OPTIMIZATION OF THE PROCESS OF PASTEURIZATION AND

HOMOGENIZATION IN THE MILK IN THE INDUSTRY OF INDULAC

INTRODUCTION
The company Industrias Lácteas S.A. INDULAC, is committed to the
development of quality and safe dairy products offering a service that ensures the
preference of customers, the implementation of the rational use of natural
resources to prevent, mitigate and control environmental factors. It supports
Occupational Health and Safety in order to prevent risks, promotes continuous
improvement with the participation of those who are part of the company,
provides economic resources to develop a safe work environment for its
employees and comply with national legislation.
Normally the milk reaches the treatment plant in tankers, tanks or tanks. These
tanks are made of stainless steel, aluminum or in some cases even plastic. The
capacity of them is also very variable it is usual that at the arrival of the milk to
the plant, samples are taken to carry out the corresponding analyzes of quality
and determination of the fat and protein content of the milk. Sometimes the price
of milk varies according to its composition.
After receipt, the milk is usually stored under refrigerated conditions until it enters
the line. In this way, the preservation of milk until its treatment is guaranteed. This
measure is of special importance when for milk supply reasons the milk must
remain stored before being treated.
Then the organic and inorganic particles of dirt that may be contained in the milk
after milking or due to transport are removed. It also eliminates the agglomerates
of pro Milk prevention in the dairy industry 36 of 164 Raw milk Reception Rejects
raw milk Storage Refrigerated raw milk Electric energy teínas (clots) that are
formed in milk. The degree of impurities in milk will vary depending on milking
techniques, on-farm treatment and transport. In any case, a process of
purification in the industry is inevitable.
The purpose of the thermal treatment is the almost complete destruction of the
microorganisms that are contained in the milk. An additional effect is the
inactivation to a greater or lesser extent of the dairy enzymes.
 OBJECTIVES

GENERAL PURPOSE
• Create a mathematical model for the control of the milk pasteurization process,
which is manufactured in INDULAC S.A.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• Collect information on the pasteurization process.
• Know the parameters of pasteurization
• Establish material and energy balances.
• Make a flow chart of the milk production process in INDULAC S.A
 INDULAC
There are three fundamental methods for the decrease of microorganisms in milk:
Pasteurization, Sterilization and UHT (Ultra High Temperature or Ultra
pasteurization or Uperisation)

PASTEURIZED MILK
Milk is subjected to a process of temperature increase to 63ºC for 30 minutes
(this would be the LTLT - Low Temperature Long Time - Low Temperature High
time, almost unused except in traditional cheese factories), or for 15 minutes at
a temperature of 71,7ºC (HTLT - High Temperature Long Time - High
Temperature High Time) being this the most used and most suitable method of
pasteurization (eliminating molds, yeasts and most of the vegetative forms of
bacteria). After this process the temperature is lowered to 6 ºC, being its
maximum period of use of a week, being better known by all as "fresh milk".

STERILIZED MILK
It is produced by increasing the temperature to 110 ° C, for a period of 20 minutes
once the milk is hermetically packed, the fundamental problem of this method lies
in the loss of organoleptic characteristics of the milk since the treatment is quite
severe, destroying some vitamins, denaturing proteins, caramelizing milk sugars
(lactose), etc. It is a system used to a lesser extent than pasteurization and
ultrapasteurization (UHT)

UHT MILK
It is, as in the two previous cases, the treatment by increasing the temperature,
this time between 135 ° C and 150 ° C for 1 second (minimum legal requirement)
up to 4 seconds normally, then the temperature is lowered and packed in aseptic
conditions. Practically no changes are made in the composition of the milk,
although slight changes in the flavor can be noticed (leaving a special flavor due
to the caramelization of part of the sugars in the milk). This milk has a high
expiration date and is also known as "milk de brick" or "leche de caja".

PASTEURIZATION
Pasteurization is a procedure developed by Luis Pasteur in 1864 that aims to
remove pathogens from food without losing their qualities. This scientist noticed
that by exposing the food for a certain time at high temperatures, the agents
disappeared and the characteristics of the same did not change.
Pasteurization is done by transferring heat to the product to be treated up to a
certain temperature. This temperature depends on the product since some of its
qualities are more prone to the growth of unwanted pathogens. Once this
temperature is obtained, the product is maintained in this state for a short time.
This time is also punctual for each product. In order to store a properly
pasteurized product, it is necessary that the temperature of the product be
lowered, eliminating remaining pathogens.

Graph of the area where the microorganisms disappear. Temperature vs. Time.

Unlike sterilization, this process does not attempt to eliminate all microorganisms
from the product. It aims to reduce the number of pathogens so that they can not
cause any disease, assuming that this product is properly stored and will not be
consumed beyond the expiration date. Food sterilization in industry is not
common because this process takes away natural attributes such as taste or
texture.
CURRENT METHODS
The way in which the pasteurization process is carried out has been reformed in
order to make it faster and more reliable. You must have
How premise that the product can not be exposed for a long time at high
temperatures because it is proven that the product loses attributes such as
vitamins, texture or taste.
The most important factors for the development of new pasteurization techniques
are consumption and legislation. According to the country, legislation on aspects
such as fat content or pH change. The consumption of the population changes
according to the aspects of the society that is going to be explored. Aspects how
electric power, climate or money determine that new procedures should be
studied to generate an advance in the matter.

HTST PASTEURIZATION

One type of pasteurization is the HTST (High temperature short time) process.
This pasteurization requires that the product be exposed to temperatures of 70 -
75 ° C for times of 15 to 30 seconds depending on its type. The standards for this
milk pasteurization were created in the United States in 1933 and define that the
temperature should be 71.7 ° C to 15 seconds for the most efficient reduction of
bacteria.
HTST pasteurization gets its name because the product that is treated once
reaches the temperature necessary for the elimination of pathogens, lasts a short
time at that temperature, and then receives a thermal shock that lowers its
temperature again. The short duration of the product at high temperatures, is
sustained in a network of tubes that according to its length, takes a fixed time
where the product is maintained in that state. During the maintenance of the
product at high temperatures the elimination of microorganisms that affect human
health takes place. Once the elimination of unwanted microorganisms has been
completed, the thermal shock ensures that the product does not grow bacterial
residues during the storage thereof.
The plants that develop this pasteurization process transfer the heat to the treated
product by means of a heat exchanger. This device, which will be explained later,
uses a means that can be a heater or coolant to raise or lower the temperature
of the product to be treated. According to the arrangement of said device, the
product can reach the same temperature as the medium, giving a high efficiency
in the process.

UHT PROCESSING

UHT (Ultra-high Temperature) processing refers to the sterilization of any food

due to heating for an extremely short period at very high temperatures
(Time 1-2 seconds, Temperature> 134 ° C).
It is known that at these temperatures the spores of milk are destroyed. The
destruction of the spores means that the reappearance of bacteria is impossible,
and that in this way the milk obtained has less risk of contamination.
The main quality of the products treated under UHT is that if they are properly
packaged they last for months without the bacteria growing at room temperature.
This quality means that once these products are treated, they do not need
refrigeration and they can last without being opened for months. The initiative to
make all the milk pasteurized by the UHT method is
has been adopting different countries of the world taking into account that the
non-cooling of this energy saving aid prepared for this purpose.
One reason why the products treated with the UHT technique are consumed most
of the world is that in the tropical countries, milk consumption was traditionally
very low given the bad distribution and refrigeration chains. By not needing the
last attribute it is known that the costs would be lowered and that in these
countries the products treated under UHT are widely used.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PASTEURIZATION
Food acidity
• Acidity influences the degree of survival of each bacterial organism.
• The main parameter to characterize acidity is pH.
• Most toxic bacteria are no longer active below a pH value of 4.5. That is to say,
the simple lemon juice deactivates them.
• Foods can be considered as acids if they are below a pH value of 4.5.
• In the case of foods with a higher pH, milk, vegetables, meat, fish, etc., it is
necessary to heat them at 121 ° C for 3 minutes, or to add vinegar, lemon juice,
etc., to Avoid microbial activity.

RESISTANT ORGANISMS
• Some organisms and bacteria in food are resistant to pasteurization.
• Its resistance depends largely on the pH, the water activity, the chemical
composition and its ease or probability of being contaminated.
• Cow's milk pasteurized by the HTST method and properly refrigerated, has an
extended shelf life that can reach two or three weeks, while ultra-pasteurized milk
can have an extended life ranging between two and three months.

PASTEURIZATION PROCESS
To destroy the microorganisms of the milk it is necessary to subject them to
thermal treatments, since it was seen that the temperature can cause undesirable
transformations in the milk, which provoke alterations of flavor, yield, and quality
mainly.
The process of pasteurization was ideal in order to diminish the entire flora of
saprophytic microorganisms and all the pathogenic microbial agents, but altering
as little as possible the physical and chemical structure of the milk and the
substances with biological activity such as enzymes and vitamins
The temperature and time applied in the pasteurization ensure the destruction of
pathogenic agents such as Mycobacterium, tuberculosis, Brucellos, Solmonellas,
etc., but it does not destroy the mastitic microorganisms such as Staphilococus
aereus or Streptococuspyogenes, nor does it destroy some micro organisms
responsible for acidity such as Lacotobacillus.
Different combinations of temperature and time for pasteurization have been
studied, but basically they have been reduced to two:
1. Slow or discontinuous pasteurization.
2. Fast or continuous pasteurization.
3. Slow pasteurization
SLOW PASTEURIZATION
This method consists of heating the milk to temperatures between 62 and 64ºC
and keeping it at this temperature for 30 minutes.
The milk is heated in containers or tanks of variable capacity (usually from 200 to
1500 liters); These tanks are preferably made of stainless steel and are jacketed
(double wall); the milk is heated by means of steam or hot water that links
between the walls of the tank, provided with a stirrer to make the treatment more
homogeneous.

After 30 minutes, the milk is cooled to temperatures between 4 and 10ºC

depending on the convenience.
To effect this cooling, the same container can be used by circulating ice water
through the double bottom jacket until the milk has the desired temperature.
Another way is to cool using the surface cooler (or cooling curtain) that was seen
when the subject of milk treatment was discussed.
Both methods of cooling have their drawbacks: in the first case (using the same
tank), the temperature drops more and more slowly as it approaches the
temperature of the ice water, which makes the milk, for a certain time, this at the
temperatures in which the microorganisms that will remain after the heat
treatment grow, which increases the microbial agents account.
On the other hand, using the cooling curtain the milk forms a film on the surface
of the curtain and cooling is faster, but, because the milk is in contact with the
environment, it is prey to contamination.
The use of slow pasteurization is adequate to process small quantities of milk up
to approximately 2000 liters per day, otherwise it is not advisable.
FAST PASTEURIZATION
Also called continuous pasteurization or HTST (Heigh Temperature Short Time),
this treatment consists of applying a temperature of 72 - 73ºC to the milk in a time
of 15 to 20 seconds.
This pasteurization is carried out in plate heat exchangers, and the route that milk
makes in it is as follows:
The milk reaches the exchanger equipment at approximately 4ºC, coming from a
regulating tank; in the first section is heated by regeneration
In this section of regeneration or preheating, the raw milk is heated to
approximately 58ºC by means of the pasteurized milk whose temperature is used
in this regeneration zone.
When leaving the regeneration section, the milk passes through a filter that
removes impurities that it may contain, then the milk passes to the heat
exchangers in the area or heating area where it is heated up to the pasteurization
temperature. it is 72-73 ° C by means of hot water.

OUTLINE OF THE PASTEURIZATION PROCESS

STANDARDIZATION EQUIPMENT FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS

During the standardization of dairy products, cream and milk are first separated
into a milk line. Then, the two elements are mixed again. However, not all of the
original fat content is added back, only the exact level required for milk that will
be classified as skim, semi-skim or whole (or the required amount of fat for
different cream-based products).
The same process is used to obtain the exact fat content required when milk is
used as an ingredient in yogurt, cheese, etc. Standardization can also refer to the
process of re-adding protein content (in the correct amounts that apply) when
different products are made.
MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY
Tanks for cooling milk
Equipment used to contain the milk during its reception.
Technical data of Cooling Tank.
• Current system: Three-phase.
• Material: Stainless steel reference AISI 304.
• Maximum acceptable cooling time in hours: Cooling of milk from 35 ºC to 4ºC,
in less than three hours, with an ambient temperature of 32 º c.

• Washing: The construction, materials and design of the tank should facilitate
the cleaning and disinfection of the tank (without rivets or joints), the manual or
automatic washing system.
• Temperature and thermostatic regulation: The milk cooling tank must have a
milk temperature display system and must have an individual and exclusive tank
calibration chart.

HOMOGENIZER TECHNICAL SHEET

A homogenizer a pump is a positive pump that precipitates positive that
precipitates the product to the product at the desired speed, desired speed,
sending it through sending it through the special set of the special set of valves
of homogenization valves. Homogenization Made of steel Made of stainless steel,
three-phase, stainless, three-phase, dimensions dimensions700 * 850 * 950.
Weight700 * 850 * 950. Weight400 kg.400 kg.
PASTEURIZATION TECHNICAL SHEET
• Capacity 200 liters / hour. Steam operation.
• Made of stainless steel
• Control panel Rolling tank Valves and accessories.

TECHNICAL SHEET SKIMMERS

When you want to separate the fat you have to separate the fat
you have to follow an accelerated process known as
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION, in which the force of gravity is
used for the fat to separate.
• Capacity 125. Capacity 125 liters /

hour
• 110 volt single phase motor
• Receptacle for milk in aluminum
Output of cream and independent milk.

TECHNICAL DATA SHEET BUTTERS

• Manufactured in stainless steel
• Capacity 50 liters
• Electrical operation at 110 volts
• Floor model

TECHNICAL DATA SHEET AUTOMATIC

PACKAGING
Model: DXDY1000A.
Filling dose: 150 -500ml
Speed: 40 bags / min.
Material to be used: PE, PP, Thermo-sealable
Maximum bag width: 150 mm. Maximum bag
length: 170mm.
Stainless steel exterior Mechanical control of
dosing and bag length.
Electronic control of sealing temperature.
Control of tension of the material.
Voltage, Power: 220/380 V.3 phases; 3.5 KW.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS YOGURT PROCESSING MACHINE

Complete module for the preparation of YOGURT with thermal concentration of
the milk or by the addition of solids.
Discontinuous processes with one or more ripeners. From 200 to 2,000 liters
each.
Operation under aseptic conditions, equipment sanitization almost free from
manual operation.
 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS YOGURT
PROCESSING MACHINE
Complete module for the preparation of YOGURT
with thermal concentration of the milk or by the
addition of solids.
Discontinuous processes with one or more ripeners.
From 200 to 2,000 liters each.

THERMAL CARD MARMITE

It is essential for concentration processes in the food
industry, the concentration process involves the elimination or evaporation of
water.

TECHNICAL DATASHEET MILK DEHYDRATOR

• It is produced from raw milk
• Pasteurization and skimming
• Dehydration by sprinkling and agglomeration.
CONTROL TECHNIQUES
The choice of the control technique to use must take into account the
characteristics of the mathematical model obtained since some control
techniques need specific models to be able to work well. The data obtained from
the plant show a highly non-linear behavior that can not be modeled with
conventional techniques.
The way in which the model is developed is the choice of operation points where
the behavior of the plant changes. Between these points, develop a linear model
and a certain control for said ranges of operation. Then follow a technique where
you can join the different controls calculated to determine a non-linear control that
is made up of linear parts of control.

GENERAL COMPOSITION OF MILK IN PERCENTAGE

NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS

The nutritional aspects of milk have been valued since the beginning of humanity.
With the advancement of science and its application, it has been increasingly
raising its value and in the last two centuries, has been able to go on specifying,
recognizing and discovering greater utilities of milk. Therefore, the degree of
importance of milk in human nutrition, in particular for its protein and calcium
content is widely recognized.
Milk has the basic function of satisfying nutritional requirements. And it obtains it
due to its balanced mixture of proteins, fat, carbohydrates, salts and other minor
elements dispersed in water. Nutritionally it shows a wide range of nutrients and
a deep nutritional contribution in relation to the calorie content; There is a good
balance between the major components: fat, proteins and carbohydrates.

• Proteins: Cow's milk contains a certain percentage of proteins, distributed in

caseins, soluble proteins and non-protein nitrogenous substances. They are apt
to cover the amino acid needs of man and show a high digestibility and biological
value.
• Water: It has between 70-90.5% of water.
• Lipids: They have among the most significant components of milk because of
their economic and nutritional aspects and because of the physical and
organoleptic characteristics that are due to them.
In milk are two isomers of lactose: α-lactose and β-lactose; It is not very soluble
in water and crystallizes very fast.
• Sugars: Lactose is the only sugar that is located in milk in a significant amount
and intervenes essentially as an energy source.
• Mineral substances: About 1 percent of salts are present. Highlights calcium
and phosphorus. Calcium is a beneficial nutrient macro, since it is involved in
several vital functions due to its high bioavailability, as well as the absence in milk
of factors that inhibit its absorption.
• Vitamins: It is an elemental source of vitamins for children and adults. The
entrusted intake of group B vitamins (B1, B2 and B12) and a significant
percentage of A, C is covered with the consumption of one liter of milk.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK

The milk is designated for a consecutive treatment prior to consumption and

among its physical properties is.
• Appearance: The opaque appearance of the milk is related to its content of
suspended fat particles, also of proteins and mineral salts, but in a lesser
proportion, therefore it must be homogeneous and free of foreign matter.
• Color: Must be opalescent or slightly yellowish white, this coloration depends
on the amount of fat.
• Odor: Must be soft, dairy characteristic, free of strange smells.
• Density: Depending on the composition of the milk, the density varies between
1026 and 1033 gr / ml; thus, milk is slightly denser than water (1.0). The density
decreases as the fat content increases, but the proportion of the protein, lactose
and mineral substances rises, in the same way the density depends on the
temperature.
• Freezing point: This depends on the content of lactose, proteins and mineral
salts. The freezing point decreases due to the presence of said substances in
water.
• PH: The pH of the milk is slightly acidic. An indicator that is used to measure
the titratable acidity of milk is phenolphthalein.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RAW MILK

CALCULATIONS

MATERIAL BALANCE
{𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠} = {𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠} + {𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠}
{𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘} = 𝐹𝑖 𝜌
{𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘} = 𝐹𝑜 𝜌
𝑑(𝜌𝑉)
{𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘} =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑀
𝑀𝑖 −̇ 𝑀̇𝑜 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝜌𝑉)
𝜌𝐹𝑖 − 𝜌𝐹𝑜 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝑖 − 𝐹𝑜 =
𝑑𝑡
ENERGY BALANCE

𝑄 = 𝑈𝑥 𝐴𝑥 (𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇)
{𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤} = 𝐹𝑖 ℎ𝑇𝑖 𝜌
{𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚} = 𝑈𝑥 𝐴𝑥 (𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇)
{𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤} = 𝐹𝑜 ℎ𝑇𝑜 𝜌
𝑑(𝑉ℎ𝑇 )
{𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠} = 𝜌
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑉ℎ𝑇 )
𝜌 = 𝜌(𝐹𝑖 ℎ𝑇𝑖 − 𝐹𝑜 ℎ𝑇 ) + 𝑈𝑥 𝐴𝑥 (𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡
 ℎ𝑇 = 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇 ℎ𝑇𝑖 = 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑖
𝑑(𝑉𝑇)
𝜌𝐶𝑝𝑎 = 𝜌(𝐹𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑖 − 𝐹𝑜 𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇) + 𝑈𝑥 𝐴𝑥 (𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡
ENERGY BALANCE IN THE JACKET
{𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡} = 𝐹𝑗 ℎ𝑗𝑖 𝜌𝑣
{𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘} = 𝑈𝑗 𝐴𝑗 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇)
{𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡} = 𝐹𝑗 ℎ𝑗 𝜌𝑣
𝑑(ℎ𝑗 )
{𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡} = 𝜌𝑣 𝑉𝑗
𝑑𝑡
IT IS DESCRIBED AS FOLLOWS
𝑑ℎ𝑗
𝜌𝑣 𝑉𝑗 = 𝐹𝑗 𝜌𝑣 (ℎ𝑗𝑖 − ℎ𝑗 ) − 𝑈𝑗 𝐴𝑗 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡
ℎ𝑗 = 𝐶𝑝𝑣 𝑇𝑗 ℎ𝑗𝑖 = 𝐶𝑝𝑣 𝑇𝑗𝑖
𝑑𝑇𝑗
𝜌𝑣 𝑉𝑗 𝐶𝑝𝑣 = 𝐹𝑗 𝜌𝑣 (𝐶𝑝𝑣 𝑇𝑗𝑖 − 𝐶𝑝𝑣 𝑇𝑗 ) − 𝑈𝑗 𝐴𝑗 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡
BALANCE IN THE COIL
𝑑ℎ𝑠
= 𝑤𝜆 − 𝑈𝑠 𝐴𝑠 [𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇]
𝑑𝑡
ℎ𝑠 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑇𝑠
𝐶𝑚 = 𝑤𝜆 − 𝑈𝑠 𝐴𝑠 [𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇]
𝑑𝑡

ANALOG PID CONTROL

The signals of interest in the control of systems are usually continuous time. A
continuous-time system is one in which the signals in various parts of the system
are all functions of the continuous variable, time (t).
An analog controller is a system that acts in continuous time. And it is represented
with the following block diagram:

The actual control systems are generally of a non-linear nature, but linearizing
them is important, because it allows the application of numerous analysis
methods that provide information about the behavior of non-linear systems.
LINEARIZATION OF MASS BALANCE

𝐹̅ = 𝐾 √𝐻
̅
 𝜋𝜙 2 𝑑𝐻
𝐹𝑖 − 𝐹𝑜 = ( )
4 𝑑𝑡
C is defined as:
𝜋𝜙 2
𝐶=( )
4
𝑑𝐻
𝐹𝑖 − 𝐹𝑜 = (𝐶)
𝑑𝑡
Replacing Fo = f you have:
𝑑𝐻
(𝐶) = 𝐹𝑖 − 𝐾 √𝐻 ̅
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐻 𝐹𝑖 𝐾 √𝐻 ̅
= 𝑓(𝐻, 𝐹𝑖 ) = −
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶
𝑑𝐻 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
− 𝑓(𝐻 ̅ , 𝐹̅ ) = (𝐻 − 𝐻̅) + (𝐹 − 𝐹̅ )
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐹𝑖 𝑖
𝑓(𝐻̅ , 𝐹̅ ) = 0
𝜕𝑓 1 𝐾 𝐹̅ 1 𝐹̅ 1
=− =− =− =−
𝜕𝐹𝑖𝐻=𝐻̅,𝐹𝑖 =𝐹 2 √𝐻 ̅ √𝐻 ̅ 2𝐶 √𝐻
̅ 2𝐶𝐻 ̅ 𝑅𝐶
2𝐻 ̅
𝑅=
𝐹̅
𝜕𝑓 1
=
𝜕𝐹𝑖𝐻=𝐻̅,𝐹𝑖 =𝐹 𝐶
𝑑𝐻 1 1
=− (𝐻 − 𝐻 ̅ ) + (𝐹𝑖 − 𝐹̅ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶
𝑑ℎ 1 1
=− ℎ + 𝑓𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶

Linearization of the Energy Balance

𝑑𝑇(𝑡)
𝑉𝜌𝐶𝑝𝑣 ( ) = 𝑓(𝑡)𝜌𝐶𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑖 + 𝑈𝐴𝑇𝑠 (𝑡) − 𝑇(𝑡)[𝑈𝐴 + 𝑓(𝑡)𝜌𝐶𝑝𝑎 ]
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇(𝑡)
( ) = 𝑔[𝐹(𝑡), 𝑇𝑠 (𝑡), 𝑇(𝑡)]
𝑑𝑡

The initial value (𝑓 ,̅ 𝑇̅, 𝑇̅𝑠 ) in steady state.

𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓 ̅ 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇̅ 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑠 (𝑡) − 𝑇̅𝑠
𝑑𝑇𝑠(𝑡)
( ) = ℎ[𝑊(𝑡), 𝑇𝑠 (𝑡), 𝑇(𝑡)]
𝑑𝑡
Linearized equation of the total energy balance
𝑑𝑇(𝑡)
𝑉𝜌𝐶𝑣 ( ̅ 𝑝𝑎 ]𝑇(𝑡)
) = 𝐹(𝑡)𝜌𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇̅) + 𝑈𝐴𝑇𝑠 (𝑡) − [𝑈𝐴 + 𝑓 𝜌𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Balance of energy in the coil:
 𝑑𝑇𝑠 (𝑡)
𝐶𝑀 = 𝜆𝑊(𝑡) − 𝑈𝐴𝑇𝑠 + 𝑈𝐴𝑇(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
∞
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐿[𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

Transfer function in response to modeling to an input signal.

Level
𝐻(𝑠) 𝑅
= 𝐹 (𝑠)
𝐻𝑠𝑒𝑡 (𝑆) 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 𝑖
𝐻(𝑠) 814.57
= 𝐹 (𝑠)
𝐻𝑠𝑒𝑡 (𝑠) 105.65𝑠 + 1 𝑖

Tank Temperature
𝐾𝑓 𝐾𝑠
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠) + 𝑇 (𝑠)
𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 𝑠
Replacement of values
−7351.014 0.904743
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠) + 𝑇 (𝑠)
5.8196𝑠 + 1 5.8196𝑠 + 1 𝑠

Coil temperature
1 𝐾𝑤
𝑇𝑠 (𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠) + 𝑊(𝑠)
𝑐2 𝑠 + 1 𝐶2 𝑠 + 1
1 71.88
𝑇𝑠 (𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠) + 𝑊(𝑠)
0.0588𝑠 + 1 0.0588𝑠 + 1

LEVEL CONTROL
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
 MATHEMATICAL MODEL
DIAGRAM OF BLOCKS OF THE MILK PROCESS

OPERATING DIAGRAM OF THE PASTEURIZATION EQUIPMENT

DIAGRAM OF BLOCKS LEVEL CONTROL WITH VALVE AND
TRANSMITTER

CONTROLLED LEVEL
SIMULINK MATHEMATICAL MODEL

T(°C)

t(seg)