Greek language

Greek (Modern Greek: ελληνικά [eliniˈka], elliniká, "Greek", ελληνική

γλώσσα [eliniˈci ˈɣlosa] ( listen), ellinikí glóssa, "Greek language") is an
Greek
independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to ελληνικά
Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest Pronunciation [eliniˈka]
documented history of any living Indo-European language, spanning 34 Region Greece, southern
centuries (3,400 years) of written records.[4] Its writing system has been the Mediterranean
Greek alphabet for the major part of its history; other systems, such as Linear Native 13.2 million (2012)[1]
B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously.[5] The alphabet arose from speakers
the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Language Indo-European
Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. family
Hellenic
The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western Greek
world and Christianity; the canon of ancient Greek literatureincludes works in Dialects Ancient dialects
the Western canon such as the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey. Greek is also the
Modern dialects
language in which many of the foundational texts in science, especially
astronomy, mathematics and logic, and Western philosophy, such as the
Writing Greek alphabet
system Greek Braille
Platonic dialogues and the works of Aristotle, are composed; the New
Testament of the Christian Bible was written in Koiné Greek. Together with Official status
the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the study of the Greek texts Official Greece
and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline ofClassics. language in Cyprus
European Union
During antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the
Recognised Albania
Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become minority Armenia
the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire and develop into Medieval language in Hungary
Greek.[6] In its modern form, the Greek language is the official language in Italy
two countries, Greece and Cyprus, a recognised minority language in seven Romania
other countries, and is one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Ukraine [2]
The language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Language codes
Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. ISO 639-1 el

Greek roots are often used to coin new words for other languages; Greek and ISO 639-2 gre (B)

Latin are the predominant sources ofinternational scientific vocabulary. ell (T)

ISO 639-3 Variously:

ell – Modern Greek
grc – Ancient Greek

Contents cpg –
Cappadocian Greek
History gmy – Mycenaean Greek
Periods pnt – Pontic
Diglossia tsd – Tsakonian
Historical unity
yej – Yevanic
Geographic distribution Glottolog gree1276[3]
Official status
Linguasphere 56-AAA-a
Characteristics
Phonology 56-AAA-aa to -am (varieties)
Morphology
Nouns and adjectives
 Verbs
Syntax
Vocabulary
Greek loanwords in other languages
Classification
Writing system
Linear B
Cypriot syllabary
Greek alphabet
Diacritics
Punctuation
Latin alphabet
See also Idealised portrayal of Homer
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
General background
Language learning
Dictionaries
Literature

History
Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC,[7] or possibly earlier.[8] The earliest written
evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC,[9] making Greek the world's oldest
recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now
extinct Anatolian languages.

Periods
The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods:

Proto-Greek: the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known

varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as
Hellenic migrants entered theGreek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic
era or the Bronze Age.[10]
Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is
recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century
BC onwards.
Ancient Greek: in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and
Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known
throughout the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek fell into disuse in western
Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained officially in use in the Proto-Greek-speaking area
Byzantine world and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with theFall according to linguist Vladimir I.
of Constantinople and Greek migration to western Europe. Georgiev
Koine Greek: The fusion of Ionian with Attic, the dialect of Athens,
began the process that resulted in the creation of the first common
Greek dialect, which became alingua franca across the Eastern
Mediterranean and Near East. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of
Alexander the Great and after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes
of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the
city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in theRoman Empire. The origin of Christianity
can also be traced through Koine Greek, because theApostles used this form of the language to spread Christianity .
It is also known as Hellenistic Greek, New Testament Greek, and sometimes Biblical Greek because it was the
 original language of theNew Testament and the Old Testament was translated into the same language via the
Septuagint.

Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek: the continuation of

Koine Greek, up to the demise of theByzantine Empire in the 15th
century. Medieval Greek is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of
different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular
continuations of spoken Koine that were already approachingModern
Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic.
Much of the written Greek that was used as the of ficial language of the
Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the
tradition of written Koine.
Modern Greek (Neo-Hellenic):[12] Stemming from Medieval Greek,
Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as Distribution of varieties of Greek in
the 11th century. It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, Anatolia, 1910. Demotic in yellow.
apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are severaldialects of it. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian
Greek in green, with green dots
indicating individual Cappadocian
Diglossia Greek villages.[11]
In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state ofdiglossia: the coexistence of
vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as
the Greek language questionwas a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki, the vernacular form of
Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa, meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek, which was
developed in the early 19th century and was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976,
Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, having incorporated features of Katharevousa and giving birth to Standard
Modern Greek, which is used today for all official purposes and in education.[13]

Historical unity
The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the
Greek language is often emphasised. Although Greek has undergone
morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other
languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and
orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new
language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of
ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.[14] It is also
often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with
some other languages. According to one estimation, "Homeric Greek is probably
closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken
English."[15]
The distribution of major modern Greek

Geographic distribution dialect areas

Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and

Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. There are traditional Greek-speaking settlements and regions in the
neighbouring countries of Albania, Bulgaria, and Turkey, as well as in several countries in the Black Sea area, such as Ukraine,
Russia, Romania, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, and around the Mediterranean Sea, Southern Italy, Syria, Israel, Egypt,
Lebanon, Libya and ancient coastal towns along the Levant. The language is also spoken by Greek emigrant communities in many
countries in Western Europe, especially the United Kingdom and Germany, Canada, the United States, Australia, Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, South Africa and others.

Official status
Greek is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire
population.[16] It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside
Turkish).[17] Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European
Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages.[18] Furthermore,
Greek is officially recognised as a minority language in parts of Italy and official in
Dropull and Himara (Albania) and as a minority language all over Albania,[19] as
well as in Armenia, Romania, and Ukraine as a regional or minority language in the
framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[2] Greeks
are also a recognised ethnic minorityin Hungary.
Greek language road sign, A27
Motorway, Greece
Characteristics
The phonology, morphology, syntax and vocabulary of the language show both
conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the
language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional
periods is, as with all such periodisations, relatively arbitrary, especially because
at all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed
heavily from it.

Phonology Spread of Greek in the United States

Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a
mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of
consonantal contrasts. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek
phonology for details):

replacement of the pitch accent with a stress accent.

simplification of the system ofvowels and diphthongs: loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most
diphthongs and several steps in achain shift of vowels towards /i/ (iotacism).
development of the voiceless aspirated plosives /pʰ/ and /tʰ/ to the voiceless fricatives /f/ and /θ/, respectively; the
similar development of/kʰ/ to /x/ may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the
orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written with φ, θ, and χ).
development of the voiced plosives /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ to their voiced fricative counterparts/β/ (later /v/), /ð/, and /ɣ/.

Morphology
In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system
of compounding[20] and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time,
morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal
morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive). The
verbal system has lost the infinitive, the synthetically-formed future and perfect tenses and the optative mood. Many have been
replaced by periphrastic (analytical) forms.

Nouns and adjectives

Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual, and plural in the ancient language; singular and
plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms
attested to four in the modern language).[21] Nouns, articles and adjectives show all the distinctions except for person. Both
attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun.

Verbs
The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but
with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have
synthetic inflectional forms for:

Ancient Greek Modern Greek

Person first, second and third also second person formal
Number singular, dual and plural singular and plural
past and non-past (future is expressed by a
tense present, past and future
periphrastic construction)
imperfective, perfective (traditionally called aorist) and
imperfective and perfective/aorist (perfect is
aspect perfect (sometimes also calledperfective; see note
expressed by a periphrastic construction)
about terminology)

indicative, subjunctive,[22] and imperative (other

mood indicative, subjunctive, imperative and optative modal functions are expressed by periphrastic
constructions)
Voice active, middle, and passive active and medio-passive

Syntax
Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is
largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for
possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative
pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also
significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language. Ancient Greek made great use
of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (instead
having a raft of new periphrastic constructions) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of
prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but
neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO.

Vocabulary
Greek is a language distinguished by an extensivevocabulary. Most of the vocabulary of Ancient Greek was inherited, but it includes
a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks.[23] Words of
non-Indo-European origin can be traced into Greek from as early as Mycenaean times; they include a large number of Greek
toponyms. The vast majority of Modern Greek vocabulary is directly inherited from Ancient Greek, but in some cases, words have
changed meanings. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language mainly from Latin, Venetian and Turkish. During
the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern
borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially fromFrench and English, are typically not inflected.

Greek loanwords in other languages

Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English: mathematics, physics, astronomy, democracy,
philosophy, athletics, theatre, rhetoric, baptism, evangelist, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive
as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, telephony, isomer, biomechanics, cinematography, etc. and form, with Latin
words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary like all words ending with –logy ("discourse"). There are
many English words of Greek origin.[24]

Classification
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be
ancient Macedonian,[25] which many scholars suggest may have been a dialect of Greek itself, but it is so poorly attested that it is
difficult to conclude anything about it.[26] Independently of the Macedonian question, some scholars have grouped Greek into
Graeco-Phrygian, as Greek and the extinct Phrygian share features that are not found in other Indo-European languages.[27] Among
living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the
Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan), but little definitive evidence has been found for grouping the living branches of the
family.[28] In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian by some linguists. If proven and
[29]
recognised, the three languages would form a new Balkan sub-branch with other dead European languages.

Writing system

Linear B
Linear B, attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek.[30] It is basically a syllabary, which
was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A, has not been deciphered to this
day).[30] The language of the Linear B texts,Mycenaean Greek, is the earliest known form of Greek.[30]

Cypriot syllabary
Another similar system used to write the Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary
(also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary), which
is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to
represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the
11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor
of the standard Greek alphabet.[31]

Greek alphabet
Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century
BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet, with the innovation of
adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use
today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in
403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The
lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a
faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use ofink and quill.

The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (majuscule) and
lowercase (minuscule) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς)
used in the final position:

Greek inscription in Cypriot syllabic

script

upper case
Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω
lower case
σ
α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ τ υ φ χ ψ ω
ς
Diacritics
In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs:
three different accent marks (acute, grave, and circumflex), originally denoting
different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks
(rough and smooth breathing), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-
initial /h/; and the diaeresis, used to mark full syllabic value of a vowel that would
otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the
course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a
rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and
it has only been retained intypography.

After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then,
Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or
monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The
traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is
still used internationally for the writing ofAncient Greek.

Punctuation
In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions
of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano
teleia (άνω τελεία). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful
Ancient epichoric variants of the
of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, "whatever") from ότι (óti,
Greek alphabet from Euboea, Ionia,
"that").[32] Athens, and Corinth comparing to
modern Greek
Ancient Greek texts often usedscriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means
that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or
punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.[33]

Latin alphabet
Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script, especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics. The term
Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism
(because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for Roman Catholic). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning "Catholic
Chiot") alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios. Additionally the term Greeklish is
[34]
often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications.

See also
Modern Greek
Varieties of Modern Greek
Medieval Greek
Ancient Greek
Hellenic languages
List of Greek and Latin roots in English
List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes

References
1. Greek (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/ell/) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Ancient Greek (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/grc/) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
 Cappadocian Greek (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/cpg/) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Mycenaean Greek (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/gmy/) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Pontic (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/pnt/) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Tsakonian (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/tsd/) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
(Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box)
2. "List of Declarations Made with Respect to T
reaty No. 148" (http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarati
ons.asp?NT=148&CM=8&DF=23/01/05&CL=ENG&VL=1) . Council of Europe. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
3. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Greek" (http://glottolog.org/resource/languo
id/id/gree1276). Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History .
4. "Greek language" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244595/Greek-language). Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Retrieved 29 April 2014.
5. 1922-, Adrados, Francisco Rodríguez, (2005).A history of the Greek language : from its origins to the present(http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59712402). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004128354. OCLC 59712402 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/59712402).
6. Manuel, Germaine Catherine (1989).A study of the preservation of the classical tradition in the education, language,
and literature of the Byzantine Empire. HVD ALEPH.
7. Renfrew 2003, p. 35; Georgiev 1981, p. 192.
8. Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 437–438; Atkinson & Gray 2006, p. 102.
9. "Ancient Tablet Found: Oldest Readable Writing in Europe" (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/03/1103
30-oldest-writing-europe-tablet-greece-science-mycenae-greek) . National Geographic Society. 30 March 2011.
Retrieved 22 November 2013.
10. A comprehensive overview in J.T. Hooker's Mycenaean Greece (Hooker 1976, Chapter 2: "Before the Mycenaean
Age", pp. 11–33 and passim); for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an
autochthonous scenario, see Colin Renfrew's "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic
Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin"Renfrew
( 1973, pp. 263–276, especially p. 267) in
Bronze Age Migrationsby R.A. Crossland and A. Birchall, eds. (1973).
11. Dawkins & Halliday 1916.
12. Ethnologue (https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ell)
13. Peter., Mackridge, (1985). The modern Greek language : a descriptive analysis of standard modern Greek
(https://w
ww.worldcat.org/oclc/11134463). Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press.ISBN 9780198157700.
OCLC 11134463 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11134463).
14. Browning 1983.
15. Alexiou 1982, pp. 156–192.
16. "Greece" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gr.html). The World Factbook. Central
Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
17. "The Constitution of Cyprus, App. D., Part 1, Art. 3"(https://web.archive.org/web/20120407035710/http://www .cypru
s.gov.cy/portal/portal.nsf/0/302578ad62e1ea3ac2256fd5003b61d4?OpenDocument&ExpandSection=3&Click=) .
Archived from the original (http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/portal/portal.nsf/0/302578ad62e1ea3ac2256fd5003b61d4?Ope n
Document&ExpandSection=3&Click=)on 7 April 2012. states that The official languages of the Republic are Greek
and Turkish. However, the official status of Turkish is only nominal in the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus; in
practice, outside Turkish-dominated Northern Cyprus, Turkish is little used; see A. Arvaniti (2006):Erasure as a
Means of Maintaining Diglossia in Cyprus,San Diego Linguistics Papers2: pp. 25–38, page 27.
18. "The EU at a Glance – Languages in the EU"(http://europa.eu/abc/european_countries/languages/index_en.htm)
.
Europa. European Union. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
19. "Greek" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081118212657/http://www .unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/grk.htm). Office of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original (http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/grk.htm) on 18
November 2008. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
20. Ralli 2001, pp. 164–203.
21. The four cases that are found in all stages of Greek are the nominative, genitive, accusative and vocative. The
dative/locative of Ancient Greek disappeared in the late Hellenistic period, and the instrumental case of Mycenaean
Greek disappeared in the Archaic period.
22. There is no particular morphological form that can be identified as 'subjunctive' in the modern language, but the term
is sometimes encountered in descriptions even if the most complete modern grammar (Holton et al. 1997) does not
use it and calls certain traditionally-'subjunctive' forms 'dependent'. Most Greek linguists advocate abandoning the
traditional terminology (Anna Roussou and T asos Tsangalidis 2009, in Meletes gia tin Elliniki Glossa, Thessaloniki,
Anastasia Giannakidou 2009 "Temporal semantics and polarity: The dependency of the subjunctive revisited",
Lingua); see Modern Greek grammarfor explanation.
23. Beekes 2009.
24. Scheler 1977.
25. Hamp 2013, pp. 8–10, 13.
26. Babiniotis 1992, pp. 29–40; Dosuna 2012, pp. 65–78.
27. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Graeco-Phrygian" (http://glottolog.org/reso
urce/languoid/id/grae1234). Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
28. Renfrew 1990; Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1990, pp. 110–116; Renfrew 2003, pp. 17–48; Gray & Atkinson 2003,
pp. 435–439.
29. Holm 2008, pp. 628–636.
30. T., Hooker, J. (1980). Linear B : an introduction(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7326206). Bristol: Bristol Classical
Press. ISBN 9780906515693. OCLC 7326206 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7326206).
31. "HarvardKey Login" (http://academic.eb.com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/levels/collegiate/article/Cypriot-syllabary/284
19). academic.eb.com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
32. Nicolas, Nick (2005). "Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation"(https://archive.is/20120806003722/http://www .tlg.uci.ed
u/~opoudjis/unicode/punctuation.html). Archived from the original (http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/punctuati
on.html) on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
33. Hugoe),, Matthews, P. H. (Peter. The concise Oxford dictionary of linguistics(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8818479
72). Oxford University Press. (Third ed.). [Oxford].ISBN 9780199675128. OCLC 881847972 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/881847972).
34. Androutsopoulos 2009, pp. 221–249.

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Reginald (1916). Modern Greek in Asia Minor: A Study
of Dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa with
Grammar, Texts, Translations and Glossary.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dosuna, Julián Víctor Méndez (2012). "Ancient
Macedonian as a Greek Dialect: A Critical Survey on
Recent Work". In Giannakis, Georgios K.Ancient
Macedonia: Language, History and Culture(in Greek).
Thessaloniki: Centre for the Greek Language. pp. 65–
78.
Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Ivanov, Vyacheslav (March
1990). "The Early History of Indo-European
Languages". Scientific American: 110–116. Archived
from the original on 6 January 2014.
Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov (1981).Introduction to the
History of the Indo-European Languages. Sofia:
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
 Gray, Russel D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003).
"Language-tree Divergence Times Support the
Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin". Nature.
426 (6965): 435–439. doi:10.1038/nature02029.
PMID 14647380.
Hamp, Eric P. (August 2013). "The Expansion of the
Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's
Evolving View" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 239.
Holm, Hans J. (2008). "The Distribution of Data in
Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgroupingof
Languages". In Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans;
Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; Decker, Reinhold. Data
Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications.
Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the
Gesellschaft für Klassifikation e.V., Albert-Ludwigs-
Universität Freiburg, March 7–9, 2007. Berlin-
Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 628–636. ISBN 978-
3-540-78246-9.
Hooker, J.T. (1976). Mycenaean Greece. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Jeffries, Ian (2002). Eastern Europe at the Turn of the
Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in
Transition. London and New York: Routledge (Taylor &
Francis). ISBN 978-0-415-23671-3.
Ralli, Angeliki (2001). Μορφολογία [Morphology] (in
Greek). Athens: Ekdoseis Pataki.
Further reading
Allen, W. Sidney (1968). Vox Graeca – A Guide to the
Pronunciation of Classical Greek. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-20626-X.
Crosby, Henry Lamar; Schaeffer, John Nevin (1928).
An Introduction to Greek. Boston and New York: Allyn
and Bacon, Inc.
Dionysius of Thrace. Τέχνη Γραμματική [Art of
Grammar] (in Greek). c. 100 BC
Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-W
arburton,
Irene (1997). Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of
the Modern Language. London and New York:
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10002-X.
Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997). Greek: A History of the
Language and Its Speakers. London and New York:
Longman Linguistics Library (Addison Wesley
Longman Limited). ISBN 0-582-30709-0.
External links
General background
Renfrew, Colin (1973). "Problems in the General
Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in
Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous
Origin". In Crossland, R. A.; Birchall, Ann.Bronze Age
Migrations in the Aegean; Archaeological and
Linguistic Problems in Greek Prehistory: Proceedings
of the first International Colloquium on Aegean
Prehistory, Sheffield. London: Gerald Duckworth and
Company Limited. pp. 263–276.ISBN 0-7156-0580-1.
Renfrew, Colin (2003). "Time Depth, Convergence
Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old
Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area". In Bammesberger ,
Alfred; Vennemann, Theo. Languages in Prehistoric
Europe. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH.
pp. 17–48. ISBN 978-3-8253-1449-1.
Renfrew, Colin (1990) [1987]. Archaeology and
Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins .
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-
521-38675-3.
Scheler, Manfred (1977). Der englische Wortschatz
[English Vocabulary] (in German). Berlin: E. Schmidt.
ISBN 978-3-503-01250-3.
Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2013). "A SurvivingTreaty:
The Lausanne Minority Protection in Greece and
Turkey". In Henrard, Kristin.The Interrelation between
the Right to Identity of Minorities and their Socio-
economic Participation. Leiden and Boston: Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 287–315.
Krill, Richard M. (1990).Greek and Latin in English
Today. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers.
ISBN 0-86516-241-7.
Mallory, James P. (1997). "Greek Language".In
Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. Encyclopedia
of Indo-European Culture. Chicago, IL: Fitzroy
Dearborn Publishers. pp. 240–246.
Newton, Brian (1972). The Generative Interpretation of
Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-
08497-0.
Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar
of Greek and Latin. New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-508345-8.
Smyth, Herbert Weir; Messing, Gordon (1956) [1920].
Greek Grammar. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-674-36250-0.
 Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway , useful information on the history of the Greek language, application
of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic
education.
The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including
dictionaries.
Ancient Greek Tutorials, Berkeley Language Center of the University of California, Berkeley

Language learning
Hellenistic Greek LessonsGreek-Language.com provides a free online grammar of Hellenistic Greek.
Greek dictionary, tutorial and hangman program with texteditor, this shareware program is aimed at learning New
Testament Greek.
komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language.
New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek NewestamentT
Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece (page in Greek)
Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words(from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)
USA Foreign Service Institute Modern Greek basic course
Ask any question about the Greek language and a qualified Greek teacher answers you

Dictionaries
Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexicons (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexicons in Print.
The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern)
scanned images from S. C. Woodhouse's English–Greek dictionary, 1910

Literature
Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization that promotes modern Greek literature and culture
Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books

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