major families of products, namely class 2 high
Colas

modulus asphalt (HMA) and class 4 road base asphalt (RBA).


Last, the article will discuss the concept of compensation which now seems to be essential
in the light of our knowledge about measured performance and also the feedback we
have had about our mixes. These results open the way for a broader debate on the
acceptance procedures for a mix design, not only at a contractual level, but also with
regard to the need to make use of available supplies of bitumen.
Several responses are possible when noncompliant results are obtained. In the case of a
mix design study which is carried out a long time in advance of the works, the mix design
process can be repeated, using the first series of results to optimize the composition by
changing the granular skeleton, optimizing the binder content, or changing the binder class
when this is possible. Sometimes, however, repeating the full mix design study is incompa-
tible with the demands of the project. In this case, it is possible to check that the intrinsic
characteristics of the aggregate permit the proposed structure to be validated with the
Alizé software package for the traffic level in question. Another alternative consists of
arbitrarily deciding on a modification in the structure, an increase in thickness or an increase
in the binder content for example, without any additional experimental verification.

72 europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA


Changes in the standards performance simultaneously.
This means that it is often easy to work
The naming system within this density range, except in the case
of some types of aggregate which have
Many new standards have appeared a particularly high international friction
in the last decade, the most recent of these being or which are particularly porous. But it is
European. Recent modifications include how asphaltic necessary to prove good performance in the case
mixtures are named. The standard NF EN 13108-1 of a voids content equal to or higher than 3%,
thus considers a large proportion of the existing when the product in-situ often exhibits lower voids
asphaltic concrete (AC) mixes for wearing courses, contents. This change was nevertheless necessary,
base courses and road base layers, and codifies as it provides an additional guarantee concerning
the European names for the different products. the modulus and fatigue performance, and means
For road base asphalt (RBA) and high modulus that mix designs which are too workable
asphalt (HMA), the European standard takes in the laboratory but which may
the form AC Ø base binder, where Ø indicates subsequently be difficult to lay are not proposed.
the diameter of the largest aggregate and binder
is the class of binder in the mix. In the case Changes in test standards
of France, this name gives no indication
of the performance level to be achieved. Another area where changes which are sometimes
This is stated in the characteristics recommended not very obvious have occurred is testing.
in the national foreword of the standard For example, the deflection used during the fatigue
NF EN 13108-1, which leads, test was formerly measured statically.
when only the modulus and fatigue strength When the standard NF P 98-261-1 [4]
characteristics are applied, to the following names: was republished in July 2001, this measurement
became dynamic. The change was only noticed
• AC Ø base binder by those conducting the test, who had to upgrade
Smin 14000, ε6-130 Vi =3% and Vs=6% their equipment to perform their task.
for a class 2 HMA as specified in the standard Apart from these equipment changes,
NF-P 98-140 [2] and this development, on the face of it unimportant,
reduces the result for HMA by approximately 6 to
• AC Ø base binder 10µstrain, as measured on a few mixes
Smin 11000, ε6-100 Vi=5% and Vs=8% for which we used both ways of obtaining
for a class 4 road base asphalt as specified the experimental results. Put another way, the result
in the standard NF P-98-138 [3]. which before gave an estimated fatigue life of 132µstrain,
can lead to a value of, say, 126 with the new test
As what we are about to say relates to procedure. Some mixes that were compliant in the past
the measured level of performance for products no longer are today. The reason for this is
belonging to the HMA or RBA families, that the change in the test standard was not
with no details about D, or the class of hard binder accompanied by changes in product performance
(10/20 15/25, 20/30, special binder), in the rest specifications. This too is all to the benefit of the client,
of this article we have decided only to discuss who obtains “more” for the same request.
class 2 HMAs and class 4 RBAs. It is less acceptable for the contractor, as a mix
which as perfectly satisfactory in the long term
Changes in the product standards in-situ is no longer accepted.
A last subtlety, still with regard to the fatigue
Among the earliest modifications, which date strength test, relates to the definition of the service
back to when the French product standards life. In the July 2001 version of the standard
were updated in 1999 and which were retained NF P 98-261-1, the conventional failure criterion
among the characteristics in the standard was defined as follows: “a specimen is considered
NF EN 13108-1, is the voids contents range for test to have been destroyed when the reaction force
specimens. In the case of class 2 HMA, the density at its head corresponding to the application
must be between 94 and 97%. In this case, of the deflection there has been halved”.
the very concept of HMA requires the mix to be In the European version of the standard,
dense with a high content of hard binder in order to NF EN 12697-24 [5] of March 2005, later modified
obtain the required modulus and fatigue strength in NF EN 12697-24 + A1 [6] of September 2007, >>>

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Analysis of the Measured Performance of High Modulus
Pavement design -
Fundamental Characteristic Asphalt (HMA) and Road Base Asphalt (RBA)
Modulus and fatigue and a Proposal for a Compensation Principle
this conventional (constant displacement) failure The fatigue results were all obtained from bending
criterion becomes “the number of load tests on trapezoidal specimens. No estimate
applications, Nf/50, that leads to a halving of the fatigue life was made using the experimental data
of the complex stiffness modulus as compared obtained from the non-linearity test using
with its initial value”. the servo-controlled machine for rheological tests
These minor differences should not lead to (MAER). The reason for this is that the relationships
one proposed mix design being favoured stated in the LPC mix design handbook [7] were
over another. We do not have any comparative figures drawn up some time before the above-mentioned
that would enable us to state that this change changes in the test conditions. New studies
in the definition of failure is responsible for would therefore be required in order to update
a significant difference in the result, them. The number of mixes tested remains
but a single firm should not be responsible for rather small for a statistical analysis of this data,
producing this type of information. in particular because we have included
It is nevertheless necessary in order to avoid all the possible variations (nature of the aggregate,
possible sterile discussions and provide nature of the binders, binder content…).
concrete information in the case of an analysis Under these conditions, we cannot hope to obtain
of results from international studies that use systematically the conventional performance
a different failure criterion. It also seems requirements of 14,000MPa and 130µstrain.
unfortunate that it can lead to a distortion
of competition, as one player may take advantage In the figures that follow we have not removed
of this type of bias to give its technical proposals the points that correspond to specimens
a better chance. which are noncompliant as regards density.
However, we have stated their number,
Presentation of results and they do not bring the general remarks
into question in this case either. We have also made
In this article we have decided only to present some comments about some observations
our data on class 2 HMA and class 4 RBA. that can be made on the basis of our data
This data was obtained from the results and that presented by the LCPC in the framework
of more than 170 mix design studies conducted of the theme CH 17 during the technical workshops
at the Colas Scientific and Technical Campus (CST). of 9 September 2008 entitled “Structural
A test room consisting of 6 machines, i.e. 4 “eccentric” durability of pavements: pathology
machines type and 2 “vibration” machines was and maintenance” [8]. As this database
set up in order to guarantee optimum productivity was set up before 2002 we cannot be
and reliability of the results (Photo 1). These values certain that the tests were conducted
were obtained between 2003 and 2008 under uniform conditions so it may contain
and represent only part of our data, both results from static and dynamic determination
but the conditions of testing were of deflection.
identical throughout this period, with a dynamic The graphic representation we have used shows
measurement of deflection that took account for each mix, on the abscissa, the modulus
of the remarks in the previous section. at 15°C, mostly determined under bending
on trapezoidal specimens but also under direct tension
using the servo-controlled machine
for rheological tests (MAER), and, on the ordinate,
the fatigue lifetime ε6 determined under bending
at 10°C and 25Hz. The mixes which are considered
to be compliant are therefore located
in the upper right-hand part of the graphs.

The case of road base asphalts (RBA)

Over the period, we have 65 fatigue test results


for RBA, of which 38, i.e. 58%, involved
Photo 1 class 4 RBAs. Looking at all the results for road
Part of the test room used
for fatigue tests on mixes base asphalts, 30% of them were noncompliant.
Colas

at the Colas CST These were almost exclusively formulated

74 europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA


with 35/50 pen asphalts. Six of the modulus of which 2 belonged to class 1 and 8 had
results in this population were obtained no clearly stipulated class, but an ε6 value
by a direct tensile modulus test using the MAER. of approximately 130. Based on the distribution
The results are shown in Figure 1. The binder of Epsilon 6 values for the HMAs,
contents were between 4.4 and 5.21%. if we eliminate the 2 class 1 mixes,
we obtain 34 fatigue strength results
Only 35 of the 38 results have been shown, that are below the requirement of 130µstrain
as for 3 mixes we obtained a noncompliant result for a class 2 HMA.
for the fatigue strength without a modulus
measurement. The proportion of noncompliant 130
results for the class 4 RBAs was found Fatigue strength (μstrain) 120
to be 42% on the basis of a comparison
between our values and those recommended 110
in the foreword to the standard NF EN 13018-1
(Smin 11000 and ε6-100). We did not perform 100
this evaluation for the other classes of RBA
90
we studied as the population of results was
too small (20 class 3 RBA and 7 class 2 RBA). 80

Colas
For the class 4 RBAs, our population 70
is comparable with LCPC’s: 31 for the LCPC 9,000 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000
and 38 for Colas. Modulus at 15°C (MPa)
The mean Epsilon 6 values for the 2 populations Figure 1
are similar: 99µstrain for the LCPC Plot of the modulus and fatigue values for the class 4 RBAs available in the Colas
and 101 for the CST, with standard deviations database for the period 2003-2008

of 13 and 10µstrain respectively. In the case of the LCPC


database, the proportion of noncompliant mixes 180
on the basis of the fatigue strength 170
Fatigue strength (μstrain)

on its own was 55%, so we did not consider 160


the possibility of noncompliance for the modulus. 150
Therefore for the Colas and LCPC datasets, 140
approximately 50% of our results 130
are noncompliant, which is a very high proportion.
120
We cannot take the comparison much further,
110
as we have no precise information
100
about the LCPC mix designs, but it is
already enough to show the need to check 90
Colas

the performance in the case of class 4 RBAs. 80


10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 22,000
The case of HMA Modulus at 15°C (MPa)
N.B. In the case of three mixes, the thresholds were exceeded but the voids contents
Over the period, we have 109 results for HMAs, were lower than the minimum value stated in the product standard.
only one of which is for a class 1 HMA. If these are included, the proportion of noncompliant mixes rises to 67.5%.
In this population, 11 of the modulus values were
Figure 2
determined by a MAER test. Analysis Graph showing the modulus and fatigue values for the class 2 HMAs in the Colas
of the modulus and fatigue values in comparison database for the period 2003-2008
to the characteristics recommended in the foreword
to the standard NF EN 13018-1, Smin 14000 and ε6-130 We can therefore consider that, for the ε6 criterion
for class 2, gives 65% [70/108] of noncompliant results. alone without taking account of the modulus,
This data is shown in Figure 2. 48% of the results were noncompliant.
Whatever databases were used, this percentage
In this case too we can compare these percentages was always close to or above 50%.
to the data in the LCPC database. As with the class 4 RBAs, these proportions
The most recent data presented [8] related to show how difficult it is to obtain
a population of HMAs consisting of 73 mix designs, compliant performance. >>>

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Analysis of the Measured Performance of High Modulus
Pavement design -
Fundamental Characteristic Asphalt (HMA) and Road Base Asphalt (RBA)
Modulus and fatigue and a Proposal for a Compensation Principle
Figure 3 supplements this first example Before engaging in another analysis
with a graph showing the percentage of the nature of binders, it is important to remind
of binder in the evaluated HMA mixes. ourselves that in this area we should bear
This figure shows that the binder content in mind the precision of the data,
on its own is not a sufficient guarantee particularly with regard to the reproducibility
that the desired level of performance of the measurements in question.
will be achieved. In some cases, The large-scale programme of cross tests performed
in spite of binder contents in excess of 6%, in France allows us to judge the repeatability
for example with porous aggregate, and reproducibility of the test methods
the required characteristics that are applied for modulus and fatigue strength
for a class 2 HMA were not achieved. measurements [9,10], which are the values used
in the European standards. This is fortunate,
180 >= 6,01 as this data is not available for all the other tests
[5,66 to 6,01] that feature in European standards. We
170
Fatigue strength (μstrain)

[5,48 to 5,66]
160 [5,21 to 5,48]
therefore have a numerical value for the critical distance
150
as defined in NF ISO 5725-6 [11]. Two results
cannot be considered as being different
140
if the difference between them, in absolute terms,
130
is less than this critical distance. This is
120
a very important point. It assumes that when
110
a comparison is made between the experimental values
100 obtained from two laboratories the measurements
90 have been performed with the same batches
Colas

80 of materials. Using the published reproducibility values


10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 22,000
and assuming that for a formula we obtain
Modulus at 15°C (MPa) a modulus value of 14,000MPa and a fatigue
Figure 3 strength of 130µstrain, we have shown on Figure 4
Plot showing the modulus and fatigue values for the class 2 HMAs the domain occupied by the critical distance.
according to their percentage binder content (Colas database for 2003-2008)

We can therefore see that another laboratory


Compliance of mixes could obtain results that are considerably
lower than those required by the standard
This data reveals a situation which can be with the same mix design and the same batch
considered to be abnormal for standardized of constituents. This raises the issue of what analysis
products, for which as one could expect should be performed in the case of
noncompliance to be the exception. an independent study involving the full mix design
process. This situation has already been
180 frequently encountered in the case of rutting resistance,
170 for example for a wearing course
Fatigue strength (μstrain)

160 product AC 10 surf 35/50 (a semi-coarse


150
bituminous concrete) when we only have
one experimental result of 4.8% rutting
140
after 30,000 cycles. In principle, this result would
130
place the material in class 3, but a check
120 may very well give a new value that is 5% higher.
110 The same type of situation is quite possible
100 with regard to the modulus and fatigue strength.
90
Colas

80 It is nevertheless worth pointing out


10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 22,000 that to be able to make a comparison
between the results from two independent studies,
Modulus at 15ºC (MPa) both laboratories must start with samples taken
simultaneously from the same stockpiles, and use
Figure 4
Plot showing the domain covered by the reproducibility limit for the modulus test the same batch of asphalt. For example, if we wish
and the fatigue strength test around an experimental value of 14,000MPa and 130µstrain to apply rigorously the standard NF ISO 5725-6

76 europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA


on the use in practice of accuracy values, Nevertheless, in the case of some sources
there is no reason in principle for favouring of binders, we are beginning to have
one laboratory over another, as long as both follow a significant number of results, which reveal
the test procedure to the letter. some major tendencies. These are shown in Figure 5,
This raises the problem of the acceptability of test for bitumens from four different sources.
results obtained under repeatable and reproducible Some domains which cover
conditions with a single result from each laboratory. all our experimental results can be identified.
This first condition demands In addition, it is important to emphasize
that the two characterizations be performed that for each source, the tests were conducted
with exactly the same batches of constituents. with different batches which each time
Therefore, initially, it is necessary to compare corresponded to a different production run
the difference between the two experimental values of the class of binder in question.
with the reproducibility limit.
180
Also, ideally, the specimens should be selected
source A
at the last stage of the preparation procedure, 170
source B
Fatigue strength (μstrain)

i.e. specimens manufactured by the same laboratory 160 source C


because the repeatability and reproducibility limits source D
150 RAP
were established for modulus and fatigue strength
140
tests. As this condition cannot be met, we are forced
130
to compare the difference between the experimental
results and the reproducibility limit of the test. 120
If it is lower, the two results must be considered 110
to be in agreement, and the mean of the results 100
must be used as the established result.
90
In this case, to obtain a mean value that is

Colas
compliant for the modulus and the fatigue strength, 80
10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 22,000
i.e. 14,000MPa and 130µstrain
from both the experimental results, assuming that Modulus at 15°C (MPa)
the difference between the individual values is Figure 5
Combined presentation of the modulus and fatigue strength results according to
the maximum possible, i.e. the reproducibility limit, binder source
the minimum results must be 15,370MPa
and 134µstrain. A performance requirement These areas do not have precise boundaries,
of this type exceeds the characteristics but they do reveal that some binders
recommended by the standard, have a tendency to produce better modulus
with a resulting increase in the cost or fatigue results. It is thus clearly apparent
of the proposed products increases. that with the binder from source A,
the desired modulus is more often obtained,
The importance but attaining the desired fatigue strength may be
of the nature of the binders less certain. In contrast, the binder from source B
tends to produce mixes which are noncompliant
As has been stated above, the studied mix designs with regard to their modulus, but with a fatigue
correspond to all the studies that have been strength which is frequently higher than 140µstrain.
conducted in the Colas Group Scientific On the other hand, with some binders, which give
and Technical Campus and therefore include variations very poor fatigue strength results, it is
in aggregate, granular skeleton, and the nature impossible to correct this shortcoming by a reasonable
and proportion of the binder. Those working increase in the binder content of the mixes.
in the field will understand how difficult it is
to obtain accurate data on variations Last, we can also see that the small number
of parameters such as binder content of mix designs shown on Figure 5 that contain
and/or density. It is not difficult to understand recycled asphalt exhibit very satisfactory performance,
why there have been few studies even if they have been made with a binder
that are as comprehensive as those performed which is softer than 10/20 pen, for example 20/30 pen.
in the framework of the LCPC This graph clearly shows the crucial importance
multiannual test campaigns, which gave rise of the nature of the binder used in the mix design
to the curves proposed by Moutier [12]. study, in terms of its possible implications >>>

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Analysis of the Measured Performance of High Modulus
Pavement design -
Fundamental Characteristic Asphalt (HMA) and Road Base Asphalt (RBA)
Modulus and fatigue and a Proposal for a Compensation Principle
and the uncertainties associated with In recent years, asphalt, particularly hard asphalt,
industrial production. In some cases, the mix design been in short supply on a number of occasions
is requested a long time before the start of works, as a result of high demand for HMA
and in this case, the supplier is often unknown, because of their technical and economic advantages.
except in case of large projects which require Our data also show that a shortcoming
asphalt suppliers to make commitments with regard to one of the characteristics (modulus
at a very early stage. But the duration or fatigue) is often accompanied by performance
and the cost of fatigue tests mean that it is for the other that is better than required.
impossible to conduct a systematic examination This was also observed during the LCPC
of all possible bitumen supplies. studies of the correlation between laboratory test
Last, as shown by Photo 2, it is results and the mechanical characteristics
reasonable to think that in addition to the binder, measured on specimens taken from pavements [14].
the aggregate can also play a role by absorbing The concept of compensation, which is
some of the binder, which may also impact very commonly used in connection with aggregate,
on performance. We shall not examine even if its use has been somewhat reduced
this issue here, but it doubtless provides by European standardization,
some good topics for technical studies. seemed potentially worth investigating
in the framework of structural design,
for class 2 HMA and class 4 RBA.

Compensation
between the modulus and fatigue

Some general remarks


about the French design method

Mechanical design in France is based on


the methodology described in publications
by the LCPC and the SETRA,
namely the 1994 Technical Guide [16].

The LCPC-SETRA pavement design method uses


the Alizé structural design software package.
Colas

This is based on the Burmister method,


Photo 2 and computes the stresses and strains
The absorption of bituminous binder by the mineral skeleton
at different points in a semi-infinite multilayer
structure, in which each layer is uniform
The compliance of mixes is assessed by checking and isotropic with linear elastic behaviour.
the modulus and fatigue performance.
The data set out above clearly show The approach followed for the design study
that the characteristics of the binder as determined is as follows:
by its source and the industrial process • determining the allowable limits for materials
used in its production may lead to a combination on the basis of their intrinsic mechanical
of performance values which does not necessarily characteristics (the fatigue law for the material)
attain those recommended in the national foreword and the traffic,
to the standard NF EN 13108-1, • modelling the existing structure on the basis
amended in the guide for the use of hot mixes [13]. of the thicknesses present, the stiffness moduli
Characteristics that are easy to determine, of the materials and their Poisson coefficient,
such as the penetration and the ring and ball • calculating the stresses and strains
temperature, are absolutely unsatisfactory in the different levels of the material
for measuring the fatigue performance under reference loading, i.e. a worksite
of a mix. Some hard binders exhibit loading machines,
a clear tendency to have a “low” modulus, • comparing the values calculated by
combined with very high fatigue strength. the model to the allowable values
For others, the opposite applies. determined previously.

78 europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA


In general, three criteria are used during pavement and expressed without units, which is used
design: for asphalt pavements.
1. The vertical deformation of the subgrade 3. The horizontal stress at the base of materials
denoted by εz and expressed without units, that are treated with hydraulic binders,
which is used for flexible and asphalt denoted by σt and expressed in bars,
pavements. which is used for pavements
2. The horizontal deformation at the base made with materials treated
of asphaltic materials denoted by εt with hydraulic binders. >>>

A detailed description of the equations


for calculating allowable limits
This article is primarily concerned with thick asphalt structures and therefore the allowable
value of only two of the three criteria listed above: the allowable horizontal deformation
at the base of asphalt roadbase materials - εt,adm, and the allowable vertical deformation
at the top of the subgrade, εz,adm.

The first stage when determining the allowable limits is to convert the cumulative number
of HGVs during the service life, TC, into an equivalent number of 13 tonne reference axle
loads (the French maximum axle load), NE. The relationship between the two is written
NE = CAM x TC where CAM is the mean aggressiveness coefficient of the traffic
which is generally obtained from design manuals and which depends on the type of structure
and the type of HGV making up the traffic. As an example, its default value for urban service
roads is 0.1 and for roads on the major network 0.8 [15].

On this basis and with reference to a number of coefficients specified below,


these two design criteria are given by the following equations [16]:

• The allowable deformation at the base of class 2 HMA or class 4 RBA:

εt,adm = Kn x Ks x Kr x Kc x Kt x ε6, where

- Kn = (NE/106)b is a coefficient linked to the number of equivalent axles


where “b” is the slope of the fatigue line of the material;

- Ks is a coefficient linked to the quality of the subgrade which is equal to 1/1.2


if the subgrade is in class PF1, 1/1.1 if it is in PF2 and 1 if it is in class PF3 or PF4;

- Kr = 10-ubδ and δ = [SN2 + (c.Sh/b)2]0.5 is a coefficient that expresses


the probabilistic approach used in the method where “u” is the fractile associated with
the design risk according to normal probability distribution tables,
“SN” is the standard deviation of the results from the fatigue tests, “Sh” is the dispersion
that affects laying thicknesses and “c” is a constant with a value of 0.02 m-1;

- Kc is a calibration coefficient determined by modelling the in-situ behaviour of test sections;

- Kt = (E10°C/ Eéq)0.5 is a coefficient linked to the design temperature where E10°C is


the modulus at 10°C/10Hz and Eéq that at the design temperature Téq (15°C in metropolitan
France) and 10Hz ;

- ε6: is the deformation leading to failure after 106 cycles at 10°C/25Hz.

• The allowable vertical deformation at the top of the subgrade:

εz,adm = 0.012 x NE-0.222

europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA 79


Analysis of the Measured Performance of High Modulus
Pavement design -
Fundamental Characteristic Asphalt (HMA) and Road Base Asphalt (RBA)
Modulus and fatigue and a Proposal for a Compensation Principle
From this brief review of the fundamentals a role in determining the thermal correction
of the design methods, we can see that the impact coefficient, Kt, described above.
of the mechanical characteristics of the asphaltic • For the structural design results (Alizé software)
materials occurs at two levels: where it is necessary to input the value
• For the allowable limits of the mixes, of the complex modulus of the asphaltic material,
essentially via the deformability value, ε6, in particular. Variations in this modulus
the gradient of the fatigue slope, b, lead directly to a change in the deformation field
and also the complex modulus which plays within the structure, especially within the mix.

Hypotheses Our E/ε6 “compensation” approach:


principle and justification
• Reference load: standard 6.5t twin axle
• Traffic TC420: 200 HGVs/day for 20 years with 2% annual growth The aim of this section is to establish pairs
• Traffic TC620 : 1,200 HGVs/day for 20 years with 2% annual growth of modulus and fatigue values (E/ε6) for a class 2
high modulus asphalt (HMA 2) and a class 4 road
• Design risk: 10% for TC420 and 2% for TC620
base asphalt (RBA4) which allow a given structure
Table 1 to remain valid with respect to the design rules.
Main hypothetical design alternatives of study

We will thus answer the question of how much ε6


TC620 / PF2 TC420 / PF4
should be increased (or decreased) to compensate
0.025m very thin for a reduction (or an increase) in the modulus
0.04m thin asphaltic concrete
asphaltic concrete of the mix E for unchanged design hypotheses
0.04m thin asphaltic concrete 0.10m HMA2 (layer thicknesses, traffic, subgrade).

0.09m HMA2 For this purpose, we shall consider


0.10m HMA2 Subgrade class PF4 two standard structures using HMA2 and RBA4
that were taken from the reference LCPC-SETRA design
Subgrade class PF2
manuals [15,16] in order to illustrate
Table 2 two extreme cases, one relating to a thick structure
Pavement structures designed for high-modulus asphalt study and the other a relatively thin one.

TC620 / PF2 TC420 / PF4 The choice of these two extreme pavement cases
0.08m semi-coarse 0.06m semi-coarse allows us to take in all the customary road
asphaltic concrete asphaltic concrete thicknesses for HMA2 and RBA4.
Consequently, it will be possible to apply
0.11m RBA4 0.09m RBA4
our conclusions to all normal road structures.
0.11m RBA4
Subgrade class PF4
Subgrade class PF2 Design hypotheses
The hypotheses (Table 1) comply with
Table 3 the 1998 LCPC-SETRA catalogue [15]
Pavement structures designed for Class-4 asphalt treated roadbase aggregate
mentioned above, and relate to two types
of structure, one thick and the other thin,
Poisson
Material Modulus (MPa) ε6 with the following pairs of traffic class
coefficient
and subgrade class:
Thin and very thin 5,400 Does not work
• thick structure for heavy traffic: TC620 / PF2
asphaltic concrete in tension 0.35
• thin structure for low traffic: TC420 / PF4
HMA2 (standard values) 14,000 130×10 -6 0.35 The reference HMA2 structures
RBA4 (standard values) 11,000 100×10-6 0.35 from the catalogue [15] are as follows (Table 2).
The RBA4 reference structures obtained
Subgrade class PF2 50 / 0.35
with the hypotheses in [15] are as follows (Table 3)
Subgrade class PF4 200 / 0.35 (the surfacing layers have been selected
N.B.: the modulus for the mix is the value obtained at 15°C/10Hz
arbitrarily by analogy with the RBA3 structures
in the catalogue).
Table 4 The mechanical characteristics of the materials
Mechanical properties of materials are given in the Table 4.

80 europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA


Results Compensation curves for HMA2
170
For the two examples we have considered,

Epsilon6 (μstrain)
160 TC6-20 / PF2
TC620 /PF2 and TC420 /PF4, the Figures 6 and 7 show 150 TC4-20 / PF4
the results for variations in the modulus 140
at 15°C/10Hz of between 10,000 MPa 130
and 20,000MPa for the HMA2s 120
110

Colas
and between 9,000 and 14,000MPa
100
for the RBA4s. The associated changes in ε6 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000
were between approximately 85 and 160×10-6.
E at 15ºC/10 Hz (MPa)
The curves show the boundary N.B.: the TC420 / PF4 curve does not show modulus values below 10,500MPa
as with these it is no longer to possible comply with the design criterion for deformation
between the permitted values of the subgrade whatever the value of ε6.
for the (E ; ε6) pair in order for the allowable
design limit (in this case Figure 6
Plot in the modulus-fatigue plane of the compensation curves for a class 2 HMA
the horizontal deformation at the base
of the roadbase) for the HMA2,
or the RBA4 always to be met. Compensation curves for RBA4
Consequently, the area below the curve
120
corresponds to prohibited values for this pair.
Epsilon6 (μstrain)

115 TC6-20 / PF2


110 TC4-20 / PF4
Exploitation of these curves shows that: 105
• Based on the equations for the trend lines 95
on these graphs, we can state 90
that the boundary line which defines 85

Colas
the limit values of compensation E/ε6 may be 80
9,000 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000
approximated by the following equation:
E at 15ºC/10 Hz (MPa)
log(ε6) + αlog(E) = A Figure 7
Plot in the modulus-fatigue plane of the compensation curves for a class 4 RBA
where A is a constant with a different value
depending of the asphalt mix type, AHMA2
for HMA 2 and AGB4 for RB4. Additional impact of variations
• The maximum range of ε6 values in the fatigue slope
on the compensation curves (Figures 6 and 7)
is low, which provides the equations The laboratory results show that in addition to
with their validity: variations in E and ε6, another parameter
- for HMA2 structures: 4.5×10-6 at 10,000MPa which characterizes the fatigue of these materials,
and 3.4×10-6 at 20,000MPa, the fatigue slope denoted by b, sometimes takes
- for RBA4 structures: 3.6×10-6 at 9,000MPa on values which may differ from the standard value
and 3.2×10-6 at 14,000 MPa. of -1/5 given in the design manuals [15,16]
• This simplification could be used to and which was used to obtain
determine approximate allowable values the above compensation curve.
which are then refined by applying
full design methods. In order to assess how this variation affects
• The Figure 6 for TC420 /PF4 shows a zone the compensation curves that have been plotted
(E < 10,500MPa) where even if the design above, we shall conduct a sensitivity study
criterion for the HMA is respected, for standard structures using HMA2
the second design criterion related to for fatigue slope values b between -1/4 and -1/9
the subgrade (i.e. the vertical deformation which are the extreme values measured
at its top) is not. In this case, during the tests.
no value of ε6 is able to compensate
for the loss in modulus from the strict point Thus, for a given structure and traffic level,
of view of the design rules. This type of result applying the equation for the allowable limit εt,adm
is generally obtained for thin structures. for the mix and the calculation results >>>

europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA 81


Analysis of the Measured Performance of High Modulus
Pavement design -
Fundamental Characteristic Asphalt (HMA) and Road Base Asphalt (RBA)
Modulus and fatigue and a Proposal for a Compensation Principle
from the Alizé software package it is possible The variations to be applied to the values of ε6
to quantify the relative difference Δ(ε6) for the compensation curve depend on
between the above compensation curves the new fatigue slope and are summarized
when the fatigue slope differs from its standard value: on the Table 5 for the two typical HMA2
structures that we have considered
in this article.

For example, for the TC620 /PF2 structure,


where: in the case of an HMA2 with a fatigue
- b’ is the new value of the fatigue slope; slope b’=-1/7=-0.14, the original compensation
- ε6’ is the deformability value for b’; curve should be corrected to -18% (Figure 8).
- b is the standard fatigue slope, whose value is -1/5, Some remarks on the relative difference due
used to plot the preceding compensation curves; to the change in the fatigue slope:
- ε6 is the deformability value for the standard The impact is negligible in the case of
slope b; the TC420 /PF4 structure, for the TC620 /PF2.
- ε6,standard is the standard deformability of These results illustrate what can be
the material, in this case 130×10-6 for the HMA2; demonstrated mathematically, namely that
- εt,standard is the horizontal deformation calculated the fatigue slope mainly affects the term
with the Alizé software package at the base Kn = (NE/106)b. Thus, if the cumulative number
of the HMA2 for the standard modulus of reference axles, NE, differs slightly from 106,
of this material, in this case 14,000MPa. the difference in b has a limited impact
on the ratio NE/106 which is close to 1.
It should be noted that this variation in the slope
for a given structure and traffic level depends Application of the concept
only on the ratio between the slopes b’/b, of compensation
and the deformability and deformation to experimental results
values calculated for the structure
with the original characteristics The two above examples have been plotted
of the material (ε6,standard and εt,standard). on Figures 9 and 10 in which the experimental data
are also displayed. The importance of the concept
of compensation is clearly apparent. A significant
Slope b' -1/4 -1/5 -1/7 -1/9 number of mix designs which do not meet
the requirements for conformity
Ratio b’/b 1.25 1.00 0.71 0.56 nevertheless have mechanical properties that are
Δ (ε6) for TC420/PF4 1% 0% -1% -2% sufficiently good to meet the design and service life
requirements for pavements.
Δ (ε6) for TC620/PF2 18% 0% -18% -26% In the case of HMAs, the percentage of the results
Tableau 5
that meet the design requirements increases
Impact of fatigue slope variation on compensation curves from ~ 33% to 68% for the population showed
here. In other words, the percentage
of acceptable results is doubled without any technical
Impact of b on the HMA2 compensation curve
risks. Very fortunately, analysis of our experience
(TC6-20/PF2)
of the HMA technique does not reveal a percentage
170
160 of failures which is equivalent to the initial
Epsilon6 (μstrain)

150 b = -1/5
b’ = -1/7
population of noncompliant results, which proves
140
130 that the hypothesis of compensation we have made
120 here, which is frequently practiced
110 in individual cases, is valid. It is difficult to see
100
90 how it could be otherwise, as none of the hypotheses
Colas

80 or calculation procedures has been modified,


10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000
and only the possible experimental values
E at 15ºC/10HZ (MPa) of the modulus-fatigue strength pair have been taken
into account, which satisfies the requirements of design.
Figure 8
Effect of a variation in b, the slope of the fatigue test on the compensation It is hard to see that the calculation can only be
curve in the case of a class 2 HMA valid for a pair of values which are both compliant.

82 europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA


180 source A
130 170 source B
160 source C
Fatigue strength (μstrain)

120

Fatigue strength (µstrain)


source D
150
RAP
110 140
130
100
120
TC4-20 / PF4
90 110 TC4-20 / PF4
TC6-20 / PF2 100
80 TC6-20 / PF2
90

Colas

Colas
70 80
9,000 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 22,000

Modulus at 15°C (MPa) Modulus at 15°C (MPa)

Figure 9 Figure 10
Graph showing the curves that delimit the performance domain Graph showing the curves that delimit the performance domain that has been
that has been validated by compensation for the class 4 RBAs validated by compensation for the class 2 HMAs

In addition, this approach allows us The proposed compensation can be approximated


to make the best possible use of by the following equation:
available hard binders. As efforts are now being
made in all areas with regard to log(ε6) + αlog(E) = A
sustainable development and the exploitation
of available resources, it would be absurd where A is a constant with a different value
not to use a locally available hard binder depending of the asphalt mix type,
because just one of its mechanical characteristics is AHMA2 for HMA 2 and AGB4 for RB4. I
noncompliant, which, in addition, is compensated for
by another that is very good. The same type
of approach is already applied in guides
for the use of the local aggregate. As experience
has shown that some aggregate performs
well in certain applications, its use is permitted References
in spite of the fact that its performance [1] NF EN 13108-1 Bituminous mixtures Material specifications Part 1 asphalt
concrete, February 2007
with regard to some characteristics may be
[2] NF P 98-140 Enrobés hydrocarbonés Couches d’assises : Enrobés à module
noncompliant. In any case, it is impossible industrially élevé (EME) novembre 1999
to select only binders with modulus and fatigue [3] NF P 98-138 Enrobés hydrocarbonés couches d’assises : Graves-bitume
performance values that are both compliant. (GB) novembre 1999
Such a radical solution would lead [4] NF P 98-261-1 Essais relatifs aux chaussées. Détermination de la résis-
tance en fatigue des mélanges hydrocarbonés Partie 1, juillet 2001
to the end of the use of HMA.
[5] EN 12697-24 Bituminous mixtures Test methods for hot mix asphalt
Part 24 Resistance to fatigue, March 2005
Conclusion [6] EN 12697-24+A1 Bituminous mixtures Test methods for hot mix asphalt
Part 24 Resistance to fatigue, September 2007

This article presents a highly representative survey [7] LPC Bituminous Mixtures design Guide CR 39A December 2007, under the
supervision of J.L. Delorme, C. de la Roche, L. Wendling
of the performance levels which are
[8] « Base de données fatigue » Présentation de Mr S. Moreira à l’occa-
frequently measured for class 2 HMAs and class 4 RBAs. sion des journées technique du LCPC « Durabilité structurelle des chaus-
The practice of regularly performing level 4 sées : Pathologie et entretien » le 9 Septembre 2008.
mix design studies means that we now have [9] J.-F. Corté, J.-L. Gourdon, J.-L. Delorme, « Les expériences d’exactitude
dans le domaine des essais relatifs aux chaussées », Revue générale des routes
enough experience to see what performance et des aérodromes (RGRA), n° 793, mars 2001, pp 26-30
differences result from the characteristics [10] C. de La Roche, « Essai de fatigue sur enrobés bitumineux : Résultats de
of the binders that are used. l’expérience d’exactitude », Revue générale des routes et des aérodromes
(RGRA), n° 793, mars 2001, pp 31-34
These studies also show that in the case
[11] NF ISO 5725-6 Application of statistics Accuracy ( trueness and precision)
of HMAs, some binders tend to provide of measurement methods and results Part 6 Use in practice of accuracy values
either good modulus performance or good fatigue [12] F. Moutier « Etude statistique de l’effet de la composition des enrobés
performance. Based on this observation, bitumineux sur leur comportement en fatigue et leur module complexe »
Bulletin de Liaison des LCPC N° 172, p 34-41, mars avril 1998
the possibility of compensation
[13] Guide technique “Utilisation des normes enrobes à chaud”,
between the measured mechanical characteristics janvier 2008, édité par le Setra
of the mixes, which is already done occasionally, [14] J.L. Delorme, C. De La Roche, L. Wendling, « Fatigue resistance of bituminous
is described in an explicit and general manner. mixes : variability analysis in the pavement and correspondence with the type
testing » Eurasphalt Eurobitume, Copenhague 2007
This possibility should be exploited
[15] Guide Technique “Conception et dimensionnement des structures de
in order to be able to use locally available binders. chaussée”, décembre 1994, édité par LCPC-SETRA
It nevertheless requires a full determination [16] Manuel « Catalogue des structures types de chaussées neuves »,
of the modulus and fatigue characteristics. édition 1998 LCPC-SETRA

europeanroads review 14 • Spring 2009 • RGRA 83

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