Opuntia

Opuntia is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae.

Opuntia
The most common culinary species is the Indian fig opuntia (O. ficus-indica).
Most culinary uses of the term "prickly pear" refer to this species. Prickly pears
are also known as tuna (fruit), sabra, nopal (paddle, plural nopales) from the
Nahuatl word nōpalli for the pads, or nostle, from the Nahuatl word nōchtli for
the fruit; or paddle cactus.

The genus is named for the Ancient Greek city of Opus, where, according to
Theophrastus, an edible plant grew which could be propagated by rooting its
leaves.[1]
Opuntia littoralis var. vaseyi

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Contents Clade: Angiosperms
Description
Clade: Eudicots
Distribution
Chollas Order: Caryophyllales
Growth (image gallery)
Family: Cactaceae
Taxonomy
Selected species Subfamily: Opuntioideae
Formerly in Opuntia Tribe: Opuntieae
Ecology
Genus: Opuntia
As food
Nutrition Mill.
Regional food uses Species
Phytochemicals and folk medicine
Many, see text.
Other uses
In dye production
For earthen walls Synonyms
For water treatment
For animal fodder Airampoa Frič
In culture Cactodendron Bigelow (nom.
See also
inval.)
References
Cactus Lem.
Bibliography
Chaffeyopuntia Frič & Schelle
Clavarioidia Kreuz. (nom. inval.)
Description Ficindica St.-Lag.
Prickly pears typically grow with flat, rounded cladodes (also called platyclades)
Nopalea Salm-Dyck
armed with two kinds of spines; large, smooth, fixed spines and small, hairlike
prickles called glochids, that easily penetrate skin and detach from the plant. The Parviopuntia Soulaire & Marn.-
flowers are typically large, axillary, solitary, bisexual, and epiperigynous, with a Lap. (nom. inval.)
perianth consisting of distinct, spirally arranged tepals and a hypanthium. The
stamens are numerous and in spiral or whorled clusters, and the gynoecium has Phyllarthus Neck. ex M.Gómez
numerous inferior ovaries per carpel. Placentation is parietal, and the fruit is a
(nom. inval.)
berry with arillate seeds. Prickly pear species can vary greatly in habit; most are
shrubs, but some, such asOpuntia echios of the Galápagos, are trees. Pseudotephrocactus Frič
Salmiopuntia Frič (nom. inval.)
Distribution Subulatopuntia Frič & Schelle
Like most true cactus species, prickly pears are native only to the Americas, but Tunas Lunell
they have been introduced to other parts of the globe. Prickly pears originated
Weberiopuntia Frič
during the Pliocene in the Chaco and Monte regions of Chile, then spread to 1)
eastern South America (Caatinga), 2) the central Andean valleys of western South and see text
America, 3) the Caribbean region of northern South America, 4) Central America,
Mexico, and Caribbean islands, 5) the North American deserts of the southwest,
and 6) the North American southeast.[2] Prickly pear species are found in abundance
in Mexico, especially in the central and western regions, and in the Caribbean
islands (West Indies). In the United States, prickly pears are native to many areas of
the arid Western United States, including the lower elevations of the Rocky
Mountains, where species such as Opuntia phaeacantha and Opuntia polyacantha
become dominant, and to the desert Southwest, where several types are endemic.
Prickly pear cactus is also native to sandy coastal beach scrub environments of the
East Coast from Florida to southern Connecticut (Opuntia humifusa).

Opuntia species are the most cold-tolerant of the lowland cacti, extending into
western and southern Canada; one subspecies, O. fragilis var. fragilis, has been
found growing along the Beatton River in central British Columbia, southwest of
Cecil Lake at 56° 17’ N latitude and 120° 39’ W longitude.[3]

Prickly pears also produce a fruit, commonly eaten in Mexico and in the
Typical habitus of an Opuntia with
Mediterranean region, known as tuna; it also is used to make aguas frescas. The fruit
fruit can be red, wine-red, green, or yellow-orange. In the Galápagos Islands, six
different species are found: O. echios, O. galapageia, O. helleri, O. insularis, O.
saxicola, and O. megasperma. These species are divided into 14 different varieties; most of these are confined to one or a few islands.
For this reason, they have been described as "an excellent example of adaptive radiation".[4] On the whole, islands with tall, trunked
varieties have giant tortoises, and islands lacking tortoises have low or prostrate forms of
Opuntia. Prickly pears are a prime source of
food for the common giant tortoises in the Galápagos islands so they are important in the food web.

Charles Darwin was the first to note that these cacti have thigmotactic anthers: when the anthers are touched, they curl over,
depositing their pollen. This movement can be seen by gently poking the anthers of an open Opuntia flower. The same trait has
evolved convergently in other cacti (e.g. Lophophora).

Chollas
Chollas, now recognized to belong to the distinct genus Cylindropuntia, are distinguished by having cylindrical, rather than flattened,
stem segments with large barbed spines. The stem joints of several species, notably the jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida), are
very brittle on young stems, readily breaking off when the barbed spines stick to clothing or animal fur as a method of vegetative
reproduction. The barbed spines can remain embedded in the skin, causing discomfort and sometimes injury
.

Growth (image gallery)

 Bud begins pad Bud completes pad
Bud appears ► Bud grows ►
transformation► transformation►

Pad continues growth ► Edible pad (tender) ► Mature pad

Taxonomy
When Carl Linnaeus published Species Plantarum in 1753 – the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature – he placed all the
species of cactus known to him in one genus, Cactus. In 1754, the Scottish botanist Philip Miller divided cacti into several genera,
including Opuntia. He distinguished the genus largely on the form of its flowers and fruits.[5]

Selected species
Opuntia hybridizes readily between species.[6] This can make classification difficult, yielding a reticulate phylogeny where different
species come together in hybridization.[2] Also, not all species listed here may actually belong in this genus, meaning that Opuntia is
not a monophyletic group.

Opuntia also has a tendency for polyploidy. The ancestral diploid state was 2n=22, but many species are hexaploid (6n = 66) or
octaploid (8n = 88).[2]

Opuntia abjecta
Opuntia aciculata – Chenille prickly pear, old man's whiskers, cowboy’s
red whiskers
Opuntia alta
Opuntia ammophila
Opuntia anacantha
Opuntia anahuacensis
Opuntia arenaria Dune pricklypear; Diploid (2n=22)
Opuntia articulata
Opuntia atrispina
Opuntia auberi Opuntia cochenillifera
Opuntia aurantiaca
Opuntia aurea Hexaploid (2n=66)
Opuntia aureispina
Opuntia azurea
Opuntia basilaris – Beavertail cactus; Diploid (2n=22)
Opuntia bentonii
Opuntia blakeana
Opuntia boldinghii
Opuntia cacanapa - including Opuntia ellisiana (Ellisiana)
Opuntia camanchica - Plains prickly pear
Opuntia canada
Opuntia cespitosa
Opuntia charlestonensis
Opuntia chaffeyi
Opuntia chlorotica – pancake prickly pear; native to southwest USA and
the Sonoran and Mojave deserts; Diploid (2n=22)
Opuntia chisosensis
Opuntia clavata
Opuntia cochenillifera
Opuntia comonduensis Little prickly pear
Opuntia columbiana Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia confusa
Opuntia covillei
Opuntia curvospina Tetraploid (2n=44)
Opuntia cyclodes
Opuntia cymochila – Grassland prickly pear; One of the most common
species found on the Great Plains of the United States
Opuntia debreczyi
Opuntia decumana
Opuntia decumbens – nopal de culebra
Opuntia dejecta
Opuntia dillenii
Opuntia oricola
Opuntia diploursina - Found around Grand Canyon and Lake Mead
National Recreation Area; Diploid (2n=22); ResemblesO. trichophora
Opuntia discata
Opuntia dulcis - sometimes call O. phaeacantha major
Opuntia echinocarpa - see Cylindropuntia echinocarpa
Opuntia echios

Opuntia echios var. gigantea – Galápagos prickly pear, Galápagos

Islands
Opuntia elata
Opuntia elatior Mill. – syn. O. bergeriana
Opuntia engelmannii – Engelmann's prickly pear, cow's-tongue prickly
pear, desert prickly pear, discus prickly pear, Texas prickly pear, calico
cactus; Hexaploid (2n=66) Opuntia ovata
Opuntia erinacea Tetraploid (2n=44)
Opuntia exaltata
Opuntia excelsa
Opuntia ficus-barbarica
Opuntia ficus-indica – Indian fig opuntia
Opuntia fragilis – little prickly pear, brittle cactus, found in theGreat
Plains and as far west asBritish Columbia
Opuntia galapageia
Opuntia gosseliniana – violet prickly pear

Opuntia gosseliniana var. santa-rita – Santa Rita prickly pear

Opuntia chlorotica var. gosseliniana
Opuntia helleri
Opuntia hickenii Pinkava's prickly pear (Opuntia
Opuntia humifusa – eastern prickly pear (sometimes included inO. pinkavae), named in honor of Donald
compressa); Tetraploid (2n=44) John Pinkava
Opuntia hyptiacantha
Opuntia inamoema K. Schum. – quipá
Opuntia insularis
Opuntia invicta syn. Corynopuntia invicta, Grusonia invicta
Opuntia jamaicensis
Opuntia laevis
Opuntia lasiacantha
Opuntia leucotricha – arborescent prickly pear, Aaron's beard cactus,
semaphore cactus, Duraznillo blanco, nopal blanco
Opuntia lindheimeri – cowtongue prickly pear
Opuntia littoralis – coastal prickly pear, sprawling prickly pear
Opuntia longispina
Opuntia macrocentra – black-spine prickly pear, purple prickly pear,
found in southwest USA and northern Mexico
Opuntia macrorhiza – Plains prickly pear, found throughout the Great
Plains except for the northernmost areas (not found inNorth Dakota),
and extending sporadically eastward as far asKentucky, syn. O. Panhandle prickly pear
leptocarpa MacKensen, O. tenuispina Engelm., O. tortispina Engelm. & Opuntia polyacantha
Bigelow; Tetraploid (2n=44)
Opuntia matudae – xoconostle (syn. Opuntia joconostle)
Opuntia maldonandensis
Opuntia maxima
Opuntia megacantha
Opuntia megarrhiza
Opuntia megasperma
Opuntia microdasys – bunny ears cactus, polka-dot cactus
Opuntia monacantha – common prickly pear
Opuntia nichollii - Distributed throughout much of the Colorado Plateau,
from Grand Canyon north to Price, Utah and east to the Colorado
border; Hexaploid (2n=66)
Opuntia humifusa growing in Ottawa,
Opuntia oricola
IL
Opuntia ovata
Opuntia pachyrrhiza
Opuntia pailana
Opuntia paraguayensis
Opuntia phaeacantha – tulip prickly pear, includes plateau prickly pear,
brown-spined prickly pear, Mojave prickly pear, Kingman prickly pear;
Hexaploid (2n=66)
Opuntia picardoi
Opuntia pinkavae – Pinkava's prickly pear; Octoploid (2n=88)
Opuntia polyacantha – Panhandle prickly pear, found in the Great
Plains, Great Basin, Mojave Desert, Colorado Plateau, and the Rocky
Mountains, syn. O. rhodantha K.Schum.; Tetraploid (2n=44)

Opuntia polyacantha var. arenaria (syn. O. erinacea) Opuntia robusta flowers

Opuntia pubescens (syn. O. pascoensis Britton & Rose)
Opuntia pusilla – creeping cactus, syn.O. drummondii Graham
Opuntia quitensis – Red Buttons opuntia (syn.O. macbridei, O.
johnsonii, Platyopuntia quitensis)
Opuntia rastrera
Opuntia repens
Opuntia robusta
Opuntia rufida (sometimes included inO. microdasys)
Opuntia saxicola
Opuntia schumannii
Opuntia soehrensii
Opuntia stenopetala (syn. O. riviereana Backeb.) Opuntia stenopetala
Opuntia streptacantha
Opuntia stricta – erect prickly pear, spineless prickly pear
Opuntia subulata – found in South America
Opuntia sulphurea
Opuntia taylori
 Opuntia tehuantepecana– nopal de caballo
Opuntia tomentosa – woollyjoint prickly pear
Opuntia triacantha
Opuntia trichophora Diploid (2n=22)
Opuntia tuna
Opuntia velutina
Opuntia violacea

Formerly in Opuntia
Austrocylindropuntia
Brasiliopuntia
Corynopuntia
Cylindropuntia
Disocactus phyllanthoides(as
Opuntia speciosa)
Micropuntia
Miqueliopuntia
The first introduction of prickly pears into
An Opuntia in front of a jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida)
Australia is ascribed to Governor Philip and
the earliest colonists in 1788. Brought from
Brazil to Sydney, prickly pear grew in Sydney, New South Wales, where they were rediscovered in a farmer's garden in 1839. They
appear to have spread from New South Wales and caused great ecological damage in the eastern states. They are also found in the
Mediterranean region of Northern Africa, especially in Tunisia, where they grow all over the countryside, and in parts of southern
Europe, especially Spain, where they grown in the east, south-east and south of the country, and also in Malta, where they grow all
over the islands. They can be found in enormous numbers in parts ofSouth Africa, where they were introduced from South America.

Ecology
Opuntia spreads into large clonal colonies, which contributes to its being considered anoxious weed in some places.[6]

Prickly pears (mostly Opuntia stricta) were originally imported into Australia in the 18th century for gardens, and were later used as
a natural agricultural fencing[7] and in an attempt to establish a cochineal dye industry. They quickly became a widespread invasive
weed, eventually converting 101,000 sq mi (260,000 km2) of farming land into an impenetrable green jungle of prickly pear, in
places 20 ft (6.1 m) high. Scores of farmers were driven off their land by what they called the "green hell"; their abandoned homes
were crushed under the cactus growth, which advanced at a rate of 1,000,000 acres (4,046.9 km2; 1,562.5 sq mi) per year.[7] In 1919,
the Australian federal governmentestablished the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board to coordinate efforts with state governments to
eradicate the weed. Early attempts at mechanical removal and poisonous chemicals failed, so in a last resort, biological control was
attempted.[7] The moth Cactoblastis cactorum, from South America, whose larvae eat prickly pear, was introduced in 1925 and
rapidly reduced the cactus population. The son of the noted entomologist Frederick Parkhurst Dodd, Alan Dodd, was a leading
official in combating the prickly pear menace. A memorial hall in Chinchilla (Queensland)commemorates the moth.[7]

See also Prickly pears in Australia.

The same moth, introduced accidentally further north of its native range into southern North America, is causing serious damage to
some native species in that area.

Other animals that eat Opuntia include the prickly pear island snail and Cyclura rock iguanas. The fruit are relished by many arid
land animals, chiefly birds, which thus help distribute the seeds. Opuntia pathogens include the sac fungus Colletotrichum coccodes
and Sammons' Opuntia virus. The ant Crematogaster opuntiae and the spider Theridion opuntia are named because of their
association with prickly pear cacti.
As food

Nutrition
In a 100 gram portion, opuntia provides 41
Calories, and is composed of 88% water,
10% carbohydrates and negligible fat and
protein. It has low content of essential
nutrients as assessed by the percentage of
Daily Value (DV), with only vitamin C
(17% DV) and the dietary mineral,
magnesium (24% DV), having significant
content (table). It contains no other
micronutrients in significant quantities
(table).

Prickly pear fruit for sale at a market,Zacatecas, Mexico

Regional food uses
The fruit of prickly pears, commonly called
cactus fruit, cactus fig, Indian[8] fig, nopales[9] or tuna in Spanish,[10] is edible, Prickly pear, raw
although it must be peeled carefully to remove the small spines on the outer skin Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
before consumption. If the outer layer is not properly removed, glochids can be Energy 172 kJ (41 kcal)
ingested, causing discomfort of the throat, lips, and tongue, as the small spines are
Carbohydrates 9.6 g
easily lodged in the skin. Native Americans, like the Tequesta, would roll the fruit
Dietary fiber 3.6 g
around in a suitable medium (e.g. grit) to "sand" off the glochids. Alternatively,
rotating the fruit in the flame of a campfire or torch has been used to remove the Fat 0.5 g
glochids. Today, parthenocarpic (seedless) cultivars are also available. Protein 0.7 g

In Mexico, prickly pears are often used to make appetizers, soups, and salads
Vitamins
through entrees, vegetable dishes, and breads to desserts, beverages, candy, jelly, or Vitamin A equiv. 25 μg (3%)
drinks.[9][11][12] The young stem segments, usually called nopales, are also edible in Riboflavin (B2) 0.1 mg (8%)
most species of Opuntia.[9] They are commonly used in Mexican cuisine in dishes Niacin (B3) 0.5 mg (3%)
such as huevos con nopales (eggs with nopal), or tacos de nopales. Nopales are also Vitamin B6 0.1 mg (8%)
an important ingredient inNew Mexican cuisine.[9] Folate (B9) 6 μg (2%)
Vitamin C 14.0 mg (17%)
Opuntia ficus-indica has been introduced to Europe, and flourishes in areas with a Vitamin E 0 mg (0%)
suitable climate, such as the south of France and southern Italy: In Sicily they are
Minerals
referred to as fichi d'India (Italian literal translation of Indian fig) or ficurinia
Calcium 56 mg (6%)
(Sicilian dialect literal translation of Indian fig). In Sardinia they are called
Iron 0.3 mg (2%)
figumorisca - Moorish figs). They can be found also in theStruma River in Bulgaria,
Magnesium 85 mg (24%)
in southern Portugal and Madeira (where they are called tabaibo, figo tuno or Phosphorus 24 mg (3%)
"Indian figs"), in Andalusia, Spain (where they are known as higos chumbos). In Potassium 220 mg (5%)
Greece, it grows in such places as the Peloponnese region, Ionian Islands, or Crete, Zinc 0.1 mg (1%)
and its figs are known as frangosyka (Frankish, i.e. Western European, figs) or
Other constituents
pavlosyka (Paul's figs), depending on the region. In Albania, they are called fiq deti
Water 88 g
translated as 'sea figs', and are present in the south-west shore. The figs are also
grown in Cyprus, where they are known aspapoutsosyka or babutsa (cactus figs).
Link to USDA Database entry

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
The prickly pear also grows widely on the islands of Malta, where it is enjoyed by IU = International units
the Maltese as a typical summer fruit (known as bajtar tax-xewk, literally 'spiny Percentages are roughly approximated
figs'), as well as being used to make the popular liqueur known as bajtra.[13] The using US recommendations for adults.
prickly pear is so commonly found in the Maltese islands, it is often used as a Source: USDA Nutrient Database
dividing wall between many of Malta's characteristic terraced fields in place of the
usual rubble walls.

The prickly pear was introduced to Eritrea during the period of Italian colonisation
between 1890 and 1940. It is locally known there as beles and is abundant during the
late summer and early autumn (late July through September). The beles from the holy
monastery of Debre Bizen is said to be particularly sweet and juicy. In Libya, it is a
popular summer fruit and called by the localsHindi, which literally meansIndian.

In Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and other parts of the Middle East,
prickly pears of the yellow and orange varieties are grown by the side of farms, beside
railway tracks and other otherwise non-cultivable land. It is sold in summer by street
vendors, and is considered a refreshing fruit for that season.

Tungi is the local St. Helenian name for cactus pears. The plants (Indian fig opuntia)
were originally brought to the island by the colonial ivory traders from East Africa in
Close up of fruit in a kitchen.
the 1850s. Tungi cactus now grows wild in the dry coastal regions of the island. Three
principal cultivars of tungi grow on the island: the 'English' with yellow fruit; the
'Madeira' with large red fruit; and the small, firm 'spiny red'.Tungi also gives its name to a local Spirit distilled at The St Helena
distillery at Alarm Forest, the most remote distillery in the world, made entirely from the opuntia cactus.

Phytochemicals and folk medicine

Opuntia contains a range of phytochemicals in variable quantities, such as
polyphenols, dietary minerals and betalains.[14][15] Identified compounds under
basic research include gallic acid, vanillic acid and catechins, as examples.[14] The
Sicilian prickly pear contains betalain, betanin, and indicaxanthin, with highest
levels in their fruits.[16]

In Mexican folk medicine, its pulp and juice are considered treatments for wounds
and inflammation of the digestive and urinary tracts.[17]

Close-up image of prickly pear fruit:

Other uses Apart from the large spines, note the
glochids (the fine prickles, or bristles)
that readily dislodge and may cause
In dye production skin and eye irritation.

Dactylopius coccus is a scale insect from which cochineal dye is derived. D. coccus
itself is native to tropical and subtropical South America and Mexico. This insect, a primarily sessile parasite, lives on cacti from the
genus Opuntia, feeding on moisture and nutrients in the cactus sap. The insect produces carminic acid, which deters predation by
other insects. The carminic acid can be extracted from the insect's body and eggs to make the red dye.

Cochineal is used primarily as a red food colouring and for cosmetics.[9] The cochineal dye was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples
of Central and North America. Produced almost exclusively in Oaxaca, Mexico, by indigenous producers, cochineal became
Mexico's second-most valued export after silver.[18] The dyestuff was consumed throughout Europe, and was so highly valued, its
price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges.
Now, the highest production of cochineal is by Peru, the Canary Islands, and Chile.
Current health concerns over artificial food additives have renewed the popularity of
cochineal dyes, and the increased demand is making cultivation of the insect an
attractive opportunity in other regions, such as in Mexico, where cochineal
production had declined again owing to the numerous natural enemies of the scale
insect.[19]

Apart from cochineal, the red dye betanin can be extracted from some Opuntia
plants themselves.[9]

For earthen walls Traditional "Zapotec nest" farming of

Fluid ("cactus juice") extracted from Opuntia pads and stems, especially O. ficus- the cochineal scale insect onO.
ficus-indica, Oaxaca
indica, is one of the most commonly used additives inearthen plaster.

For water treatment

The flesh ("mucilage") of the cactus has been found to purify water.[20] A project at the University of South Florida is investigating
its potential for low-cost, large-scale water purification.[21]

For animal fodder

Cactus is also an excellent fodder crop for animals and are very useful to grow under arid and dryland regions. In some parts of India
they are being promoted as fodder crops.[22]

In culture
The coat of arms of Mexico depicts a Mexican golden eagle, perched upon an
Opuntia cactus, holding a rattlesnake. According to the official history of Mexico,
the coat of arms is inspired by an Aztec legend regarding the founding of
Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs, then a nomadic tribe, were wandering throughout Mexico
in search of a divine sign to indicate the precise spot upon which they were to build
their capital. Their god Huitzilopochtli had commanded them to find an eagle
devouring a snake, perched atop a cactus that grew on a rock submerged in a lake.
After 200 years of wandering, they found the promised sign on a small island in the
swampy Lake Texcoco. There they founded their new capital, Tenochtitlan. The
cactus (O. ficus-indica; Nahuatl: tenochtli), full of fruits, is the symbol for the island
of Tenochtitlan. The coat of arms of Mexico

The 1975–1988 version of the coat of arms of Malta also featured a prickly pear,
along with a traditional dgħajsa, a shovel and pitchfork, and the rising sun.[23]

In Arabic, the cactus is called ‫ ﺻﺒﺎر‬ṣubbār; the related term sabr also translates to "patience" or "tenacity".[24] The cactus fig is
called tsabar (Hebrew: ‫ )צבר‬in Hebrew. This cactus is also the origin of the term sabra used to describe a Jew born in Israel. The
allusion is to a thorny, spiky skin on the outside, but a soft, sweet interior, suggesting, though the Israeli sabras are rough on the
[25][26]
outside, they are sweet and sensitive once one gets to know them.

The prickly pear cactus has been used for centuries both as a food source and a natural fence that keeps in livestock and marks the
boundaries of family lands.[9] They are resilient and often grow back following removal.
[9]

The cactus lends its name to a song by British jazz/classical group Portico Quartet. The song "My Rival", on the album Gaucho by
."[27]
the American jazz-pop groupSteely Dan begins with the words, "The wind was driving in my face/The smell of prickly pear
In the fall of 1961, Cuba had its troops plant an 8-mile (13 km) barrier of Opuntia
cactus along the northeastern section of the 28-kilometre (17 mi) fence surrounding
the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base to stop Cubans from escaping Cuba to take refuge
in the United States.[28] This was dubbed the "Cactus Curtain", an allusion to
Europe's Iron Curtain[29] and the Bamboo Curtain in East Asia.

See also
Cactus fries – a deep-fried food prepared fromOpuntia pads
Prickly pears in Australia

References
The coat of arms of Malta from 1975
1. Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000).CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names(htt to 1988
ps://books.google.com/?id=kaN-hLL-3qEC). III M-Q. CRC Press.
p. 1885. ISBN 978-0-8493-2677-6.
2. Majure, Lucas C.; Puente, Raul; Griffith, M. Patrick; Judd, Walter S.;
Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E. (2012-05-01)."Phylogeny of
Opuntia s.s. (Cactaceae): Clade delineation, geographic origins, and
reticulate evolution" (http://www.amjbot.org/content/99/5/847). American
Journal of Botany. 99 (5): 847–864. doi:10.3732/ajb.1100375 (https://do
i.org/10.3732%2Fajb.1100375). ISSN 0002-9122 (https://www.worldcat.
org/issn/0002-9122). PMID 22539520 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub
med/22539520).
3. Cota-Sánchez (2002).
4. Fitter, Fitter, and Hosking, Wildlife of the Galapagos (2000)
5. Miller, Philip (1754). "Opuntia". The Gardener's Dictionary(https://www.b
iodiversitylibrary.org/page/44046539) (4th ed.). London: John & James
Rivington. Retrieved 2014-06-13.
6. Griffith, M. P. (2004). "The origins of an important cactus crop,Opuntia
ficus-indica (Cactaceae): New molecular evidence"(http://www.amjbot.o
rg/cgi/content/full/91/11/1915). American Journal of Botany. 91 (11):
1915–1921. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.11.1915(https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.
91.11.1915). PMID 21652337 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21
652337).
7. Patterson, Ewen K. 1936. The World's First Insect Memorial. "The
Review of the River Plate", December pp. 16–17
8. Originally meaning "Native American", though the specific epithet,
"ficus-indica", means "fig from India". Note also Ficus benghalensis
which is both a true fig tree and from South Asia.
9. "Prickly pear cactus production"(http://sfp.ucdavis.edu/pubs/brochures/
Pricklypear/). University of California-Davis, Small Farm Center
. 1989.
Retrieved 23 December 2015.
10. Grigson, Jane. Jane Grigson's Fruit Book, 2007, U of Nebraska Press,
p. 380. (https://books.google.com/books?id=ej3cNgbF90gC&pg=P A380
&lpg=PA380&dq=%22prickly+pear%22+tuna&source=web&ots=hp2-iF3
lbx&sig=9x16bEcyg2QbIuKDyZwpFuiZT6w)ISBN 0-8032-5993-X
11. Midey, Connie (May 31, 2005)."A magical plant" (http://www.azcentral.c
om/health/diet/articles/0531prickly0531.html). The Arizona Republic.
Retrieved May 22, 2010.
12. Jarman, Max (October 11, 2005)."Hand crafted hooch: Prickly pear
vodka from Flagstaff" (http://www.azcentral.com/ent/music/articles/1012
distillery-ON-CP.html). The Arizona Republic. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
13. Ltd, Allied Newspapers."Zeppi's Bajtra, the liqueur from the prickly pear
fruit" (http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20030320/local/i-zeppis
-bajtra-i-the-liqueur-from-the-prickly-pear-fruit.154122)
.
14. Guzmán-Maldonado, S. H.; Morales-Montelongo, A. L.; Mondragón-
Jacobo, C.; Herrera-Hernández, G.; Guevara-Lara, .F; Reynoso-
Camacho, R. (2010). "Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Functional
Characterization of Fruits Xoconostle (Opuntia matudae) Pears from
Central-México Region".Journal of Food Science. 75 (6): C485.
doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01679.x(https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.175
0-3841.2010.01679.x). PMID 20722901 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
ubmed/20722901).
15. Butera D, et al. (2002). "Antioxidant activities of sicilian prickly pear
(Opuntia ficus indica) fruit extracts and reducing properties of its
betalains: betanin and indicaxanthin".J Agric Food Chem. 50 (23):
6895–901. doi:10.1021/jf025696p (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf025696
p). PMID 12405794 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12405794).
16. Butera, Daniela; Luisa Tesoriere; Francesca Di Gaudio; Antonino
Bongiorno; Mario Allegra; Anna Maria Pintaudi; Rohn Kohen; Maria A.
Livrea (2002). "Antioxidant activities of sicilian prickly pear (Opuntia
ficus indica) fruit extracts and reducing properties of its betalains:
betanin and indicaxanthin".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
50 (23): 6895–6901. doi:10.1021/jf025696p (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fj
f025696p). PMID 12405794 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1240
5794).
17. Frati AC, Xilotl Díaz N, Altamirano P
, Ariza R, López-Ledesma R (1991).
"The effect of two sequential doses of Opuntia streptacantha upon
glycemia". Archivos De Investigación Médica. 22 (3–4): 333–6.
PMID 1844121 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1844121).
18. Behan (1995)
19. Portillo M. & Vigueras G. (1988)
20. Spinner, Kate. "Desert cactus has secret talent for purifying water"(htt
p://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20120610/ARTICLE/120619976).
Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
21. O'Brien, Miles. "Cactus "flesh" cleans up toxic water"(http://www.nsf.go
v/news/special_reports/science_nation/cactus.jsp) . National Science
Foundation. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
22. This Amazing Cactus with hundreds of uses can help farmers in drought
prone areas (https://www.thebetterindia.com/20955/amazing-cactus-can
-help-farmers-drought-prone-areas/)
23. Bonello, Giovanni (8 May 2011)."Malta's three national emblems since
independence – what's behind them?"(http://www.timesofmalta.com/arti
cles/view/20110508/life-features/malta-s-three-national-emblems-since-i
ndependence-what-s-behind-them.364316). Times of Malta. Retrieved
30 October 2014.
24. Tamir, Tally (1999). "The Shadow of Foreignness: On the Paintings of
Asim Abu-Shakra" (http://www.pij.org/details.php?id=962). Palestine-
Israel Journal. 6 (1).
25. Almog, Oz. 2000. The Sabra the Creation of the New Jew. The S. Mark
Taper Foundation imprint in Jewish studies. Berkeley: University of
California Press
26. Over here and over there(http://www.economist.com/daily/diary/displays
tory.cfm?story_id=8160028). The Economist, 2006-NOV-16. Retrieved
2007-OCT-16.
27. "LYRICS | GAUCHO (1980)"(http://steelydan.com/lyrgaucho.html#track
6). Steely Dan.
28. "Guantanamo Bay Naval Base and Ecological Crises"(http://www1.ame
rican.edu/TED/guantan.htm). Trade and Environment Database.
American University. Retrieved 2009-04-19.
29. "Yankees Besieged" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,
940656,00.html). Time. 1962-03-16.

Bibliography
Behan, Jeff (1995): The bug that changed history. Boatman's Quarterly Review8(2). HTML fulltext
Bwititi P, Musabayane CT, Nhachi CF (March 2000). "Effects of Opuntia megacantha on blood glucose and kidney
function in streptozotocin diabetic rats".Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 69 (3): 247–52. doi:10.1016/S0378-
8741(99)00123-3. PMID 10722207.
Cota-Sánchez, J. Hugo (2002)."Taxonomy, distribution, rarity status and uses of Canadian Cacti"(PDF). Haseltonia.
9: 17–25.
Frati-Munari AC, Fernández-Harp JA, de la Riva H, Ariza-Andraca R, del Carmenorres T M (1983). "Efecto del nopal
(Opuntia sp.) sobre los lípidos séricos la glucemia y el peso corporal" [Ef fects of nopal (Opuntia sp.) on serum lipids,
glycemia and body weight].Archivos De Investigación Médica(in Spanish). 14 (2): 117–25. PMID 6314922.
Ott, Jonathan (1995): In: Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangaean Entheogens.
Pittler MH, Verster JC, Ernst E (December 2005). "Interventions for preventing or treating alcohol hangover:
systematic review of randomised controlled trials" . BMJ. 331 (7531): 1515–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1515.
PMC 1322250 . PMID 16373736.
Portillo, M.; Liberato; Vigueras, G.; Lilia, Ana (1988). "Natural Enemies of Cochineal D ( actylopius coccus Costa):
Importance in Mexico"(PDF). Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus Development . 3: 43–49.
Rayburn, Keith M.D.; Martinez, Rey; Escobedo, Miguel; W right, Fred; Farias, Maria (1998). "Glycemic Ef fects of
Various Species of Nopal (Opuntia sp.) in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus".Texas Journal of Rural Health. 16 (1): 68–76.
Trenary, Klaus (1997): Visionary Cactus Guide: Opunita [sic]. Retrieved 2007-OCT-15.
Wiese J, McPherson S, Odden MC, Shlipak MG (June 2004). "Ef fect of Opuntia ficus indica on symptoms of the
alcohol hangover". Archives of Internal Medicine. 164 (12): 1334–40. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.12.1334.
PMID 15226168.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Opuntia&oldid=826698907

"

This page was last edited on 20 February 2018, at 15:17.

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.