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) MECHANISMS
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AND
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) DYNAMICS
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OF MACHINERY ,.
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FOURTif EDITION
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) Hamilton H . Mabie
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Charles F. Reinholtz
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) Virginia Polytechnic Institute
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and State University
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) JOHN WJl..EY &. SONS
New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto Singapore

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About the Authors •
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DEDICATED to the late FRED w. OCVIRK
whose contributions to the First and
Second Editions motivated later editions.
and to SALUE MABIE and JERJ REINHOLTZ
whose usistance and forbearance have
,
made this edition possible.
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i HAMILTON H . MABIE , Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Poly-
, )

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technic Instit ut e and Sta:e C nh· e~ i t~ ~ince 196-1 . recei\"ed his B.S . defree frc m ~
Ct'p)Tight 0 19;7, 1963, 1975, 1987. by John W'ale7 4 Sons, Inc. the Unh·ersit~· of Rochester. his M .S. degree from Cornell Un i \"ets it~ . and hi5
i )
Ph.D . degree from Pennsylvania Slate University.
From 1941 to 1960, Dr. Mabie was on the faculty of the Sibley School of
All rights reserved. Published simultaneously ID Qaeda.
Mechanical Engineering at Cornell University. From 1960 to 1964, he worked at •
I
Reproduction or tnnsfation of any part of Sandia Laboratory in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where he was engaged in >
this worlt beyond that penniued by Sectiom research and development related to nuclear weapons.
or
107 and 108 the 1976 United States C-opfrilhl In addition to his work in kinematics, Dr. Mabie is engaged in rese;i rch on •
Act without the permission of the copyria•t
owner is unlawful. Requests for permission
or f1'nher in!onnatioa abould be addrcaed IO
gears, torque characteristics of instrument ball bearings, en\'ironmental effects
on the fatigue life of aluminum, and fretting corrosion of rolling element bea rings. •
)
the Permissions Department, John Wiley A Sons.
I He bas authored and coauthored many technical papers in these fields. He is a
I
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licensed pro fessional engineer and a Life Fello\\ of The Am~ric:m s .--:icr~ d
.Mechanical Engineers. •
Li6rory of Con1rtss Cat11fo1in1 111 Pdlicdtlo• Dat-.:
Mabie, Hamilton H. (Hamilloa Horth). 1914-
The first edition of Meclta11isms and Dy11amics of Mac/1i11ay was published
by John Wiley & Sons in 1957 and the second in 1963, both wirh the late F. \\'. )
•
Mecbanmns and dynamics of machinery. Ocvirk as coauthor. The third edition was published in 19i5 and an S I \ "ersion
Induda index. in 1978. This fourth edition has Charles F. Reinholtz as coa uthor. )
J. Mechanical movaneats. 2. Machinery, Kiae1111tica
I
o . 3. Machinery, Dynamics of. I. Reinholtz, Cuirles F. )
U. Title.
TJ17S .Mlll 1916 621.8 ~11115
)
C HA RLES F. REll"llOLTZ is curre nt!)' Assis rant P rofessor of Mechanical E ngi-
I
ISBN 0-471-80237-9
necring at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in JiJlacksburg,
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Printed in the United States of America

10 9 I Virginia, a posi tion he has held since 1983. He holds B .S . , M ..S .• and Ph .D .
degrees from lhe Uni\'ersity of Florida . He has also worked fy r lforro ugh s Cor-
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,.:·AUOlTT
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paration as a design engineer in the Peripheral Products Group. Professor Rein-

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) holtz bas been active in the area of kinematics and mechanism design since 1976.
He is a member of 1bc American Society of Mecha nical Engineers, The Amer-
ican Society for l!nsinccring Education, and Sigma Xi. I le is 11lso a member of ..r'
,I

) Tau Beta Pi anJ l'i Tau Sisma Honor Societies. d

- ..~ Preface
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)
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) This textbook has been completely revised and updated. Its contents have been
reorganized to better match the sequence of topics typically covered and to reflect
) the many changes brought about by the use of computers in the classroom. These
) changes include the use of iterative methods for linkage position analysis and
matrix methods for force analysis. BASIC language computer programs , devel-
) oped on a personal computer, have been added throughout the text to demon-
strate the simplicity and power of computer methods. All BASIC programs listed
) in the text have also been cOdcd in FORTRAN 77 and listed in Appendix Three.
The text can now be used with either U.S. units, SI units, or a combination of

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)
both. Where the units of an equation must be specified, both a U .S. and an SI
form arc given. An effort has been made to maintain a balance between analytical
and graphical methods. 1

This edition has been expanded lo include a number of new topics. In

) kee ping with the additional emphasis on computer methods, kinematic and dy-
namic analysis of linkages has been demonstrated using the commercially avail-
) able Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP). Analytical c11m design mutcrial ha ~
been expanded to include equations for determining the various disk cam con-
)
tours. Both the U.S. and metric systems of gearing arc covered, and n complete
) problem set is given for each system of units. A new section that covers non-
standard spur gears cut with a pinion cutter has been added to the chapter on
) nonstandard gearing. Two new topics have been included in the chapter on gear
trains: harmonic drives and power flow through planetary gear trains.
)
Complex number methods and loop-closure equations have been used more
) extensively in the velocity and acceleration analysis of linkages. The chapter on

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)

)
(Qrce analysis has been thoroughly revised. In addition to the superposition method,

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vi PREFACE
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it now includes the matrix method, which is a powerful tool when used in con-
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junction with a computer. In the chapter on balancing; a method for balancing
four-bar liokagea has been added. 111e chapter on kinematic synthesis has been )
revised and expanded to include many new topics, including a general discussion
of function generation, path generation, and body guidance, and the problems
of branch defcc:t, order defcc:t, and Gruhof defect. The final chapter, on spatial
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,I Contents •
mechanisms and robotics, is completely new. The material contained in this
chapter is becoming increasingly important in the design o[ oomplex automatic
production machinery.
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We appreciate the many suggestions and helpful comments made by our

reviewers: Richard Alexander, Marvin Dixon, and William H . Park. We are in-
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debted to the following instructors at Virginia Polytcc:hnic Institute and State

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University for their helpful suggestions: Craig A : Rogers, Richard E. Cobb, ·
Edgar G. Munday, Joseph W. David, and Peter J. Leavcsly. Finally, we would •
like to acknowledge the help and encouragement provided by our editors at Wiley,
•
Charity Robey and Bill Stenquist.
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HAMILTON H. Mum
OiAiu.Es F. REINHOLTZ ,
Cluspt<r 1
lnlrodudion 1
1.1 Introduction to the Study of Mechanisms
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1.2 Mcc.:hauism, Machine 5 ~
1.3 Motion 5
1.4 Cycle, Period, aod Phase of Motion 7
1.5 Pairing Elements 7
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1.6 Link, Chain 7 •
1.7 Inversion 8
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1.8 Transmission of Motion 9
1.9 Mobility, or Number of Degrees of Freedom 11
PROBLEMS 15 ,
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Chapter 2
Linkages and Mechanisms 20 •
2.1
2.2
Position Analysis of the Four-Bar Linkage 20
Four-Dar Linkage Motion and Grasholrs Law 24 •
2.3 Posit.ion Analysis of Linkages Using Loop Qosure
F.quations and Iterative Methods 26
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2.4 Linkage Analysis Using the Integrated

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2.5
2.6
Mechanisms Program (IMP) 32
Slider Crank Mechanism 35
Scotch Yoke 38
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2.7 Quick-Return Mechanism,; :lR )

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) ' CONTENTS ix

) 2.8 Toggle Mechanism '40 4.9 Internal (Annular) Gears 162

2 .9 Oldham Coupling 41 4.10 Cycloidal Gean 163
) 2. JO Straight-Line Mechanisms 41 PROBLEMS 164
2 .11 Pantograph 42
) 2 .12 Chamber Wheels 43
Chapter S

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) 2 . 13
2 .14
2.15
2. 16
llookc ':1 Coupling 44
Constant-Velocity Universal Joints 46
Intermittent-Motion Mechanisms 50
Computing Elements 54
Noastandud Spur Gean 171
5 .1 Theory of Nonstandard Spur Gears 171
5.2 Extended Center Distance System 173
) 2. 17 lntegntors 55 5 .3 Long and Short Addendum System 183
2. 18 Synthesis 57 5.4 Recess Action Gears 185
) 5.5 Nonstandard Spur Gears Cut by a Pinion Cutter 187
2.19 Case Study in Mechanism Design: The Hydrominer 57
PROBLEMS 199
> PROBLEMS 61

)
Chaptu 6
) Clraptu 3
Bevel, Helical, aad Worm Gearing 206
Cams 71
6.1 Theory of Bevel Gears 206
\ 3.1 Cam Oassifieation and Nomenclature 71
6 .2 Bevel Gear Details 210
3.2 Disk Cam with Radial Follower (Graphical Design) 73

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6.3 Gleason Straight Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions 213
3.3 Disk Cam with Oscillating Follower (Graphical Design) 76
6.4 Angular Straight Bevel Gears 214
) 3.4 Positive-Return Cam (Graphical Design) 78
6.5 Zcrol Bevel Gears 214
3.5 Cylinder Cam (Graphical Design) 78
) 6 .6 Spiral Bevel Gears 215
3.6 Inverse Cam (Graphical Design) 79
6.7 Hypoid Gears 219
) 3.7 Cam Displacement Curves 79
6.8 Theory of Helical Gean 220
3.8 Cam Displacement Curves-Advanced Methods 88 6.9 Parallel Helical Gean 226
) 3 .9 Disk Cam with Radial Flat-Faced
6.10 Crossed Helical Gears 229
Follower (Analytical Design) 90
) 6.11 Worm Gearing 231
3. 10 Disk Cam with Radial Roller Follower (Analytical Design) 96
PROBLEMS 235
) 3. 11 Disk Cam with OsciUating Roller
Follower (Analytical Design) 106
) 3 .12 Contour Cams 111 Chapttr 1
3 .13 11iree-Dimensional Cams 115 Gear Trains 245.
) 3.14 Cam Production Methods 118 7 .1 Introduction to Gear Trains 245
) PROBLEMS 119 7 .2 Planetary Gear Trains 248
7 .3 Application of Planetary" Gear Trains 258
) . 7.4 Assembly of Planetary Gear Trains 262
Chapt~r 4 7 .5 Qrculating Power in Controlled Planetary Gear Systems 267
) Spur Gears 128 7.6 Harmonic Drive Gearing 273
) 4. 1 Introduction to Involute Spur Gears 128 PROBLEMS 275
4 .2 lnvolutometry 131
) 4.3 Spur Gear Details 134
4.4 Characteristics of Involute Action 135 Chapter &
) 4 .5 Interference in Involute Gean 140 Velodty and Acceleration Analysts 291
) 4.6 Gear Standardi1.otion 141 IU Introduction 291
4.7 Minimum Number of Teeth to Avoid Interference 151 8.2 Linear Motion of a Particle 293
) 4.8 Determination of Backlash 156 8.3 Angular Motion 296
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CONTENTS xi
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8.4
8 .S
8.6
Relative Motion 296
Methods of Velocity and Acceleration Analyaia 298
Velocity and Accclcrntion Analysis by Vector Mathematil:a 298
9.4
9.5
9.6
Force Determination 402
Methot.Ii; of Linkage Force Analysis 40'1
l.iukagc 1-'m cc A1rnlysis by Superposition 404
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8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
Determination of Velocity in Mechanisms by Vector Polygons 311
Relative Velocity of Particles in Mechanisms 312
Relative Velocity of Particles in a Common Link 313
Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles on Separate Links 316
9.7 Link.axe Force Aoalyi;is by Matrix Method~ 413
9.8 force Analysis Using the Integrated
Mechanisms Program (IMP) 418
9.9 Linkage Force Analysis by the MethOd of Virtual Work 421
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8.11 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles at the

Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 318
8.12 Instantaneous Centers of Velocity 321
8 .13 Instantaneous Center Notation 323
9.10 Linkage Force Analysis from Dynamic Characteristics 425
9. 11 Linkage Force Analysis by Complex Numbers 429
9.12 Engine Fon:c Analysis 434
9.13 Dynamically Equivalent Masses 440
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8.14 Kennedy's Theorem 31A 9.14 Application of Equivalent Mas.ses 441
8.15 Determination of Instantaneous Centers
by Kennedy's Theorem 325
8.16 Determination of Velocity by Instantaneous Centers 327
9.15 Engine Force Analysis Using Point Masses 442
9.16 Engine Dlocl' 449
9.17 Engine Output Torque 450
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8.17 Rolling Elements 329 9.18 Flywheel Size 456
8.18 Graphical Determination of Acceleration 9.19 Forces on Gear Teeth 462
in Mechanisms by Vector Polygons 329 9.20 Cam Forces 468
8.19 Relative Acceleration of Particles in Mechanisms 330
8.20 Relative Acceleration of Particle& in a Common Link 330
8.21 Relative Acceleration of Coincident Particles on
Separate Links. Coriolis Component of Aa:elcntion 333
9.21 Gyroscopic Forces 470
9.22 Moment-of-Inertia Detenoinatioo 475
PROHLEMS 479 ,'
8.22 Relative Acceleration of Coincident Particles at >
the Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 340 Cllapter 10
8.23 Analytical Vector Solution of Relative Velocity Bala.ace of Machinery 503 •
and Acceleration Equations 344 10.1 Introduction 503
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8.24. Velocity and Acceleration Analysis by Numerical 10.2 Balance of Rotors 504
or Graphical Differentiation 349 10.3 Dynamic and Static Balance 510
8.25 Kinematic Analysis by Complex Numben 354 10.4 Balancing Machines 511
8.26 Analysis of the Slider Crank by Loop aosure 10.5 Balam:.e of Reciprocating Masses 513
Equations and Complex Numbers 357 10.6 Analytical De termination of Unbalance 516
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8 .27 Analysis of the Inverted Slide.r Crank by Loop
Oosure Equations and Complex Numbers 362
10. 7
10.8
Firing .Order 525
V Engines 525 •
8.28 Analysis of the Four-Bar Linkage by Loop
Oosure Equations and Complex Numbcn 364
8.29 Complex Mechanisms 369
10.9
10.10
Opposed Engines 532
Balance of Four-Bar Linkages 533
PROBLEMS 535
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8.30 Velocity and Aa:.cleration Analysis Using the
Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP) 370
PROBLEMS 372 Clulpt~r Jl
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latrodudiuo to Syntheai..t 545

Clraptu 9
11.1 Classification of Kinematic Synthesis Problems 546
11.2 Spacing of Accuracy Points for Function Generation 549 •
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. Force Analysb or Machinery 395 11 .J An11lytical Ucsign of a Four-Bnr Linkage
9.1 lntrot.luction 395 as a l;unction Generator 552 J
9.2 Centrifugal Force in Rotor Blades 396 11.4 Curve Matching Applied to the Design of a Four-Bar
9.3 Inertia Force, Inertia Torque 399 Linkage as a Function Generator 557 , .)
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r 11 .5 Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage
as a Function Generator 560
11 .6 Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 561
11.7 Analytical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 564
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Chapter One
) 1t .8 Analytical Synthesis Using Complex Numbers 567 . ~

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11.9 Design of a Four-Bar Linkage as a Path
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Generator Using Cognates 570
11.10 Practical Considerations in Mechanism Synthesis
I Introduction
(Mechanism Defects) S/2

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• PROBLEMS 575

Chapter 12
\ Spatial Mechanisms and Robotics 582
) 12. t Introduction 582
12.2 Mobility 583
) 12.3 Describing Spatial Motions 587
) 12.4 Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 595
12.5 Kinematic Synthesis of Spatial Mechanisms 597
J 12.6 Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 600
12.7 Kinematics of Robotic Manipulators 602
) PROBLEMS 608
) 1.1 INTRODUCl10N TO 11IE
Appendixes 612 STIJDY OF MECHANISMS
)
The study of mechanisms is very important. With the continuing advances made

, ) Answers to Problems 628

Index 635
. in the design of instruments, automatic controls, and automated equipment, the
study of mechanisms takes on new significance. Mechanisms may be defined as
that division of machine design which is concerned with the kinematic design of
linkages, cams, gears, and gear trains. Kinematic ddign is design on the basis of
)
motion requirements in contrast to design on the basis of strength requirements.
) An example of each of the mechanisms list~ above will be given in order 10
present a comprehensive picture of the components to be studied.
> A sketch of a linkage is shown in Fig. 1.1. This particular arrangement is
) known as the slider-crank mechanism. Link 1 is the frame and is stationar:y, link
2 is the crank, link 3 is lhe connecting rod, and link 4 is the slider. A common
) application of this linkage is in the internal-combustion engine where link 4
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FIGURE 1.1 Sllder-a.k 111Ccliaabm.
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1
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2 INTRODUCTION nm 3
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INTRODUCTION TO STIJDY OF MECHANISMS

becomes the piston (Fig. 1.2o). This figure also demonstrates how difficult it may
be to discern the basic kinematic device when looking at a photograph or a
drawing of a complete machine. Figure 1.Zb shows the lcinmuJlic diagram of the
slider-crank mechanism corresponding to the left-side cnnksbaft-conncctiog-rod-
piston in the photograph of Fig. 1.2o. Such a kinematic diagram is much easier
to work with and allows the designer to separate the kinematic considerations
from the larger problem of machine design.
Figure 1.3 shows the sketch of a cam and follower. The cam rotates nl a
constant angular velocity, and the foUower moves up and down. Oo the upward
motion the follower is driven by the cam, and on the return motion it is driven )
by the action of gravity or of a spring. Cams are used in many machines, but
one of the most common is the automotive engine where two cams are used per )
cylinder to operate the intake and exhaust valves, also shown in Fig. l .2o. A
three-dimensionaJ cam is shown in Fig. 1.4. In this cam, the motion of the follower
depends not only upon the rotation of the cam but also upon the axial motion
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of the cam. . ·
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nGURE 1.4 nrtt-6Demio.... ~.
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Gears are used in many applications to transmit motion from one shaft 10
another with a constant angular velocity ratio. Figure 1. 5 shows several commonly
used gears.
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nGUllE l.Z. ClaeTnlel V-1 mclile 6owlllc llllieMnak ....peefae
(Geeml "'9ton Corpontloa).
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Spur Re«s
lilGURE 1.1b Kiae-
. .11c 4lap9a or en-
gine meda.uilm. nGURE 1.5 (continued naJ pag~)

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) MOllON

these parts must be analyzed. From this, lhe physical size of the pans may be
determined. A machine tool is a good example; its strength and rigidity are more
5

) difficult to attain than the desired motions.

It is important at this time to define the terms used in the study of mech-
)
anisms. This is done in the following section.
)
) t. 1.2 MECHANISM, MACIDNE

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)
Hemnabon•
se•~
Worm and
wcnn aear
Crossed shaft
heblgHl'I
Jn the study of mechanisms the tenns mechanism and machine will be used
repeatedly. These arc defined as foUows:
A mtclrani1m is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies so formed and
nGURE 1.5 (conlinued) connected that they move upon each other with definite relative motion . An
) example is the crank, connecting rod, and piston of an internal-combustion engine
) In some cases, the desired reduction in angular velocity is too great to as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.2b.
achieve using only two gears. When this occurs, several gears must be connected A maclrW is a mechanism or collection of mechanism:. which transmit force
) together to give what is known as a gear train. Figure 1.6 shows a gear train from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. An example is the
where the speed is stepped down in going from gear 1 to gear 2 and again in internal-combustion engine.
\ going from gear 3 to gear 4. Gear 1 is the driver, and gears 2 and 3 arc mounted
) on the same shaft. In many gear trains, it is necessary to be able to shift gcan
in and out of mesh so as to obtain different combinations of speeds. A good 1.3 MOTION
) example of this is the automobile transmission where three speeds forward and In dealing with the study of mechanisms, it is necessary to define the various
) one in reverse arc obtained by shifting two gears. types of motion produced·by these mechanisms.
In devices such as instruments and automatic controls, obtaining the correct
} motion is all-imi}ortant. The power transmitted by the elements may be so slight Plane Motion
as to be negligible, which allows the components to be proportioned primarily
) on the basis of motion, strength being of secondary importance. Translation
) There are other machines, however, where the kinematic analysis is only When a rigid body so moves that the position of each straight line of the
one step in the design. After it has been determined how the various machine body is parallel to all of its other positions, the body has motion of translation.
) components will act to accomplish the desired motion , the fon:cs acting upon
l. Rectilinear translation. All points of the body move in parallel straight line
) paths. When the body moves back and forth in this manner, it is said to
) reciprocate. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7, where the slider 4 redprocates
between the limits B' and H".
)
2. Curvilinear translation. The paths of the points arc identical curves parallel
) to a fixed plane. Figure 1.8 shows the mechanism that was used in connecting
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) FIGURE 1.7
FIGURE 1.6 Geu tram.
)
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6 JN11tODUC110N
LINK, CHAIN 7
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body has helical motion. An example of helical motion is the motion of a nut as
the nut is screwed onto a bolt. •
)
Spherical Motion
When a rigid body moves so that each point of the body has motion about a •
.l
fixed point while remaining at a constant distance from it, the body has spherical
motion. •t
( I
Spatial Molion )
FIGURE I.I A body moving with rotation about three nonparallel axes and translation in

the drive wheels of the steam Joc::omotive. In this mechnnism, link 3 bas
three independent directions is said to be undergoing general spatial motion.

1.4 CYCLE, PERIOD, AND PHASE OF MOTION

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cwvilineu ttaoslation, and all points in the body trace out identical cycloids
as wheels 2 and 4 roll along track 1. Link S moves with rectilinear translation. When the parts of a mechanism have passed through au the possible positions
they can assume after starting from some simultaneous set of relative positions
Rotalion aod have returned to their original relative Positions, they bave completed a cyc/L

If each point of a rigid body having plane motion remains at a constant

of motion. The time reqilircd for a cycle of motion is the period. The simultaneous •
distance from a fixed axis that is perpendicular to the plane of motion, the body
has motion of rotation. If the body rotates bid. and forth through a given angle.
relative positions of a mechanism at a given instant during a cycle arc a phase.
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it is said to oscillate. This is shown in Fig. 1.9. when: link 2· rotates and lint 4 1.5 PAIRING ELEMENTS
oscillates between the positions B' and B". · ~
The geometrical forms by which two members of a mechanism are joined together
so that the relative motion between these two members is consistent are known
as pairing elements. If the joint by which two members are connected has surface •
contact such as a pin joint, the connection is known as a lower pair. If the
connection takes place at a point or along a line such as in a ball bearing or •
between two gear teeth in contact, it is known as a higher pair. A pair that pennits •
only relative rotation is a re11olu1t, or turning, pair, and one that allows only
sliding is a slidi11g pair. A turning pair can be either a lower or a higher pair •
depending upon whether a pin and bushing or a ball bearing is used for the
•·
connection. A sliding pair will be a lower pair as between a piston and cylinder
waU. •
FIGURE 1.9 P..,..._ IWuice·
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· Rotation and Translation
1.6 LINK, CHAIN
A linJc is a rigid body having two or more pairing elements by means o( which
,,
Many bodies have mption which is a combination of rotation and translation. it may be connected to other bodies for purposes ol transmitting force o r motion.
Link 3 in Fig. 1.7, links 2 aod 4 in Fag. 1.8, and link 3 in Fig. 1.9 arc cu.mples Generally, a link is a rigid member with provision at each end for connection to
of this type of motion. two other links. ·n1is may be extended, however, to include three , four, or even
•J
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more conncclions. Figures 1.lOa, b, and c show these arrangements. Perhaps the
extreme case of a multiply connected link is the master rod in a nim;-cylinder
Helical Motion radial aircraft engioe as seen in Fig. 1. lOd. ·

,
When a rigid body moves so that each point of the body bas motion of rotation A well·k.nown example of a link with three conncctions)s,dfe bell crnnk,
about a fixed axis and at the same time has translation parallel to the axis, the ••• a,: •• a.. .-.-- .._ _ ··--- - - - .... • . • ,.:

-.-. ---
•
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--- ~
}
) TRANSMISSION OF MOTION 9
) of a mechanism does not change the motion of its links n:lative tu ead a other
but does change their absolute motions (relative to the ground).
)
l 1.8 TRANSMISSION OF MO'llON
) In the study of mechanisms, it is necessary t~ investigate the method in which
motion may be transmitted from one member to another. Motion may be trans-
> mitted in three ways: (a) direct contact between two members such as between

•
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a cam and follower or between two gears, (b) through an intermediate link or
connecting rod, and (c) by a flexible corutector such as a belt or chain.
The angular velocity ratio is determined for the case of two members in
direct contact. Figure 1.12 shows cam 2 and follower 3 in contact at point P. The
> cam has cloclcwise rotation, and the velocity of point P as a point on body 2 is
represented by the vector PM1 • The line NN' is normal to the two surfaces at
\ used for motion reduction and can be proportioned for a given ratio with a point P and is known as the common nomuJI, the lw of trOMmission, or the ~
) minimum of distortion of the required motion. ofaction. The common tangent is represented by TT' . The vector PM 2 is broken
When a number of links is connected by means of pairs, the resulting system into two components, PD along the common normal and Pt2 along the common
\ is a kinema tic chain. If these links are connected in such a way that no motion tangent. Because of the fact that the cam and the follower are rigid members
is possible, a locked chain (structtlle) results. A constrained chain is obtained and must remain in contact, the normal component of the velocity of Pas a point
) when the links are so connected that, no matter how many motion cycles are on body 3 must be equal to the normal component of P as a point on body 2.
) passed through, the relative motion will always be the same between the links. Therefore, knowing the direction of the velocity vector of P as a point on body
3 to be perpendicular to the radius 0 1P and its normal component, it is possible
) to find the velocity PM1 as shown in the sketch. From this vector, the angular
} velocity of the follower ~ay be determined from the relation V = R<r>, where V
equals the linear velocity of a point moving along a path of radius R and <r> equals
) the angular velocity of the radius R.
In direct-contact mechanisms, it is often necessary to determine lhe velocity
) of sliding. From the sketch this can be seen to be the vector difference between
) the tangential components of the velocities of the points of contact. This difference

)
)
) (aJ

) flGURE 1.11
}
It is also possible to connect links so tlu1t an unconstrained chain results, which
) means that the motion pattern will vary from time to time depending on the
) amount of friction present in the joints. If one of the links of a constrained chain
is made a fixed link, the result is a mechanism.
)
l.7 INVl£KSION
)
If in a mechanism, the link which was originally fixed is allowed to inove and
) another link becomes fixed, the mechanism is said to be inverted:The inversion DGURE 1.U

'
)
 •
)

•
)

10 MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 11 •

INTRODUCTION

is given by the distance t1 t, because the component Pt, is opposite in direction B •

to that or PIJ. U t 2 ancJ t, fall on the same side of P, then the distaoce will subtract.
Ir the contact point P should fall on the line of ccnten 7J;lr,, then the vecton •
PM1 and PM, will be equal and in the same direction. The tangential components
must also be equal and in the same direction so that the velocity of sliding will
4 •~
be zero. The two members will then have pure rollinc motion. Thus, it may be
said that tJu: condition for pun rolling ii that the polnl of contact sluJU & on tJu: t
lW of cenkrs. )
For the mechanism of Fig. 1.12, the motion between the cam and the
flGURE 1.13
follower will be a combination of rolling and sliding. Pure rolling can .only take
place where the point of contact P falls on the line of centers. However, contact
at this point may not be possible because of the proportioos of the mechanism. and 0 3 Kf are also similar; therefore, ,t
Pure sliding cannot occuc between cam 2 aod follower 3. For this to happen, a
point on one lint, within the limits of its travel, has to eome in contact with all .
ll>J
C&>z
02e
= o,f = o,K
02K
(1.1) •
the successive points on the active surface of the other link.
It is possible to determine a relation so that the angular velocity ratio of
two members in direct contact can be detennin¢ without going through the
Therefore, for a pair of curved surfaces in direct contact, the angular velocities
•t
arc inversely proportional to the segments into which the line of centers is cut
geometrical coostruction outlined above. From 01 and O> drop pcrpen~
upon the common normal striking it at e and f, respectively. The followmg
rclatioos will be seen to bold:
by the common normal. From this it can be seen that for corulanl angular vt:locity
ratio the common normal must intersw the lW of cuaurs in a fixed point.
It is also possible to derive the above relations for the transmission or motion >
•
' through an intermediate link or connecting rod and for the transmission of motion }
PM, througb ·a flexible connector. Figures 1.13 and 1.14 show these two cases, rc-
and =
,.,1 0 P
1 spectivdy, where the angular velocity ratio is given by
•
caJ3 PM,
-=--X--
01P
0 1P
PM1
w•
w2 =
0 2K
o.K (1.2) •
•'
(J)z
,.
In Fig. 1.14, the ratio w 4/c.>z is independent of the· center distance 0 2 0 4 •

•
•
Also, PM,n and 0 1 Pf are similar triangles; therefore, •
•
PM3
--=-
o,P 01/
Pn
•
FIGURE 1.14
•
Therefore, 1.9 MOBILrfY, OR NUMBER OF •
w, Pn
1
-=-X-:a-
O~ 0 e
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Mobility is one of the most fundamental concepts lo the study of kinematics. By
•
ca>z O,/ Pn O,f

With the common normal intersecting the line of centers at K, triangles OaKe
definition, the mobilily of a mechanism is the number or degrees of freedom it
possesses. An equivalent definition of mobility is the minioa~?'- .!PJmber of in-
...:
' )
J
- --- j
- - - - ---- - -- f-i··
,
l ._ ~
. ,,._ r ~ --
)
µ ~ INTROOUCOON MOBIUn', OR NUMBER OF OEOREliS OF FREEDOM 13
)
,, - dependent parameters required to specify the location of every link within a develop a general equation which will help predict the mobility of any planar
) mechanism . mechanism.
A single link constrained to move with planar motion, such as the one For example, a planar mechanism having n links is to be designed. Defore

'
\
shown in Fig. l .15a, possesses three degrees of freedom . The .x- and y-coordinates
of the point I' nlong with the angle 8 form en inclf'pcndent set of three parameters
descril>inK its localion. 'lwo 11nconnected plannr link:s 111e shown in Fig. 1.1Sb.
any connections arc made, the system of n links will ha~e a t~tal of 3n degrees
of freedom . Recognizing that one link of every mechanism Will always be con-
sidered 10 be fixed to the ground removes three degrees of raecdom. This leave~

'
)
}
Since each link possesses three degrees of fTeedom, these two links possess a
total of six degrees of freedom. If the two links are pinned together at a point
by means of a revolute joint, as shown in Fig. l.15c, the two-link system will
possess only four degrees of freedom . Four independent parameters describing
the system with a total of 311 - 3, or 3(n - 1), degrees of freedom. Each
one-degree-of-freedom joint removes two degrees of freedom from the system.
Similarly, each two-degree-of-freedom joint removes one degree of freedo_m from
the system. The total mobility of the system is given by Grublcr's equation
the location of the two links could, for example, be the x- and ~rdinates of
~ the point P 1, the angle e., and the angle 6 2• There are many other parameters M = 3(n - 1) - 2f1 - f1 (1.3)
) that could be used to specify the location of these links, but only four of these
can be independent. Once the values of the independent parameters arc specified, wilere
) M = the mobility, or number of degrees of freedo~
the position of every point in both links is detennined.
In the simple example described above, connecting two planar links with a n = the total number of links, including the ground
)
f 1 =- the number of one-degree-of-freedom joints

,
revolute joint had the effect of removing two degrees of freedom from the system.
) Stated in another way, a rcvolute joint permits a single degree of freedom (pure f 1 = the number of two-degree-of-freedom joints
rotation) between the links it connects. Using this type of logic, it is possible to
Care must be used when applying this equation because there are a number of
special mechanism geometries for whi~ ~twill no~ work. Al!houg~ no all-inclusive
) 1 T
rule exists for predicting when the mobahty equabon may give an mcorrect result,
) special cases often occur when several links of a mechanism arc parallel. For
example, applying Grubler's equation to the mechanism of Fig. 1.16 gives
)
)
~
-----·---V ~ P2 M = 3(5 - 1) - 2(6) = 0

)
__"~ Nevertheless, this device can actually move as a result of its special geometry
and is a mechanism with one degree of freedom . It must a~ be noted that a
) I _ _ . _ __
L _,__ ___ joint connecting k links at a single point must be counted as Ii. - 1 joinls. For
%p example, a revolute joint connecting three links at a single point ~s counted as
> (ti)
""•
(bl
two joints. Only four types of joints are commonly found in planar mechanisms.
)
T
)

)
J
)
) .,..
) Id

) FIGURE 1.15 nGUU 1.16

J
)
 ,
)
)
t
14 INTRODUCllON MOBIUJY, OR NUMBER OF DEORlmS OP' FREEDOM 15 •>
. These are tbo revolule, the prismatic, aod tho rolling contact joints (each having
one degree of f{eedom), and the cam or gear joint (having two dcgrcos of free.
dom). 1bese joints Bie depicted in Fig. 1.17. The foUowing definitions apply to •
the actual mobility of a device:
•
M ~ 1: the device is a mechanism with M degrees _o f freedom
M = 0: the device is a staticaUy determinate structure
•t
M s -1: the device is a statically indeterminate structure ;
t
Joild'l)pe Physical Schaaatic Degrees of
(Symbol) Form Repr-tatioa Freedom FIGURE 1.18
•
Re volute
(R)

Prismatic
(P)

Cam
~
- ((
__c::i_
1
(Pure rotation)

1
(Pure sliding)

2
Exampk J.J. Determine the mobility or
the device or
Fig. 1.20.
There ace three links, lwo one-degree-of-freedom rcvolute joinls and one two-
degrctroH1ecdom higher-pair joint. In the higher-pair joint, the two contacting bodies
may translate along the common tangent to the two sudaces or rotate about the rontact
point, thus giving two degrees of hecdom. 10e mobility is given by
•
•t
•>
or
gear
& ·<Y (~ling)
sliding
M
M
= 3(3 - 1) - 2(2) -

~ 1
1(1)
>
•
Rolling
contact (X) CD t Rolling without)
sliding
· 1bis is a onc-degrce-of-&ccdom mccbanism.

•,
FIGURE 1.17 eo-oa types or Jobles r...................-.. 3
>
Example 1.1. Determine the mobility of the four-bar linb&e of Fig. 1.18.
There ue four linJcs and four revolute joints, each balling one degree of freedom.
-----
Common lanp!111
>
1be mobility is given by
•
M - 3(4 - 1) - 2(4)
ncuu 1.20
•
M .. 1 •
So this is a one-degree-of-freedom mechanism.

Example 1.2. Determine the mobility of th11 device of Fig. 1.19. .

Problems
1.1. (a) If..,, - 20 sad/min, calculale the an&ular velocity of link 3 for the two ~
shown in Fig. 1.21. (b) Calculate the maximum angle and the minimum angle or the
'•
'fbeie ue fow- links connected by five singlo-dcsgree-of-frecdom joints (the joint follower with the horizontal. )

connecting three linb at a point counts twice). The mobility is given by
M .. 3(4 - 1) - 2(S)
,•
1.l. Lay out the mechanisms for Problem 1.1 to full 5Cllle and graphically determine the
velocity of sliding belween links 2 and 3. Use a velocity u:ale of l in. = 10 in./ min .
1.3. If w, = 20 rad/min for the mechanism shown in Fig. 1.21, using graphical conslruc-

,
M'"' -1 tion, determine the angular velocities of link 3 for one revolution of the cam in tlO" incre-
ments starting from the position where •J = 0. Plot c.>i versus cam ang'e8 lelting the }
1bis is a statically indeterminate structure. scale of w. be I in. ~ , n rnd/min """ th.......... nf A ..... I ; .. - ..:n ':;': · ~

-...y---
~
 )
) .i
- .l!._
) - -- ,. .;.lo;:::.;:._-. ~c.

,,..
) ;16 " JNTRODUGnON MOBl'UN, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 17
) ...

, )

)
)

,
)

)
)
)

,
)
)

nGURE J.22
N'

) A

)
3
) 0,A • 4 in.
go· 048 • 5 In.
) "'2 • 100 1ad1' ccw
FIGURE J.21
) I
FIGURE 1.23
)
) J .4. (a) If w, = 1800 rad/s, calculate the angular velocity or link 3 for the mechanism o:ia, - 4 in.
shown in Fig. 1.22. {b) Calculate the maximum angle and the minimum angle of the 02A • 2.828 In .
) follower relative to the hori1.0ntal. AB • 2 In.
B 0 4 8 • 2 in.
J.S. For the linkage shown in Fig. 1.23, determine"'• and v•. A 3
)
J.6. For the linkage stiown in Fig. 1.24, detennine v. and u ,.
) 1.7. Prove for the linkage shown in Fig. 1.13 that the angular velocities of the driven and
driver links are inversely proportional to the segments into which the line of centers is 4
) cut by the line of transmission.
) 1.8. Prove for the belt and pulleys shown in Fig. 1.14 that the angular velocities of the
pulleys are inversely proporlional to the segments into which the line of centeB is cut by
) the line of transmission .
1.9. In a lmkage 11s shown in Fig. I . 13, lhe crank 2 is 19 mm long and rotates at a constant r.
} angular velocity of 15 rad/s. Link 3 is 38 mm long and link 4 is 2S mm long. The distance
I

between centers O, and O, is 51 mm. Graphically determine the angular velocity of Unit nGURE 1.24
)
)
)
J
 ,,
'
)

•
18 INTRODlJCnON
MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEOREES OF FREEDOM J.9
•
•
'
}

>
,'
,,•
,
nGURE 1.31
nGURB l.2S ncuu 1.26

'>
,•
FIGURE 1.27 nGURE 1.21
,•
,
nGURE 1.32
)

4 wbeo linlt 2 is counterclockwise 45• from the horizontal. State whether or not "'• is
constant.
I .It. A pulley of 100 mm diam drives one of 200 mm diam by means of a belt. H the
an&ular velocity of lhe drive pulley is 6S rad/a and the center distance between pulleys is
400 mm, paphicaUy determine the speed of lbe 200 mm pulley. WiU its speed be constant?
•t
FIGUR!: 1..29 '· ~ ' . "- '- ..
,. ' .
\
'\ 1.11. Determine the mobility (number of dc:grecs of freedom) of the devices shown in
Figs. 1.25 through 1.32. •)
•
.,
,
•
)

.
• . . >'
•'

~. --
,,
)
t
) ..
~: :
·- ~

l ·•

) POSmON ANALYSIS OF THE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE 21

)
) Chapter Two
)
) Linkages
)
~
and Mechanisms 1
nGURE 2.1
)
These dead points will occur when the line of action of the driving force is di reeled
) along link 4. This condition is shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 2.2.
If the four-bar mechanism is designed so that link 2 can rotate completely
) but link 4 is made the driver, dead points will occur, and it is necessary to provide
) a flywheel to pass through these dead points.

,
In addition to possible dead points in a four-bar linkage, it is necessary to
) consider the transmiuion angle, which is the angle between the connecting or
ooupler link 3 and the output link 4. nus is shown in Fig. 2.3a as angle 'Y·

)
2.1 POSmON ANALYSIS OF
) THE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE
) One of the simplest and most useful mechanisms is the four-bar linkage. A sketch
li- .

) of this linkage is shown in Fig. 2.1. Link 1 is the frame, or ground, and is generally
stationary. Link 2 is the driver, which may rotate completely or may oscillate.
) If link 2 rotates completely, then the mechanism is transforming rotary motion
into oscillatory motion . If the crank oscillates, then the mechanism multiplies
) oscillatory motion.
) When link 2 is rotating completely, there is no danger of the linkage locking.
llowever, if link 2 oscillates, care must be taken in proportioning the links to nGURE. 2.J.
) avoid dead poinls so that lhe mechanism will not slall in its extreme positions.
)
An equation for the transmission angle can be derived by applying the law
) B
of cosines to triangles A01 0 4 and AB04 as follows:
)
(2.1)
)
also
)
) (2.2)
) Therefore,
) nGURE 1.1 Fo..,.b• Unkage.
) 20
)
)
 I

,
l

22 •
LINKAGES AND MECIANISMS POSffiON ANALYSIS OF DIE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE 2J
•
and
•
)

or
•
)

'f "2 COS _[z

I
2
- rJ -
- 2rJr4
r!] (2.3)
/I
t

where the value of z is calculated from the first of lhe two cosine law equations 11.
•
~
(Eq. 2.1). With the dimensions of the linkage given (i.e., ri. r 2 , r,, and r 4),.., is FIGURE 2.36
a function of only the input angle Ba. Note that there will be two values of .., ~
corresponding to any one value of 02, because the araiosine is a double-valued
function. Physically, the second value of l corresponds to the scwod mode of
assembly, bronch, or closun, of the four-bar liobge, as shown in Fig. 2.Jb. For
any one value of the input angle Ba, the four-bar linkage can be assembled in
,•
two different ways. t
Io general, for best transmission offorce within the mechanism, links 3 and
4 should be nearly perpendicular throughout the motion cycle. If the b"ao.Smis-
sioo angle deviates from +90" or -90• by more than about 45• or .50", the linbgc
•
>
tends.t o.bind because offiictionin thejoints; also links 3 aod4 tend to alignaodmay
lock.. It is cspcc:ially important to check transmission angles when linkages are
designed to operate d~ to dead points. An illustration of the minimum and
•
the maximum transmiSsion angles for a four-bar linltage is shown in Fig. 2.3c by •
-,• and·'Y·· respectively. In this mechanism, link 2 rotates completely and link 4
osciUatcs.
The output angle of the four-bar linkage (angle 84 in Ftg. 2.3a) can also be
flGURE 2.Jc •>
found in closed form. as a function of &i. By referring to Fig. 2.3a, the law of
cosines may be used to Clqlres5 angles a and p as follows: · positive and a must be taken negative in order to use Eq. 2.5. In general, for •
(2.4)
-0" ~ 0a < 180". fl should be selected such that 0° ~ p < 180"; and similarly for
180" ~ 81 < 360°, P should be selected such that 180".;; p < 3(i()". With p se-
lected in this way, the two values of a will yield values of 84 corresponding to
•>
,•
the two distinct cl95ures of the linkage.
The process of finding the variable output angles of a mechanism as functions
of the input angle is known as position analysis. The method of position analysis
(2.5)
just presented is but one of several possible approaches. Another method based

1be angle 84 in Fig. 2.3a is given by

on the use of vectors and complex numbers is explored in Appendix 1. All or
the methods presented, however, re4uiie insights and manipulations to obtain •
the desired output angle as a function of the input angle. The position analysis •
84 = 180" - (a + p) (2.6) problem for linkages containing more than four links can become extremely
complicated. •
Great care must be exercised in using this result since both a and P may be either
positive or negative angles, depending on ~hich solution is taken for the arcc:osine
Ezalllple 2.1.
r, z 8 in., r, =
For the four-bar link.age mown in Fig. 2.4 with ,.. ~ 7 in., Tz -~ 3 in .•
6 in .• and S. "' 60", 6od the transmission angle,.,, and the output angle,
•
)
function. For the second closure of the linkage (Fig. 2.3b), P must be taken ~. .:;
·:;
•
- .,....,...-----

..
.-
'
 f
' ·.
} _,u,,;_
)
FOUR-BAR LINKAGE MO'llON AND GRASHOl-"F'S LAW 25
l , :z4 l.INKAOliS AND MECHANISMS

) Subs1i1u1ing lhc known values inlo lhe first rosine law equation (Eq. 2.1) a:lvca

) z' = (7)' + (3)1 - 2.(7)(3) cos fR - 37

) l ~ 6.083

) Subslituting this value into Eqs. 2..3, 2..4, and 2..5 along with the link dimensions pves

) 37 - (8)2 - (6)2
't = ara:os - 2(8)(6)
)
't = ± 48.986°
)
- 37 + (6) 2 - (8)2

'
o arc.cos 2(37)112(6)

) Q = ±82.917°
nGURE 1.5
) - 37 + (7)2 - (3)2
P- arccos 2(37)"'(7)
) p = ±25.1.859 remain parallel; bOth lints 2 and 4 rotate completely. This type of motion was
) characteristic of a steam locomotive drive. Figure 2 .Sc shows another arrangement
Since e, is between 0-md liMJ", p must be taken as positive . The valucsofl4 ue tberdore whereby both the driver and follower rotate continuously. This fonn of the four-
) given by bar linltage is the basis for the drag-link mechanism which will be discussed under
the subject of quick-return mechanisms. For rotation of aanlc 2 at a constant
) e. = 180' .- (±82.917" + 25.28S°) angular velocity, link 4 will rotate at a nonuniform rate. lo order to prevent
) e. = 71.798"', 237.63'.r locking of the mechanism, certain relations must be maintained between Che
links:
) ·Oculy, the 6n1 value of 9 4 ia conec:t for the closure shown in Fig. 2.4.
) OiA and

) ( OiA - 0 2 0 4) + AB > 0 4 B
) (OcB ~ 010c) + 01A >AB
)
The second and third relation can be derived from the triangles 0.,4 ' B' and
) o,A•B", respectively, and the fact that the sum of two sides of a triangle must
be greater than the third side.
) Figure 2.Sd shows an arrangement whereby link 4 of Fig. 2.1 has been
) •
i'. replaced by a sliding block. The motion of the two linkages is identical.
nGUR.E 2.4 The motion or the four-bar linkage is often characterized by the tenn crank
rocker to indicate that crank 2 rotates completely and link 4 oscillates as in Fig.
t 2.Sa. In a similar manner, the tenn double crank means that both link 2 and link
I 2.2 FOUR-BAR LINKAGE MOTION 4 rotate completely as in figs. 2.5b and c. The term double rocker indicates that
AND GRASHOFF'S LAW both link 2 and link 4 oscillate as shown in Ftg. 2.2.
) As a means of determining whether a four-bar linkage will operate ns n
) The four-bar linkage may take other forms as shown in Fig. 2 . .5. In Fig. 2 ..5a. crank rocker, a double crank,-0r a double rocker, Gnshoff'a law can be applied.

,
)

)
the mechanism has been crossed and will give the same type of motion as in Fig.
2.1. In Fig. 2.5b, opposite links are all the same length and. therefore, always
This law states that if the sum of the lengths of the longest link and the shortest

)
 ,
)

•
•
26 LINKAGES AND MEOIANISMS POSmON ANALYSIS OF UNKAOES USING LOOP CT.OSURE EQUATIONS 'J:7
•
link is less than the sum of the lengths of the other two, there will be formed
•
•'t
1. two different crank rockers when the shortest link is the crank and either
of the adjacent links is the fixed link
2. a double crank when the shortest link is the fixed link
3. a double roclcer when the link opposite the shortest is the fixed link

Also, if the sum of the lengths of the longest and the shortest linkS is greater than
the sum of the lengths of the other two, only double-roclcer mechanisms Will >
result. Also, if the sum of the longest and shortest liolts is eqlllll to the sum of
the other two, the four possible mechanisms are similar to those of.1, 2, and 3 •
above. However, in this last case the c.enter lines of the links can become collinear
so that the driven link can change direction of rotation unless some means is •
provided lo avoid it. Such a linkage is shown in Fig. 2.5b, where the links become •
collinear along the line of centers 0 2 0 4 • At this position, the direction of rotation
HGURE Z.6
•
•>
of the driven link 4 could change unless inertia carried link 4 through this point.

2.3 POSmON ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES
USING LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS
AND ITERATIVE ME1110DS
It is possible to analyze the majority of medlanisms by using methods such as
the one described in section 2.1. These arc known as closed-form methods; that
is, a finite number of calculations arc required to find a theoretically exact so-
lution. Unfortunately, however, it is diffiaalt to develop a computer-aided analysis
package using this approach, because each different type of mechanism generally
requites a separate analysis method and a separate ClOmputer program. Because
of this, several of the commercially available mecllanism analysis programs have
~n position analysis, the link lengths r,. r2 , r,, and r4 are known, and the problem
~
isto find the angles 01 and 84 for a given value of 02 • Thus, Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8 )
appear to be a simple set of two equations in the two unknowns 81 and e,. The
romplication is that these equations are transcendental, and a simple linear so-
•
•,
lution is not possible.
Nole that the above equations will be satisfied only for those particulaf
values. of OJ and 84 that close the mechanism loop. 1besc values are often c.a.llcd
the roots of the equation. For any values of OJ and 84 other than the roots these
equalities will not be satisfied, so that in general '

(2.9)
,•
been developed based on iterative methods. Iterative methods attempt to con- •
verge on a solution by repetitive calculations. For this reason, it is not known
· beforehand how many calculations will be required. or even if a solution can be
(Z.10)
•
found. The basic ClOoocpts of iterative mechanism analysis will now be illustrated
by way of a four-bar linkage e~ample.
where the shorthand notation 9 = o,, o, has been used.
Fmding the roots of these equations is now equivalent to finding the values
•t
Consider the four-bar linkage of Fig. 2.6 with the %-()()Ordinate axis along of~ and 8, for which / 1{8) and f 2(8) are simultaneously equal to zero. At this
lint 1 which is med. Since the linb of this mecJ181lism form a closed loop, the
X- and y-<X>mponents of the links m\Jst 1WD to zero. This may be expressed U
poiol, a trial solution oould be used to find the roots. A far more efficient
procedure, however, is to use a linear approximation to the functions in seeking •
follows: succc~ively improved solutions.
•
x-Compooents:
(2.7)
Suppose, for example. that values of the angles OJ and 84 have been selected
arbitrarily. In general, these wiU not be roots of the equations. There exist.
however, some values ADJ and AO, which, when added to 81 and 84 , will give the
roots. This can be expressed os follows: ·
,•
y-Components: •
r, sin e, - r 1 sin e, - r, sin e, = 0 (2.1) i = 1, 2 ·' (2.11>
•
•
,'
'
)
)
28 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS POsmON ANALYSIS OF UNKAOES USING LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 29
)
( A linear approximation to this function is obtained by taking the first two terms cstimale. By using this improved c$timate, a second linear approximation is made
) of its Taylor series expansion about the point e» 04 : to the function and a new set of values for 01 and 84 is calculated. This process
is repeated until the roots of the approximate function produce values of the
) original function which are nearly equal to zero. The method just described is
i • I, 2 (2.ll) one of the best known and most often used numerical root-finding techniques.
)
It is known as the Newton-Raphson method. The following numerical example
) will help to show the details of this method and its application to mechanism
It is now possible to solve for the values of AO> and 484 that will drive this
analysis.
) linear function to zero. If the linear function is a reasonable approximAtion to
the original function, these values should also cause the original function to be

'
)
approximately equal to zero. Setting the linear function equal to zero gives

i = 1, 2 (2.13)
Example l.l. For tho four-bar liakage shown in Fig. 2.6, solve the position analysis
problem ming the Newton:-Raphsoo root-finding method. Use
dimensions r1 = 7 in.,'• = 3 in., r> = 8 in., and r, = 6 in.
e.
= fir, and use link

Before analysis can proceed, initial estimates of 8, and e. on which to iterate must
) be obtained. Normally, position analysis begins at some known starting position of the
) mechanism and proceeds by inc:Tementing the input angle by some small amount. The
By substituting i = 1 and i = 2 in Eq. 2.13 and by rearranging terms, the fol- e.
values of and 8, at the preYious position are usually a good estimate of the corresponding
) lowing equations result: values at the present position. Another ·approacb is to estimate these values graphically.
To demonstrate the rapid convergence o' the Newtoa-Raphson method, wlues of 8, and
) 84 will be selected which arc known to be far from the true roots. The value of 8, will be
)
(a~:>)Ae1 + (a~!:) )i10. = - f ,(8) (2.14) estimated at f1', and the value of 8, will be estimated at 100". Substituting these estimated
values along with k('!own dimensions of the linkage in the loop dosurc equations (E.qs.
2.9 and 2.10) and also in the expressions for the putial derivatives (Eq. 2.16) gives
)
)
e~:))M> + e~~))A84 = -11(8) /,(8) ~ 7 + 6 cos 100" - 3 cos 60" - 8 cos O" - - 3.542
) Once an initial estimate has been made for the values of 81 and 84 ; the vaiucs of / 1 (8). = 6 sin 100" - 3 sin fJ:f' - 8 sin O" = 3.311
/ 1(8) and j,(8) can be calculated from Eqs. 2.9 and 2.10. The partial derivatives
) a/,(9) = 8 sin O" ~ O
needed in Eqs. 2.14 and 2.15 arc found to be ae.
)
) a~:> = -6sin 1ocr = -.5.90'J

)
<lfa!O) ~
ae. - -8cosf1' - -8000 .
) ae. (2.16)
) a/1(0)
-- = - r 1 cos 91
a~:~ = 6 cos locr = -1.042
ae1
)
Substituting these values into Eqs. 2.14 and 2.15 yields the following linear equations in
) the unknowns A&i and 4.8,:

,
)
Since the partial derivatives found in Eq. 2. 16 are evaluated at the estimated
values of o, and 84 , Eqs. 2.14 and 2 . lS are actually two linear equations in the
two unknowns 601 and A0 4• Solving these equations simultaneously yields the
(0) .it.
( -8.000) A&,
+ (- S.90IJ) d8, "" 3.542
+ (-1.042) d84 - - 3.311
) values or A01 and AO, which, when a1lded to the cstimaled values Oi and 84 , will Solvln& for d81 and .it, gives
) make the approximate linear function equal to 7.ero. Although, in general, these
will not be the same as the roots of the original function, they will be an improved A8, • 0.492 rad = 28.lSS- .it,"" -0.S99 rad• -34.344•
) '
J
)
 '
)

,
t

30 UNKAOBS AND MllCll.ANISMS l'OSUlON ANALYSIS OF UNKJ\Ol!S USINO LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 31 •
Upoa -ddiD& 11-e to the estimated valu.ea of t, wl t.. tbe loUowiq improved eadmatel
ue obtained:
10 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
20 •• MSCRAMJnM DllJCN - DllPl.ACIMllft' AllALTlll (~/27/ IS)
JO •• - U••• •ewton-llapbaoa root fln4tn1 . . thod to d•t•r•ln• unknown
41 •• an9l•• of lln•• ) • 4 of • fou• bar 11nk•t••
•
)

e, -
e. -
o- + 2B.1as· - 28.1as·
100'" - 34.3"4• = 65.656.
SD •• - Rabi• and aelo)iolts, 4th Sd.
' ' •• - Pro•ra• rewJaed br - ltewe • ... l•r f'/ S/ISI
70 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
ID
ti
er.a • clear tbe •ere•• tben . .11: U•er to dlacrtbe ...:haoi••
llll'UT •snter en9ular dlepla.,...nt of 1Jnk 2 (de9r•••)•fT9llTA2
,
)

,,
101 lllPOT •Gue•• angular dl•placattOllt for llnll: l (deor. . •l•rTlllTAl
110
121
lllPOT 'Gu••• angular dlaplaco9&11t for 111111: • (degr.e•l'1TBBTAt
llltUT •aater llnll: lengtba rl,r2,rl,c4•11t1,112,11J,Rt
J
Values of the functioos and the partial derivatives are recalculated usiQg these new values, 131 PUllTtPRllllT• TBSTAl TllllTA4 FUllC. l FUllC.2 · DIJt.'l'l D•LT4°
and a second set of approximate 8 values is obeaiPed. Tbis process is repeated until the 141 Dl:G21AD-l.l4l59/110 'conatant to con••rt fro• de9reea to radlana
151 TBllTA2 •TlttA2 *D.EC2llAI> aTllftlll•'l'llETAl ~EC2 RAO t '111STA4•TBBTA4 °DEG2 RAD
values of tbe / 1(8) and / 2(8) are equal to ze10, or until oo further improvement can be l'D fUIC.l•l 'force nest WBILI •tate11e11t to be tr...
obtained. A flowcbut of this iterative proa:ss is shown in fie. 2.7. Tbe copespoadin& 171 . .ILi ABS(FUNC.ll>.001 09 ABS(POllC. 2)> . 001 'loop until coot.a found
computer program, written in BASIC, is sbowa in fla. 2.8. Tbe results of this propul ·111 • IYaloate loop equation•
at each illlration are pvcn in Table 2.1. lt ii evidcat from Ibis table that the Newton-
R1phson method convergea rapidly for this eaamplo.
uo
200
210
220
ru11e.1-u+(a••eo&(TB11:TA41 >-<112•cos(T81TUl l-(lll*COS(T111TAll I
PUllC.2•1•••stN(TISTA4))-(lll2*8IM(T811TA21)-(llJ•a1w1TaZTAJll
' IYaluate pactlel derl••tlve•
DrlDT3•aJ•s1a(THSTAl) 'Partial of tune. l v/roapac t to tbetel
• )

•
2JD DF1DT4~at•s1a(TBllTA4) •rartlal of rune. 1 w/ceapeot to tbeta4
2411 DP2DT1•-lll*OOS(TBllTAll 'Putlal of fuac. 2 v/c••pect to t ... tal
251 DP'2DT4•14°CDS(TllttA41 'Partial of func. 2 w/reapeot to U.eta4
eq.• la 2 uill:aowaa •itb Cra. . r' • a.lo.

,•
2'1 • 1'ov •olwe 2
271 D&r.-DPlDTl"DP2DTt-DPlDT4°Dr2DTl •calc. del functloo
210 DllLTA.TllllTA4•(Dr2DT3*lUllC.l-Dl'lDT3*P1111C. 21/DBL
290 DBLTA, TllllTAl•-(DP2DT4*1'UllC.l-DPlDT4*PU11C.2)/DllL
100 • Output the •••ult•
310 PIUllT OSillG . . . . . . . . . . rftllTAl/DlllG211AD,TBllTA4/Df:C2RADr
321
330
, 341
351
PRillT OBIRG ••••••••• •rrv11e.1,rv11e.2r
PRUIT OllillG •tttt. t f l •JOU.TA. T9BTA1/DllOJllAD, DELTA . TBllTA4/D9C211AD
• -II:•
new CJ•••• for bot!I theta l and tbota 4
Tllft'Al•T'lftAJ+DILTA.TllftA3 at'mftM•TBftAU-DSLTA. 'l'llBTA4
3H WllD ' do loop agata Jf root.a baoe aot been foand
J7D Pa.Ilft'1LllR lllPUT •preu a.nvu to recua pcogc. . . . . . ,A$aau•
,>,
FIGURE 2.1

Yes •,
J
.Calall.ce •f1lllJ. lf1/lf4, J
1rt•1· 1rz1•. TABLE 2.1 Results or the Iterative
Analylil Program
•
SoM Eq. 2.14 a e,
'· /,(0) /.,(8) af,ta&,
•J
,,
2.15 hlr 4#3 ........
0.000 100.000 - 3.542 3.311 0.000
28.18S 65.656 0.922 -0.910 3.778
22.897 71.663 0.018 -0.otS 3.113
Yw 22.812 71.798 0.000 -0.000 3.102
af,tae, df.tdt, ilfr/il8, Ae, At,
)
-5.909 - 8.000 -1.042 28.185 -34.344

....... -.......
t.t•s • •s + .,,
-5."61
-5.695
-5.700
-7.051
-7.370
-7.374
2.473
1.888
1.874
-5.287
-0.085
-0.00o
6.008
0.134
-0.000 _;
, J

P'IGURE 2.7

~
.-)
,•
)
.,J
)
) J2- LINKAGES ANO MEOIANISMS LINKAGE ANALYSIS USING TIIE INTI!GRATEO MECHANISMS PltOOR AM 33

•
)
l.4 J.INKAGE ANAl.YSIS USING
THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS
PROGRAM (IMP)
The designations Ofn, A, B, and Of/4 in Fig. 2.9a represent turning pnirs or
revolutes (joints) and permit only relative rotation. These positions would contain the
bearings in an actual mechanism. The ends of each link terminate in a point which is the
center of the revolute. Jn Fig. 2.9b, link 2 is defined by points 002 and AA2, link 3 by
) As mentioned in the previous set:tion, several commercially available mechanism points AA3 and BB3, and link 4 by 884 and 004. (This use of a single letter, for e1ample,
analysis programs have been developed based on iterative methods of solving A, to designate a revolute and of a double letter, AA, to designate a point is chosen for
) the loop closure equations. One of the most widely used of these programs is convenience to avoid confusion in specifying the model for the mechanism .) As illustrated
the Integrated Mechanisms Program, known as IMP. This program was developed in Chapter l, point AA is a point on both links 2 and 3, and point BB is common to both
)
by Sheth and Uicker1 and is currently distributed by Structural Dynamics Re- links 3 and 4. In a similar manner, point 002 is common to links 1 and 2, and point 004
search Corporalion, a subsidiary of General Electric CAE Iotemational.2 Pro- is common to links 1 and 4. The additional labeling of the medianism 10 specify these

'
)
fessor l Jicker and his associates have developed another IMP program which is
being distributed by JML Research Jnc. 3 The JMP system is capable of analyzing
dis placements, velocities, accelerations, and forces in a wide variety of two- and
points is shown in Fig. 2.9b. It is very imporlant that the revolutes and points be clearly
distinguished.

) three-dimensional rigid link mechanis ms. It mus t he e mphasized that the use of U (REV)
..'
•
)
this program is no substitute for a solid understanding of basic kinematic prin-
cipks. Jt can, however. relieve the designer of many routine calculations and
provide analysis capabilities far beyond those auainable using hand calculation
Points
AA2, AAJ
BB3, 884
or user-wrilleo programs . For these ·reasons, programs such as IMP are rapidly 002, 004
) becoming indispensable tools for industrial designers. AA2

) The fo llo wing example will illustrate how this program can be set up to
analyze the angula r displacements of the input and output links of a four-bar
"
"/

) linkage.
OH2 IREVJ OH4 tREV)
002 004
) FIGURE 2.9h
Example 2.3. In the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 2.9a, link 2 is the driver and rotates
) completely, and linlc 4 oscillates. Use the IMP program to detennine the angles which
correspond 10 the extreme positions of link 4. The statements for the revolutes lo be listed in the input to the IMP progTam follow:
)
GAOUND • FRAME
) B REVOLUTE(FRAME,LNK2) a 0H2
) REVOLUTE<LNK2,LNK3) • A
REVO LUTE(LNK3 ,LNK4l•B
) REVO LUT E(LN K4,FRAMEl ~ OH4

) It should be noted in the ahovc listing that the pattern is link 2 relative to frnme, link J
relative to linlt 2, linlt 4 relative to linlt 3, and frame relative to link 4. By slu rting with
) frame and ending with fnime, the requirement that the loop must close is satisfied.
FIGURE 2.9a The next step is to determine the coordinates of the revolutes and label them as
) shown in Hg. 2.9c. Also the orientation of two local a>ordinale systems attached to the
) links on each side of the revolutes must be chosen. All data for revolutc joints must be
given relative to the global reference frame.
) 'P. N. Sheth, and J . J. Uiclter, "IMP (lnlegnled Mechanimls Program). A Compu~-Aidcd Desiga The data for each revolute must now be listed in the input to the IMP program with
Analysis System for Mechanisms and Linkages," Joumal of Enfinttrint for lndwtTy, ll'eu. ASME, a data:revolute sutcment. This will contain (a) the coordinates of the revolute , which is
> Vol. 94, May tm, pp. 454-464.
' " IMP, Integrated Mcdlanisms Program," S1ructural Dynami~ Research Corporation, Mitford, 011,
also the origin nf the two local coordinate systems; (b) a point on the common local
positive z-axes of these systems; and (c) and (d) points on the positive z-axes of the local
) Fchru•ry, 1979. coordinate aystems for the first and second linlcs named in the corresponding revolute
' " nil! INTEGl{All:O MECHANISMS PROGRAM (IMI'): A l'rohlem Oriented Languasc foe 1tatcment. The e1$iCSt way to give the d irections in item (c) and (d) is to go horn Oln
) the Computer-Aided Design and Analysis of Mechanical Systems ," JML Research Inc., 1984. to A for the z-<lirection along link 2 for revolute OJQ and for revolute A lo go back from
)
)
)
 ,
)

34 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS

SUDER-CRANK MECHANISM JS
,,•
B 19.2242,5.9388,m
B
,,
- •...
,
z 10 •O
0112
------- - - - - )
- - - -x
flGURE 2.94
OH4

'I'
OH2 OH4
(0,0,0) 110,0 ,0I B
FlGURE 2.9c
!.
•t
A to 0112. The dirCGtions of the A:-wordinates for tbc other revolutcs are handled in a
similar manner. Tiie data for the revolutcs are as follows: · •
DATA : REVOLUTE(0H2)=0 , 0,0/0,0,1/1 , 0 , 0/ - 2.1213,2.1213,0 •
DATA : REVOLUTE(A)=-2 . 1213.2 . 1213,0/-2 . 1213,2 . 1213,1/0,0,0/$
9.2242 , 5 . 9388 , 0
DATA : REVOLUTE(B) = 9 . 2242,5 . 9388,0/9 . 2242,5 . 9388,1/$
,•
,
-2.1213,2 . 1213,0/10 , 0.~ A
FlGURE 2.9e
DATA : REVOLUTE(OH4) = 10,0,0/ 10,0,1/9.2242,5 . 9366,0/12,0,0
The data for the poinL~ given in the local coordinale syslems of the a$Socialed joints an; •
listed nexl . · 2.S SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM •
POINT(LNK2)•<X>2,AA2
DATA : POINTC002,0H2)=0 , 0,0
This mechanism is widely used and finds its greatest applicatio n in the internal-
combustion engine. Figure 2.lOa shows a sketch in which link 1 is the Cramc
•
DATA : POINT(AA2,A) = 0,0,0 (considered fixed), link 2 is the crank, link 3 is the connecting rod, and link 4 is •
POINT(LNK3) =AA3,BB3 the slider. With the internal-combustion engine, link 4 is the piston upon which
•
,•
gas pressure is exerted . Titls force is transmitted through the connecting rod to
DATA : POINTIAA3 ~ A)=O,O , O
the crank. It can be seen that there wiU be two dead points during the cycle, one
DATA : POINTIBB3,8) • 0,0 , 0 at each extreme position of piston travel. In order to overoome these, it is nec-
POINT(LNK4)=8B4,004 essary to attach a flywheel to the crank so that the dead points can be passed.
DATA:POINTCBB4,Bl=0,0,0 This mechanism is also used in air compressors where an electric motor drives
•t
,
DATA : POINT(004,0H4)=0,0 , 0 the crank which in t~ drives the piston that compresses the air.
In considering the slider craDk, it is often necessary to calculate the dis-
ZOCH( 71c5, 1 . 5, 0
placement of the slider and its corresponding velocity and acceleration. Equations
RETURN for displacement, velocity, and acceleration are derived using Fig. 2.lOb:
The IMP program was run on a VAX 111780 computei using the above input listing. •
The minimwn displaccmc:nt angle for the output joint OH4 is &bown in Fig. 2 .9d. The
value of the angle for joint 0112 is 15.68" (positive because it is taken as link 2 relative
to frame, a:w) . .IMP defines counterclockwise aoglcs u positive. The value of the aD&le
for joint 0114 is - 42.ss• (negative bccause it is taken as frame relative to link 4, cw).
r = R + L - RcosO - ·Lcos4>
~ R(l - cos 0) + L(l - cos 4>) ,•
The maximum displacement angle for the joint OH4 is .show a in Fig. 2.9e. The value of
the angle for joint om is 216.25", and the angle for joint 0114 is - 117.SS".
= R(t - cosO) + rj[t - ~l - (Ir 1
sin 0J . (2. 17)
•
•
.._.,.._-
,, .
•
)
' .
)
 l ' ...

)
) 36 l.INKAGl:S ANO MEOIANISMS
SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM J7
)
)
)
~ ~
)
(al
"''
)
)
) FIGURE 2.11 '"'
)
. It is possible to fix some linlc other than l on the slider crank and thus
)
obtain three inversions, which are shown in Fig. 2 .11 . In Fig. 2.'lla, the crank
) FlGURE 2.10 is held fixed and aU the other links arc allowed to move. 111is gives a mechanism
that was used in early aircraft engines. They were known as rotary engines because
) the crank was stationary and the cylinders rotated about the crank . A more
) In order to simplify the above expression, the radical an be approximated by t modem application of this inversion is in the Whitworth mechanism, which will
;I be discussed under quick-return mechanisms. Figure 2 .1 lb shows an inversion in
)
)
replacing it wilh the binomial series

(l ±
81
)
111
= l ±
l 81
2
n• 1 · 38' 1 · J · SB'
- 2 ·4 ± 2 · 4 ·6 - 2 · 4 ·6 · 8 ;t: •••
u
..
T .'
'I
which the connecting rod is held fixed. This inversion in modified form is the
basis for the crank-shaper mechanism to be discussed later. The third inve rsion
where the slider is held fixed, Fig. 2. 1lc, is sometimes used in the hand farm
) pump. .
A variation of the slider<rank mechanism can be affected by increasing the
) where B = (RI L) sin 8. size of the aank pin until it is larger than the shaft to which it is attached and
In general, it is sufficiently accurate to use only the first two tenns of the at the same time offsetting the center of the cr:mlc pin from that of the shaft.
) series. This enlarged crank pin is called an eccentric and can be used lo replace the crank
Therefore, in the original mechanism. Figure 2.12 shows a sketch where point A is the center
) , :
of the ealCotric and point 0 the center of the shaft. The motion of this mechanism
)
)
I(R)
- - -
2 I,
1
sin1 6 (approximately)
with the equivalent aank length OA is identical with that of the slider crank.
One serious disadvantage of this mechanism, however, is the problem of proper
lnhrication between the eccentric and the rod. This limits the amount of power
) and that can be transmiucd.

)
R'
x - R(l - cos 6) + - sin1 6
) 2L
) where 6 = wt because w is constant; and
I
) V = dx = Rw[sin 0
dt
~ sin 20]
+ 2L (2.18)

)
A = -d2x1 = Rw1 [ cos e + -R cos 20 ] (2.19)
) dt L
FIGURE 2.11
)
)
...
 '
)
)

38 LINKAGES AND MECHANlSMS

2.6 SCOTCH YOKE

OUICK-RrmJRN MDCJIANL.<;MS 39 ,•
)
'J11ls mcchnnl"m is one which will give simple hannonic molion. Us ca1ly appll-
calion was on steam pumps, but it is now used as a mechanism on a test machine t
to produca vibrations. It is also used as a sine-cosine generator for computing
cle1neots. Figure 2 .l3a shows a sketch of this mechanism. Hgure 2.13b shows
the manner in which simple harmonic motion is generated. The radius r rotates
<'
\
~----

''
•
al a constant angular velocity w,. and .the projection of the point P upon the '' '
.x-axis (or y-axis) moves with simple harmonic motion. The displacement from
where the circle cuts the x-axis and inaeasing to the left is

x r - r cos e. where e. =
''
''
' '•
•'
= r.l,I (l..29)

Therefore,

x = r(l - cos w,t)

tU
V = dt =
•
n.>, SID w,I
.
= rw, Siil 8, (2.11)
',
FIGURE 2.14 FIGVJlE 2.15
•
A =
d1x
dt1 =
- l\l)J
r
cos co, I. = rw1r 005 e
r
(2.22) .
~ crank angle for the cutting stroke lo that for the return stroke is of prime
importance and is known as the time raJio. To produce a quick return of lhe
,•
Another mechanism which will give simple harmonic motion is a cicculac
cam (ca:entric) with a Oat-faced radial follower. 11Us u discussed in the following
cutting tool, this ratio must obviously be greater than unity and as large as
•
,'
possible. As an example, the crank a.ogle for the cutting stroke for the mechanism
chapter. shown in Fig. 2.14 is labeled a , aod that for the return stroke is labeled p. With
... the assumption that the crank operates at a constant speed, the time ratio is,
therefore, a/p, whicli is mw:h greater than uuity.
There are several types of quid-return mechanisms which are described as
follows: •
t
Diag liak

•'t
This is developed from the four-bar linkage and is shown in Fig. 2.15. For a
·constant angular velocity of link 2, link 4 will rotate at a nonuniform velocity.
Ram 6 will move with nearly coustant velocity over m~t of tJic upward stroke
to give a slow upward stroke and a quick downward stroke when driving link 2

FIGURE 2.13
rotates clod.wise.
•
2.7 QUICK-RETORN MECHANISMS
Whitworth
"lllis is a vnrinlion of the first inversion or the slider crank in which the crank is
held fixed. l:jgwc 2.16 shows a sketch of the mechanism, and both links 2 nllll
4 make complete revolutions.
'•
These mechanisms arc used on machine tools to give a slow cutting stroke and
a quick return slmkc for a constant angular velocity of the driving crank and arc
combinations of simple linkages such as the four-bar link.age and the slider-crank Cnnk Sbaper
This mechanism is a variation of the second inversion of the slider crank~ which
'•
mechanism. An inversion of the slider crank in combination with the conventional
slider crank is also used. In the design of quick-return mechanisms, the ratio of the connecting rod is held fixed. Figure 2 .14 shows the arrangemebt in whic.:h '
~
'
)

•
J
')
)
40 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS STRAIOIIT· LINI? MECHANISMS 41
~
)
)
\
)
)
)
nGURE 2.16
)
p
) ljnk 2 rotates completely and link 4 oscillates. If the distance 0 1 0 4 is shortened
until it is less than the crank, the mechanism will revert to the Whitworth. I
)
nGVRE 2.18
) Offset Slider Crank
The slider crank can be offset as shown in Fig. 2.17, which will give a quick return
) motion. However, the amount of quick return is very slight, and the mechanism 2.9 OLDHAM COUPLING
would only be used where space was limited and the mechanism had to be simple.
) This mechanism provides a means for connecting two parallel shafts which are
out of line a small amount so that a constant angular velocity ratio can be trans-
) mitted from the drive shaft to the driven shaft. A sketch is shown in Fig. 2 .19.
) This mechanism is an inversion of the Scotch yoke.

)
)

,
)
FIGURE 2.17

) 2.8 TOGGLE MECHANISM

) This mechanism has many applications where it is necessary to overcome a large
resistance with a small driving force. Figure 2.18 shows the mechanism; links 4 FIGURE 2.1'
)
:ind 5 are of the same length . As the angles a decrease and links 4 and 5 approach
) being collinear, the force F required to overcome a given resistance P decreases
as shown by the following relation:
) 2.10 STRAIGIIT-LINE MECHANISMS
,.. As the name suggests, these mechanisms ore designed so that a point on one of
) -
p
= 2 tan a (2.23)
the links will move in a straight line. This straight line wiJI be either nn approx-
> It can be seen that for a given 1-· as a approaches zero, P approachea infinity. A
imate or a theoretically correct straight line, depending on the mechanism.
An example of an approximate straight-line mcchunism is the Walt , which
) stone cnisher utilizes this mechanism to overcome a lnrge resistance with a small is shown in Fig. 2.20. Point Pis so located that the segments AP 11ml UP arc
) force . This mechanism can be used staticaJly as well as dynamically, as is seen inversely proportional to the lengths OiA and 0 48. 'lberefore, if links 2 and 4
in numerous toggle clamping devices for holding work pieces. arc equal in leoglb, point P must be the midpoint of link 3. Point P will trace
)
)
j
 ,
l

•
42 LINKAGES AND MEO!ANJSMS OIAMllER Wlll!EL<; 43 •
2.U CHAMBER WlmF.l.S •
lbis mechanism takes several fom1s, which fall into two classifications. The first •t
2 A
type consists of two lobed wheels operating within a casing. The Roots blower,
as shown in Fig. 2.23, is an example of this type. The rotors are cycloids and are
driven by a pair of meshing gears of equal size in back of the case. Jn the modern
application, the Roots blower has three lobes on each rotor and is used for a
,
Dz
,, 3
low-pressure supercharger on Diesel engines. •
The other class of chamber wheels bas only one rotor placed eccentrically
within the c-.asing and is generally a variation of the slider-crank mechauism. •
a---.3.....--~ Figure 2 .24 shows a sketch or tltls type. lbc mecha nism shown was originally
designed for a steam engine. but its modem application is in the form of a pump. •
nGURE 1.20 FIGURE 1..21
Another example of the second type of chamber wheel is shown in Fig. •
2.25. which illuslraks the p1inciplc of the Wa11kcl engine. In this mechanism, the
expanding gases act upon the three-lobed rotor, which revolves directly 011 the •
eccentric and llammuls torque lo the output shaft through the eccentric whid1 is
•
out a path in the form of o figure 8. Part of this path will very nearly approach
a straight line.
integral with lhe shaft. 'lbc phase r'Mation between lhe rotor and the rotation of
•
The Pcauccllier mechanisiri is one which will generate an exact straight line.
Figure 2 .21 shows a sketch where liolcs 3 and 4 are equal. Links 5, 6, 7, and 8 •
are also equal, and link. 2 equals the distance 0 2 0 4 • Point P will trace out an
exact straight-line path. •
Straight-line mechanisms have many applications; notable among these are
the mechanisms for engine indicators aod for elect.rical switch gear equipment.
•
•t
2.11 PANTOGRAPH t
This mechanism is used as a copying device. When one point is made to follow
a certain path, another point on the mechanism will trace out an identical path •
that is enlarged or reduced. Figure 2.22 shows a sketch. Links 2, 3, 4, and 5 fonn
a parallelogram, and point P is on an extension of link 4. Point Q is on lint 5
HGURE 1..D •
at the intersection of a line drawn from 0 to P. As point P traces out a path,
point Q will trace out a similar path to a reduced &eale.
•t
This mechanism finds many applications in copying devices, particularly in
engraving or profiling machines. One use of the profiling machine is in m~ t
dies or molds. Point P serves as a finger and traces out the contour of a template
while a rotating end.mill is placed at Q to machine the die to a smaller scale.
•t
c
--- --
4 B 4 p

•t
s
~- -- --

---2---- Q
•
FIGURE l.22 "1GURE 2.24 •
)
~ )
~~t-
f J
)
)
) 44 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS HOOKE'S COUPLING 45

'
)
\
)
)

>
>
ftGUllE l.26
)
)
driving shaft is shown in Fig. 2.28, which clearly indicates the effect of a large
) angle p between the shafts.
It is possible to connect two shafts by two Hooke's couplings and an inter-
) mediate shaft such that the uneven velocity ratio of the first coupling will be
) canceled out by the second. Figure 2.29 shows this application when the two
shafts 2 and 4, which are to be connected, do not lie io the same plane. The
) connection mw;t be made so that the driver and driven shafts 2 and 4 make equal
FIGURE 2.lS angles p with the intermediate shaft 3. Also, the yokes on shaft 3 must be
) connected in such a way that when one yoke lies in the plane of shafts 2 and 3,
) the other yoke lies in the plane of shafts 3 and 4. Uthe two shafts to be connected
lie in the same plane, then the yokes oo the intermediate shaft will be parallel.
lhe eccentric shah is '?aintaio~d by a pair of internal and external gears (not .
} shown) so that the orbital motion of the rotor is properly controlled.
)
) 2.13 HOOKE'S COUPLING
) Th~!! co11p~i1~g il used to connect two intersecting shafts. It is also known as a
) umve:-oal. JOmt an~ has its widest use in the automotive field. A sketch of the
cou~hng is sh~wn m. Fig. 2 . 2~, and a ~mmercial model is illustrated in Fig. 2.TT.
) In Fig. 2 .26, lmk 2 1s the dnvcr and hnk 4 the follower." Link 3 is a cross piece
lhat connects the t~o rokes. It can be shown that, although both shafts must
) complete a rev~lul:Jon m the sam~ length of time, 1he angular velocity ratio of
) the two shafts 1s not constant dunng the revolution but varies as a function of
the a_ngl~ ~ ~etween the shafts and of the angle of rotation e of the driver. The
) relation 1s given as

) W4 COS A
- - -·- - - - t:__ ___
(2.24)
) ~ l - sin 2 J' sin 1 O
nGUU J.%7 lleote-tJpe •llhenml Joint. (Coertay of Mccba•la Uni·
) A plot o( this equation in polar coordinates for a quarter revolution of the ftlMI Jolmt Dlftlloll, Bors-W.- Corp.)

)
_)
 ,
l

•
46 LINKAGES AND MEQIANISMS CONSTANT-VELOCffY UNIVERSAL JOINTS 47
•
with the intermediate shaft reduced to zero length. As far as is known, however,
joints of this design have never been used to any extent commercially. •t
With the development of the front-wheel drive for automotive vehicles, the
need for a universal joint which was capable of transmitting a constant angular- t
velocity ratio was increased. It was true that two Hooke's couplings and an
intermediate shaft could be used, but this was not entirely satisfactory. With a )
drive such as is required on a front wheel of an automobile, where the angle I} )
is sometimes quite large, the changing conditions made it almost impossible to
obtain constant angular-velocity ratio. The need for a constant-velocity universal
joint was met by the introduction of the Weiss end the Rzeppa joints in this
country and by the Tracts joint in France. The Weiss joint wa.s first patented in
,•
.
j\
1925, the Rzcppa in 1928, and the Ttacta in 1933. Operation of these joints i~
not based on the same principle u tl1e lloolr.e coupling.
)
A Bendi..t-Weiss joinl is sl1own in Fig. 2.30. Ar. shown in the figure, grooves t
that are symmetrical with respect to each other about the center lines of the
shafts arc formed in the surfaces of the prongs of the yokes, and four steel balls
are located between these prongs at a point where the axes of the grooves in one •,
yoke intersect the axes of the grooves in the other yoke. Power is transmitted
. FIGURE 2.28 from the driver to the follower through these balls. A fifth ball with a slot provides
for locking of the parts in assembly as well as for taking end thrust. In operation, •
the balls will automatically shift their positions as the angular displacement of
the two shafts is varied, so that the plane containing the centers of the balls will •
always bisect the angle between the two sha&. A constant angular-velocity ratio •
~therefore result from this condition. A photograph of a Bendix- Weiss joint
is shown in Fig. 2.33. •
A bell-type Ruppa joinl (pronounced "sheppa") is shown in Fig. 2.31. The
joint consists of a spherical housing and an inner race with corresponding grooves
•
in each part. Six steel balls inserted in these grooves transmit torque from driver •
to follower. The bnJls arc located in curved grooves in the races and arc positioned
by a cage between the races. C.enters of curvature for the grooved races are offset •)
•t
)
FIGURE 2.29 Sll~lt A
)

An application ~( two universal joints connecting shafts that lie in the ~ plane )
is the Hotchkiss automotive drive, which is used on most rear-wheel dri"YC cars.
•
2.14 CONSTANf-VEl.OCITY UNIVERSAL JOINl'S
•
Engineers have been oonsiderinp, ' '1r many years the development of a single
universal joint capable of u:-
that were variations of the l 1
:g a constant-velocity ratio. Several joints
·iciple were proposed, one as early u 1870, FIGURE 2.JO
,,•
....,..,,.-- a
) • i.

)
) 48 LINKAGES ANO MECllANISMS
CONSTANT-VELOC ITY UNIVERSAL JO INTS 49
)
bled, the axes of the hemispherical parts must always remain in the sa me plane .
) When the joint is assembled, the forks are free to rotate about the axes of the
hemispherical bodies, which lie in th~ plane of th~ tongu~ and g~oo~e .
~ The joint is held in proper alignment for industrial apphcallon by two
) spherical housings not shown. When assemb~ed , these provide a ball joint type
of housing that support the shafts so that their axes will intersect at all times at
) a point equidistant from the centers of the hemispherical members. With this
FIGURE 2.31 alignment, the Tracta joint will transmit motion with a constant-velocity ratio.
) A photograph of a Tracta joint is shown in Fig. 2.33.
) In addition to the oonstant-velocity joints discussed above, another type o{
in o pposite directions fro m the joint center along the shafi axes. The offsets joint has been developed known as the tri-por joint. The tri-pot joint has a

•
)
control the positions of the balls so that their centers always lie in a plane which
bisects the angles between 1he shafts . With the centers of the balls in this plane,
!he joint will transmit a constant angulur-velocity ralio. A photograph of a Rzeppa
cylindrical housing with three partially cylindrical, equally spaced axial bores.
The axial bores house a spider which has three trunions, with a ball mounted o n
each trunion. The oontact points between the balls and housing bores always lie
joint is shown in Fig. 2.33. in a plane which bisects the angle between the two shafts. Constant a ngular
)
A Tracta joint is shown in Fig. 2.32. It consists of fou r parts: two shafts
) wilh forked ends and two hemispherical parts, one of which has a tongue and
the other a groove to receive the tongue. In addition, each of the hemispherical
) bodies is provided with a groove that permits the connection of a fork. The forks
subtend an angle greater than 180" so as to be self-locking when assembled. The
) tongue and the tongue groove are at right angles lo the grooves which admit the
) forks. Dy means of the union of the tongue and groove when the joint is assem-

)
}
Sh411t A
}
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
flGURE 2.32 FIGURE 2.ll Comtut-nlodly uniftrsal Joints: Bmdls- Wcis.•,
) lhepp11. ucl 1"1cta.

)
J
"
 '
)
)
50 UNKAOES AND MECHANISMS INTERMITTENT-MOTION MECHANISMS SJ •
each index of the table. There are several ways of accomplishing this type of
motion.
•
)

Geneva Wheel
This mr::chnnis111 is vc1y useful in pro<ludng intcrmitlcut motion IJccnu:>e thr. shock •
of engagement is minimized. Figure 2.35 shows a sketch where plate 1, which
rotates continuously, contains a driving pin P that engages in a slot in the driven
•
)
member 2 . Jn !he skctd1, 2 is tur nc<l one-quarter revolution fur each 1cvnl11tio11
of plate l. 'lbe slot in member 2 must he tangential lo the path ol the pin upo n t
engagement in order to reduce shock. This means that angle 0 1P0 2 will be a
right angle. It can also be seen thal angle JJ is one hall of the angle turned through t
by member 2 during the indexing period. For the case shown, ~is 45°." )
It is necessary to provide a locking device so that when member 2 is not
being indexed, it will not tend to rotate. One of the simplest ways of accomplishing
•
this is to mount a locking plate upon plate 1 whose convex surface will mate with
,•
....
the ooncavc surface of member 2 except during the indexing period. I I is necessary
to cut the loclcing plate back to provide clearance for member 2 as it swings
through the indexing angle. The clearance arc in the locking plate will be equal
)
to twice the angle a.
If one of the slots in member 2 is closed, then plate 1 can make only a
ijmitcd number of revolutions before the pin P strikes the closed slot and motion •
ceases. This modification is known as the Geneva stop and is used in watches
and similar devices to prevent overwinding. •
>
velocity will therefore be transmitted between tbe input and the output shaft at •
any anaJe between the shafts. The spider is usually splined to one shaft, and the
housing is bolted to U1·· •Jther sbaft.4
•
A tri-pot joint in combination with a Rr.eppa joint is used extensively in •
automotive front-wheel drives where the Rz.eppa is used for the outboard and
lhe tri-pot for lhe inboard joint. A front-wheel drive unit of a Rzeppa and a tri· •J
pQt jOint is shown in Fig. 2.34. In front-wheel drive vehicles, if the front wheels
are de&igoed to have independent suspemion. it is necessary to use two coostant- )
velocity joints per axle to allow for tbe suspeosioa motion and the steering angle
of the wheel. t

2.15 INTERMITI'ENT-MODON MECHANISMS

•
~
Then:: arc many instances where it is·oea:ssuy to convert continuous motion )
into Intermittent motion. One of the foremost cumpla is the indexing ol a work
table on a machine tool so as to bring a new wort piece before the cutters with
•
'ModiitW Dalen, June 28, 1984 (19&4 Mechankal Driv-
n-75.
·reaoe Jauc), "Unlvenal JoUdl,~ pp.
HGUltF. 2.3S
•
)

.-t;
"!
,
)
J
) °!: t
___ :l;L ··..;.-...

)
) 52 LINKAG ES AND MEalANISMS Jm'ERMITTENT· MOTION MECHANISMS SJ
) Ralchcl Mechanism prevent wheel 2 from rotating when not imJcxing. One method is shown in lhc
This ~echani~m is used to pr?ducc intennittent circular motion from an osciUating figure; the convex surface of wheel 1 mates with the concave surface between
) or. rcc1pr~hng mei:nber. Figure 2.36 shows the details. Wheel 4 is given inter- the tooth spaces on member 2.
) m11tent circular mott~n by means of ann 2 and driving pawl 3. A second pawl 5
prevents 4 from tummg backward when 2 is rotated clockwise in preparation for Escapements . .
) another :>t roke. The line of action PN of the driving pawl and tooth must pass This type of mechanism is one in which a toothed wheel, to which torque 1s
~tween centers 0 and A as shown in order to have the pawl 3 remain in contact applied, is allowed to ro1are in discrete steps by the action of a pendulum. Because
) WJth the tooth . The line of action (not shown) for the locking pawl and tooth of this action, the mechanism can be used as a timing device and as such finds
must p ass between centers 0 and B. This mechanism has many applications its widest application in clocks and watches. A second application is its use as a
)
particul arly in counting devices. ' governor to control displacement, torque, or velocity.
) There arc many types of escapements, but the one that is used in wa tches
and clocks because of its high accuracy is the balmice wheel escapement shown
) in Fig. 2.38. · .
The balance wheel and hairspring constitute a torsional pendulum with a
)
fixed period (time of oscillation through one cycle). The ·escape wheel is driven
} by a mainspring and gear train (not shown) and haS intermittent clockwise rotation
as governed by the lever. For every complete oscillation of the balance wheel,
) the lever allows the escape wheel to advance one tooth. The escape wheel there-
) fore counts the number of times the balance wheel oscillates and also s upplies

)
~·nc•whed
) Mod haitsprinc
(not shown)
)
nGURE 2~
)
) lntennittent Gearing
This mechanism finds application where the loads are light and shock is of sec-
) ondary importance. The driving wheel will carry one tooth , and the driven mem-
) ~r will carry a number of tooth spaces to produce the required indexing angle.
Figure 2.37 shows this arrangement. A locking device must be employed to
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
FIGURE 2.37 F1GURE 2.38
)
)
 ,
,
)

•
54 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS

energy through the lever to the balance wheel to make up for friction and windage
INTUORAl"OllS SS •
)
2.17 INTF.GRATORS
lo,<;,o;c..~ .
To &tudy the mution uf thil; mechanism through one cycle, consider the
lever held against the left banking pin by the escape wheel tooth A acting on the
left pallet stone. The balance wheel rotates COllOterdockwisc so that its jewel
A mechanism for i11lcg1aliu11 i.'I shuwn in Fig. 2 .:J•J. Disk 2 wtulcs drivlni: the
balls which are positioned by the ball carriage 3. The balls, in turn, drive roller
4. Pure rolling action is maintained between the disk and the balls aud between
,
)

strikes the lever driving it clockwise. The motion of the lever causes the left pallet · the coller and the balls. The input variables are the rate of rotation o( disk 2 a nd )
stone to slip past and unlock the escape wheel tooth A. The wheel now rotates the axial displacement r of the balls. The output of roller 4 is the result. The
clockwise, with the top of tooth A giving an impulse to the bottom of the left
pallet stone as it slides under it. From this impulse the lever now begins to drive
action of the mechanism therefore gives the relation
•t
the jewel, thereby giving energy to the balance wheel to maintain its motion. R do. = r de2
After the escape wheel rotates a short distance, it comes to rest again as
tooth B strikes the right pallet stone, which has been lowe£Cd due to rotation of
the lever. The lever strikes the right banking pin and stops, but the balance wheel
because the linear distance traveled by the top ball on disk 2 must be equal to
that traveled by the bottom ball on roller 4. Integrating the preceding equation
gives
,•
continues to rotate until its energy is overcome by tension in the hairspring, by
pivot f.riction, and by air resistance. •
The force of escape wheel tooth B on the right pallet stone keeps the lever
loclccd against the right bankiog pin. The balauce wheel completes its swing,
(2.25) •
reverses ~lion, and returns with clockwise motion. The jewel now strikes the
left side of the lever notch and drives the lever counterclockwise. This adioo where r is a fun ction of e,. The value 11 R i:s the illlegralor consta111 a nd is very
•
unlocks tooth B, _which gives an impulse to the lever through the right pallet important in the design o( an integrator system. The unit can also be used a:s a •
stone. After a short rotation of the escape wheel, it comes to rest again as tooth multiplier by laking r as a constant during each operation. 111e unit will then
•
A strikes the left pallet stone.
The balance wheel escapement is also known as the detached lever es-
~enerate 04 = (r/R)0 2 •
Equation 2 .25 can also be expressed in terms of x, y, and z . Let the rotation •
capement because the balance wheel is free and out of contact with the lever
during most of its oscillation. Because of this relative freedom of the balance
0, be represented by x, the ball carriage position r by y, which equals /(x), and
the output 04 by z . Substituting these quantities into Eq. 2 .25 gives •
wheel, the escapement has an accuracy of ±1%.
For more information oo escapements and their applications, consult one •
of the many references on the subject. (2.26)
•
These quantities are shown schematically in Fig. 2.40.
J
In the integrator, input .x and output z are shaft rotations, whereas input y
2.16 COMPUONG ELEMENl'S is a linear distance from the ball carriage to the center of the disk. To provide >
the axial motion nccessa.ry for y , a lead screw is often u:scd. By so doing. the
At one time, mechanical computing clements found wide application in analog t
computers for the solution of complicated equations. They were used in the
control of guided missiles, weapon fire control, bombsigbts, and many other
systems. both commercial and military. While electronic computing systems have •
largely replaced mechanical systems, there arc many instances where mechanical
devices arc preferable because they do not require electrical power. Witb this
•
)
advantage, mechanical units arc particularly suitable for use in bazanluus envi·
ronmcots and in remote locations such as oil and gas·pipcline systems.
Mecbnical computing elements, in addition to their ability to generate par·
ticular mathematical functions. are also used to produce various types of motions
•t
in production machinery. Notable cxamples of tbc&e are integrators. cootour )
cams, noocircular or contour gears, aod·diHereotials. These mechanisms have
high reliability and long life. .i )
FIGURE 2.39
I
..
__,---
a
 , ,._,_
.-;: -
'

)
'
) 56 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS CASE STIJDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: TIIE HYDROMINER

rotation of the screw, which is proportional to the carriage position , can he used
57

to represent y. Therefore, the input and the output will all be shaft rotations. A
)
commercial integrator is shown in Fig. 2.41. The theory of contour cams is
) presented in Oiapter 3.

) 2.18 SYNDIESIS
) In the linkages studied in this chapter, the proportions have been given and the
problem has been to analyze the motion produced by the linkage . It is quite a
) different matter, however, to start with a required motion and to try to proportion
FIGURE 1.40 a mechanism to give this motion. This procedure is known as the synthesis of
)
mtchanisms.
) The following section describes a typical mechanism design problem and
illustrates how synthesis can be applied to find a solution. Chapter 11, Intro-
) duction To Synthesis, describes the synthesis problem in more general tem1s and
o utlines a variety of graphical and analytical methods of solution .
>
) 2.19 CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN:
1HE HYDROMINER5
The design of mechanisms and their implementation into machines is often a
) complex iterative process where many related factors must be Considered at each
) stage of design. It would therefore he impossible to condense the details of u real
design into a single section of a textbook. It is instructive .however to examine a
) few of the detailed kinematic considerations that go into the design of a mach ine.
The example presented in this section shows that, although the kinematics or a
) device may be simple, the design of a complete machine is usunlly quite involved.
) The value of coal as a long-term source of energy is well documented .
Equally weD documented are the dirty and hazardous conditions under which
) coal is typically mined. In an effort to overcome these problems, the U .S. De-
) partment of the Interior commissioned the University of Missouri- Rolla lo de-
velop a coal-mining device that used jets of high-pressure water rather than
) mechanical saw blades to cut the coal. The principle of operation of this mining
device, known as the hydromintr, is shown in Fig. 2.42. Water jets undercut the
) coal. A moving wedge is forced into the opening made by the water jets, and
large cantilever beam sections of the coal are mechanically broken off and carried
)
away on a conveyor. The water jets are superior to sawing because dust is elim-
) inated and the risk. of gas explosions caused by sparks is reduced.
The design of the hydrominer calls for three high-pressure water jets to
) oscillat~ vertically along the edge of the plow, as shown in Fig. 2.43. Eai;h spray
arm pivots about a high-pressure swivel joint and is required to swing through
> an arc of 2~ and to oscillate et a frequency of up to 200 cycles/s. lbe nouJes
) operate at a pressure of 10,000 psi with an exit diameter or 0.004 in .• producing

)
FIGURE 2.41 An lotesntor. (Colll1csy or l.JBRASCOPE, a dhidoa or the SINGER 'C. R. Bader, "HydromiDerSpny Alm Drive System Dcsi&n," Procudinp ofthe Fifth OSU AppliLd
) Cocnpan)'.) im.
MtcltG11isrru Conferma,
) t.
1:
)
 '
)
)
)
58 LIHKAOBS AND MECHANISMS CASE. SllJOY IN MECHANISM Dl!SIGN: nm llYOROMINER 59 )
an exit velocity or o ver 1000 rt/1 for the water jct. This design is able to cut a
•
,•
slot in the conl thnl is 7. in . wide, 20 in . lonR. amt from 2it to 30 in . 11hcml of the
plow.
Io the initial design of the hydrominer, the oscillation of the spray arms
was controlled by hydraulic cylinders driven by a combined electric and hydraulic
control system. It soon became apparent, however, that this system would be )
too slow and would result in jerky arm motions that would damage the cohere nce
)
of the jet. It was also felt that this system would be unceliable when operating
in a wet and dirty environment . Consequently, an alternate solution using a four-
bar linkage drive system was investigated.
t
TI1c four -bar linkage is a logical choice because it is simple and reliable.
Using a crank rocker-type linkage provides the required oscillatory motion of
the output arm while the input link is driven at constant angular velocity . 111is
,•
FIGURE 2.42
eliminates the need for a contro l system to regulate the arm motion. Severn!
restrictions were imposed on the design of tJ1e linkage, however. It was requiicd
that the motion of the output arms b e smooth and conti nuous so that thr co-
herence of ilie water jets would not be interrupted. Obviously, the linkage was
,
)

required to fit wiiliin the physical dimensions of the hydrominer and not to )
interfere with structural members of the device. Finally, to enhance the cutting )
action at the extreme ends of travel of the spray arms, the middle arm was required
to meet the outer arms at its two extreme positions. In other words, the middle )
&rm had to be 180° out or phase with the outside anus.
)
JO in. In designing a driving linkage, several important characte ristics of the mo -

-- -- -- --
tion must be recognized. Fust, the velocity of the spray arm must be zero at the
extreme ends of ilie oscillation cycle. This is easily seen by noting that the angular
position of the arm reaches a maximum value at one end and reaches a minimum
,,•
~-- ---- value at the other end. At these extremes, the velocity (the time derivative o f
position) must equal zero. Also, it is desirable to make the forward and return

JO in.
-;:::,_
- ,
. ....... .............
............ ...._
strokes of the spray arm occur in approximately the same length of time . Since
the input link will rotate at constant angular velocity. this requirement can be
I
1•.s•
t
....._...._-...
---
satisfied by making the position of the input link at the two extttme positions
differ by 180". A final assumption is that the spray arm itself will fun ction <iS one •
link of the meclumC!m. >
A kinematic diagram of the proposed concept (a four-bar linkage) appears
in Fig. 2.44. This mechanism is similar to the liolage analyzed in Section 2.3 bul
t
20 In. with the ground link inclined at an angle 91• Writing the loop closure equations
gives •
z-Components:
•
J
--
-----....,_ 10 In.
(2..r7)
•
---
PIGURE 2.43
-<.::>-
--------- ..t\Jllll joint
y-C.omponents:
r2 sin {' j . ~ in e, - r, sin 8, - r, sin e, = 0 . (2.28)
•
)

•
J
·Tl- .
 • ,_
r~
-~
- "'(. ···

'
l
)
60 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS

E.tnme top position

or spray •rm
1
CASE STIJDY lN MEOIANISM DESIGN: TIIE HYDROMINER

Using this result and substituting the known values at the two positions into
61

) ----r-- -- 1•.s· - ~ ....... __

Eqs. 2.27 and 2.28 gives four equations in six unknowns (On. 9., ri. r1 , r 1 , and
r 4 ). These may be written out as follows :

) '• r1 COS 811 + r1 COS 6,1 - r, COS 165.5° - T1 COS 81 = 0 (2.31)

)
r1 sin Ou + r1 sin 011 - r, sin 165 .5° - r, sin 0 1 -- 0 (2.32)
)
r2 cos (On + 180") + r3 cos 011 - r 4 cos 194.5° - r 1 cos 0 1 = 0 (2.33)
)
)
---
Ulreme bottom
position of spra,
r1 sin (Oi1 + 180") + r 3 sin 011 - r4 sin 194.5° - r 1 sin 6 1 = 0 (2.34)

)
......
Subtracting Eq. 2.33 fro m Eq. 2.31 and noting that cos (0 21 + 180°) = - cos 021
FIGURE 2.44 gives
)
)
) Takin~ the time derivatives of these two equations gives the velocity loop closure which means that either 821 = 90" or 811 = - 90" if r ~ 0. Substituting the positive
equatmns
root for 6,1 into Eqs. 2.32 and 2.34 and adding the two together gives
)
) (2.29) r 1 sin 01 = r1 (2.35)

) (2.30) Similarly, subtracting Eq. 2.34 from Eq. 2.32 gives

) noting that 6 1 is constant. (2.36)
) The following parameters are substituted into these equations at each of
the cwo posilions:

,
)

)
Posilion 1 (extreme top position);
Oz = 8i1 63 = 811 W3 = l.l>J1 165.5" <&>4 = 0
Finally, substituting this result into Eq. 2.31 gives

r 1 cos 0 1 = 3.873r2 (2.37)

Equations 2.35, 2.36, and 2.37 show that there are two free choices available to
Po:iition 2 (extreme bottom position); the designer. For example, r3 and'• can be selected by the designer to meet other
) requirements of the system, and r., 6 1, and r 2 are calculated from these equations .
94 = 194.5"
) Figure 2.45 shows a family of six possible solutions to the design equations, all
Substituting these values into the velocity equations (Eqs. 2.29 aod 2.30) gives having r1 = 10 in. Figure 2.46 shows tl1e final design of the drive system and the
) a total of four equations in seven unknowns (02 ., 81., <a>;i., On, <a>;n, r 1, and r3). method for achieving the proper phase relation between the middle ann and the
outer arms.
> Dividing all four equations hy r1w 2 and considering r 1/r1 and w 1/Wi as one variable
each (i.e., using r 2 and ")z as scale factors) results in four equa1ioos in five
) unknowns. Solving for 011 and On in terms of 0,1 gives Problems
2.1. In the four·bar linkage shown in Fig. 2.1, let O,O, ~ 2 in., O,A = 2l in., AB = li
> and in., and O,B • It, 2t, and 31 in. Sketch the mechanism full size for the three sets of
) · dimensions, and detennine for each case whether links 2 and 4 rotate or ost:illate. In the
wlud1 means links 2 aml I 11rc in line in the two position:i of intercal. TI1i1 rc:ault use nf o!lcillation , detem1lne the lh11itin1t JK •~i tions .
) is important because it shows that the lwo e xtreme positions of a crank rocJcer- 2.2. In the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 2 .1, linlr. l is 10 rotutc complc1dy amt link 4
lype four-bar linkage occur when the input link and the coupler link are collinear. oscillate through an angle of 75•. U nlc 4 is 10 be 114 mm long; and when 11 is at one
)
)
)
..
 •'
)

•
62 UMCAGBS AND MEOMNISMS CASE STIJDY lN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMlNER 6J
,
)

-----1----t~-:.fs1,..
"'·
'"• - Js.
Jo1r,
<o1,,
extreme positfon, the di.\ lana: O,B is lo be 102 mm and at lhe olher extreme p<>Sitioo
229 mm. DeCcnnine Che leagth or links 2 and 3, and draw Che mechani~m to scale as a
•~
--.r...-_-._,...._p-.___!.. -
,----1 . 101,,.
--L · is 1,,
cbeclt. Determine the maximwn and the minimum ttansmission angles.
2.3. U for the drag-link mcdwtism shown io Fig. 2.SC, O,A = 76.2 mm, AB - 102 mm,
and OJJ = 127 nun, what can be Che maximum lengch or O,O. for proper operotion or

,•
1~-._ I
r---~ -+---
--- the linkage 7
2.4. In the four-har mechanism shown in Fig. 2.47, the guide is part o( the fUed link aml
its a:nlerlinc is a ci1cular arc o( radius R . Draw the mechanism lull size am.1, iaMni glaphical
conitruclion, dclcrmiue lbe maguitude o( the angular velocity "'• o( Che slide r wh<'tt the t
mechanism is in the phase shown aod w, is 1 nid/s. Give the sense of "'•·
2.5. Considering the slider~ank mcdwJism shown in Fig. 2.10b, derive equations fo r
the di.\placcmenl, vclocicy, and 11u:clc:11tion ur Che slider as a funct ion of R, I ., O, '"• n111I •
, ., •
4>- Do not m11ke approximations. Let w be w1islant.
•
,•
~
1.6. The approximate equation for the displacement of the slider in the slider-crank
r2 • 8.75 In. 7.5 In. 6 .25 in.
Ul«b•nism is .x -= R(l - cos 8) + (R'/2L) &in' 8, and e = wt because .., is constant.
FIGURE 2.AS Derive the equatioris for the velocity aod acceleration o( the slider i( ., i' not constant.

,,
1.7. Write a computer progi;am to calculate the slider displaa:ment, velocity, a nd accel-
eration o( the 5lidcr crank 5hown in Fig. 2.10. Use both the exact cquatiom and the )
approximatecquations.LetR = 2in.,L = 8in.,n1 - 2400rpm. Calculatedisplacement,
velocity, and acc:cleration at UJ" intervals of e Crom O" to 360°.
2.1. A $lider<rank mechanism has a aank length R of 50 mm and operates at 2.'iO
rad/s. Calculate the maximum valUC$ of velocity and acceleration and determine at what
aank angles these maximums occur for connecting rod lengths of 200, 230, and 250 mm . ~
Frame
Use approximate equations, and assume w co~tant.
•1
2..9. Write a computer program to oompare simple harmo nic motion o( the Scotch yoke
. (Fig. 2 .13) with the motion of the slider crank. Let n = 1800 rpm, R = 2 in., L = 8 in.,
for the slider crank and r = 2 in. for the Scotch yoke. Vary the angle 9 from ()" to 360"
•
)
(a:w) aod calculate displacement, vcJocity, a.Qd ac:oc&ention at each value of 8 . Use
appcoxlliYte equations for the slider aaok, and assume w co05Cant .
2.11. lo the mechanism shown in Fig. 2 .48, neglect the connecting-rod effect (llssumc
•
)

•t
,
A 3

o,,t • I in.
AB• 31n.
R• 3in.
l 2f;
•
,
)

3f
l__ •
)

FIGURE 2.46 FIGlJRF. 2.47

~·
,. )
 ~-
.. ~ -

\ CASB snmv IH MECHANISM DESIGN: nm HYDROMtNl!R 65

64 I .INKl\liES AND MECHANISMS
) 2.13, graphically determine the length of stroke of slider 6, and the time ratio of advance
to return. Use a scale of 3 In. = 12 in.
) l.15. For the Whitworth quick-return mechanism shown in Fig. 2.16, graphically deter-
) OiA = lin. mine the length of stroke of slider 6 and the time ratio of advance to return. Use a scale
OiB= 51n. of 3 in. - 12 in., and let 0 1 0, "' 2l in., O,A ~ S in., O,B = S in., and BC =- 18 in.
) l .16. For the crank-shaper mechanism shown in Fig. 2.14, graphically detennine the
length of stroke and the time ratio of advance to rctum . Use a scale of 3 in. "' 12 in .,
) and let 0 0 • 16 in., 0 1A .. 6 in. , 0 48 = 26 in., BC = 12 in., and the distance from
1 4
O, to the path of C • 2S in.
) 2.17. Design a Whitworth quick-return mechanism to have a length of stroke of 12 in .

,
) I and a time ratio of 1117. Use a scale of 3 in. = 12 in.
l.18. Design a crank-shaper mechanism to have a length of stroke of 12 in. and a time
FIGURE 2.48
ratio of 1117. Uac a scale of 3 in. = 12 in.
2.19. for the quick-return mechanism shown in Fig. 2.50, derive an e xpression fnr llae
) ~ 01111 ~~i 11 g ~·- inlinir_cly long) and determine an expression for che relative motion of the displacement z of the slider (link 5) as a function only of 8 of the driving link (link 2) and
wo s 1 ~rsh . is relation should be a function of time and reduced to a single trigonometric the constant distances shown.
) tem1, w ll w constanl. 2.20. Shown in Fig. 2.51 ii a quick-return mechanism in which link 2 is the driver. Link
) 2.11: If link 2 i~ the Scotc~ yoke shown in Fig. 2. 13a rotates at JOO rpm, determine the S moves to the rigbt during a working stroke and to the left during a quick-return stroke.
maximum velocity and maximum acceleration of link 4 if its stroke is 100 Draw the mechanism to full scale and, using graphical construction, determine (a) the
) - _,, 2 •U • .Shown. in Fi1g. 2· 49 IS
· a m001fied
· Scotch yoke mechanism in which the mm. idc of the

) yoke
d" I ts a circular arc of radius r and R is the crank radi
· us · De · ~
nve an expression 1Lor the
tsp acement z of the yoke (link 4) in tenns of e, R and r . Indicate the dicnla-me t
on the sketch. ' -.- "" n z
)
2.13. Co~sideriog the drag-link quick-rclum mechanism shown io Fig 2 15 d t ·
) !he vc:IOC1ty (ft/min) of the slider 6 for a complete revolution of t~ ~; ~~'; :
increments. ~e crank rotates clockwise at 100 rpm. Use a scale of 4 • · = 12 · m d
) let O,O, """ 3 m., O,A """ 41 in., AB = 5l in., BC = Bl in . o
B = 6: · o c ~-6, ~n
and . CD = 181 in · D e t ennme
· ·
"'• graph1c:ally .
using • ' of the ••
the principle • -
transmissionm.of•
)
motion, and then calculate the velocity of the slider using the slider~ It •
2 14 U · ~•un equabon.
) • • smg the proportions of the drag-link quick-return mechanism given in Problem

}
)
,
) ().zA =fin.

) O,B• Jl ln.

)
)
)
!
·I
) I

) FIGUllE 2.50
FIGURE 2.49
)
)
)
)
 ,
•
•
•
66 UNltAGES AND MECHANISMS CASE snJDY IN MECHANISM OF.SIGN: TifE IJYDROMINER 67
•»
~Crank cent.

r=!: 8 In. ·I· Stroke - 12 In. -+f ,

.1---1._ _ Jr____ _JJ-
01A - 4 In .
AB - 8 In.
O•B - 4 In.
CI02 nvnl
(203 mm)
(102 mm)
AC - 6 In. (1!>2 mm) •>
BC • 4 In. ()02 mml
FIGURE 2.52 AD - J In. (76.2 mm)

•
,,•
angular velocity ratio w,lw, when the mechanism is in the phase shown and (b) the time
r atio of the mechanism.
2.21. Derive the equations for displacement, vdocity, and acce.leration for tbo offset
slidcr-aank mechanism shown in Fig. 2 .17. They should be in form similar to Eqs. 2. 17,
2.18, and 2. 19.
2.22. Calculate the leogth of the Cl'alllt aud of the connecting rod for an offset slider-
cmik mccbanism to satisfy the conditions shown in Fig. 2.52.
,
2.23. For the offset slider-crank mechanism Shown in Fig. 2.53, calculate (a) the leugth
of stroke of slider 4, (b) the distance 0 28 when the slider is in its extreme left position,
and (c) the time ratio of working stroke to return stroke.
traces a 203 mm path. lf OP is to have a maximum working distance of 394 mm , design
a pantognpb to give the required motion using a scale of 10 mm = 30 mm . D raw <he
•,
2.24. Referring to Fig. 2.18 and considering only linb 4 , S, and 6 of tbe toggle mccbaniun mechanism in its two extreme positions, and dimension the links.
shown, write a oomputer program to illumate the fora: de\lelopmeot of this moc:banilln. 2.30. For lhe mcx:hanism shown in Fig. 2.55, determine the angula r positions of the o u1pu1 t
Let F be a oonstant value of 10 lb. Suggestion: Use Eq. 2 .23 and vary a from 10- to near link (link 4) when the input link (link 2) is al an angle of <H.
o•. 2.31. For the linkage of rig. 2.56. oollSlJlld a 13ble showing the angles e, and 6, as a t
' function of 6, for Ur increments of 8, from O" to 360". Oearly indicate those values or o,
2.25. Plot the path of point P in the Wett atraight-line mechanism shown in Fig. 2.20 if
O,A -= 2 in., O,B ~ 3 in., AP = 11 in., BP .. 1 in ., and linb 2 and 4 are perpendicular for which the mechanism will not BS$Cmble.
•
to link 3.
2..26. Referring to Fig. 2.20, graphically detumiue the proportions of the Watt straigbt-
line mechanism that will give an approximate straight-line motion of point P over a length
2.32. l'ind the rany,e of angulu pos.itions for the input link (link 2) 11nd fm tl1e <>ulpul
link (link 4) for the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 2.57.
2..33. For the linkage shown in Fig. 2 .58, find the an&ular positions of link 2 when link
•
)
of 5 in.
2.1:1. Prove that point Pin the Peaua:lliCI" straight-line mechanism shown in Fig. 2.21
will trace true s!J"aight-line motion.
2.28. Prove that points P and Q in the pantograph shown in Fig. 2.22 will trace similar
4 is in the position shown . Be sure to consider both dosure5 of the mechanism.
2.34. Determine the angular velocity of the crank of the slider-aank mechanism sho wn
in Fig. 2.59.
2.35. For the linkage in Fig. 2.60, detennine the values or 8, and.., when (a) .. = - 30°;
,•
paths. (b) 8, = 0"; (c) 8, = 30°. t
2.1.9. In the pantograph shown in Fig. 2.S4, point Q is to baa: a 76.0 mm path while P )

1
c OtA - 15 in. t381 nvn)
O,B • 10 in. 1254 nvn)
AC - 10 In. 125-4 nwn)
0,P, m 30 in. t762 nm)
'•
AB • 17.Z In. 1437 mml
•
)
0.A = 3 In.
5/I Q
•
AB= 7 In.
/
4 // )
/
p v )
nGURE 2.56
ftlGURE 2..53 nGURE 2..54
•
,
J
)
, -·
. :~ '
.
) ___ _Jk
)
)
)
)
}
- -- -(3~~ :::;,,, - - -- -

-, 6 In.
!152 mm)
02A • 6 in. 115' 111111)
AB • 8 In. 1203 mm)
048 - 6 In. 1152 mm)
CASE snJDY IN Ml!alANISM DESIGN:

...
nm llYDRUMlNER

O,A - 6 In. 1152 mml

69

AB - 3. 79 In. (96.2 mm)

) 7 In.
(178 mm)

)
) 2.4 Jn.
(61.0 mm)
) B
l'IGURE ZS1
) 14-- - -B.82 Iii __ __ _.,
(224 mm)

'
)
FIGURE 2.60

} 2.36. For the combined linkage mechanism in Fig. 2.61, dctennine the maximum and
minimum angular positions for the output link (link 6) during fuU rotation of the cninlc
) (link 2). Also determine the angular positions of the crank when the outpu t link is at its
) exb'Cme positioos.
2..ST. A Hooke's coupling cooneclS two shafts a t an angle of 13S- (fl = 45""), as shown
) in Fig. 2.26. If the angular velocity of the drive shaft is constant at 100 rpm , calculate the
0,A • 6 In. 1152 111111) muimum and minimum velocity of the driven shaft.
) AB ~ 8 In. 1203 nm) 2.38. Derive equations that describe the angular displacement and angular velocity of
0 4 8 • 6 In. 1152 mm)
) the driven member of a Geneva mechanism (Fig. 2.35) from the point where the driving
pin engages the driven wheel to the point of disengagement. Find fl ~ f(a) and dfl/
) da. = /(u), and use (dfJ/da)(da./dr) = dflldT to determine an equation for the angular
A
velocity of the driven member.
) FIGURE 2.58 2.39. Using the equations deriYcd in Problem 2.38, write a computer program and cal·
culate the values of fJ and,... for a. varying from 00" to er in inaements of 10". Let a. at
> the point of first contact ~ 00", 0 1 P = Hin., 0,0, = 31 in., n, = 1000 rpm (constant).
) 4 B
) D
OaA - 2 In. 150.8 mml
) Va - 8 .79 h i •(2.68 m/sl
AB • 4 In.
AC - 8 In.
CI02mml
(203mml
BD • 4 in. (102 mm)
) A11 - 79.I ft/s1 124. l m1s21
O&D • 4 In. 1102 mm)
O:t<Je - 4 In. ()02 mm)
)
)
0,A • 3 in. 176.2 mml
A
) AB - 7 In. 076 mm)

,
)
FIGUllE 2.59 FIGURE Ul

> 68
J
 ,,
'
I
•
)
70
•
UNKAGr..S AND MECHANISMS

2.40. Lay out a Geneva wheel mechanism to satisfy the following conditions: the driver
is tu rotate continuously while the driven member rotate& lntermiUcnlly, mllkinit a quarter
revolution for every revolution of the driver. The di.glance between the CICDtcra of thi: Chapter Three •
)
driving and driven shafts is to be 31 io. Let the diameter of the driving pin be f in. The
diameters of the driving and driven shafts are to be I in. and 1 in. , with teyway fot a
;\ x le in . and I x tin. key, respectively. Sbow a hub on each member with tbc bub oo
the driver shown in back of the plate. Let the diameten of the hubs be 1f to 2 times lhe Cams •
>
diameters of the bores. Dimension the aoglea m aod p.

. !
I
l
,
•
,•
•
)

•
Cams play a very important part in modem machinery and arc extensively used •
iii intemaJ-combustion engines, machine tools, mechanical compute~, instru-
ments, and many other applications. A cam may be designed in two ways: (a)
•
)
to assume the required motion for the follower and to design the cam to give
this motion, or (b) to assume the shape of the cam and to determine what )
charaderistics of displacement, velocity, and acceleration this contour will give.
The first method is a good example of synthesis. In fact, designing a cam
J
mecbanism from the desired motion is an application of synthesis that can be
solved every time. However, after the cam is designed, it may be difficult to •
manufactwc. This difficulty of manufacture is eliminated in the second method
•
by making the cam synunetrical and by using shapes for the cam contours that
can be generated. This is the type of cam that is used in automotive applications
where the cam must be produced aocurately and cheaply.
•
)
Only the design of cams with specified motion will be treated. Fur the
automotive-type cam where the contour is specified, the reader is referred to the t
refercnoc: below. 1 Cams with specified motion can be designed graphically and
in certain cases annlytically . Graphical procedures will be considered first . •
)
3.1 CAM CLASSIF1CATION )
AND NOMENCLATURE
Grublcr's mobility equation (Eq. 1.3) can be used to create a countless variety •
/
of mechanisms containing cam pairs. lo practice, however, the majority of cam
pairs are found in simple cam-and.follower mechanisms which contain only three ,•
(
,,
)

-~
•
L ~-
lj
DISK CAM wrm RADIAL FOLLOWER (ORAPlllCAL DES IGN) 73
72 CAMS
)
)- links, the two links or the cam poir and a ground link. The material in this chapter
deals only with cam-and-follower systems having three links; these are often
r
\._,
rdcrred to simply a~ cnm 111cd1anisms. Cnm mechanism!! may be dllMified by
the type of Olm or by the shape, motion, or location of the follower. The simplest
l and most often-used cam mechanism is a rotating-disk cam with either a recip-
rocating or oscillating follower. Several other types of cams are in common use,
) and these are discussed later in this chapter. Figure 3.1 shows a disk cam with
'-
six different follower arrangements.
l Figure 3. la shows a disk cam with an in-line knife edge follower. The
L follower is considered to be in-lint (or radial) wheo its centerline passes through
the center of cam rotation. This type of follower is of theoretical interest but is
t not of great practical importance because it generally produces high contact
stresses. Figure 3.lb shows a disk cam with an in-line roller follower. Figure 3.lc
l shows a disk cam with an offset roller follower. In each of the cam-and-(oDower
), mechani_sms of Figs. 3.la, b, and c, the cam rotates while the follower recipro-
cates. Figure 3.ld shows a disk cam with an oscillating roller follower. Figure
)_ 3. le shows a disk cam with a reciprocating Oat-faced follower. In this case, there
)- is no need to distinguish between in-line and offset followers because they are
k:inematically equivalent; any follower shaft parallel to the one shown will produce
): the same output motion. However, it may be necessary to change the length of
the follower face when the follower is offset. Figure 3.1/ shows a disk cam with
}
FIGURE 3.2 C.. •omeac:llitme.
)-
Offset
an oscillating Oat-faced follower. Many other possible cam-and-follower arrange-
}
ments are described by Oten.1
) Figure 3.2 shows the nomenclature used to describe a typical cam mecha-
nism. The trace point is a point on the follower that corresponds to the contact
) point of a fictitious knife edge follower. The trace point of a roller follower is
) the center of the roller. The pitch curve is the path of the trace point relative to
the cam. The base circle is the smallest circle tangent to the cam surface about
,\ the center of cam rotation. The pres3un angle is the angle between the direction
of motion of the trace point and the common nonnal (the line of aclion) to the
) contacting surfaces. The pressure angle is a measure of the instantaneous force
(a) (6) kl
) transmission properties of the mechanism. The throw, or stroke, is the distance
between the two extreme positions of the follower.
)
'")"' 3.2 DISK CAM wm1 RADIAL FOi.LOWER
(GRAPHICAL DESIGN)
Figure 3.3 shows a disk cam with a redial flat-faced follower. As the cam rotates
l at a oonstant angular velocity in the direction shown, the follower moves upward
·a distance of 1 in. with the displacements shown in half a revolution of the cam.
J
}, (di (d
1F. Y. a.ea, 11«""11ics Mil Doitn of Cam M«Mtti.sm1, Perpmon Press, Ne• Yori<, 1982.
FIGURE J.1 Common Qlll-ud-foUowu mnacements.
~
)
J
 ,
)
)
)
74 CAMS DISK CAM WTl1i RADIAL FOU..OWER (ORAPIUCAL 011..SIGN) 75
0 •
S I In.
•
)

5 6 7
,
>

)
'
•
•
4
•
>
)
5
6
7

FIGURE 3.3 Diak am wltb radial lht·llattd follower.

•
t
>
The return motion is to be the same. To determine the cam contour graphically,
it will be necessary to invert the mechanism and to bold the cam statioouy while >
the follower moves around it. Th.is will not affect the relative motion between )
the cam and the follower, and the procedure is as fullows: ....:
It
...
0 >
,_
1. Rotate the follower about the center of the cam in a direction opposite to ~
~

.e
that of the proposed cam rotation.
2. Move the follower radially outward the correct amount for each division of
rotation. :a
•
3. Draw the cam outline tangent to the polygon that is formed by the various :! •
positions of the follower face.

Unfortunately, in the last step, there is no graphical way of determining

the contact point between the cam and the follower, and it must be determined
C> ----.---1 ~-+- ID '.! j
a ,
)

)
by eye with the use of a French curve. The length of the follower face must also
be determined by trial. Oocasionally, a combination of displacement scale and
minimum radius of cam is &elected that gives a cam profile with a shup comer
or cusp. This cusp can be eliminated by modifying the displacement scale or by
increasing the minimum radius of the cam.
,,
)

Figure 3.4o show1 the aumc type of cam with a roller follower. With this
type of follower, the center of the roller will move with the prescribed motion. )
The principles of construction are the same as for the flat-faced follower with
the exception that the cam is drawn tangent to the various positions of the roller )
follower. From Fig. 3.4o, it can also be seen that the line of action from the cam

;;! .
- '157
,
)
)
~ .. ~"3..~
~--
76 CAMS DISK. CAM WTrn OSClLLATINO FOLLOWER (GRAPJnCAL DESIGN) 77
to the follower cannot be along the axis of the follower except when the follower
is dwelling (no motion up or down). 'This produces a side thrust on the follower
and may result in deflection and jll11lming of the follower stem. The maximum
value of the pressure angle, the angle between the line of action and the center
line of the follower, must be kept as small as possible, especially in light mech-
anisms. In most cases, the pressure angle should not exceed approximately Jo-
for acceptable operation. Although it is possible to measure the maximum pres-
sure angle from the graphicaJ construction of a cam, it is often difficult to de-
termine this maximum analytically. For this reason, a nomogram for finding
maximum pressure angles is given in a later section on analytical cam design.
The pressure angle for any radial flat-faced follo~er is a constant. For the follower
shown in Fig. 3.3, where the follower face is at right angles to the stem, the
pressure angle is zero so that the side thrust on the follower is negligible compared
to that on a roller follower. Pressure angles may be reduced by increasing the
minimum radius of the cam 30 that the follower travels a greater linear distance
on the cam for a given rise. This is analogous to increasing the length of an
inclined plane for a given rise in order to decrease the a ngle of ascent. Also, in
a cam with a roller follower, the radius of curvature of the pitch surface must be
larger than the radius of the roller; otherwise, the cam profile will become pointed.
In both the flat-faced and the roller follower, the follower stems arc some-
times offset instead of being radial as shown in Figs. 3.3 and 3.4a. nm may be
done for structural reasons or, in the case of the roller follower, for the purpose
of reducing the pressure angle on the upward stroke. It should be noted, however,
that although the pressure angle on the upward stroke is reduced, the pressure
angle on the downward stroke is increased. Figure 3.4b shows a cam designed
with the follower offset and with the same displacement scale and minimum cam nGURE 3.S Dfllk aaa witl osdDafinc Bat-faced rollower.
radius as in Fig. 3.4a.
extended in the zero position. For the follower design shown, this circle happens
to coincide with the outside of the follower bub. The radius of this circle is then
3.3 DISK CAM WITH OSCILLATING swung from each of the rotated positions of the follower center. For position 3,
FOLLOWER (GRAPIUCAL DESIGN) the follower face is drawn through point 3' tangent to the rotated circle of the
Figure 3.5 shows a disk cam with an oscillating flat-faced follower. Using the follower hub. By repeating this process, the polygon of the various positions of
- ~

same principle of construction as in the disk cam with a radial follower, the
J follower is rotated about the cam. At the same time the follower must be rotated
} about its own center through the required displacement angle for each position.
There are several ways of rotating the follower about its own center. The method
), shown in Fig. 3.5 is to use the intersection of two radii (for example, point 3')
to determine a point on the rotated position of the follower face. The first of
) these two radii (cam center to position 3 on displacement scale} is swung from
) the cam center. The second radius (follower center to displacemcot scale) is
swung from the follower center which has been rotated into position 3. The
~ intersection of these two radii gives point 3'. Because an infinite number of lines
can be drawn through point 3', it is nCCCll.'!81)' to have additional information to
) ' many others, some of which find wide application. Three of these arc disawcd
locate the correct position of the follower face through point 3'. ~ shown in the
)' figure, this was supplied by a circle tangent to the follower face which has been
the follower face is obtained from which the cam is drawn.
Figure 3.6 shows a disk cam with oscillating roller follower. 1l1e procedure
for determining the points labeled with primes (for example, point 3°) is similar
to that of Fig. 3.S. In this case, however, the primed points arc the centcn; of
' the rotated roller follower. After these roller circles arc drawn, the cam can now
be drawn tangent to them. It should be noted that in an actual design, smaller
earn divisions would be used so that the circles would intersect each other to
minimize cam contour error. It should also be mentioned that the same procedure
can be used in designing a cam with an oscillating roller follower as was used for
a cam with an offset translating follower.
Although most of the cams in use arc of the types mentioned, there are
in the following· sections.

)
I
 '
)

•
)
71f CAMS CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES 79
•
)

,
)

,
)

,,
>

)
)
,,
,,
,
10

FlGURE 3.6 Disk am with OldllalbJ& roDer folowcr.

>
3.4 POSmVE-RETURN CAM FIGURE 3.7 P05ilin-n:tu... cam.
(GRAPHICAL D~IGN)
t
With a disk cam and radial follower, it is often necesuty to return the follower 3.8 shows a sketch where the cylinder rotates completely about its axis imparting •
in a positive manner and not by the action of gravity or of a spring. Figure 3.7
shows a cam of this type where the cam positively controls the motion of the
follower not only during the outward motion but also on the return stroke. Of
motion to a follower which is guided by a groove in the cylinder.
•)
3.6 INVERSE CAM (GRAPHICAL DESIGN)
necessity, the tetum motion must be the same as the outward motion, but in the
opposite direction. This cam is also spoken of as a constant-breadth cam.
This type of cam may also be designed using two roller followers instead
of the Oat-fa~ followers. If it is necessary to have the return motion independent
Occasionally. it is advanlageous to reverse the role of the cam and the follower
and to let the follower drive the cam. This inversion finds application in &Cwing
machines and other mechanisms of similar oatwe. Figure 3.9 shows a sketch o f
,
)

a plate cam where the arm oscillates, causing reciprocation of the block by net ion
)
of the outward motion, two disks must be used, one for the oulward motion and
one for the return molion. These double-disk cams can bo used with either roller
or Oat-faced followers.
of a roller in the <:am groove.

3.7 CAM UISPLACEMENT CURVES

•,
. 3.5 CYLINl>EK CAM (GRAl"HICAL DESIGN)
This type of cam finds many applications, particularly on machine tools. Perhaps
the most common example, however, is on level-winding fishing reels. Figure
Before a cam contour can be determined, it is necessary to select. the motion
with which the follower will move in accordance with the requirements of the
system. If operation is to be at slow speed, the motion may be any one of i;evcral
,
)

)
------
~.., ·
)
J
l
..
:~~'a.~ ~
----·-·----·- -
'-'
)
80 CAMS CAM DISPU.CEMENT CURVES 81
)
Simple harmonic motion has the advantage that, with a radial roller fol-
~- lower. the maximum pressure angle will be smaller than with parabolic motion
with equal time intervals or with cycloidal motion. This will allow the follower
}_. to be less rigidly supported and more overhung In ii~ cunstn1clion . Les~ power
will aJso be needed to operate the cam. ·
L After the follower motion has been selected, it is necessary lo delcnnine
L the displacement scale and to mark it off on the follower axis as shown in Fig.
3.3. The scale increments may be calculated, but they arc more easily determined
)._, graphically by plotting a displacement-time graph.
Io plotting the displacement-time graph. it is necessary to fir~t dclennine
)-- the inflection point if the motion is parabolic or a modification thereof. For
)- simple harmonic and cycloidal motion, the inflection point is nutomalically de-
termined by the method of generation of the curve. The inflection point for
)- parabolic motion will be at the midpoint of the displacement scale ond of the
,.,, time scaJe if the intervals arc equal. To find the inflection points where the
parabolic motion has been modified is a little more complicated, as shown below.
)-'' common motions, for example, parabolic (constant acceleration and decelera- Consider a point moving with modified constant velocity where it starts
tion), parabolic with constant velocity, simple harmonic, or cycloidal. · from rest with constantly aa:clcrated motion, next has constant velocity. and
y me
Parabolic motion bas the lowest theoretical aa:clcration for a given and finally comes to rest with constantly decelerated motion. The inflection points
cam speed for the motions listed, and for this reason it bas been med for many may be found by specifying the time intervals or the displacement inter1als cor-
t cam profiles. However, in slow-speed work, this has little significance. Parabolic responding to each type of motion. Figure 3.10 shows a graphical rneans for
} motion may or may not have equal intervals of acceleration and deceleration, finding the inflection points A and B when the time intervals arc given. Figure
depending on requirements. Parabolic motion may also be modified to include 3.11 showli the construction for displacement intervals. From the relations S =
r an interval of constant velocity between the acceleration and dµeleration; this lAt1, V = At, and S = Vt, it i~ possible to prove the validity of the construction
r is often spoken of as mollified corutanl velocity. shown in Figs. 3.10 and 3.11.
After the inflection points have been determined as, fur example, in Fig.
) 3.11, the constantly accelerated portion OA of the displacement curve is con-
structed as shown in Fig. 3.12, where the displacement L {corresponding to S1
) of Fig. 3.11) is divided into the same number of parts a.sis the time scale. in this
~
case four parts. The deceleration portion BC of the curve in Fig. 3.11 is con-
t structed in a similar manner for its particular displacement S 1 and corresponding

t) time interval.

....,.,
!_,
L
),,,
-i
}_, .......
Ci
a
)J 0

); 1+-~~ I I . j~:8.!i~.
L ,,_J.__,,_.J..._,.,
)l FIGURE 3.9 linaw
FIGURE 3.lt
~.

y
)'
r
 ,,,
..
82 ,C AMS

J_
CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES 83 ,
)-

,
)·

L
,,
)

1lllle I Of Qm llllllt f 0 2 l
Time I or c•m •nil• I
F1GURE l.13 Simple ba..-9lc •olloa.
6
,
>
Figure 3.13 shows simple hannooic motioo (S ~ r(l - cos w,t)J for a
displacement Lin six lime intervals. In Fag. 3.13~ it should be ooted that if the
cam rotates through half a revolution while the follower moves through the
displacement L, the angular velocity w, of the rotational radius r equals the
is Iflw-T?e circurnf~ren'7 of this circle is divided into the same number of parts
as IS the tune scale, m this case six parts. The six marks on the circumference
are projected horizontally onto the vertical diameter of the circle. The marks on
,,
>

angular velocity w of the cam, and the equation fur follower displacement can
be written as S = r(l - cos fl»t) = r(l - oos 8). Uthe cam rotates only a quarter
revolution for the displacement L, 111, = ~ aod S = r(l - cos 28). 'Iberefon:,
it can be seen that the relation betweco c.>, and fl» can be expressed as
w, 180"
- =
11> degrees of cam rotation for follower rise L
A circuJar cam (eccentric) will impart simple bannonic motion to a radial
Oat-faced follower because the contact point between the cam and follower ·is
always over the geometrical center of the cam.
Figure 3.14 shows the construction for cycloidal motion
S = L(!p - _!_ 2-ir
sin 21f !)p
for a d~cement L in six lime intervals. The radius of the construction circle
the vertical diameter are then projected parallel to OA to the corresponding line
on the time axis. )
For cams operating at higher speeds, the selection of lbe motion of the cam
follower must be based not only on the displacement but also on the forces acting )
~n the system as a rc:sult of ~emotion seleaed. For many years, cam design
)
was concc~ed only wath movmg a follower through a given distance in a certain
le~gth of time. Speeds ~ere jow s? that accelerating forces were unimportant. )
With ~e trend toward higher machine speeds, however, it has become necessary
to CODSlder the dynamic characteristics of the system and to select a cam contour )
that will minimize the dynamic loading and prevent separation of cam and fol·
lower; this topic is presented in Section 9.20. )
. As an example of the importance of dynamic loading, consider parabolic )
motioo. On .t he basis of inert.i_a forces, this motion would seem to be very desirable
because of its low aa:cleration. However, the acceleration increases from zero >
),
)

A •
•>
L
L )

3~
· ~·~-fr:,o~::_~-!-~~!--~~~~..L~~1--1..__:T~lme:!!!,.!I~~!!_ >
l 4 6 cam•,.lef
0 2 3 4 )
1111 ~ I or c.om ..,Pf 1+-~~~~ ~~~~~~.1
HGUl«K J .ll P.ubOuc: -Uoo. FlGURt: l.14 Cydoldal modoa.
'
)

-:r - >
'
) '·~c~ "'· - ___ -~·:..;;
· ·SSllKO
. -.·-
· · ·~--- ~-- _;___. ~-~--i__ - -- .
-;-/ · • • . •"'T//Ofr..· 1-.,

CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES 85

84 CAMS
)
__, to its constant value almost instantaneously, which results in a high rate of ap-
t. plication of load. The rate of change of acceleration is detennincd by the third
derivative of the di~plac::cment and has been given the name "jerk." Tbcleforc,
l. jerk is an indication or the Impact characteristic or the loading; it may be said
that impact has jerk. equal to infinity. Lack of rigidity and backlash in the system
~ also tend to increase the effect of impact loading. In parabolic motion where jerk
\__,, is infinite, this impact occurs twice during the cycle and has the effect of a sharp
blow on the system, which may set up undesirable vibrations as weU as causing
~ structural damage. r.>
)__,, As a means of avoiding infinite jerk. and its deleterious effect on the cam
train, a system of cam design has been developed by K.loomot and Muftlcy that
)..; utiliz.es three analytic functions: (a) cycloid (and half-cycloid), (b) harmonic (and
..., half-harmonic), and (c) eighth-power polynomial. Plots of the displacement, ve-
locity, and acceleration curves of these functions arc given in Figs. 3.15, 3.16,
and 3.17. The anvcs have continuous derivatives at all intermediate points.
~ Therefore, aa:cleoltioo chan~ gradually. and jerk. is finite. Infinite jcrt is ooided
)-'' at the ends by matching ac::ccleratioos. It should be noted that the velocities will
also match because no discontinuities can appear in the displacement time curve.
)-/ As an example, when a rise follows a dwell, the zero acceleration at the end of
y the dwell is matched by selecting a curve having zero aca:lcration at the start of
the rise. The acceleration required at the end of the rise is determined by the
y succeeding condition. U a faU follows immediately, the rise can end in a fairly
high value of deceleration because this can be matched precisely by a mrvc having
y the same deecleratioo for the start of the fall. ,

r The selection of profiles to suit particular requirements is made according

to the following criteria:
J
r 1. The cycloid provides zero acceleration at both ends of the action. Therefore,
it can be coupled to a dwell at each end. Because the pressure angle is relatively

t) high and the ac:ccleration returns lo zero unnecessarily, two cycloids should not
be coupled together.
2. The harmonic provides the lowest peak acceleration and pressure angle of .
'--'
) the three auves. Therefore, it is preferred when the aa:elcratioo at both start
....,,· and finish can be matched to the end aa:cleratioo of the adjacent pro6Ics. Because nGURE 3.15 CJdoldal motion dlalllderistics: S =: dbplaCftllent, iDches;
l acceleration at the midpoint is zero, the half-harmonic can often be used where ·
a constant-velocity rise follows an ac::cclcration. However, a dwell cannot be
Y =: •dodtJ, lncbes per ckgrtt; A = aettlnatlot1, btdau per degree squared.
(M. Kloomok and R. V. M.nley, "Plate Cam Desip-wilh Emphasis o•
i. inserted in the motion between H-5 and H-6 of Fig. 3.16 bec:ause jerk becomes Dynamic Effect1," l"rotl. Ertf., February 1955.) N. B. For SI •nils,
S = displacement, •illlmden; Y = nlocity, milllmeltrs per degree;
infinite. The half-harmonic can also be coupled to a half-cycloid or lo a half-
l polynomial. A = attelentioa, miDlmden pu deiree squu-ed.
}_, 3. The eighth-power polynomial has a nonsymmetrical acceleration curve and
)_. provides a peak ac:cclcration and pl"CSSUrC angle intermediate between the har- of !tcoruh was selected to make it unnccc.'iSary to consider the angular velocity
monic and the cycloid. of the cam until the follower motions are selected. To obtain velocity nnd ac-
).. celeration in terms of time, the velocity from the curves V (in./dcg) can easily
In Fir;i. 3.15, 3.16, and 3.17, the units of velocity and acceleration are given be converted to in.ls by the relation V (in.ls) = (180/'lf) wV (in./deg), where w
)-' in inches per degree and in inches per degree :squared. The unit of degrees instead is cam velocity (rad/s). In a similar manner, A (in./s2 ) = (180l'lf}2w2A (in.ldeg1).
)-'
)-
¥
 '
)
)
)
CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES 87
)
t
)
.-
,
)

•
P- l
,, )

,,
,,)

,
A
)
P -2
)
FIGURE l.17 Eigltlll·powcr polyaomlal aolloa cllaraclerislln:
S = displacemeal , lac:ltes; Y • Telodly, lac:llea per decne; )
A = attdenlioa, iadies per depee aqured. (M. Kloowok aatl R. V.
MlllDey, ..Plale Cam Daip-.ntll Emplaasia - Dyaa..ic Eaeca," Prod. )
6rhe-••·
Ellf., Fdlr&UJ 1'55.) N. B. Far SI ulla, S = ailimden; .

. _,.' __;!__faa-)
"£ rf
depeea.puetl.
=
Y a nlodlJ, m.llUmelen per tlegne; A ac:aknlioa, lllilimelen per
,,
)

A ¥'\ -·
Erampk 3.1. A ro ller follower is to move through a total diiplacement md return

s·-
JilGUllE 3.16 Harmonic -lioii dlanc:teriftia: displKcmeat, iadia;
V"" nlodty,lacbeaperdegree;-t = attderalioD,iadiesper4kcree.-cd·
(M. KlootDok _. R. V. Mutney, "Plate Cant Dai&• wilb F.mplmAI M
D7a•mic EHccla," Prod. E•~ · • Fcbraar7 1,55. ) N. B . For SI aalta,
with oo dwells in the cyde. Because of the oper1tion performed by the mechanism, a
portion of the outward motion must be 1t constant velocity. Determine lhe mo tion curves
to be used. Refer lo Fig. 3.18a.

AB: Use half;:ycloid C-1 lo provide zero acceleration at start of motion A

)
,
)
S = dltplaccmcat, •illlmclen; Y • nlocUy, mWlmclcra per deiree; and at B where connection is made to constant velocity portion of curve.
,( = •«denlioa, l&illimelen per depee 1q11ued. BC: Constant velocity. )
CD: Use half-harmonic H-2. which will couple at C to the constant velocity )

,
section with zero acceleration and provide minimum pressure angle o ver
tht: rP.C:t nf th,. ,.... _ ,. )

)
 ~·--~
.' - -··- ~·"~-&---· --- --··-
-- - - ---·-· __ ..:-, __ _._
- .::..c.... -.:...i.. - -
. . . .. ,.,.......,...
~
~

):) 83 CAMS CAM DISPUCBMENT ClJRVF.S-ADVANCIID METIIODS 89

p 8 A

~
v
~
>-i:
'V--
b
L
b "''
~ '
t, A

t:: ,.,
b
g I
}_; I.

p
' ' - - - - - - - - " '- - - - - - • nGURE 3..D
D
):; nGUJtE 3.11
,, tioned problems. A logical atcnsion of the methods examined in the previous
)J section is the use of higher-power algebraic polynomials. These polynomial curves
DE: Use polynomial P-2 to match the deceleration of the harmonic ·at D are quite versatile, and, in most cases. determination of roeflicients is straight-
j.) and to provide a zero aa:cleration juncture at the end of the c:yde at E. forwud. The major disadvantage of the polynomial curves Is that they do not
jJ The velocities and accelerations an: matched, and their cuncs are shown directly allow local control of the motion. Another logical extension of the ma-

r
·y
in Figs. 3.18b and 3.1&. From Fig. 3.1&, it can be seen that jert ii finite
throughout the cycle.
terial in the previous section is to aeate other types of composite curves. Perhaps
the simplest of these is the so-aaJlcd trapezoidal aa:cleration curve shown in Fig.
3.20. This curve produces smooth velocity and displacement curves and results
in finite jerk. Trapemidal segments can be used in composite with other types
3.8 CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES
y _:__ADVANCED METHODS
of curves to prodooc anooth cam profiles with good aca:lcration properties.> ru
·y The creation of smooth cam profiles without discontinuities in velocity, accel-
a further extension of this approach. it is possible to construct a jerk curve
composed of straight-line segments. This produces continuous jerk and smooth
eration, and higher dcrivativca is critical to the satisfactory operation of an cams.
i In the previous section it was shown bow segments of simple cunes such as
curves for acx:elcration. velocity, and displacement.
With the advent of the programmable caJculator and the digital computer.

~
cycloidal, harmonic, and polynomial can be pieced together to give rontiouous . a number of numerical methods have been developed fOI' acating and modifying
acceleration curves. In addition, the importance of minimizing peak values of cam motion curves. In most cases, this is actually a prOCCS'! of smoothing out

~ acceleration, and heaoc minimizing peak dynamic loads, was discussed. Ia IOme
high-speed applications, the methods described in the previous section may not
unacceptable portions of acceleration curves created by other methods. A finite
number of points on the original aca:leration curve arc selected, and an ap-
& be sufficient, however. A rontinuoos aca:leratioo curve may have a discontinuous
jerk curve, as shown in Fig. 3.19. Such discontinuities tend to iilduc:e Vibrations,
proximate curve is fitted through these points. This new curve is then modified

b . which may result in noise, wear, and reduced precision of operation. Di9contin-
!> uities in higher derivatives may also produce undesirable effects.
A wide variety of methods have been proposed to address the aboftrmeo-
)I). n-r..so. L MMdiew, Trw D,_,vcSynlJtatl, ~ _, Dalp oflta<kkd Olm Sytfalv,
lningmn Boob, Lezingtoll. Mw.• 1976. .
b
h
b
 1.
)
)
90 CAMS DISK CAM WTnl RADIAL FLAT-FACBD 1-Ul..LOWER 91
)
S, V, A
)
l
)
)

" ,•.
J!lGURE l.20 'Jnpuoidal aa:elentioa CUTe aad C0111pata--
1eamiled plots of lhe rorre5p0DdiD1 nlocity -11 tlispl•tt•eat
cunes. ·
,
)

)
FIGURE 3.ll
by moving points or adding points through which it must paM. Popular methods
of this type include finite dilfercnces,• Johnson's method,• the finite-integration •
method,4 and the B·spline technique. 5

DISK CAM wrru RADIAL FLAT-FACED

where the minimum radius of the cam is represented by c and /(9) represents
the desired motion of the follower as a function o ( the angular displacement or
the cam.
,
)

,
3.9
FOLLOWER (ANALYI1CAL DESIGN) The equation for the length of contact l can be easily determined from the )
geometry of Fig. 3.21. From the triangles shown,
The treatment of the flat-faced follower allows the actual cam outline to be
dclennined analytically. In the graphical method, the points of contact between R::ysin9+xcose (3.2)
the cam and the follower are unknown, and it is difficult to determine their exact
•
location as the cam outline is drawn in. Also, the minimum radius of the cam to
prevent cusps can only be determined by trial. lo the analytical method, wbic:b
was developed by Carver and Quinn, thcse ·disadvantages arc overcome, and
three valuable characteristics of the cam may be deteimined: (a) parametric
and

l = y oos e - x sin o (3.3)

,•
)
equations of the cam contour; (b) minimum radius of the cam to avoid msps; The ridit side of Eq. 3.3 is the derivative with respect lo e of the right side or
and (c) location of the point of contact which gives the length of the foUower Eq. 3.2. Therefore, . )
face. Of these, the first has little practical application, but the other two give
information from which the cam can be produced. The development of these dR d )
characteristics follows. I = - ., - (C
d& d&
+ /(8))
FigU1e 3.21 shows a cam with a radial Oat-faced follower. The cam rotates
with a constant angular velocity. The contact point between the cam and follower and
•)
is at ..t, y, which is a distance I from the radial center line of the follower. The
displacement of the follower from the origin is given by the following equation: I = /'(8)
j
(3.4)
R = C + /(8) (3.1) H the displacement diagram is given by a mathematical equation S = /(0),
then Rand I are easily determined from Eqs. 3.1and3.4. From Eq. 3.4, it can )
be seen lhat the minimum length of the follower foce ii; independent or the
•F. Y. Cbco, Medlania and Duip of Cam Mec:lwiimu, Pcrpmoo Pras, New York, 1982. minimum radius of the cam. Also, the point of contact is at its greatest distance
'M. N. Sanchez aod J. Garcia de Jaloo, "ApplK:ation of &-Spline FWldioas lo lbe MolionSpecifiailioa · from the c:enteJline of the follower when the velocity of the follower is a maximwn. )
of Cams," A.SME Popu 80-DET-2.8. 1980. When the follower moves away from the cam center with positive velocity, l is

?'~-"
~· :·· ·-
,
)
 -· ; - ~ ± ---.:. . :..·· · ·--~1 .· . ·. -------~--____.:..i..:._ - ___.. :.__·· - _ _ _ _...L - - - -- •r

CAMS DISK CAM wml RADIAL FLAT-FACED FOU..OWBR 93

positive and contact oocun above the axis of the follower in Fag. 3.21. When the 7
follower moves toward the cam center, the velocity is negative and the raultiog
negative value of I indicates that contact is below the axis of the follower. .
To determine the equations for z aod y for the cam contour, it is ooJy
necessary to solve Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 simultaneously, which gives

z - R cos 8 - lsin 8

and

y - R ain 8 + I cos 8
By substituting the ~alues of R and I from Eqs. 3.1 and 3.4, respcctiYdy.

.r - (C + /(8)) oos 8 - /'(O) sin 8 (3.5) ftGURE 3.%2

y == [C + /(O)] sin 8 + /'(8) cos 8 (3.6) value of 8. The sum may be positive or negative. If positive, C will be negative
and have no pd.ctical significance. lo this case, the minimum ntdius will be
The minimum radius C to avoid a cusp or point on the cam mrfllcc can be determined by the hub of the cam rather than by the function /(8).
easily determined analytically. A cusp occurs when both dx/d8 and dy/tl.I - 0. Points on the cam profile may be determined from Eqs. 3 .5 and 3.6, which
When this happens. a point is formed on the cam as shown at z. y in Fig. 3.22. give the Cartesian mordinates, or by calcu.Jatiog R and l for vari~us values of 8;
To demonstrate this, consider that the centerline of the follower his rotated In geoc.nJ, the sea>od method i.! easier, but in either case the points have to be
through angle 6 and that contact between the follower face and the cam occors connected by use of a French curve to obtain the cam outline_ In actual practice,
at point .x, y. '·W hen the follower is further rotated through a smaU angle d_8, the however it is seldom necessary to draw the cam profile to scale. After the
point of contact (z, y) docs not change· because of the cusp and is still at %, y. minirnu~ radius Chas been determined and the displacements R of the follower .
Thus, it can be seen that dx/dO == dyld& == 0. calculated the cam CAD be generated. For the generating process, the length of
By differentiating F.qs. 3.5 and 3.6, the millin~ cutter must--croc:icd"twice the maximum value of I. During cutting, the
axis of the milling cutter is parallel to the plane of the cam.
dx == -[C + /(8) + r(8)) sin 8 (3.7)
d8 Exampk 3.2. To illustrate the method of writing the displacement equations, consider
the following conditioos: a Oat-t.ced follower is driven through a total displacement of
It in. At the st.art of the cycle (zero displacement), the follower dwells for ..n nd. It
~ == cc + 1<0> + rco>J cos e (3.1) then moves 11 in. with cycloidal motion (Kloomok and MuHley auve C·S) in -.f1. rad.
1be follower dwells for wfl rad and returns 11 in. with cycloidal motiou (C-<i) in -.fl nd.
A sketch of the displacement diagram Is shown in Fig. 3.23.
Equations 3.7 and 3.8 can become zero simultaneously only when
8
c + f (8) + rC8) "" 0 lf
Therefore, to avoid cusps,

c + /(9) + rce) > 0 L I

The sum f (8) + r<•> most be inspected for all values of e to dmmnine its
minimum algebraic value." It is necessary to use the minimum value 90 that C
o~'
will be sufficiently large to ensure that Eq. 3.9 does not become :zero for any llGlJRlt 3.23
 i
l
l
).
94 ; CAMS DISK CAM Willi RADIAL FLAT-FACED FOlLOWER 95
For the cycloid C-5, the Kloomok and Mufllcy cwvcs give Example JJ. As an example of bow the minimum radius C and the length of the
followu faa: arc determined, consider a Oat-fac:ed radial follower which moves out and
•
)·
. (e 21 . 11·
S - L ~ -
2..e) 1f sm
blck !50.8 mm with simple bannooic molion for hall a revolution of the cam. Two molion
cycles of the follower occur for one revolution of the cam. }
· Only one displacement equation (H-5) is ncccs.sary lo specify the foll ower molion:
ll 'buuld be rnentio ned thul in wriling the relalion S - /(I), lhe value of S mlUI always )
be meuurcd from tbe ab5cif.U and the value of 0 frorn the ocdinate. In the prca:dinJ
equation, however, 0 is measured from point A in Fig. 3.23 and not point 0 . Thueforc,
rewrite the equation uGing O' as shown in Fig. 3 .23:
where
s ~ ~ (1 -- C()5 1f ~)
,
l

e· - - 1 sin -
2m1') )
S
A• = L ( -13 2tt 13- L - 50.8 mm

•
,
It is possible to transfer the origin from point A to point 0 by wbstituting the relation and
J
1f
o· = o-
2
Therefore, Therefore, •
•
By substituliDg L = 1l in. and p = ..rz rad, '
and
s = f (9)
/'(O)
'"' 25.4(1 - oos 2e)
-= 50.8 sin 2t
,, )

S = ~ (o - ~) - 4-.
2-sin("8 - 2-.) r<e> :< 101 .6 cos 29
-t
•• • 2
To find the minimum radius, the sum C + /(0) + r(e) must be greater than :zero.
For the cycloidaJ curve C-6, By substituting for /(8) and r(e) and by simplifying, l
Sw = 21r sin 2.. !)
1,.(1 - !'.p ..+ ..!.. p
lbe
c+
AUD o(
25.4 i 76.2 cos 28 >0

25.4 + 76.2 cos 28 will be a minimum at 9 = -.12, which gives

,
)

where }_

3Tr
c + 25.4 - } 6.2 > 0
J
e· = e- 2
or
L =

13 = -
2
ll in.
1f
C > 50.8 nun

lbe length or the follower faa: i5 delermincd horn

'
)
J
111ercforc, I - /'(O) ~ 50.8 $in 20 )

\"
.. 4' T1
- 6 - ~
'ft
I 2_
4Tr 5in(48 - 6-n)
I_ ~ ~O . R 111111

Bec;au$C lhc moliuu ls 5ymruetrical, lbe theoretical leugth or the follower face is 50.8 nun
,
It dlould be observed that with the oombinatioos of dwell and cycloidal motion
used, velocities and aoc:clcrations are matched and jerk is finite throughout the qde.
on each side or the oentc:rline. An additional amount must be added lo each side of the
follower to p revent conlacl from occurring at the very end of the face .
,,
J

~--

1
 - · _ ....... .• _ _:..., _ ·_ _ . ..-:&-..... __ _ . ··- --- . . . . ..

..... . .
~

96 CAMS DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROllER FOLI-OWER 97

3.10 DISK CAM Wl1H RADIAL ROLLER
FOLLOWER (ANALYllCAL DESIGN)
The analytical dctennination of the pitch surface of a dist cam with a radial rolles'
follower presents no dilficultiea. In Fig. 3.24, the displacement of the center of
the follower from the center of the cam is given by the foUowing equation:

R = R, + /(6) (l.JI)

where R, is the minimum radius of the pitch surface of the cam and /(8) is the nGURI!: 3.25
radial motion of the follower as a function of cam angle. Onc:c the value of Re
is known, it is an easy matter to detcnnine the polar coordinates of the centcn to undercut a coocave portion of a cam, only the convex portions need to be
of the roller follower from which the cam may be generated. investigated. . .
A method for chc:cking this type of cam for pointing bas been. developed The radius of curvature at a point on a curve exprCS11Cd in polar coordinates
by KJoomok and Mumey, which considers the radius of curvature p of the pitch can be given by
surface and the radius of the roDer R,. These values are shown in Fig. 3.25
together With the radius of curvature Pc of the cam surface. H in Fig. 3.25 p is ( R2 + (d1W4>)1]Yl
held constant and R, is inacascd, Pc wtll dccceasc. If this is continued until R,
equals p, then ~ wiU be zero and the cam becomes pointed as shown in Ftg.
3.26a. As R, is further in~. the cam becomes underrut as shown in Fig. where R = f(cl>) and the first two derivatives arc continuous. This equation can
3.26b and the motion of the follower will not be as prescnl>ed. Therefore, to be used for finding the radius of mrvaturc of the pitch surface of the cam. For
prevent a point or an undercut fro~ occurring on the cam profile, R, m~ be
this case, /(8) = /(~).From Eq. 3. 10,
less than .,_, where p.. is the minimum value of p over the particular xpent
of profile being considered. If there arc several types of motion through which R = R0 + /(8)
the follower passes, each case most be checked separately. Because-it is im~~.le
dR _ f'(G)
d6

tPR = r(e)
d6 2

\
\
\\
\
~

FIGURE 3..2A
 I

l
DISK CAM WI1H RADIAL ROLU!R FOU..OWER 99 )
Therefore,
1.0
.l
)
- {R2 + [f'(8))1p12

,
09
.(3.ll) o.z
P - R2 + 2(f'(a)p - Rlrce>1 0 .4 )
0 .11
0 .1
Equation 3.11 may be evaluated to find the expression for p for a particular type 0 .1
of motion. However, to prevent points or undercuts on the cam profile, P• must 06 )
be determined. Differentiation of Eq. 3.Jl with its various functions to obtain «
0

minima gives very complex tnmsccmJental C()Uations. For this reason, three sets ...
c
OS
>
of curves ii.le given that show the plot of p_,.,/ R, versus p for various values of e ~
04
LIR 0 • In these curves, ~ is the total angular rotation of the cwn for a complete
event, and Lis the lift. Figure 3.27 &hows the graph for cycloidal motion, Fig.
03 •
3.28 for simple harmonic motion, and Fig. 3.29 for eighth-power polynomial o.z
•
motion. By means of these curves, it is possible to determine whether or not p..,
is greater than Rr

Example J.4. A radial roller follower i5 to move through a total displaoemeut of L =

0 .1

IS 20 lO 40 60 80 IOO zoo
,•
•
ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, /] , DEGREES
0.(i() in. with cycloidal motion while the cam cotatcs Jl = 30". 11ie followu dwclll for 4S"
and then returns with cycloidal 11\0hon in 7f1'. Clieclc the cam for pointing or undercutting
if the radiw R, of the roller is 0.25 in. and the minimum nd.ius R. of the ·pitch sudaa: ii •
1.50 in.

.!::. = 0.60 .- 0.40 1.0

•
)
n. 1.so
t
J
i
1bc outward motion will govern because of its smaller p. lbcreforc, from F'ig. 3.27
for L/R1 - 0.'40 and P = 30",
0 .9

0 .1

07
,
)

)
i; = 0.22
...a:c
0
06

OS )
and
·e 0 .4
>
~

j p... = 0.22 x l.50 = 0.33 in.

O.l )
! 0 .2
•' )
The am will oot be pointed or UDdcrcut because p... > Rr
l 01

~ As mentioned pre viously , pressure angle is an important consideration when

designing cams with roller foUowers. It is n~ to keep the maximum pressure
0 .0
m ~ w :so ~
ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, /], DEGREES
~ ao ~ 150
•t
angle as small as possible, and this maximum bas been set at 30°. However. higher FIGURE 3.%7 Cydoial -tioL (M. Kloomok allCI R. V. M•mey, "Pbile )
values arc occasionally used when conditions permit. Although it is possal>le to Cua Daip-R.Mim of Olnahlre," Pro4'. Eiq., Seplemlter 1955, u n:Ybed
make a layout of the cam and measure the maximum pressure angle, analytical . , M. A. Ganter ud J. J . tTICkcr, Jr. , "'Delip Cliarts for Disk C... 'lri.. )
methods arc to be preferred. Several methods are available, one of which bas Redprecatillg R8dUI Rolla Followen," ASHB Tl'fll&S.,Jo•nuil of M«lr1111 ical
been dcvclo1icd by Kloomok and Muffiey, whereby the prc$Surc angle can be
Daw,., IOI (l), 191.J 1979.I >
determined analytically for either a radial roller follower or an oscillating roller
follower. Only the radial roller follower will be treated here.
)
For the d isk cam and radial roller follower shown in Fig. 3.30, the prt:siurc

---:
.;
....,--.
,
)

)
)
 DISlt CAM wml RADIAL ROUER FOU..OWBR 101

1.0
z.o 0.9

1.8 0. 1

I .• 0. 1
02
04
1 .4 0.1
a:
0 8-1
10
12 ..... O.&
c
a:
.....
0

1. 0
·e 0 .4
Cl.
c
e<l. 0 .8
o. s
0.2
O.•
0.1
0 .4

02 20 lO 40 GO 80 100 200
ACTIVE CAM ANGl.C , /1 , 0 CGftEES
0 .0
II) 15 20 30 40 ., 80 IOO
ACTIVE CAM ANGl.E, ,8, OEGREES

'.

't
1.0

10 0.9

0 .1
o.e 0.1

a:•
.... 0.6l a:•
0 .6

0.4~
c ..... 0. 5
·e c
·e 0.4
Cl.
Cl.
I 0 .3
j
0 .2
0 .2
0 .1

00 0 .0
10 15
20 lO 40 10 ao 100 150
5 I) 15 20 so 40 IO IO IOO
I'°
ACTIVE CAM ANGLE , /$. DEGREES ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, /1 . DEGREES
nGURE l.ll H.....&c ..c1oa. (M. Kl--" aad R. V. Mllllley, ''l'We C..
Dalp Radlm or c.n..re."
Protl.
G•ala ad J. J. Ulcler, Jr., "Dt..lp CJaau fOI' Did: C...
B-...
Sepc-W l955, • re'lllell "111. A..
Red OCilCllc wt•
FIGURE 3.29 .......Wl!I' por,-181 motion. (M. Floomol Hd R. V.
Ma111q "ftaM C- Dmip-Jh611 of c.n.tmt," Pro4. E • •• Septftllkr
1955, _; reYllN '1 M. A. c ..
ttr nd J. J. Ukker, Jr., ..Detlp Oaau for
RadW RoDcr Followas," ASMB J'nuu., JO•l'lfal of Mttltortbl Dalp:--111 (3) Disk C - wta Rtttprendna Radlal RoUa Folowcn," ASMR 1'ra1u., Jo.,..
Jaly Im.) ' 11111 of Md1udail Dafi•, 101 (3), Jaly tm.J
 ,
[ )
r
!,
102 CAMS
DISK CAM Wnll RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 103 •
l
An expression for a may be determined from Eq. 3.12 for any type o(
motion. To solve for the mwmum pressure angle is often very difficult, however,
because of the resulting complex transcendental equation. For this reason, Kloomok
and Muffley use a nomogram developed by E. C. Varnum, which is given in Fig.
,
\

1·
3.31; IS and LIR0 are parameten as previously defined. From this chart, the
muimum value of pressure angle may be determined for the three types of
motion.
Points on the surface of the cam may also be detennined by using Fig. 3.30.
,
)

The coordinates of the point C are given by >

Xe= R cos 0
>
t (3.13) )
'•· Ye= R sin 0

.
:.i
.:

'
h
The coordinates of the point of contact (point A) are obtained from the x and y
projections of line segment CA and from the distances xe and Ye as follows :
,•
)
x,. = Xe + R, cos ('11' - 8 - a )
.t y,. = Ye - R, sin (-rr - 8 - a ) •
~
•
!
I
~-
)
)

•
l FIGUll 3.Je

angle OCA is dcootcd by a and the center of the cam by O. The cam is auumcd
Tobllcam~
/1, dee

I ,
)

I stationary, and the foUower center rotates clockwise from position C to C' through
a small angle 46. From the sketch,

C'E
a' =- tm-•--
CE
I )

,
)

.)
5 BS
A3 68 approaches :zeco, angles OCE aud ACC' approach 90". At the 5UllC time,
CD appr-oaches CF, which equals R '18, and both approach CE. Therefore, )
)
lim a' = tao-•.!. dR
...... Rd8 )
Because the sides of a and a' become mutually perpendicular when &18 approaches
1.ero, a' becomes equal to or. lbercfore,

a "' tan- •.!. dR = 1an-•r ~I'(6) 1 (3.U)

40 45 50

FIGURE 3.Jl Nomopaia Co detenmbae madmua pressve

~~~ ~~. ttisk ~ wil~. ndial rone.- roUowu. (Coarluy or
•,
+ f(O)
,•
Rd&

"'1:· . - -
a
~
J
't ""'-iJf'itl'P' - __ ,£._ :______:_£ -
..· - . ~
.~ ..-,.~ .
...1...
'"
--.........;
·- -- - --~ _____
........__

b .-·. DISK CAM wrm RADIAL ROUJ!R FOi.LOWER 105

);.' 104 CAMS

'-I
) - where R, is the radius of tho roller. Simplifying these expreaioaa llling trigon- 10
20 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
BASIC progr. . for c . . deelgn (l/21/IS) •••• •
30 - Diak c . . with radial roller follower
.._,. ometric identities leads to •o •
so •
--
cycloidal rl•• - !Nell - cycloidal return
.._... •• end ael abolta, •tb 114.
t, .&:A - ic - R. oos {8 + a) 60 • - rrogr. . 1 . .l•ed bY ate•• w..pler tS/21/ISl
70 · .........................1 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••
(3.14)
~ YA "'"Ye - R, sin (8 + a) 10 ~ •atala... plto~ ra41oa•,IO
ta niror •TOtal fallower cUaplao•eot•rL
100 ~ •Jlla• aagle <la degreH) • tDllG.IJ8B
)) lH IDOT •Incl of direll aagle Un 4agreu) • rD90.DnlLL
Exampk 3.5. A radial roller follower is to move through a tobl dispbcemcot of 0 .7S 120 JllPU'f •Angle lacr•ent Un 4agrees> •,o!G.DIC
).) in. with cycloidal motion wlule the cam rotates 4S-. The follower dwells for 30" and then
130
ua
Pt• 3.141St2,la'!WO.PI•2•PI1PRJK'!
PRilft' • nirur AllG DIBPL VKLOCITY loCCEL·r
returns with cycloidal motion in «I'. Fmd the value of R. to limit a._ to 30". 'The outward 150 ram • llADJU8 COJNATOU PRllBS ARC·
)0 motioo will govern becluse of its smaller ft HO PllIWT • ( TJlllTA> (8) (V) (Al •I
110 PRlft • (R) (180) (ALPBA> •
For p = 4S- and a_ = 30", 180 ••••• C-5 r1•e ••••
190 BftAl•Dal1.:U811-0
200 roa nnJPO 20 om.Bt8B BTBP om.IMC
L I
210 "'°L• ( (ftftA/BftAll -(1/ftlO,pl) •aIB (TllO.PI•ftBTAlllBTAl l l
R. = 0.26 .(from Fi1. 3.31)
220 ""'(L/BllTAU • (l-<:08 (ft0.H6ftft'AIBllTA1))
2l0 J,oo(('IWO.PI•L) /(ll&'tAl.2))•1JJB('IWO.PI•TBll'l'A/BllTAJ.)
. 2•0 coauB 420 •calcllll•t• a, 1180, ALPBA and print results
Therefore, 250 WDT TBftA
2•0 ••••• dwell ••••
210 roa nn....D.a.ata• ~ o.a.DWllLL llTD om. nc
0 0.75 88 . 210 . .L1,,..01A-O
•-. - 0.26 - 2. m. 2to GOll08 •20 'Calculate •• 11110, ALPllA and print reaults
300 ll1llT ftllTA
310 , .... c-6 retara ••••
U apace does not pcnnit IUCb a Yalac of R.. P can be iDc:nJ.-:d ad ~ am 111111 321 an.u...Jco-nm.•m.r.
330 l'OR 'ftlftA.-DIG.mtlLL 'l'O 3CO 8TEP DIO.JllC
faster to maintain the lift time at a constant value. 341 'l'l'!'.llft&-DllQ.IJlfSLL .
350 .,..L*((l-(T/8ftA2))+(1/TllO.Pil*8J1'('ftlO.PI6TIBll'fA2l)
360 V--.(tJBft'A2l*Cl-COS(TllO.PI~811TA2)t
The analytical calculation of cam-and-follower paramcterS using a band · 310 Ao--CTllO-rI•tJ81:'1'A2•2)*(BIB(TlfO.Pl*T/Bl:TA2))
calculator becomes tedious when more than a few cam angles must be considered. 310 GC8Ull 420 •calculate R, JIBO, ALPllA and print result•
3'0 Bl:IT ftl:TA
Fortunately, such repetitive calculations arc conveniently carried out on a digital HO lllD
computer. The example below shows a computer program developed for the case no •
420
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --- - -
•SQboatlae to ca1C1llate a, JIBO, ALPllA and prlnt reeults
of a disk cam and translating roller follower. This program was written io BASIC 430 . .lilO+. •
on an IBM personal romputer. Although this program is specifically written for. 4•0 ~~llOl?I1~A*<llO/PI)•2 'Convert 4!2reea to radian•
450 Rll()o(((R.2l+(VR.2)).(3/2))/((R.21+(2*(VR 2))-. .AR)
cycloidal rise. dwell, and cycloidal return. it would be an easy matter to generalize •lO ALPBJll-(110/PI)•ATll(VJI/_,
this to include other types of motion specifications or other follower .configura- 410 PalllT OSillO '• ··········,nBTA,s,V,A,R,JalO,ALPBA
410 JlftORll
tions.

Exampl~ 3.6. A radial rollu follower b to rile through a total clilpl....,... of ~.O .
mm with CS cycloidal motion while the cam rotates 180". The foDowcr dwdls for the
next 90" and then returns SO.O mm with C-6 cycloidal motion in 90" of cans rotation. The
minimum radius R1 of the pitch surface is 25.0 mm. Write a computer program to calculate
the displacement S, velocity Y, and acceleration A of the follower at eacb Ur' of cam
rotation. The program should also calculate: the radius of the pitth llUface R. ~ radius
of curvature (p), and pressure angle (Cl) at each 10" of am rotation.
Solation. The BASIC program shown in Fig. 3.32 was dc:\ldoped to d\OC dlil pnibkm. .
Running this program on an mM personal computer produced the output al. Table 3.1.
Note from the output that the muimom pressun: angle daring rise will bo 35.(19 at a cam
angle of 8 = 7CJ" and that the maximum prcssute angle during return will be S4.2" at II =- ·
320". These values an: too high for most appliatioos. 1bc designer may wilb to improve '
tbcac ~ aqlcl by ina'cuin1 the buc: cirdo radius. 0.- the pro~•m is written,
IUcb c:haqea require a minimum of eftort. Running the program Uling R • .. 50.0 mm
rc:siiltecfln muimum pn:ssme angles of 24.0" during me and 4t.6• during return. Also,
note that the pitch swface auYaturc p hu a minimum tabulated value of 14.l mm at 350"
of cam rotation. Since this ia a coocaYC portion of the cam surface, undercutting will not
occar lien: and so the limitin1 ya}uc: of pis actually 15.0 mm. In practice, a tab1e like
Table 3.1 ~d be de'f'dopcd ming input 808Jc: step of 1• or r rather than 10". This
1riJ1 ~ IDOl'C aa:wate atrcmc: values of pressure angle and cwvature.
· Another ..tvaotagc of using a computer is the ability to quickly gencnite plots of
sucb thinp as displ.::emcnta, vdoc:itic:s, acoelc:rations, and the cam pitch surface. For this
.eumple problem, a computa--gcncratc:d plot of the cam pitch surface is shown in Fig.
:3.33. Such graphical output is valuable because it provides quiet, easy-tu-inteqnt visual
fecdbac:t.
 ,
'
)
)
106 CAMS DISK CAM wrrn OSOu.ATING ROLLER FOU.OWER 107 )
. TABLE 3.1 Oulpul Geauated b7 die BASIC Propam o~ 11'ig. 3.32
}
I lll'UT AllC
ITllETAI
l>l&PL
(8)
VELOCln
(VI
ACC•L
CA)
llAl>lUS
(RI
cu1.v11ro•&
<•110)
Par:ss
(Ill.PIA)
'"'° )
0.00E•OO o.ooc+oo 0.00l:+OO 0 .008+00 l.50!+01 2.501+01 O.DDr.:+00
l .OOB+Ol s . na-02 l.U8-o2 l . )28-0l 2 . 5U+Gl 4.Ul+ol 2.ur:+oo 50
2.001+01 • .•oc-01 , . 50!:-02 '-2l1-0l 2 .54!+01 1.1 or.:+02 1.ll!+OO 40 )
J .001+01 1.Ul+OO l . lH-01 I . 4o•-Ol 2 . Ul+ll 2.17&+02 l.Ur:+Ol

,•
4.001+01 l .2711+00 2.1011-01 ' . 5511-0J 2.lll+Ol 1.171+02 2 .50!:+01 30 -
5 .001+01 ,.05!+00 l . 2'8-01 9.551-0l J . lU+ol 6.9U+ol 3.lOE+Dl
6.00B+Ol 9.lH+OO 4 . 178-01 1.401-0l l.Ul+ol 5. 401+01 l.t5£+01 20
7 . 008+01 1.431:+01 4.'1r.:-Ol ,.2111-01 J.'3£+01 •• 86!+01 J .56£+ol
1. oor;+o1 l.'51+01 5.UE-01 l . l211-0l 4.451+01 4 .'71'!+01 J.UE+Ol
9.00!+01 2 .501+01 5.55&-0l l.'51-09 5 .DOl+Ol 4 . 601+01 l.251+Dl
1.001+02
1.101+02
1.20!+02
l.lOB+02
l.05B+Ol
l.571+01
C.02£+01
•• 39£+01
5.198-01
4.'1£-01
4.1711:-0J.
l . 2'8-01
-l.l21-0l
-6.JlB-Ol
- 1.408-0l
-9.55!-0l
5.SSl+Dl
, . 521+01
,.898+01
4.581+01
6 . 071+01 . t.601uo1
4.66r;+Ol
4. 7'r.:+Ol
2.n1+01
2.4H+Ol
2.01£+01
1 . 521+01 -20
I
I
I •)
,•
1.401!+02 4.'7E+Dl 2.10£-01 -9.55!-0l 7 .171+01 5 .0111.+01 1.048+01 -30 I
l.50B+02 4 . IH+Dl l .Ur.:-01 -1 . UE-Ol 7 .lU+ol 5.35£+ol 6 . 11!+00
l .tiOr.:+02 4 .'61+01 6.5011:-02 _, _211-01 7 .4611:+01 s.es1+01 2 . an+oo -40
I
I
l. 70!+02 4.'9£+01 1.611-02 -l.121-0l 7.0i+ol ,,541+01 7,30-01
l 1.801+01 5.001+01 0.001+00 -2.tll-09 7.501+01 7.SOll+Ol D.001+00 -SO - /
I

~·
l.90B+02 5.00!+01 o. oouoo 0 . 00£+00 7.5011+01 7 .50s+Ol O.DOl+OD - 60
/
2.00!+02
2 .1or.:+02
5 . 00E+Ol
5.00B+Ol
o.oouoo
0.001+00
o.oor:+oo
O.OOB+GO
7.501+01
7 .50B+ol
7 .501+01
7 .5011+Dl
0.001+00
O.OO!+DO -70
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nGURE 3.33 Caa piCm ArflM:e cuentel
, •IBM lostnamaals XYn<fJ D;ptal Plotticr.
millimeters
.ms M DIM Penoul Co.....s aod • )
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••
)

I. 3.11 DISK CAM WD1I OSCILLATING ROLLER ).

FOLLOWER (ANALYl1CAL DESIGN)
lo Fig. 3.34 is seen the start of a layout of a disk cam with an oscillating roUer
>
)
+
follower. The displacement angle is a function of the cam angle 9. Although
the cam rotates through the angle 9 for the displac:cmcnl angle+. the radius R
rotates through the angle 41>. By specifying values of R and 4fi, it is possible lo
generate the cam.
From Fig. 3.34, it can be seen that
,,
)

4>=0->.
where
(3.15)

)
•
~=p-r (3.16)
•)
Angle pis a constant for the system, and its equation can be derived Crom triangle FIGURE 3.34
,,
~- - ·~

c :J. }
' . ,r' ;-
} ,:.AA.,
J
....
~
.. ,.
...%. · - -
. -'--- - -- -- - - -- ~-
-· - ~

) DISlt CAM wrnt osau.ATINO ROLLER FOU..OWER 109

108 CAMS

L O.AO' as
);.-
S1 + RI - 11
(3.17)
lt cos p = 2SR,

~ where S, Ra, and I are fixed dimensions.

l_; Angler is a function of R; Its equation can be derived from triangle OBO'
as
L
)_, si + Ri - p
cos r = 2SR . (3.11) b

)..-
,.,, An equation for R can also be written from triangle 080' as follows: ...______ ___ l
·.la
)-- R = /2 + S1 - 2/S cos ("1 + I)
1 (3.19) H-- - - + . - - - -+1

v Angle :tis a constant determined from triangle OAO' as

y
y (3.21)

)" and angle iii is the displacement angle fur a particular cam angle 8. Tbcrefote, written for the center of the roller A . One is writtc? by following the. path 0 to
)'' from the pr~~ding equations, the values of R and 4> can be calculated for given D to A, and the other by going from O to B to 0 to A. The equation for the
values of cam angle 8 and their corresponding angles of displacement +. first path ( 0-D- A) is given by
r ln designing this type of cam, it is ncccssaxy to check for undercutting aod
for the maximum pressure angle. Equations for the radius of curvature and the R = re" + pc"
)• (J.lJ)
prcs.'lurc angle can best be developed by using complex variables. Figure 3.35 = r(cos & + i sin&) + p(cos 'Y + i sin 'Y)
'( shows the sketch of a dislc ·cam and oscillating roller follower with the radius of
,J curvature of the pitch surface designated as p and the prcs.'lurc angle as a. Point The equation for the scco~d path (O-:B- 0'-A) is given by
) 0 is the center of the cam, point D the center of curvature, and point O' the
"-.J
center of oscillation of the follower. The angular displacement of the follower R = a+ bi+ le
)
from the horizontal is u , which is given by the equation
\._..
- a ~ bi + I(cos a + i sin a) (3.24)
)
' -' a = u0 + J(O) (3.21)
By separating real and imaginary parts of Eqs. 3.23 and 3.24, it folloW3 that
1 where/ (8) is the desired angul~ displacement of the follower from the reference . r cos & + p cos 'Y = a + I cos a (3.25)
!; angle a 0 (not shown). From Fig. 3.35, the prcMure angle a is given by
+ (3.26)
1 r sin & p sin -y = b + I sin a
),, By differentiating Eqs. 3.25 and 3.26 with respect to 8,
)t Substituting Eq. 3.21 for a, d& d.., . da
_ r sin g di - p sin 'Y de - - I am a d&
);
a "" [ao + /(8)) - :!! - .., (3.%2)
)' 2 d8 d'Y da
roos& - + pcos'Y- = I cos ad&
d6 d&
)' To obtain an expression for angle -y, two independent position equations arc

)
y
 ---- - · ·-
,
l
\
110 CAMS

For an infinitesimal rotation of the cam, p may be considered to remain constant.

COl'ITOUR CAMS ill
where R. is the vector locating the contact point and R, is the radius of the roller
••
Thus, point D, the center of curvature of the cam at the point of contact, and r follower. )
may be regl\rded as fixed to the cam for an incremental rotation d9. Therefore,
the magnitude of d3 is equal to d8; and since 5 decreases as 9 increases, it follows l
thal d5/d8 = - 1. Also, dCJld6 = /'(8). Therefore, 3.U CONTOUR CAMS )
The application of this type of cam is primarily in the design of computer and
)
r sin a- p sin "'f d-y ~ - /f'(O) sin u (3.21) mechanical control systems. A sketch is shown in Fig. 3.36. With this type of
do cam, the members roll upon each other without sliding; this facilitates the .d esign
.
- r cos a+ d"'f
p oos l - - /f'(8) cos u (3.21)
for two reasons: (a) the contact point P will always lie on the line of centers,
and ( b) both surfaces will roll on each other through the same distance. By ma king
•)
de use of these factors, equations for the distance from the cam centers to the contact
)
point can easily be derived.
By eliminating d-yld9 from Eqs. 3.27 and 3.28, In Fig. 3.36, R2 and R 1 are the instantaneous distances from the cam centers

+ If'(&) sin a
to the point of contact and C is the fixed distance between centers. If cam 2 •
'•
r sin 5 rotates through a small angle d&z and cam 3 through dOJ, the point of contact on
tan -y =
r cos 5 + If'(&) cos u cam 2 will move through R 1 d82 , and that on cam 3 will move through R, d&,.
For pure rolling,
The terms r cos 5 and r sin 5 can be evaluated from Eqs. 3.25 aod 3.26 to give
•
tan -y =
b + I sin u[l + f'(O))
----~-"--''-'--'
a + l cos a(l + /'(8))
(3.29)
Also, •
•
which, when substituted in Eq. 3.22, will give the pressure angle a. To find a_,
it will be ncc.essary to work out design charts similar to those given by K.Joomok •
and MufOey.
To find the radius of curvature p, it is necessary to first differentiate Eq.
Therefore,
•
3.29 with respect to 9. Substituting d-yld6 from Eq. 3.28 and with the aid of F.qs.
3.21 , 3.25, and 3.29, the following equation for pis obtained: (3.32) •
_
P - (C2 +
(C + D 2 ))11
D )[1 + /'(8)] - (aC + bC)/'(8) + (a sin a - b cos a)lr(e)
2
J '
)
(3.30)
)

I
where
C = a + l cos a(l + f'(O))
= b + I sin o[l + f'(8)]
•
D
•
I To avoid undercutting, p must be greater than tbe radius of the roller.
•
·merefore, it must be possible to determine p..., for each portion of the cam
profile. In order to do this, it will be necessary to work out design ehartg similar
lo those given by Kloomok and Muffley.
•>
Once the 1adius of cu1v1tt111e hu bceu found, poinu on the surf•ce of the
cam a1c ea:;ily determined from Fig. 3.35: )
FIGURE J.3'
R. == rt!' + (p - R,)e'°' (3.31)
'
- ~-- -

'
)
_)
 f
) .--·. :~
... . . : ....'t-:~~
-

- - - --~~---- -· - -- . - ·- --·-- --·- - -- - - -- - -- -·- ·- --

)---
)
112 CAMS CONTOUR CAMS 113
)- and and
)-
c
y R, • 1 + (d8,ld8J (.UJ) d&a - 2.3036a
de,
J' These c~mu can be used to generate several types of functions, three of which Therefore,
>'-" arc described below. ·
..._,/
c
) Ri = - - --
\.....' 1. Squar~ Function. Tu generate the square function, 1 + 2.303&i
t e, = k6J and
L de, = 2k&i R, = 2.3030Ji
l, d&, 1 + 2.3036i
u and From these equations, the cam contours may be determined that will gen·
L crate the given logarithm. Operation in reverse will give antilogs.
)_,, de,= _1_ 3. Trigonometric Function. To illustrate the generation of a trigonometric tune·
dO, 2k9i tion, consider
)..;
).; Thcccforc,

),;
R2 = 2kC8,
} 1 + 2k8,
and and
}I
)-' de, 1
R, ""
c
---
- = - - = cos2Bi
d&, ·sec2 82
)" 1 + 2k8z

r From the equations for R1 and R,, the cam contoun may be detcnnincd
Therefore,

)' that wiU generate the given square function . If the cams are operated in
reverse, square roots are obtained.
r
.,r
f 2. Logarithmic Function. To generate the logarithm,

e, = log10 81
1
and

. R = ---"--
. '
C cos1 8,
l+oos26i
\.:/ e, =- 2.303 In 62
~ de, _ 1
If one refcn to the equations for R 1 and R1 developed for the three functions,
) it is evident that in (1), R1 - 0 when 8, • 0 and in (2), R, "' 0 when Bi "" 0.
_, d&i 2.303Bi In (3), R1 - Owhen 8, a 909. When one of the radii goes to zero, 11n impractical
!,
!
},
~
114 (· CAMS rnREE-DlMENSIONAL CAMS 115

design results. With the functions illustrat~. the fact that the scale of '1 cannot
start at zero io the fiist two cases nor extend to 90° iD the.third case will probably
not limit the generation of these functions. There are cases, however, whcxe such
limitations would prove a disadvantage and a means must be found for eliminating
this problem when necessary. Another problem that sometimes arises when de-
signing contour cams is that with certain functions th~ value of dOJ/d&z may
become equal to -1, which makes the radii R2 and RJ infinite. Either of these
problems must be avoided if it occurs in the working range of the [unction. This
,'.. I}~ ••
can be accomplished by offsetting the function by a constant which can later be
subl ractcd by a dirrercntial. As an example, consider the function FIGURE 3.37 Noedradar ,_.. (Sample sun co~
tuy or Cunulacluun Corpor•lloa.)

3.13 TllKEE-DIMENSIONAL CAMS

and
A sketch of a three-dimensional cam is shown in Fig. 3.38, where the displacement
d& . z of the follower is a function of both the rotation y and lhe translation .x of the
_ J = 2 sin 82 cos 8z cam.
d&i
A three-Oimensional cam can easily be designed to solve the equation Q =
Therefore, 0.05av'ii, which expresses the Dow through an orifice (ft1 /s) in terms of orifice
area a (in.2) and pressure head h (ft).
Table 3.2 has been developed to give a range of values for the parameters
from which the cam can be designed.
Figure 3.39 shows the orientation of the values of the parame ter a around
the circumference of the cam with the value of a = 1.0 in. 2 taken at the top of
and
the cam. Figure 3.40 shows a vertical axial section through the cam which extends
through a = 1.0 in.2 to a = 1.30 in.2 • Figures 3.41 and 3.42 show transverse
sections through the cam at It = 25 ft and h = 49 ft, respectively. The axial
section shows Q as a function of h and the transverse sections show Q as a
When Di equals zero, R2 = O; when 8z equals 135°, dOid02 = - 1. To avoid
these conditions, the function may be offset by a constant k&i such that

O) = sin2 02 + kGi
and

dO) 2 . 8 k
dOi = sm 2 cos Dz +

After generation of the new function, k82 would be subtracted to give the original
function 03 = sin2 IJi.
If large torquC$ arc to be transmitted, the cams can be replaced by geaIS
having pitch 1mdaccs identical to the cam contours. This 5ubstitution is ~ible
because of the pure rolling action of the cama. Such ge815 arc known as '°"'°"'
gear.s, or noncircular gears. A photograph or a pair or noncircular gears is shown t'IGURE 3.38
in Fig. 3.37.
•
) . :!;;rtsRg· - -·- ____:___ ...;;._ ........ - ·- - - . ·- - -- !."">c9rs .. -- ----- - -- -
y - ~-- ·
. •

CAMS o(ln.21
)" 116 1.0
__ _TABLE 3.2 Flow Q (ft>/1)
t' .......
1.0!1

It,
ft .... 1.15 1.11 l.15 1.JO J.25 I.le 1.35 1M us 1.59

I o.os O.Mll O.OS5 o.ons 0.0(JO 0.062S 0.065 0.0675 0.010 0.072$ 0.075
4 0 .10 O.IOS 0.110 o.tlS 0.120 0.125 0.130 0.135 0.140 0. 14.5 O.ISO
9 0.15 0.158 0.165 0. 173 0.180 0. 188 0.195 0.203 0.210 0.211 o.m
UI 0.20 0.210 0.220 0.2JO 0.240 0.lSO 0.260 0.210 0.280 0.290 0.300
25 0.25 0.263 0.275 0 .288 0.300 O.Jll 0.325 0.333 0.350 0.363 o.m
36 0.30 0.315 0.330 0.345 0.360 0.375 0.390 O..COS 0.420 0.435 G.450
49 0.35 0.368 0.38S 0.403 0.420 0.438 0.4SS 0.473 0.490 0.508 OSlS

• (In. 2)
1.0

1.50 1.10

J .45
+ 1.15
PIGURlt 3.Al

1.20 e<ln.21
1.0
l'IGUU 33' 1.30

• - 1.00 lft.2

0 .6

0.4

t
~
0 .2

4:! A C11t
ci 16 25 36 49
0 .2
~
0 .4

0 .6

I.JO " - 49 (ft)

• - 1.30 i.._2
llGURE 3.A2
ftGURB 3.AO
• •.1 117
 ,
)

118 CAMS CAM Pl{QOUCllON ME1110DS 119

,
)

•
function of a. lbe design of the cam can be COQipleted by generating additiooaJ
axial and transverse sections.
llle production of a three-dimensional cam is very difficult because of the
Io the preceding discussions, it was assumed that the cam being generated
was the cam to be used i.n the final application. Where several machines of the
same model are being produced and many copies of a cam are needed, it is
•
,'
accuracy and hand finishing required. After the displacements of the follower generally more practical to generate what is known as a master cam and to use
have beeo specified for the desired increments of rotation and translation of the this muter with a cam duplicating machine. The master cam is often made several )
cam, a casting is made approximating the desired shape. Using a cutting tool the times the actual size.
same size and shape as the follower, the cam blank is set up in a cam miller, and
a cut is made at each data point. By proper rotation and translation of the cam
and by bringing the cutting tool down the correct displacement for each data
t
point, the culler will simulate the follower in its relation with the cam. In this Problems
manner, an acc:urate point wiU be spotted on the cam contour. According to
Rothbart, as many as 15,000 points are sometimes required with accuracy of
3.1. A di5k cam rotating clockwise drive& a radial Oat-faa:d follower through a total
displM:cmcat of 11 in. with the following lift figures:
•
±0.0004 in. After the data points have been sponed, the cam is next finished by
hand filing, followed by polishing with emery paper. CAM ANGLE, deg
0
LIFT, in.
0.00
•
30 0.10 •>
3.14 CAM PRODUCTION METIIODS
The graphical method of cam design is limited to slow-speed applications. The
production of this type of cam depends upon the accuracy of the design layout
(J()
90
120
150
0.37
0.75
1.13
1.40
,
and upon the method used in following this layout as a template. At one extreme,
the layout of the cam is scribed on a steel plate and the cam cut out with a band
180 I.SO t
210
•
1.40
saw. At the other extreme is production by a milling cutter whose motion is 240 1.13
guided by a tracer moving over the cam outline on a copy of the layout drawing. Z10 0.75 ~
The drawing over which this tracer moves may be made several times the actual 300 0.37

•'
size to improve the accuracy of copying. In either of these cases, the cam profile l30 0.10
must be finished by band. 360 0.00
Graphical design and the l"C$ulting copying method of production arc not
sufficiently accurate for high-speed cams. For this reason, anention bu turned Lay out the cam using a minimum radius of 1 in. Detcnuine the length of the follower
bee (symmetrical). After the length bas bcco found by trial, add l in. lo each end to )
to analytical cam design and the method it offers for cam generation. H it is
possible to calculate the follower displacements for small increments .o( cam
rotation , the cam profile can be generated on a milling machine or on a jig borer
positively ensure proper contact.
-3.2. A disk cam rotati"' counterclockwise driva a radial roller follower through a total
displace~t of U in . Lay out the cam U5ing the lift figures from Problem 3. 1 and a
•
with the cutter assuming the role of the follower. If the follower is to be a roller,
the axis of the cutter will be perpendicular to the plane of the cam with the cutter
minimum radius of l in. The roller diameter is to be l in. By trial dctem1ine the magnitude
and position o( the maximum pressure angle.
•
)
the same si1.e as the roller. If a flat-faced follower is to be used, the Dis of the
cutter will be parallel to the plane of the cam. In either case, the cutler can be
given the correct position corresponding to the cam rotation angle. Naturally.
the smaller the increments of the cam angle, the better the cam finish will be.
3.J. A dist cam mlaling clockwise drive$ an offset flat-faced follower tluougb a lotal
displaa:meot of U in. Lay out the cam wing the lift figures from Problem 3.1 . The
centerline of the follower is offset i in. to the left of and parallel to the vertical ccote1linc
of the cam. The minimum radius of the cam is to be 1 in. Determine the length o( the
••
Generally, increments of 1° arc used, which leave tiny scallops or Oats on the follower (ace (symmetrical). After the length hu been found by trial, add l in. to cad1
cam that must be removed by hand. Automatic numerically controlled cam milling end to positively eosure proper contact. t
machines have been developed which index the cam a fraction of a degree, with
the cutter advancing by tenths of thousandths of an inch. Although the machine
operates in discrete steps, the steps are so minute as to give the appearance or
3.• . A dist cam rotating counten:lockwise drives ao offset roller follower through a total
displacement of ll in. Lay out the cam using the lift figures in Problem 3.1. Tiie c:coterlioc
of the follower is ollsel I in. to the right of and parallel to the venical ccntertine of Che
•
)
continual operation . It is hoped that the cam surface finish produced by a machine cam. lbe minimum radius of the cam is to be 1 in. and the roller diameler l in. By trial
of this kind will be of such quality as to allow elimination of the band-finishing
operation. This type of machine will also produce a cam much more rapidly than
determine the maximum pressure angle duri11& the outward motion and during the return
motion.
3.5. A disk cam rotating clockwise drivu an oscillating Oat-faced follower through a total
,•
,•
a jig borer when both machines are using the same inaements of cam angle.

.:
.)
 ,
-
~.
~~.
·- ~ · ~: .
-·- --- .. ----~--------- - --
· · - - -~
·..:.. ,..- ~-~ i-
)->' CAM PRODUcnON Ml\nlODS Ul
) 120 CAMS
3.9. An mdllating roller follower moving through a tolnl angle of «r 1hives nn lnvcm'
,- angle of 20- with the following displaoement figures: cam as shown in Fig. 3.9, with the following displacement figures:

rv CAM ANOl.B, des

0
FOLl.OWRR ANOl .n, des
0.0
l'Ot.LOWnR ANOLB,
0.0
dc1 CAM OtSPt.ACl'.MENT, In.
0.00
) ·. 30 LS 4.5 0.06
v 60 5.5 16.0 0.24
). 90 10.0 30.0 0.50
v 120 14.5 44.0 0.76
l 150
180
18.5
20.0
55.5
60.0
0.94
1.00
ti 210
240
18.5
14.5 Lay out the groove in the cam bloclc if the cam is to move upward anJ to the right at an
l Z10 10.0 angle of 4S- as the follower ~ a>untcrdockwise. The follower moves symmetrically
}., 300 5.5 about the vcrtical centerline. 'The distance from the center of the roller follower to the
330 1.5 center of oscillation is 3 in., arid the diameter of the roller is I in . The cam block i~ 3 x
\_, 360 0.0 4 in.
3.10. Prove that the method for finding inflection points when the lime inrern\s arc
).J Lay out the cam using a minimum radius of 30 mm. The center of the·bub of the follower · known as shown in Fig. 3. 10 is rom:ct.
is to be 80 mm to the right of the center and on the horimntal centerline of the cam
):1 3.11. Prove that the method for finding inOcdlon points when lbe displaocn1ent int erval ~
similu to Fig. 3.5. The distanc:lC from the center of the follower bub to the uc of the
displacement scale is to be 70 mm. Determine the length of the follower face. After the
are known u shown in f1g. 3.11 is correct.
)> length bas been found by trial, add 3 mm to each end to positi'Vdy ensure propel' contact. 3.U. Provo that the method of oonstn>ction for parabolic motion shown in Fig. 3.12 is
Assuming a bore of 16 mm. a bub of 25 mm, and a 5 mm key, draw in the n::st of the c:onect.
)> 3.13. Draw the displacement-time graph for a follower that rises through a total. dis-
follower to reasonable proportions.
y 3.6. A dislc, cam rotating counterdoc~ drives an oscillating roller follower through a placement of 11 in. with constant ac:celcntion for a three-sixteenth revolution, constant
Ydoc:i.ty for a quarter reYOlution, and constant dccclcration for a quarter revolution of
total angle of 209. Lay out the cam U5ing the displacement figures from Problem 3.5 and
)' a minimum radius of 1 in. 'The center of the hub of the follower is to be 3 in. to tbe right the cam.. After dwelling for a sixteenth revolution, the follower returns with simple har·
of the center and on the horizontal centerline of the cam similar to Fig. 3.6. The dillJrieccr 1POnic motion in a quarter revolution of the cam. Use an abscissa 4 in. long.
}' of the roller is to be l in. and the distance from the center of the hub to tbc CICllter of the 3.14. Dlllw the displacement-time graph for a follower that rises 19 mm with simple
roller ii to be 2J in. Using a bme of I in., a hub of 1 in., and a A x A in. key, draw in bannonlc motion in a quancr revolution, dwells for an eighth revolution, and then rises
y the ~t of the follower to rusonablc proportions. 19 mm With simple bumonic motion in 1 quarter revolution of the cam. The follower
)" 3.7. A positive return cam rotating cloc:twisc drives a Dat-faa:d yoke as shown in Fi1. dwcOs for. smeenlb revolution and then mums 38 mm with parabotic motion in a quarter
3.7. The lift figures ror the outward motion arc as follows: revolution, followed by 1 dwell for a sixteenth revolution of the cam. Use an abscissa 160
'y mmlon1.
CAM ANGLE, de1 LIFT. mm 3.15. Draw the displacement- time pph for a follower that rises ti in. in a half revolution
)' 0 0.00 of the cam such that the first i in. is constant acceleration, constant velocity for the next
fin., and constant dcttlcration for the remaining I in. Th"' rr.tum motion i~ ~implc hnrmonlc
'v1. 30
60
90
1.27
4.32
9.65
in a half revolution of the cam. Use an abscissa 6 in. l•ltlg.
3.H. Draw the displacement-lime graph for a follower that moves through a total dis·
l; 120 17.0 placancnt of 32 mm with constant 11CCe!cration for 90" and constant dea:lcration for 45'"
150 23.4 of cam rotation. The follower returns 16 mm with simple harmonic motion in 90", dwells
!, 180 25.4 for 45'", and returns the remaining 16 mm with simple harmonic motion in 90" of cam
),; Lay out the cam using a minimnm radius of 25 mm. Using reasonable propocdons, mmplete
rotation. Use an abscissa 160 mm long.
3.17. 'The radial Oat.faced follower shown in Fig. 3.43 i.s made to reciprocate by the action
Ji the sketch of the follower.
3.8. A pmitive-rchlm cam rotating c:ountcrdocbrtise drives a yoke with roller ~n.
of a ciradar disk cam rotating about the axis at Oi- (a) Derive aprcssions for the follower
displaa:ment R and for the distaoce I to the point of contact in terms of the cam angle 8,
1' Lay out the cam using the lift figmes from Problem 3.7 for the oatWant matiob and a
minimum radius of 25 mm. The diameters of the rollers an: to be 19 mm. Using n:uonable
the ndius r of the cam. and the offset distance h. (b) Make a sketch of the d~acancnt
R versus cam angle 8 for one cycle of the cam. Label the lift L of the follower as the
~ proportions, mmplete the yoke that curies the roller followeJt.
)
1
)1
 )
)

J22 CAMS CAM PRODUCTION METIIOOS

3.21. A follower is to have cyclical motion according to the displacement curve 'howu
J23
,•
•,
In Fig. J .44. TI1e displacement and velocity requirements arc as follows:

PO INT A
S=L
v ~ 0
POINT 8
S= O
V=O
POIITT C
S = L
V=O ,
Recommend the cwvc:s to be used for the displacement graph and the relatio n between ~
~. and ~ to match acc:elerations at point H and at points A and C.
3.U. A follower dwells and then passes through the motion cycle &hown in Fig. J.45 and
dwells again. The motion requirements are as follows: '•,
,
•
distanc:e from the followci-'s lowest position to ita hi&best position. Give the magnitude
Recommend the curves to be used for the displacement graph and the relation between
p, and P1 to match aa:elerations at point B.
3.23. A follower dwelh, rise& with acceleration , rises with a>nstartt velocity, rues with
•,
dccdcration , and then dwells again as shown iu Fig. 3.~. The motion requirements ate

•
or L . (c) Name the type of follower motion produced by the cam.
3.18. A radial follower is actuated by a cam rotating at 1 nid/s. The follower starts from u CoUows:
rest and moves through a di5tance Of SO mm with simple bannonic motion while the cam
. POINT A
)
turns 120". The follower dwells for the DQt 120" and then returns with simple harmonic POINr B POINT C POINT D
motioo dwiog the remaining 120" of CIUll rotation. Using an abscissa of 150 mm and
inaesuents of cam angle of 311', plot the displacement , vdocity, accdctatioo, and jert
curves on the same axis.
S=O
V =O
A =0
S .. L,
v = v,
A = 0
S = L 1 + L,
V= V,
A = 0
S = L, + L,+ L,
V =O
A =0
,
r
3.D. From the relation for simple humonic motion. derive the equation for displacement
S for motion classificatjoo H·S of Fig. 3. 16.
3.20. Derive cqualiom which will allow the Kloomok and Mufftey equation& to be used
to determine follower velocities and aa:derations when the angular velocity of the cam
Rccornmend the curves to be used for the displacement gyaph and the relation between
p,. ~. and p, to match velocities at points B and C.
3.24. For the motion given in Fig. 3.18a of Example 3. 1. let p, denote the angle for curve
,)

is not a>nstaot. AB, ~ the angle for BC, rJ, the angle for CD, and 13. the angle Cor D E. Also Jct L, be
the rise AB. L, the rise BC, L, the rise CD, and L. the fall DE. Determine the relation
between p, and P. to match accele1ations at point D.
•)
s )
s
)
.}
B

·1
L
,
)

~--'---..,.,~-----_J·
.I. •
i ,
~

" )
~---- ~ -
)
)
,
)
C.AM PRODUCTION MET ll011S )25
) = 124 CAMS

) s (C-3) and then moves the remaining 2!5 mm with harmonic motion (H-4) in 'fT/4 rad . (a)
Find the intervals or cam rotation for the cycloidal motions and the dwell by matching
) velocities and accelerations. (b) Determine lbe equarion for Sas a function of 6 for each
type of motion. These equations should be written so lhal lhe displacement measured
) from the zero posirion can be calculated for any cam angle by use of the proper equation.
J.36. In the displacement diagJ"Bm of Fig. 3.47, it is desired to achieve the full lift of I .~
) in. of a radial Oat-faced follower by matching lhe cycloidal curve C-1 with the harmonic
curve 1/-2. (a) Using the data given in the diagram, determine the angle p, for lhc hnrmonic
) event so that both velocity and acceleration of the follower will be matched al B where
) the two events arc joined. (b) Determine the maximum theoretical length of follower face
needed for the two events shown .
) FIGURE J.46 3.37. A disk cam drives a radial fl31-foced follower with simple harmonic motion . TI1c
follower moves out and back in one revolution of rhc cam. If the lotal displacemenl is 50
) mm and the minimum radius 25 mm, determine the pil1'amelric (.t and y) equations of the
cam contour. Eliminate the parameter lo o btain the equation of the rurv~ . which is th~
) J.25. Determine (a) the relation helween rhe cam angles p,. ~ and the lifts L1 , I,, 10 cam amlour. Delem1ine the theoretical length of the followl"r fore .
match a cycloidal curve C-1 with a oonstant velocity curve , and (b) the relation to match 3.38. A Oat-faced radial follower is driven through 11 lolel displncemcnl of I 6 in . 111c
) a constant velocicy curve with curve C-4. follo wer moves upwards 0.40 in. with constant accclerolion for 6IJ', 0.80 in . with constnnl
) J.26. Set up rhe equations for relating the lif<s L., L, and cam angles p., p, for transferring velocity for 61J', and the remaining 0.40 in. with constant deceleration for another 6IJ' of
from (a) cycloidal lo harmonic motion, (b) cycloidal to constant velocity, (c) harmonic to cam rotation. The follower dwells for 45" and returns with simple harmonic motion as the
) cycloidal, and (d) harmonic to constant velocity. Transfer motions only when acceleration cam rompletes its revolution.
equals zero. For each type of motion, write an equation expressing displacement Sas a function
) J.17. Determine (a) the relation between cam angles p., p, and lifts L., Li to match a of cam angle 9. These cquatiom should be written so that the displacement, measured
cycloidal curve C-1 with a harmonic curve H-2, and (b) the relation to match curve H-3 from the r.ero position, can be calculated for any cam angle by the use of lhe proper
) with curve C-4. · equation. Calculate the minimum radius C and the maximum length of contact I... for
3.18. Determine (a) the relation between cam angles p., P, and lifts L., Li to match a each type of motion . Specify the minimum radius of the cam and the length of the follower
)
harmonic curve 11-1 wirh a cycloidal curve C-2, and (b) the relation to match curve C-3 face.
) with curve 11-4. J.39. A flat- fa~ radial follower is driven through a total displacement of 38 mm. The
J.29. Detennine (u) the relation between cam angles p,, p, and lifts L,, Li to match a follower moves upwards 25 mm with constant acceleration for 120" and the remaining 13
) harmonic curve ll-1 with a constant-velocity curve, and (b) the relation to match a coostant-
vclocity curve with curve H-4.
.. mm with constant deceleration for 6IJ' of cam rotation. The follower returns with simple
harmonic motion in 90" and dwells for the remainder of the revolution of lhe cam . Complete
) the solution as outlined in Problem 3.38.
3.30. A follower is to have a period of constant-velocity motion during its outward travel
) and again on its return. Is it possible to use harmonic curves with these constant-velocity J.40. In the sketch shown ·in Fig. 3.48, the disk cam is used to position the radial Oat·
c urves and not have jerk become infinite? If so, recommend the curves to be used and faced follower in a computing mechanism. The cam profile is lo be desir;neJ lo give a
) sketch lhe displacement graph showing the motions.
J.31. Determine (a) the relation between cam angles p,, p, and lifts L., L 1 to match a
harmonic curve 11-5 with an eighth-power polynomial curve P-2, and (b) the relation 10
mat!=h a harmonic curve H-2 to an eighlh·power polynomial curve P-2. s
)
J.32. Select a oombination or cycloidal motion, hannonic, and eighth-power polynomial
) that will not produce infinite jerk.
J.JJ. Determine (a) the relation between cam angles p,, ~and lifts L., Li to match an l .Oln.
) eighth-power polynomial curve P-1 with a harmonic curve ff.(,, and (b) the relation to
match an eighth-power polynomial curve P-1 with a harmonic curve H-3. ·
)
J.34. Select a combination of harmonic motion and eighth-power polynomial that will
I not produce infinite jerk.
J.35. A follower moves with harmonic motion (/1-1) a distance or 2!5 mm in 'IT/4 rad of
) cam rotation. The follower then moves 2!5 mm more with cycloidal motion (C-2) to "' .. 45• /J1
complete its displacement. The follower dwells and returns 25 mm with cycloidal motion l'lGURE J.47
)

>
)
)
\.
 )

126 . CAMS CAM PROOUCOON MEll!ODS 127 ,

)

3.'1. By use of Eq. 3.12 and the appropriate expressions for Rand dR/da, develop the
•
,•
equation for a for cycloidal motion. Using the data from Example 3.5. calculare the
pressure angle u when 8 ~ 22.s•.
3.48. A radial roller follower is lo move through a total displacement of L = 16 mm
wilh cycloidal motion while tbe cam rotates p = 30". A$$uming R, = 38 mm, determine
a_. If a_ is loo large and i{ space requirements dic tale that R 1 cannol be increased ,
malr.e other recommendations to limit a_ to 30".
+ •
fdlawer 3.49. Using the displaocmenl figures of Problem 3.S, calculate the values of R and fo r
a disk ca1u with oscillating rollu follower. The cam is lo rolate counterclockwise and has
a minimum radius of 1 in. Tue diameter of the roller is to be tin., and the distanee fro m
•t.
the ocoter of the hub of the follower to the center of the roller is 2l in. The center of the
hub is 3 in. to the right of the center of the cam. Let the z.ero position of the follower fall
on the vertical centerline of the cam. Lay out the cam full size from the calculated values •
•'t
of R and +. and checl: it graphically.
Disll cam +
3.SO. In the preceding problem (3.49), = 0.174(1 - cos 8) rad approximately. Using
Stmtinc position this relation, calculate the pressure angle at position 3.
FIGURE 3.48 3.SL Using the relation for+ as a function o( 8 u given in Problem 3.50 and data fi om
Problem 3.49, calc:uJate the pr~ure angle for position 0 and check graphically.
+
3.52. Using tbe relation for as a function of 8 from Problem 3.50 and data horn Problem
,
follower displacement S for a counterclockwise cam rotation e according to the function
S = k&1 starting from dwdl. For fn" cam rotation from the starting position, the lift of the
follower is 10 mm. By analytical methods, determine the distancies R and l when the cam
bas been turned 45" from the starting position. Abo calculate whether cusps in the cam
3.49, calculate the radius of curvature for position 2.

,,•
profile would occur in the total cam rotation of 611'.
3.41. A ndial roller follower is driven through a total displacewent of 2S mm with simple
hannonic motion in a half revolution of the cam. The return motion is the same in a ball
revolution of the cam. Using a minimum radius R, of the pitch swfaoc of 38 mm and a
,
toiler diameter of 19 mm, calculate a set of lift figures for the a::nter of the follower for
•
,•
lS- inaements of cam angle and lay out the cam full siu:. Calculate pressure angles to
determine contact points.
3.42. A radial roller follower moves through a total displaa::ment of 50 mm with cycloidal
motion in 13S9 of cam rotation. The follower dwells for the nCJlt 90" and then returns 50
mm with cycloidal motion in 135" of ca10 rotation. Using a minimum radius R. or the ~
pitch surface of 2S mm, calculate with a computer the displacement, velocity, aa:eleratioo,
and pressure angle for the follower for each 1cr rotation of tbe cam.
3.43. A radial roller follower is to move through a total displacement of L = 0.7S in. •
)
with harmonic motion while the cam rotates P =· 30". Oicck the cam for pointing if the
radius R, of the roller is 0 .25 in. and the minimum radius R, of the pitch surface is 1.875
in.
3.44. A radial roller follower is to move through a total displacement of L - 6.S mm
•
._

t
with bumonic motion while the cam rotates Ii = <45°. The radius R, of tho roller is 6.5
mo1. Determine the limiting R, thRt will give a pointed cam profile during this event.
•
3.45. A ndial roller follower moves through a total displacemenl of/. = 0.75 in. wilh
cycloidal motion while the cam rotates p - 311". Determine the f'adius of cu1Vature p of
the pitcl1 •u1lan: when 0 - ts•. 'Ilic 1atliu~ R. ol the mllcr is 0. 2~ in . anti R, is l .87S in .
•
>
)."6. A radial roller followet ~ to move throuah a tolal dupl1ocmcnl or L "' l'J mm
wilh harmonic molion while the cam rotates ll ~ 30". Pind the value or R, to limit a_
lu JO".
>
)

-~
.,.
. ,t.
)
,
)
 J
lf.·~-.- -
)
INTRODUCTION TO INVOLllfE SPUR GEARS 129
)
)
Chapter Four
\
)
) Spur Gears
) '
)
)
)
)
\
)
· FIGURE 4.1 Spurcears.(Co.rtesyofPhDadefphlaGearWorb.)
) 4.1 INfRODUCTION TO INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
) In considering two curved surfaces in direct contact, it bas been shown that the
angular-velocity ratio is inversely proportional to the segments into which the
) line of cenlers is cut by lhe line of action or common nonnal to the two surfaces
) in contnct. If the line of action always intersects the line of centen at a fixed
point, then the angular-velocity ratio remains constant. This is the condition that
) is desired when two gear teeth mesh together: The angular-velocity ratio must
be constant. It is possible to assume the fonn of the tooth on one gear and, by
) applying the above principle (the common normal intersects the line of centers
) at a fixed point), to determine the outline of the mating tooth. Such teeth would
be considered conjugaJe teeth, and the possibilities arc limited only by one's ability
) to form the teeth. Of the many shapes possible, only the cycloid and the involute
have been standardized. The cycloid was used first but has been replaced by the
)
involute for all applications except watches and clocks. The involute bas several
) advantages, the most important of which arc its ease of manufacture and the fact
that the center distance between two involute gears may vary without changing
) the velocity ratio. The involute system of gearing is discussed in detail in the
following paragraphs. A pair of involute spur gears is shown in Fig. 4.1.
) Consider two pulleys connected by a crossed wire as shown in Fig. 4.2. It
) is evident that the two pulleys will tum in opposite directions and that the angular-
velocity ratio will be constant provided the wire docs not slip and will depend
) upon the inver.;e ratio of diameters. It is also seen that the angular-velocity ratio
will not change when the center distance is changed. For convenience, assume flGURE 4.2
) that one side of the wire is removed and a piece of cardboard is attached to wheel
)
128
>
)
)
 )
l

130
,.....
SPUR GEARS lNVOLlTTOMETRY Ul •
•
I (Fig. 4.3a). Place a pencil at a point Q on the wire and tum wheel 2 counter-
clockwise. Relative to the ground, point Q will trace a straight line, whereas
relative to wheel l, Q will trace an involute on the cardboard. The same involute
oould be generated by aitting the wire at Q and unwrappiJlg the wire from the
,•
wheel l, keeping the wire taut. If a cardboard is oow attached to wheel 2 {Fig.
4 .3b) and the process is repeated, an involute is generated on the cardboard of •
wheel 2. If tile cardboards are now cut along the involute, one side or a tooth is
•t
formed on both wheels 1 and 2. The involute on wheel 1 can now be used to
drive the involute on wheel 2. The angular-velocity ratio will be ooostant because
the line or action, which by the method or constructing the involute is normal to
the involu tes at the point of contact Q, cuts the line of c:cnters at a futcd poi11t.
Buecor~
lnwlute
pressure
•ncle
,
As in the case or the pulleys with the crossed wire, the angular-velocity ratio is
inversely proportional to the diameters of the wheels. If the center distance is
changed, involute 1 will still drive involute 2, but different portions of the two
lnvdute
pressure
ancle
Pilch ckde
'•
iovolutes will oow be in contact. As long as the diameters of the wheels are not t
changed, the velocity ratio will be the same as before.
The circles that were used as a basis for generating the involutes are known
as base circles, and they are the heart of the involute system of gearing. In Fig.
•
4.4, the angle that is included by a line perpendicular to the line of action through
the center or the base circle and a line from 0 1 to Q {or 0 2 to Q) is known as
•
J
the involuu pre.ssure angle and is a dimension of the point on the involute at
which contact is taking place. If in Fig. 4.4 the point of intersection of the line
of action and the line or centers is labeled P, the angular-velocity ratio will be
'•
FIGURE 4.4
. FIGURE 4.S •
•
inversely proportional to the segments into which this point divides the line of
•
centers.
It is possible to draw circles through point P using fi rst 0 1 as a center anti •
'
then 0 2 • Figure 4.5 shows this condition. Point Pis called the piJch poi11t, anti
the circles which pass through this point are known as piJch cirdes. It can be
proved that, as involute 1 drives involute 2, the two pitch circles will move together )
with pure rolling action. Because the segments into which point P divides the
lioe of centers arc now the radii of the pitch circles, the angular-velocity ratio is
inversely proportional to the radii of the two pitch circles. If the diameter or
pitch circle 1 is D 1 and that of circle 2 is D 1 , then w,ftJ>z ~ D 2/ D 1• It will be
,
)

shown in a later section that the number of teeth on a gear is directly proportional
to the pitch diameter. Therefore. w1/i.>z = D2/D 1 = Ni/N, . •
)

4.2 INVOLUfOMETRY >

Io considering the involute for a tooth fonn , it is necessary to be able to calculate
certain properties of the involute. •
FIGURE 4.3 Figure 4.6 shows ari involute which has been generated frona a base cirde
,'
-'.·i ;,=-- - )
)
 )
l
l 1J2 SPUR GEARS INVO LUTOMETIW 133
)
)
)
\
)
)

'
~
)
)
)
) FIGURE 4.6
)
0
) of radius Rb. The involute contains two points A and B with corresponding radii
FIGURE 4.7
R,. and R 1 a11d involute pressure angles cJ>,. and cj>1 . It is an easy matter to work
)
out a relationship for the above factors because the base circle radius remains
constant no matter which point is under consideration. Therefore, length BG. Therefore,
)
) L DOG = arcDG BG
R• = R,. cos cj>,. (4.1) =-
OG OG
)
or BG
) tan cf>,= OG
) R• = R, cos cj>1
Thus,
) and
L DOG = tan 4> 9
)
R,.
) cos cj> 11 = R., cos <j>,. (4.2) Also,

) LDOB = L DUG - 4> 8

From Eq. 4.2, it is possible to determine the involute pressure angle at any point
) of known radius on the involute. = tan cl>. - 4>11
Figure 4.7 shows the sketch of Fig. 4.6 extended to include the whole ~ear
> tooth . From this sketch it will be possible to develop an equation for finding the It can also be shown that
) tooth thickness at any point B, given the thickness at point A.
From the principle of the generation of an involute, arc DG is equal to LDOA tan ct>... - 4>...
)
)
)
)
 )
)
JJ4 SPUR GEARS

+- +
CllARACTERJSTICS OF INVOLlTI'E ACTION 135
•
The expression tan is called an involuu function and is sometimes
written inv ct>. It is easy to calculate the involute function when the angle is •
known; +is expressed in radians. However, it is very difficult to amvert from
iuv 4> to +; for this reason, extensive tables of involute functions have been •
published. Sec Appendix 2.
•
By referring again to Fig. 4.7,
•
)
L DOE = LDOB + ~: j

. ,,, •
= IOV "'· + ZR,, •
•
Also

LDOE = LDOA + &tA

RA
,•
•
From the above relations,
FlGURE 4.8
,,•
! 1,, = 2R,,[;;_A + inv 4>A - inv +,,] (4.3)

!: •
I By means of Eq. 4.3, it is possible to calculate the tooth thickness at any pQint
on the involute, given tbe thickocss at some o~r point. AD interesting appli-
•
~
l cation or this equation is to determine the radius at which the tooth bca>mca
pointed.
•
4.J SPUR GEAR DETAILS
To oontinuc tl1c study uf involute gearing, it is necessary to define tbc basic
FIGURE 4.t s,_ pllliotl ud nck.. (Models eamtay of lllilloa Ge..- & ·
MKlile Compuy.) ·
, ~

elements of a gear as shown in f"igs. 4.8a and 4.8b. It should also be mentioned
that the smaller o f two gears in mesh is called the pinion; the pinion is generally
an important considcralion in gearing. Backlash is the amount by which the wic..lth
of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth on the pitch circles. •
the driver. If the pitch radius R of a gear bcoomcs infinite, a rack results as seen
in Fig. 4.Sc and Fig. 4.9. The side of the rack tooth is a straight line, which is
Theoretically, baclcJasb should be zero, but practically some allowa nce must be
•
the form taken by an involute when it is generated on a base circle of infinite
made for thermal expansion aod tooth error. Unless otherwise stated. zero back-
lash is to be assumed in this text. In a later section, the method for calculating •
radiU5. From Fig. 4.Sa, the base pitch P• is the distance from a point on one tooth
to the corresponding point on the next tooth measured on the base circle. The
back.lash for a change in center d istance will be given.
•
circular pilch p is defined in the same way, except that it is measured on the pitch
4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF INVOLUTE ACl10N •
cirde. The adillndwn a and dcdendwn b arc radial distances measured as shown.
1be portion or the Danit below the base circle is approximately a radial line. The From lite discussion or the generation of the involute, it was seen that the common •
tooth curve is the line of intccscctioo of the tooth &Urlacc ud the pitch IWfacc.
AJthough it is impossible to show on the sketches of Fig. 4.8, backlash is
normal to the two involute surfaces is tangent to the two base circles. This common
nonnal is also referred to as the line of action. The beginning or contact oa:urs •
•
..
'). ,
j
)
 j
) .... ..·-·. .
l 137
JJ6 SPUR GEARS OIARACTF.RISTICS OF INVOUITU ACTION
)
where lhe line or action intersects the adde111lu111 circle or the driven gear, and on lhe line of action) to lhe base pitch and is generally calculatei.l in this way 11s
) the end or contact occurs where the line of action intersects the addendum circle will be shown later. Considered physically, lhe contact ratio i~ the average nnmhcr
or the driver. That this occurs is evident from Fig. 4 .10, which shows a pair of of teeth in contact. If, for eumple, the ratio is 1.60, it does not mean that there
) lccth just coming into contact and the same p:iir as they later go out of contact arc 1.60 teeth in contact. It means lhat there are nltcmatcly one pair and two
) (shown dotted). Point A is the beginoing of contact and point B the eod of pairs of teeth in contact, and on a time basi~ the number averoges 1.60. The
contact. The path of the poiot of contact is therefore along the straight line APB. theoretical minimum value of the contact ratio is 1.00. This value, of course,
~ Point C is where the tooth profile (gear 1) at the beginning of contact cuts the must be increased for actual operating conditions. Although it is difficult to quote
pitch circle. Point C' is where the profile at the end of rontact cuts the pitch specific values because of the many conditions involved, 1.40 has been used as
) circle. Points D and D' are similar points on gear 2. The arcs CC' and DD' are a practical minimum, with 1.20 for extreme cases. It should be noted, however,
) called arcs of action and must be equal for pure rolling action of the pitch circles that the lower the contact ratio, the higher the degree of accuracy needed in
to take place as mentioned earlier. The angles of motion are generally broken machining the profiles to secure quiet running.
) into two parts as shown in Fig. 4.10, where a is the angle of approach and IJ the Figure 4.10 also shows an angle cj>, which is formed by the line of actio n
angle of rec~. The angle of approach does not in general equal the aogle of and a line perpendicular to the line of centers at the pitch point P. This angle is
) recess. For conlinuous driving to take place, lhe arc of action must be equal to known as the pressure angle of the two gears in mesh and must be differentiated
) or greater thnn the circular pitch . If this is true, then a new pair of teeth will from the invohne pressure angle of a point on an invoh11e. W11c11 the two gears
come into action before the preceding pair goes out of action. are in contact at the pitch point, the pressure angle of the gears in mesh and the
~ The ratio of the arc of 11ction lo the circnl:u pitch is known as the r.ontact involute pressure angles of the two involutes in contact at the pitch point will be
rntin. l11e contact ratio for involute gears is also c-qunl to the ratio of the length equal. These angles can be seen in Fig. 4. t 1.
) of action (that is, the distance from the beginning to the end of contact measured An equation for the length of action Z can he derived fr om Fig . 4. 1 t,
) where
A = beginning of contact
)
B = end of contact
) E 1 and Ei = points of tangency of line of action and base circle~
) R. = outside radius
R, = base radius
)
cl> = pressure angle
) C = center distance
) From the figure,
)
)
Therefore,
> (4.4)
>
) The base pitch p, is given by

)
(4.5)
)
) where
R. = base radius

,
)

)
FIGURE 4.10 N = number of teeth

}
 )

'
138 SPUR GEARS CllARACJllRIS11CS OF INVOLlfI1! ACOON 139
•
)

C...1 (cirtv.)
•
)
t
)

c (oJ (b) •
FIGURE 4.U
•
the nonnal distance between the corresponding sides of adjacent teelh. Figure
4.12b illustrates how the base pitch is measured on a rack.
,•
Exampk 4.1. A pinion or 24 teeth drives a gear of 60 teelh al a pressure angle of 711'.
•
The pitch radius of I.be pinion i5 1.SOOO in., and Che outside radius is 1.6250 in. The pilch
radius of the gCaJ" is 3.7500 in., and Che outside radius is 3.8750 in. c.aJculate Che length
of action and contact ratio.
'•
Solution . •
FIGURE 4.ll z = V(R..J 1 - ('4,)1 + V(R..,)1 - (R.J' - c sin + •
R., = 1.6250 in. •
The contact ratio m, is then
R., = R, cos + = 1.5(0) cos 1JJ' = 1.4095 in. •
(4.6)
R., = 3.8750 in. •
R., = R, cos + = 3.75 oos '111' = 3.5238 in. •
The equation for the leogth of actioo for a rack aod pinion can be derived C sin + = (1.500 + 3.750) sin ']JJ' = 1.7956 in . •
in a similar manner as
z = vu25()1 - 1.40051 + VJ.87501 - 3.5238' - t.7956 •
Z = V(R 0 )1 - (R )1
t
- R sin 4> +~
SID cJ>
(4.7)
= VZ.6406 - 1.9867

= 0.8099 + 1.6115 - 1.7956

+ V15.0156 - 12.4tn - 1.7956
= 0.6258 in.
•>
wllere
R = pitch radius
Therefore,
•
a - addendum Z - AB - 0.6258 in . •
If it seems odd to calculate a contact ratio by dividing a straight-line mcas-
un:mr.nt by a circulur measurement, oon~dcr the ~kelchcs in Fig. 4.12. In Fig. m, -
z
- a nti p. ,,.
2wR.,
Ii:" 21T X
c: ~-- ,..,
1.4095 O "UCun
....
•
..,,.Ill . •
4. 12a aa c ~huwn 1w11 a1ljnce111 leelh 011 une geur of a mRting pnir. The ba&CI pitcl1
I'• is dimensioned on the base circle in nccordani:c with it5 definition. A 1traigbl- Tberdo1c,
P•
•
line disla.nce on the line of action is also designated P•· From the manner in which
>

'l.f
cwo adjacent involutes would be generated, it can be seen that the two distances
. 0.6258
m, "' 0 .3689 "" 1.6964 •
,•
marked P• must be equal. 111erdore, Che base pitch can also be considered as

,
l
' GEAR STANDARDIZATION 141

,
) 140 SPUR GEARS
01
4.5 INTERFERENCE IN INVOLUTE GEARS Cur 1 (drtver)

ll was mentioned previously that an involute starts al the base circle and is
) generated outward. ll is therefore impossible to have an involute inside the base
) circle. The line of action is tangent to the two base circles of a pair of gears in
mesh, and these two points represent the extreme limits of the length of action.
) These two points arc spoken of as intt:rft:rt:nct: points. If the teeth arc of such
proportion that the beginning of contact occurs before the interference point is Pltdl line
) met , then the involute portion of the driven gear will mate with a noninvolute
) portion of the driving gear, and involute intt:rft:rence is said to occur. This con- ~umlM

dition is shown in Fig. 4 .13; E 1 and E1 show the interference points that should
) limit the length of action, A shows the beginning of contact, and B shows the
end of contact. It is seen that the beginning of contact occurs before the inter-

•
)
ference i)oint E, is met; therefore, interference is present. The tip of the driven
tooth will gouge out or undercut the flank of the driving tooth as shown by the
dolled line. There are several ways of eliminating interference, one of which is
FIGURE 4 .14

) to lif!1it the addendum of the driven gear so that it passes through the interference In Fig. 4.14 is shown a pinion aod rack. i~ m~h . The point ~f tangency of t~e
point E,, thus giving a new beginning of contact. If this is done in this case, line of action and the base circle of the paruon 1s labcle\I as the interference pomt
\ interference will be eliminated. E, the same as in the case for the pinion aod gear. 'The interference point theref~re
Involute interference is undesirable for several reasons. Interference and fixes the maximum addendum for the rack for the pressure angle shown. With
) the resulting undercutting not only weaken the pinion tooth but may also remove the rack addendum as shown in Fig. 4.14, contact begins at A , and undercutting
) a small portion of the involute adjacent to the base circle, which may cause a will occur as shown by the dotted line. If the addendum of the rack extends only
serious reduction in the length of action. to the tine that passes through the interfere~ce point E, .the~ l~e interference
) The co~ditions for interference of a rack and a pinion will now be discussed. point becomes the beginning of contact, and mterference 1s ehmmatcd.
It can also be seen from Fig. 4.14 that, if a gear of finite radius with the
) same addendum as the rack (rack addendum now passing through interference
~ar l (driver)
) point) were to mesh with the pinion, the beginning of contact would occur on
the line of action at some place between the pitch point P and the interference
) point E. Therefore, there would be no possibility of interference between the
pinion and gear. It may be concluded then tha.t , if th~ number of t.eet~ on the
) pinioo is such that it will. mesh with a rack .without interference, at wall mesh
) without interference with any other gear havmg the same or a larger number of
teeth.
) Although involute interkrencc and its resulting undercutt ing ~ho uld ~
avoided, a small amount might be tolera ted if it docs not reduce the contact ratio
) for a pair of mating gears below a suitable v~lue . I lowever , t~1c ~1ruble01 of
) determining the length of action when undercutting has occurred as <hffi cult, :ind
it cannot be calculated from Eq. 4.4. It can be seen from Fig. 4.11 and Eq. 4.4
> that if the value of either radical is greater than C sin ct>. interference will exist.
)
) 4.6 GEAR STANDARDIZATION
) 1lius far, no attempt has been made to bring up the question of sta nda rdiz~ng
spur gears for facilitating the dcv~lopment of ~nterchangeable g~ars; the foreg~.mg
) discussions applied to spur gears m general with no thought to mterchangeab1hty.
FIGURE 4 .1J
)
)

)
 I
)
)

•
142 SPUR GEARS GEAR SI"ANDARDJZATION 143
•
Tied in with the question of interchangeability is the manner in which the gears
are to b~ cut. •
There arc several ways of machining spur gears, the oldest of which is to
use a fonn-milliog cutter to remove the material between the teeth as the gear
blank is indexed through a complete revolution on a milling machine. This method
,•
p1 oduccs a composite involute and cycloidal profile and finds application primarily
in the cutting of replacement gears which cannot be economically obtained from >
standard sources. This method is also used to produce gears with large-size teeth
•
,,•
that cannot be cut o n conventional gear generators. Modero spur gean; are gen-

•
•
FIGURE 4.lSb Hot.bing opentio•. (Pltotognph comtay or BIUber-
•
)
Colmaa.)
)
crated to produce an involute tooth profile. The two most common methods for
producing modem spur gears are the method of hobbing and the FeUows method t
Allis ol hob of shaping. The principles of hobbing and of the Fellows method arc illustrated
for cutting external gears in Figs. 4.15 and 4.16, respectively. To cut small internal
gears, it is necessary to use the Fellows method; however, if space is available,
•
large internal gears can be bobbed. The Fellows method is also used for cutting
shoulder gca.cs where space is insufficient at one end of the teeth to allow run- '•
,•
out of a bob, as shown in Fig. 4. 15a.
As gear technology developed, a means of classifying the cutters and the
gears produced was sought. The method that was adopted in the United States
was th.al of specifying the ratio of the number of teeth to U1e pitch diameter.
11Us ratio was given the oame diamelTal piJch and is expressed as )

(4.8) •
•>
~\
wilere
N = number of teeth
>
· ~
--
D = pitch diameter, in.
Although the units of diametra.1 pitch arc teeth per inch, it is not customary to
give the units when specifying numerical values.
lu Europe, the method o{ classification is to specify the ratio 0£ the pitcl1
,,
)

flGUllK 4.15o Gencntln& • 1pw sear wltlt a ltoll. diameter to the number of teeth, and this ratio is designated as module. The
,
~ - -· -
J
"~ - )
 '
)
)
144 SPUR GEARS

module is therefore the reciprocal of the diametral pitch and is expressed as

GEAR STANDARDIZATION 145

)
D
m=- (4.9)
) N
w•~re
) D = pitch diameter, mm
) N = number of teeth
) m = module
'flte numerical values of modules are specified in units of millimeters.
) It should be noted that diametral pitch and module arc defined as ratios

•
)
and are not physical distances that can be measured on a gear. Circular pitch,
on th_e oth~r hand, has ~en previously defined as the distance measured along
the pitch circle from a pomt on one tooth to the corresponding point oo the next
tooth . The relation between circular pitch and diametral pitch or module can be
) expressed as follows:
)
vD '11'
) p=- = - (U.S.) (4.10)
N P,
)
)
FIGURE 4.166 SJuiphag opention. (Photognp• COlll'-
) tesy of Buba-Colman.)
Gentrallrc
) cutter
and
)
TiD
) P = N = 1fm (metric) (4.ll)

) where
) p = circular pitch
P, = diametral pitch
)
m = module
) For the purpose of specifying gear cutters, the values of diametral pitch and
} module were generally taken as whole numbers. The following is a list of com-
mercially available gear hobs in diamctral pitches with 144° andfor 2Cr pressure
) angles:
) 2, 21, 3, 31, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18,
20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 36, 40, 42, 48, 50, 64,
)
72, 80, 96, 120
) flGURE 4.l&r Felio"' method of sear 1entt11tlng. (CourfelJ of FeDow. Cor- Finer pitches may he specified by even increments up lo 200. l'itd1es c:o111111011ly
pontioa.)
) used for precision gears for instruments are 48, 64, n . 80, 96, ancl 120. ·n1e

)
)
)
 )

•
-
146 SPUR GEARS GEAR ~ANOARDIZATION 147
•
AGMA (American Gear Manufacturer& Association) also lists diamctral pitches TABLE 4.1 Tooth Proporeioas-lavolnte Spur Gears
•,
of land 1, although hobs of these siz.ca are not usually carried as stock items by
tool manufacturers. The following is a list of standard hobs in metric moduies
(20'" pressure angle):
1, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.50, 2.75, 3, 5, 6, 8,
CoMM:Pitda
(1-19..99 P,)
AGMA20L02
August 1974
Fme Pikli
(20-200P,)
AGMA 207.06
,
10, 12, 16, 20
20" OI' 25"
Full Dep..
November l'JTI
2V F.U Depth •
When cutters were standardized, a pressure angle or 141° was adopted. This Addendum (a)
1.000
,.,
1.000
•
was a carry-over from the proocss or casting gcan which used 14l• because sin
14l• approximates l, which was convenient for pattern layout. Later, a pressure
P,
1.250
-p;-
1.200 + 0 .002 ( mm
. ) •
angle of 20'" _was also adopted. Both 1419 and 20'" have been used for many yean,
but the tendency in re<:ent ycars has been tow&.(_d using 20'" in prcCcrcnce to 141°.
Dcdcndum (b)

Ocarancc (c)
P,
0 .250
•
It will be mown in a later section that it is possible to cut a pinion with (ewer (dedeodum - addendum) P,
0 .200
- - + 0.002 ( min
I',
- )•
•
teeth without undercutting when using a 1Jr pressure angle bob in contrast to
one of 141•. ~ a lC$ult of the trend toward higher pressure angles, the AGMA
Working depth (h,}
(twic.e addendum)
2.000
P,
2.000
P,
•
bas adopted 1Jr and 25° for coarse-pitch gearing (1- 19.99 P") and 20'" for fine-
Whole depth (h,) 2.250 •
pres-
,,
pitch gearing (20-200 P"). British and German metric standards specify 1J1' 2.200 002 ( . )
(addendum + dedendum) -p;-+O. mm
sure angle. The Society of Automotive Eogineecs in their Aerospace Standard
AS1560 (February 1979) for metric gears recommends a 20'" pressure angle for F'allet radius of basic rack (r1)
P,
0 .300
Not given
•
general purpo5CS. Pressure angles of 22.S" and 25• are also included because these P,
high-pressure angles arc in use for aerospace gearing.
The tooth proportions of U .S. Standard involute spur gean arc given in
Table 4.1.
- Tooth thiclrness (t)
1.5708
P,
•For shaved 01 giouod lcelh, c • 0.350/P, + 0.002 (min).
1.5708
P, ,
Table 4.2 gives the proportions for the full depth 141° and the stub 20'" spur
gean. Although these gears arc seldom Si":ci ficd in new designs, they arc essential •
for replacement gears in older machinery.
Bc<:ause of the design of gear shaper CUll<..i !t , :such cutters arc cla:ssified not •
only according to diametral pitch or module but also according to pitch diameter
and number of teeth. Table 4 .3 show:s a tabulation of standard spur gear shaper
•
cutters classified by diametral piti;h, and Table 4.4 shows a liSting or metric spur
gear shaper cutters.
TABLE 4.2 Tool.la Proportioas for Pull
Deptb 14j• and Sr.b 20" Spur Gars
•)
1bc British standard metric modules arc shown in Table 4.5. Tooth pro- Hr
portions are as follows: FuD Depth 20· Stub
t
1.000 0.800 )
Addendum (a) l .OOOm Addendum (a)
P, P,
Dedendum (b) l.250m
1.157 1.000 •t
Prc:ssure angle ( ~) ']ff

The German standard metric modules are shown in Table 4.6. Tooth pro-
Dcdeodum (b)

aearana: (c)
P,
0.157
P,
P,
0.200
P,
,
portions are as follows:
Fillet radius (r,)
0.209 0.304
r, •
•
p•
Addendum (a) l.OOOna
1.5708 1.5708

,,•
Dcdcodum (b) 1.157mor1.167 m Tooth thickness (t)
P, P,
Pressure angle ( 4>) ']ff

.... rr ·
., l., J

)
,
J
l 148 SPUR GEARS GEAR STANDARDIZATION 149
l TABLE 4.3 Spar Gear Shaper C11tters- TABLE 4.4 Metric Spur Gear Shaper Cutten:
lo- Pressure Angle-Fall Depth•
) Dlamdral l'ltcb N11mbu
~di Dl•mefer, In. of Teeth Dl•mdr11I Pitch Number
) Modale Piech Dlanod~r. In. of Teeth
(•) l4l• Prasare Aa~~ _ ------
2.992
-- -----
76
) l.O 25.400
4 4 5 16 20 50
1.5 16.9)) 2 .953
5
)
)
6
8
"
. 4
4
5
5
20
2.C
32
30
40
2.0
2.5
12.700
10. 160
2.992
2.953
JR
30
3.0 8.466 3.071 26
10 3 4 5 JO 40 50 n
) 3.5 7.257 3.031
12 3 4 36 "8 4.094 26
4.0 6.350
16 3 4 48 64 n
) 4.5 5.644 3.897
20 3 4 60 80 3.937 20
5.0 5.080
) 24 3 n 6.0 4.23J 4.252 18
32 3 96 3. 175 5.039 16
) 8 .0
(b) 20• Pressure Angle •Courtesy or Dlinoi• Tool Wo11<s.
) 3 4 12
) 4 4 5 6 16 20 24
5 4 5 6 20 25 30
) 6 4 5 6 24 30 36 TABLE 4.5 British Standard Normal
8 3 4 5 6 24 32 "8 Metric Module!"'
) IO 3 4 5 30 40 "° 50 Prefernd Modules Se<ond·Cholce Modllles
) 12 3 4 5 36 48 (i()
14 4 56 1.125
) 16 3 4 48 64 1.25 1.375
18 4 n 1.5 1.15
) 20 3 4 (i() 80 2 2.25

) 24 3 n 2.5 2.75
32 3 96 3 3.5
) "lbc roUowing cutters arc also manuracturcd to Fellows fine-
4 4.5
pitdl pcecisioo limits: 32, "8, 64, 72, 80, 96, and 120 diarni:tr81 5 5.5
) pitch. Councsy or Fellows Corporation. 6 7
) 8 9
From the fact that gear cutters in both the U .S. and metric systems were 10 11
) taken generally as whole numbers, conversion from diametral pitches to module 12 14
millimeters does not give whole-number vaJues. Sec Table 4.7. 16 18
) The metric symbols used to denote the proportions of spur gean vary 20 n
) considerably from those recommended by AGMA . Table 4.8 shows the com- 25 28
parison between the AGMA and the proposed International Standard ISO 701. J2 36
) Similar tables are given for bevel, helical, and wonn gears in Chapter 6. 40 45
U spur gears are cut with standard cutters, they will be interchangeable if 50
) the following conditions are satisfied:
1bc values arc ln minimctc~ . Wherever pcmiblc. the
) prcrcncd modules should be appl~d rather than those of
1. The diamctral pitches or modules of the cutters used to produce the gears eea>nd choice . 8 .S. 06: P..t 2: 1970. From Ma,ltinuy
HtuUlbook, Z2nd edition. 19&4, p . 1123.
) are equal.

)
)
)
)
 )

•
150 SPUR GEARS

TABLE 4.6 GermaD

MINIMUM NUMBER OF lll6111 TO A VOID lN"mRFBRBNCB

TABLE 4.8 Spar Geu Symbols

151 ,•
Standard Metric Modald AGMA 150791
•,
0.3
l>.4
o.s
2 .S
2 .7S
3
8
9
10
7:1
30
33
Number of teeth
Pitch radius
Pitch diameter
N
R
D
z
r
d'
,
,•
0.6 3.2S 11 36
Outside radius R. r.
0.7 3.S 12 39
3 .75 13 42
Outside diameter D. d.
0.8 Ba.o;c radius
4 14 4S
R. '•
0.9
Face width F b
so
1
l.2S
4 .5
s
15
16 55
Addendum
"b h. •
l.S s.s 18 60
Dcdendum h,
•
•,
Circular pitch p p
1.7S 6 20 6S Base pitch
2 6.S 22 70 P• P•
2.25 7 24 75
Pressure angle + a
Leogtb of actioa z g.
"Tiie values aie ia millimelerS. DIN·
867. From Nodtinay Hlltl.dbook, 22.od
Contact ratio (transverse)
Center distance
m,
c
~
a •,
e4itioo, 1984, p. %6.
Working depth
Whole depth
Tooth tbidoes.s
h.
h, la
I
,,
TABLE 4.7 Diametral Pitdt aad Metric Modale
acannce
Bacltlasb
c
B
c
j,
,,
Diamctnl
Pitda
O.SOOO
Modale
M.illimden
50.8000
Dillmdnl
Pitdi
11
Modllle
Millimetm
2.3091
2.1167
2. The pressure angles of the cutters used are equal.
3. The gean have the same adc.lcndums and the same dedeodums.
4. Tooth thicknesses of the gcais are equal to ooe half the circular pitch.
,,
0.7500 33.8667 12
1 25.4000 13 l.9S38 The term :slluulard gear is often used and means that it was cut by one of
l.2SOO 20.3200
16.9333
14
ts
1.8143
1.6933
the standard cutters listed previously and that the tooth thickness is equal to the •
1.SOOO
1.7500 14.5143 16 1.5815
tooth space which equals one half of the circular pitch. Standard gears are in·
tcn.:bangcable. The spur gears· that arc offered for sale io gear manufacturers' •
2
2.2500
2.5000
12.7000
11.2889
10.1600
17
18
19
1.4941
1.4111
1.3368
catalo&' arc standard gears. However, most of the gears used in the automotive
and the aircraft industries are ooustandard to give oertain advantages over 5t&n-
dard gean. Chapter S prc:Kol5 the subject of nonstandard spur gears and &ho~
•t
2.7500 9.2364 20 1.2700 that they can be cut witl1 standard cutters.
3 8 .4667 2.C 1.0583
•
3.5000
'4
s
7.2571
6.JSOO
S.0800
32
40
48
0.7938
0.6350
0.5292
4.1 MINIMUM NUMBER OF TEE111
TO AVOID INTERFERENCE ,•
,,
6 4.2333 64 0.3969 The question of interference was considered previow;ly for the mediing of a
7 3.6286 72 0.3S28 pinion and gear and for a pinion and rack. From the discussion of Fig. 4.14, it >
8 3. 1750 80 0.3175 was found that if there were no interference between a pinion and rack, there
9 2 .8222 96 0.2646 would be no interference between the pinion and a gear the same size as the
10 l .5400 120 0.2117 pinion or larger. Naturally, this is assuming the same tooth proportions for the
)

~ ::
~ .. -. ··- · ,

•
 f
\

,
) 152 SPUR GEARS

lwo ca~es. ~hen considering a standard gear where the toolh proportions arc
!hose _gi"'!'en m the_tables, it is possible lo calculale the minimum number of teeth
MlNlMUM NUMBER OF TI:.ETII TO AVOlD IN"ffiRFERF..NCE

TABLE 4.9 Mlllimam Number or Teeth to

Rack Without Undcrntdnc
M~b Wllh a
153

) m .a ~~1c:>n that will mesh wilb a rack wilhout involule inlerferencc. To solve for 14l" 2'r 2'r 2S"
th':' hm1tmg ~·the addendum line of the rack is passed lhrongh the interference h i Depth Fall Deplb Shlb Fall Depth
) point or the pm10n.
) '". Fig. ~- 17, t~c _c:sscnlial Ceotureii or a pinion and rack for this case arc N 32 IR 14 12
shown. l'he pitch pomt ts notated by Pand the interference point by E. Therefore,
)
) . ""n
Stn 'I'= -
From this equation, the smallest number of teeth for a pinion that will mesh
R
also with a rack without interference cao be calculated for any given standard loolh
)
system . These are shown in Table 4.9 for the common systems. Because the
) . a k/P values in the table were calculated for a pinion meshing with a rack, they can
SID cf> = PJ!: : 'PJ/ also be used as minimums for a pinion meshing with a gear without danger of
) interference.
where k is a constant that, when divided by the diametral pilch, gives the ad- Because the toolh action of o hob cutting a spur gear is simila r to that of
)
dendum (a = klP,) .. Fo~ the fuU-deplh syslem, k ,,. 1.00; and for the stub sys- a pinion meshing with a rack, Eq. 4. 12 am be used to determine lhe minimum
) tem . k = 0 .80. Multtplymg lhe two equations for sin cf> together gives numbers of teeth that can be cut without undercutting. For this case, the value
of k must be increased from 1.000 to allow for cutting the necessary clearance
) • J k between mating gears. Th.i s results in k = 1.157 for 141° gears and k = 1.250
SID cf>== - for 1ff and 25° gears. Therefore, the minimum number of teeth than can be
) RP,
But hobbed is 37 teeth for 14l0 , 21 teeth for 20", and 14 teeth for 25° pressure angles.
) Figure 4.18 shows two computer-generated plots of a severely undercut spur gear
. having 10 teeth cut with a 1ff full-depth hob.
)
) where N = number or teeth. Therefore,
) • J 2lc
Sin cf>= -
) N
and
)
) (4.11)

) ·'
Gear ' (drive<)
)
)
)
)
)
)
-.. FIGURE 4.11 Uademd amdard splll' gear 1riCh N = 10 pn>dutt.d by• hob or P4 =
)
+
1 _. = :zr. Flpresaaented . . . m mM il75 pet1 plotter. (Coanesy of CAD-
FIGURE '4.17 CAM LabontOfJ at Vlrgitlla Polytecbnk IDltftate and State Ualnnity.)
)

,
)

\.
 154 . sruR GEARS MINIMUM NUMBER OF 1EE1H TO AVOID INTERFERBNCB 155
Determining the minimum number of teeth that a pinion cutter c&D generate Therefore,
oo a gear without undercutting is more difficult than determining the minimum
number of teeth when the gear is cut by a rack or a bob. An equation for
determining the approximate number of teeth can be developed from Fag. 4.19.
In this figwe, the addendum circle of gear 2 passes through the interfeleoce point
E of gear J. The following relation for the outside radius of gear 2 can be written
and
as

Expanding and using the relation sin1 cl> + c.os1 cf> = 1 gives the following equa-
By substituting, tion from which the largest spur gear (NJ that can be meshed with a given gear
(N1) without causing involute interference on gear l can be determined:
)
_ 4kl - (N 1)1sin1 4>
Nl -
2N1 sin1 ~ - 4k
(4.IJ)
•
Eq~tion 4 .13 can be expanded to give •
•
and
•
•
Thus,
•,
•
(4.14)
•
)
Equation 4.14 can be simplified as follows: If cl> ~ 141°, then
>
(4.15) t
If+ = 20", then >
(4.16)
•
i
1..
A curve has been plotted io Fig. 4 .20 from Eq. 4. 16, showing the relation
of N 1 as a function of N1 for1Jr full-depth teeth (k ~ 1). This curve can also be
, )

'. used lo approximate the minimum numbers of teeth that c.:an be cut by a pinion
cutter by considering N 1 as the number of teeth being cul in the genr and N 1 11~
tho number of tcclh in the pinion cuttca. llowcver, the vulucs of N 1 will o uJy be
)

tlGURE 4.1!>
approximate because the outside radius of gear 2 used to develop Eq . 4.13 was
taken as R., = R 2 + o. If gear 2 is considered a pinion cutter, its outside rndiu! '•
- ----
•,
·- )
 J
~
) 156 SPUR GEARS DETERMINATION OF BAC KLAS H J57
}
20• f ull-depth teeth _...--------
) 19
~ _,.,..-...-- Cuewllenae-2
~ I• acutt•
) ! 18 -
/
_,,-'
/
) .£ 17 - /
£ /
! /

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:a

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t6 -

15
I
/

·;:
e
) j

) I I I l -~-~~
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
) ! t u - at lttlh In sear 2 <N2l
) FIGURE -4.20

)
) must be increased to cut clearance on gear 1. In other words, the addendum of
the cutter must be equal to the dedendum of the gear being a.it. In addition, as
) can be seen in Table 4.1, the equation for clearance is not identical for coanc-
) pitch and for fine-pitch gears. (a} (b}
A dotted curve has been added to Fig. 4.20 to show the relation of N., the
) number of teeth generated without undercutting, lo the number of teeth N2
assumed in the cutter when clearance has been added. For this case, clearance
) for course-pitch gears was used, and calculations were made using Eq. 4.16 with
k = 1.250.
)
)
4.8 DETERMINATION OF BACKLASH
> In Fig. 4.2 1a is shown the outline of two standard gears meshing at the standard
) cente r distance ·
)
C = N, + N2 (U.S.)
) 2P~

) C = (N1 + N 2) m (metric)
) 2
(c}
) with zero backlash. The pitch circles at which these two gears operate arc the
pitch circles at which they were cut, and their radii are given by R "" Nl2P~ . FlGURE 4.11
) 1'he cutting pitch circles are also known as standard pitch circlu. The pressure
)
)
j
)
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158 SPUR GEARS DEIBRMINATION OF BACKLASH 159

,
•
+
angle at which the gears will operate is the pressure angle at which they were •
cut, that is, 14l", 20-, or 25°. Jn other words, the cutting and operating pitch
,.•
circles arc klenlical as well as the cutting and operating pressure angles.
Figure 4.21b shows the condition where the two gears have bceo pulled
apart a distance /:iC to give a new center distance C'. The line of action now
4.C = C' - C

=C cos+ _ c
cos 4>'
,,
,,
crosses the line of centers al a new pitch point I" . ll can be observed that the
standard or cutting pitch circles (radii R1 and RJ are no lunger tangent to each
other. Also, the pitch point P' divides the center distance C' into segments which
a.re inve1scly proportional lo the angular velocity ratio. 1bc.sc segments become
= c(cos cl>'+ - •].
cos
(4.111)

the radii Rj and Ri of new pitch circles that arc tangent to each other at point
r. These circles are known as operating pitch cirdes, and equations for their When the gears arc operated under the condition of Fig. 4 .2lb, backlash
radii can be determined Crom · will be present as shown in Fig. 4.2lc. The angular-velocity ratio will not be
affected as long as the gears remain in mesh. If the direction o f rotation is •
reversed, however, lost motion will be encountered. An equation for backlash
may be derived from the fact that the sum of the tooth thicknesses plus backlash
•
must be equal to the circular pitch all measured on the operating pitch circle. •
and

Rj + Ri = C'
From Fag. 4.21c, the following equation may be written:

tj
,
+ 12 +
B 21fRj
-= - -
2irRi
= -- (4-19)
,•
,,
N, Ni

to give

Ri=
wlaere
t' = tooth thickness on operating pitch circle
B = backlash
,
and
R' = radius of operating pitch circle
N = number of teeth ,•
R'2 = ( N2
N 1 + N;}
_\C'
From Eq. 4.3 developed in the section on involutometry,

t; = 2R;[ 2~ 1 + inv cl> - inv 4>' l

)
,,
Angle
In addition to the change in pitch circles, the pressure angle also i.nacascs.
+' is koown as the operating pressure angle and is larger than the cutting
R;
= R, 11 -
2R'(. ...... . "")
1 mv .... - mv '+' (4.20)
,
prCliliure angle 4>- An equation for the operating pressure angle+· can easily be
derived from Fig. 4.2lb as follows:
t
R., + R., cos += cos 4>
ti = 2Ri[; + 2
inv cl> - inv 4>' J ~
C' = .... = (R1 + RJ --:;:r C--:;:; )
oos ... cos "I' cos ...
= :: 12 2Rj(inv cl> ' - inv cl>) (4.21)
•
-

or

cos 4>' -
c
c· cos 4> (4.17)
t • tooih thi1.:kncss on 5ta11dard or cutting pitch circle (1 "- p/2 == 1T/21'4 )
R = radius of standard or cutting p itch circle (R = N/2P4 )
,•
•
~ ---
l'~l
,•
)
 )
}

,
) 160 SPUR GEARS

cj> = cutting pressure angle (141°, 20°, 25•)

<!>' = operating pressure angle
N,m 60 x 3 = 90.000 mm
Ri '" 2 = - -
2
DETERMINATION OF BACKLASll 161

)
Also, H., u ff, l'OS + ,, Jt. oou , ..,, 21r .. 33.829 mm
)
R, Ri C R., ~ R, cos+ - 90.000 cos 20" - 84.m mm
) (4.12)
Rj = Rj C' a, - 0 1 .,,. m -= 3 .0000 mn1
)
R., ~ R, + a, - 39.000 mm

,)
and

C' = Rj + Ri (4.23)
R., .. R, + a, = 93 .000 mm

+ N,) m = (24
C= (-N, -2- + 60) 3 = 126.00 mm
- --
) Substituting Eqs. 4.20, 4.21 , 4.22, and 4.23 into Eq. 4.19 and remembering that 2
'
) Z = V(R.,)' - (R.,)2 + V(R.,)' - (R.,)' - C sin <f>
21TR n
-=p = -
) N P, = V39.0002 - 33.8291 + V93.0002 - 84.5721 - 126.00 sin 20"
= V1S2t.O - 1144.4 + V8649.0 - 7152.4 - 43.095
> B = ~ [;, - ('1 + 1:z) + 2C(iov cp' - inv 4>)] (U.S.) (4.24)
= 19.406 + 38.686 - 43 .095 = 14.997 mm
)
Z · 21TR., 2n x 33.829
) B = ~ [1Tm - (t 1 + tz) + 2C(inv <I>' - inv <!>)) (metric) 1• ~ = -andp.
P•
= -N,- = 24
= 8.8564 mm

) Therefore,
For standard gears,
) 14.997
(U.S.) m, '" S.8S64 .. 1.6934
)
) e 'ITm . <.b) If the center ~stance is increased 0.5000 mm, calculate the radii of the opcf'ating
1, = 11 2
= 2 = (metric) pllcb circles, the operating j>TC$Sure angle, and the backlash produced.
)
C' =C + 6.C = 126.00 + 0 .5000 = 126.50 mm

'
and Eq. 4.24 simplifies to
)
B = 2C'(inv 4>' - inv 4>) (4.25) Ri = (N, ~1 N,)C' = (
24
~ 60) x 126.50 = 36.143 mm
) R; = C' - Ri = 126.50 - 36.143 = 90.357 mm
Equation 4.24 should be used if the gears are not standard, that is, if t 1 ,A 11 •
) Nonstandard gears will be presented in Chapter 5. Recommended values for cos cl>' = c cos+ = 126.00 cos 20"
)
backlash can be found in the AGMA Gear Handbook, Volume 1, 39<f.03 (March c· 126.50
1980). •;
cl>' = 20.61"
)
Example 4.2. (a) A 3 -module, 20" pinioo or 24 tccth drives a gear of 60 teeth . Calculate B = 2C'(inv cl>' - inv cl>)
) the length of action and contact ratio if the gears mesh with zero backlash. = 2 x 126.50(inv 20.61" - inv 20")
) = 2 x 126.50(0.016:162 - 0 .014904)
I<, ~ 2N,m = 24 x J
- --
2
: .16.()(IO mm
) = 0 .3689 mm

) ,,
)
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l 162 SPUR GtiARS

CYCLOIDAL GEARS 163
)
4.9 INTERNAL (ANNUi.AR) GEARS
)
In many npplicntions, an internal involute ccar is meshed with a pinion instead
of using two external gears to derive certnin advantages. Perhaps the most Im-
•
)
portant advantage is thnt of compaclnC.'!S of the drive. Also for the same tooth
proportions, internal gears will have greater length of contact, greater tooth
strength, and lower relative sliding between meshing teeth than external gears.
) In an internal gear, the tooth profiles arc concave instead of convex u in
an external gear. Because of this shape, a type of interference can occur that is
) not possible in an external gear or a rack . This interference is known as fouling
) and occurs between inactive profiles as the teeth go in and out of mesh. Fouling
will occur when there is not sufficient difference between the numbers of teeth

,
) on the internal gear and on the pinion . Figure 4.22 shows a pinion meshing with
an internal gear. They arc so nearly the same size that fouling occurs at points
a, b, c, d, and e. When an intemaJ gear is cut, a Fellows cutter is used with two
fewer teeth than the gear being cut. This automatically relieves the tips of the
)
internal gear teeth to prevent foul ing at points a, b, c, d, and e. Involute inter-
) ference can also occur between active profiles the same as in Ol(temal gears. This FIGURE 4.23
will be discussed in the following paragraph.
t Figure 4.23 shows two teeth in contact from Fig. 4 .22 with the line of action
tangent to the base circle of the gear at point f and tangent to the base circle of
)
the pinion at point g. An involute profile for the gear can begin at point f, but
) . the involute for the pinion cannot begin until point g. Point g is therefore the
first possible point of contact without involute interference and determines the
) maximum addendum of the gear. Point h, the intcr.;ection of the addendum circle
of che pinion and the line of action, is the end of contact, and the length of action
) is gPh. It should be mentioned that the relation P" = NID holds for an internal
) gear as well as for an external gear. Figure 4.24 shows a photograph of an internal
gear being cut by hobbing.
J
)
r
)
)
) FIGURE 4.24 Hobbing lntemal gear. (Coartcsy of
Clndanad Gear C011111any.)

>
) 4.10 CYCLOIDAL GEARS
) Even though the cycloidal gcnr has hcen largely rcph1ccd hy the invol~1tc, the
cycloidal profile possesses certain advantages worthy of note . These arc 1hscusscd
) briefly below. . . .
FIGURE 4.ll Cycloidal gears do not have interference, and a cyclo1dal tooth 1s in general
)
~ ·

),
J
>
 ~

)
)
~
SPUR GliARS 165 )
164 CYCLOIUAL GEARS

•t
At-~
pressure angle of t4r. Calculate the tooth thickness and 1adius at a point on the involute
which has a pressure angle of is•.
4.4. Jr the involutcs that form the outline of a gear tooth are utcoded, they will inter5Cct
and the tooth bcoome pointed. Determine the radius at which this ocic:urs for a tooth which
,_
has a thickness of 0.2620 in. at a radius o( 4.000 in. and a pressure angle of -ia:-

FIGURE 4.25 Cycloidal Involute

4.S. The thickness of au involute gear tooth is 0.1960 in. at a radius of 2.000 in. and a
pressure angle of '2f1'. Calculate the tooth thickness on the base circle. •...
4.6. 111c pitch radii o r two spur gears in mesh nre 2.000 and 2.500 in., and the outside
radii arc 2.250 and 2.750 in., respectively. 'The pressure angle is Uf'. Make a full-size )·
stronger than an involute tooth because it has spreading flanks in contrast to the layout of these gears as shown in Fig. 4.10, and label the beginning and cod o( contact.
radial flanks of an involute tooth . Also, cycloidal teeth have less sliding and
therefore less wear. Figure 4.25 shows a cycloidal gear tooth and, for comparison,
an involute tooth. However, an important disadvantage of cycloidal gearing is
1'bc pinion is the driver and rot.ates cloclcwisc. Octcnnine and label the angles of approach
and rec:lC$$ for both gca rs. · ••
the fact that for a pair of cycloidal gears there is only one theoretically correct
center d istance for which they will transmit motion at a constant angular-velocity
4.7. A pinion of2..000 in . pitch radius rotates clockwise and drives a rack. The pre...sure
angle is Uf', and the addendum of the pinion and of the rack is 0.2000 in. Make a full-
siz.c layout of these gears, and label the beginning and end of contact. Dcte1mine and
•
~
ratio. Anothc;r disadvantage is that, although it is possible to hob a cycloidal
gear, the bob is not as easily made as an involute bob because cycloidal rack
teeth are not straight-sided as are involute rack teeth. For this reason, involute
gears can be produced more accurately and more cheaply than cycloidal gcais.
label the angle of approach and recess for the pinion.
4.8. Two equal spur gears of 48 teeth mesh together wilh pitch radii o( 4.<XXJ in. and
addeodums of 0.1670 in. tr the pressure angle is 14l•, calculate the length of action Z and
the contact ratio ~·
,•
lovolule gean; have completely replaced cycloidal gears for power trans-
mission. However, cycloidal gears are extensively used ·in watches, clocks, and
certain instruments in cases where the question of interference and strength is a
4.t. Contact ratio is defined either a the arc of action divi~ by the circular pitch or
u the ratio of the length of action to tbe base pitch. Prove that •)
prime consideration. lo watches and clocks, the gear train from the power soun:c
to the escapcmeal steps up or increases its angular velocity ratio with the gear
driving the pinion. In a watch, thls step-up may be as high as 5000:1. The gears
will therefore be so small that in order to avoid using excessively small teeth, it
Ase of action _ Length of action
Orcular pitch - Base pitch

4.10. Verify Eq. 4.7 for the length o( action Z for a pinion driving a rack in terms
,•
)
is neces.ury to use piruons (the driven geaI$ in this case) having as few as six or of the pitch radius R , the base radius R., the addendum a, and the pfCliSure angle+.
seven teeth. The tooth profile of these pinions must also be capable of action
over fl.Y' of rotation. For this pwpose, cycloidal gears are used in preference to
4.ll. A pinion with a pitch radius of 1.500 in. drives a raclt. The pressure angle is 1419.
•
,•
CalcWate the maximum addendum possible for the rack without having involute inter·
involute gears. The problem of center distance and angular-velocity ratio is not ference on the pinion.
important in this casC: because the whole train as governed by the escapement 4.U. A 24-tooth pinion cut with a 12-pitdi, 1J1' full-depth hob drives a 40-tooth gear.
comes to rest and then sluts again several times per second. The operation of Calrulate the pitch radii, base radii, addendum, dedendum, a11d tooth thickness on U1c ·
ll1c I.lain thus involves such large changes of momentum that the effect of tooth pitch circle.
fonn on change of momentum is negligible. The effect of tooth form on oon·
sistency of velocity ratio is thus unimportant in itself.
4.13. An UHootb pinion cut with an 8-pitch, zs• hob drives a 45-tooth gear. Calculate
the pitch radii, base radii, addendum, dedendum, and the tooth thickncs.\ on the pitch
•>.
circle.
4.14. A 42·tooth pinion cul with a 120-pitch, 'JJr full·depth hob drives a 9().tooth gear. ).
J•roble~U.S. Standard Calwlatc the contact ratio.
4.1. An involute is generated on a ba.sc circle having a radius R. of 4.000 in. As tho
involute is generated, the angle which oorrcsponds to inv 4> varies from CJ" to IS-. For
4.15. If the radii of 1 pinion and gear are increased so that each becomes a rack, the
length of action theoretically becomes a mu.immn. Detcnnino the equation for the length
••
+
incrementa of 3• for this angle, calculate the oonuponding pressure angle and radius of action Wider these conditions and calculate the maximum contad ratio for 14r, 20",
R for pointa on tJ1e involute. Plot the 5Cries of points in polar coonlinates and connect
with a amooth curve to give the involute.
4.2. Write a computer program for Problem 4.1 letting R. - 3.000, 4.000, and S.000 in.
and 2S• fuU-ilepth systems.
4.16. /\ :ZO.tooth pinion cut wilh a 4·pitch , 20" atub hob drives• rack. Cakuhtle the plcch
radius, l>nse radius, wuik ing depth, whole depth, and tile tooth thickness of the ruck on
•)
Determine the corresponding values o( pressure angle 4> and radius R for each value o( the pitch line.
R•.
4.3. The thickness of an involute gear tooth is 0.3140 in. at a radius of 3.500 in. and a
4.17. A 1J1' full-depth rack has an addendum o( 0.2500 in. Calculate the base pitch, and
show it as a dimension on a fuU -sizc sketch of a portion of the rack . •)
,•
)
,
1)
) 166 SPUR OEARS
CTO.OIDl\L OEARS 167
) 4.18. Delem1inc lhc nnmber of tcclh in • 14l involulc spur gear so that Ute base circle
0

diamcler will equal the dedcndwn circle diameter.

) 4.19. Determine the following for a pair of standard spur gears in mesh: (o) an equation
for the oenler distance Casa function of the numbers of teeth and diamctnl pitch· (b)
) lhe various oombloations of 20" fuU·dcpth gears that can be used to operate at a ~nter
) distance of S.000 in. with an angular velocity ratio of 3 : 1. The diametral pitch is not to
e~ceed 12 and the gears are not lo be undercut. The gears are to be hobbed.
)• 4.20. A J0..1ooth pinion mt wilh a 6-pitch, 2S0 hob drives a rack. Calculate the length of
action and the oontad ratio.
) 4.21. A 24-tootb pinion cut with a 2-pitch, 20" full-depth bob drives a rack. Uthe pinion
) rotal~s ~unterdockwise at 360 rpm, determine graphically the velocity of sliding between E
the pinion toolh and the rack tooth at the beginning of contact, pitch point, and at the
) end of conlact. Use a scale of I in. = JO ft/s.
4.22. Two s~ afts whose axes are 8.SOO in. apart arc lo be coupled together by standard
j sp~r geors w1lh an angular velocity ratio of l.S : I . Using a diametr.1 pitch of 6, select two
pairs of gears lo best fit the above requirements. What change in the given data would
) have lo be Rllowcd if each set were to be used?
4.D . An 8-pitch, 141° hob is used to cut a spur gcor. The hob is right-handed with a ICAd
) angle of 2"40' , a length of 3.000 in., and an oulside diameter of 3.000 in. Make a full-size
sketch of the hob cutting a 48-tooth spur gear. The gear blank is ll io. wide. Show the
)
pitch cylinder o( the hob on top of the gear blank with the pitch helix of the bob in correct
relation to the pitch element of the gear tooth. ·show three tooth clements on the gear 0
>- and 11 turns of the thread on the bob; position these clements by means of the normal ftGURR 4..26
), circular pitch. Label the axis of the bob and gear blank, the lead angle of the bob and
the directi~n of rotation of the bob and gear blank. '
l 4.24. For a pressure angle of22.S° in the full-depth system, caJculatF the minimum number distanoc is increased by 0.0250 in., calculate (a) the radii of the operating pirc h circles,
of teeth in a pinion to mesh with a rack witbout.ibvolute interference. Also, c:aku1ate the (b) the operating pressure angle. and (c) the backlash produced.
) number of teeth in a pinion to mesh wilh a gca~pf equal siie without involute interftrcna:. 4.Jl. A 24-tooth pinion cut with a 4-pitch, 20" stub hob drives a 40-tooth gear . ~lculate
) 4.25. A 24-tooth pinion cut with an 8-pitch, 20" full-depth hob drivca a S6-tootb gear. (a) the maximum theoretical distance that these gears can be drawn_apa~ and still mesh
Determine lhe outside radii so that the addendum circle of each gear passes through the together With continuous driving, and (b) the backlash on the new pitch arcles when the
) interfercoce point of the other. Calculate the value of k for each gear. gears are drawn apart the amount calculated in part o.
4..26. Two equal gears cut with a .5-pitch, 20" full-Oepth hob mesh together such that the 4.33. A pinion with 24 teeth has a tooth thickness of0.2550 in. al a culling pi~ch radius
) addendum circle of each gear passes through the interference point of the other. lf the of t.500 in. and a pressure angle of 2<1'. A gear having 40 teeth has a tooth thickness of
contact ratio is 1.622, calculate the number of teeth and the ootside radius on each gear. 0.2300 in. at a cutting pitch radius of 2.500 in. and a pressure angle of 2~. Calculate the
) ressure angle and center distance if these gears arc meshed together Wttho ut backlash.
4.27. Two equal gears cut with a 20" full.<fepth hob mesh at the standard center distance.
) The addendum circle of each gear pescs through the interference point of the other. :.34 A 15-tooth pinion cul with a 10-pitch, 25° hob drives a 45-toolh gear. lhing a
com~uler, calculete the backlash produced "'~1cn the center tlislancc is incic n, ctl ft o on
Derive an equation for k as a function of N, where N is the number of teeth and k is a
) constant which, when divided by the diamctrol pitch, gives the addendum. 3.000 in. to 3.030 in. by increment• of 0.0010 in.
4~2A. In the sketch o( a standard gear shown in Fig. 4.26. the teclh are 20" full depth. If 4.35; A 96-pilch pinion of 34 teeth drives a gear with 60 teeth. If the ccn1c1 .list:1!" :·
) the pirch diameter is 4 .800 in. and the diamctral pitch is S. calculate the ndius of the pin increased by 0.0050 in., compare the backlash produced with pressure angles or 14l .
which contads the profile at the pitch point. Compute the diameter D,, measured over and "JS'.
) two opposite pins.
) 4.29. A 40-tooth pinion cut with a 10-pitch, 141° hoh meshes with a rack with no bacltlash.
Uthe rack is pulled out 0.0700 in. , calculate the backlash produced.
Problems-Metric
) 54
4.30. An 18-tooth pinion cut with a 12-pitch, 20" full-depth bob drives a gear of teeth.
4Im An involute is generated on a base circle having a radius R. of 102 mm. As the
If the center distance at which the gears operate is 3.0SO in., caJculate the operating
) pressure angle. • • 1" t
IOVO U e
·i s -nerated the angle that concsponds to inv cl> varies from 0 10 IS-. For
•- • · I i d d"
4.31. A 36-toolh pinion cut with a lG-pitch, 141° hob drives a 00.tootb gear. If the center increments of T for this antic, calculate the oonapondmg pressure ang e "' an ra ms
l
)
)
}
}I

168 SPUR GEARS
R for poinlli on the involute. Plot this scriCI of pointi; in polar ooorJinates and conned
with a smooth curve to give the involute.
4.1a. Write 1 computer program for Problc:m 4. lm, letting R. .. 76.2, 102, and 127 mm.
+
Dclerminc the corresponding values of pres.sure angle and radius R for each value of
R•.
4.Jm. ·111e thickneu of an involute gear tooth is 7.98 oun at a udius o{ 88.9 mm and a
pressure angle of 14i". Calculate the tooth thickness and radius at a point on the involute
which has a pressure angle of 25".
4.4m. If the involutes that form the outline of a geu tooth arc extended, they will intcBCd
and the tooth becomes pointed. Determine the radius at which this occurs for a tooth
which has a thickness of 6.65 mm at a i-adius of 102 mm and a pressure angle of 20".
4.Sm. The thiclrness of an involute gear tooth is 4.98 mm at a radius of 50.8 mm and a
pressure angle of 20°. Calculate the tooth thickness on the base circle.
4.6m. The pitch radii of two spur gears in mesh arc 51.2 mm and 63.9 mm, and the
outside radii are 57.2 mm and 69.9 mm, respectively. The pressure anglo i5 20". Mue a
full·siu layout of these gears as shown in Fig. 4.10, and label the beginning and end of
contact. Tue pinion is the driver and rotates clockwise. Detennine and label the angles
of approach and recess for both gean.
4.7m. A pinion of 50.0 mm pitch radius wtates clockwise and drives a rack. The pressure
angle is 20•, and the addendum of the pinion and of the rack is 5.00 oun. Make a full.
siic layout of these gears, and label the beginning and end of contact . Determine and
label the augle of approach and rccc$$ for tbc pinion.
4..Sm. Two equal spur gears of 48 teeth mesh together with pilch radii of 96.0 mm aod
addendums of 4.00 mm. If lhe pressure angle is 'JJr, c.\lculato the length of action Z aod
the cootact ralio m,..
4.9111. Conlact ralio is defined either u the a.re of action divided by the circular pitch or
as the ratio of the length of action to the base pitch. Prove that
A rc of aclion
Circular pilcb
Length of actio n
Base pitch
4.lOm. Verify Eq. 4.7 for the length of action Z for a pinion driving a rack io terms
of the pitch radillS R, the base 1adius R•• the addeodwn 11, aod the prcswie angle~.
4.1.lm. A pinion with a pitch radius of 38.0 mm drive& a r.ict. The pressure angle is 2U'.
Calculate the maximum addendum possible fur the rack without having involute inter-
ference on the pinion.
4.l.2m. A 2-module, 2cr pinion of 24 teeth drives a 40-tootb gear. Calculate the pitch
radii , base radii, addendum, dcdcndum, and tooth thickness on the pitch circle .
4 .IJm. A 3-module, 2U' pinion of 18 leeth drives a -45-tooth gear. Calculate the pitch
radii, base radii, addendum, dcdendum. tooth thickoC5$ on the pitch circle, and the contact
ratio.
4.14m. A 0 .2-1111nl11lc, 211• pinion of -42 teeth d1ives I gc11 ol 90 teeth. Calculate Ilic
vo11t11:1 ralio.
4.ISm. H the iaJii of a pinion and gear a1c increased w lhat cad1 becomes a nck, the
length of action theorelically become& a maximum. Detcnnioe tbe equation for the length
of action under these conditiom aod alculate the muimum contact ratio for 1-419, 2U',
,nJ 25• full -depth syslems.
)
)
CYCLOIDAL GEARS 169 •
)
4.16-. A 6-module, 20" pinion of 20 teeth drive& a rack . Calculale the pitch 1adius. base
radius, worll.iog depth. whole depth, and toolh tbicknC$$ of the nck on the pitch line. )
4.17m. A 2U' rack has an addendum of 6.00 mm. Calculale the base pitch , and show ii )
as a dimension on a full-A.z.c skelch of a portion of the rack .
4.18111. Dctonnine lhe approaim<ile number of teeth in a 2rr involule spur gear so lhal
the base circle diameter will equal the dedendum circle diameler.
4.19111. Determine the (oUowing for a pairofslandard spur gears in mesh: (a) an e quation
•)
fur the center dislaDcc Casa fundioo of the numbers of teeth and module; (b) the various
combinations of 1JJ' gears that can be used to operate at a center distance of 120 mm wilh t
an angular velocity ratio or 3: 1. The module is not to be Jess than 2, and the gears are
not to be undercut. The gean arc to be bobbed.
t
4.lOm. A 4-modulc, '1fr pinioo with 30 teeth drives a rack. Calculate the length of action )
and the contact ratio.
4.11111. A 12-module, 2cr pinion with 2A teeth drives a rack. If the pinion rolate.'> roun-
tercloclcwisc at 360 rpm. dctcnniue graphically the velocity of sliding between the pinion •).
tooth and the rack tooth at the beginning of contact, pitch point, and at the end of contact.
4.l:Zm. TWo shafts whose ues arc 216 mm apart arc to be coupled together by standard )
spur gears with an angular velocity ratio of 1.5; 1. Using a module of 4 , select two pairs
of gears to best fit the above rcquircmenu. Whal t:hange in the given data would have
to be allowed if each set were to be used? •
4.2.lm. A 3-module, 20" bob i.s used to cur a spur gear. The hob is right-handed with a
lead aope of 2"-40', a lmgth of 75 mm, and an outside diameter of 75 nun . Mate a full- •
liz.c uetcb of the hob cutting a 43-looth spur gear. The gear blank is 38 mm wide . Show
the pitch cylioder of the hob on top of the gear blank with the pilch helix of tbe hob in •
correct relation to the pitch element of the gear tooth. Show three tooth elements oo the
gear aod 11 turns of the tluead on the hob; position these elements by means of the normal
•
ciradar pitch. Label the axis of the hob and gear blank, the lead angle or hob, and the •
direction of rotation of the hob and gear blank.
4.2Am.. For a preuurc angle of 22.5", calculate tbe minimum number of teclh in a pinion
to mesh with a rack without involute interference. Also calculate the number of teeth in
a pinion to mesh with a gear of equal siz.c without involute interference. The addendum
•,
)
equals the module.
4..2Sia. A 3-modulc, 2U' pinion with 24 teeth drives a 56-tootb gear. Determioe the outside )
radii so that the addendum circle of each gear passes through the interference point of
the other. Calculate the value of k for each gear.
4.2'm. Two equal 5-modulc, 1JJ' gcan mesh together such that the addendum circle of •
each gear passes through the interference point of the other. If the contact ralio is 1.622,
calw.late the number of teeth and the outside radius on each gear.
4..27m. Tlolo equal 20" involute gean aro in mesh at the sland•ad ccnlcr dista nce. TI1e
•
addendum circle of each gear passes through the inlcrferencc paint of the other. Derive )
an equation fork as a function or N;wherc Nii; the number of teeth and k is a constant
'Nhich, when multiplie1I hy the module, gives the addcmlum.
4.21111. In the uetcb ol a 5l•nJard gear shown in Fig. 4.27, the tcelh &IC w· run dcplh. •
If the pilch diameter is 120 mm and the module is 5, cnlculatc the radius of lhe pin which
cootacll the profile al the pitd1 point. Compute the diameter V., measured over two •
opposite pios.
4.1'm. A 2.5-modulc, 2rr pinion with 40 teeth rnesh~ with a rack wilh no backlash. U •
the rad: is pullcd out 1.27 mm, calculalc the backlash produced.
•>
,
)
 I
~ -
)
) 170 Sl'UR G E A RS

)
Chapter Five
) - --- · ---·- - - --- - -
, - --
)
) Nonstandard Spur Gears
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
0 AJthougb many textbooks on kinematics avoid the subject of nonstanda rd gears
)
FIGURE 4.27 altogether, it is a natural and important extension of standard gear theory. Most
) of the gear.; used in automobiles and aircraft arc nonstandard. Jn many design
situations, an exact speed ratio can only be obtained by using nonstandard gears.
) 4~. A 2-module, 20" pi~ion or 18 teeth drives a gear or 54 teeth., If the center distance
In other cases, it will be possible to improve the smoothness of operation or to
at which the gears operate 1s 73.'Il mm, calculate the operating pressure aogle.
) increase the load-carrying capacity of the gear set by using nonstanda rd gear.;.
4.Jlm
. · A. 2. ·5-module, """ · · WI'th 36 teeth drives a gear with 60 teeth If the
DJ pinion t
distance
b) h 1s mcreased. ·b Yo·650 mm, ca1culate (a) the radii or the operating· pitch circles
cen er A basic knowledge of nonstandard gear theory will often enhance the designer's
) ( t e opcrahng pressure angle, and (c) the backlash produced. ' ability to produce a superior design.
) 4.3~ . A 6-mod~le, 2~ pinion of 24 teeth drives a gear of 40 teeth. Calculate (a) the
m.aXJmu~ theorctic;a~ distance that these gears can be drawn apart and still mesh to ether
;'th contmuous dnvtng, and (b) 1he backlash on the new pitch circles When the~ are
5.1 THEORY OF NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS
)
rawn apart the amount calculated in part a . The most serious defect of the involute system o f gearing is the possibility of
) 4.JJm. A pinion with 25 teelh has a tooth thickness of 6.4TI mm at a culling itch radius interfe rence betw~n the tip of the gear tooth and the flank of the pinion tooth
of 37.50 mm and a. pressure angle of 20". A gear having 42 teeth has a tooth ~clcn f when the number of teeth in the pinion is reduced below the minimum fo r that
)
5~!'4;u~; ~ius ~f
at a cutting pitch 63.00 inm and a pressure angle of 2ff'. Calcula~:c system of gearing.
) P angle and center d1Stancc 1r these gears arc meshed together without backlash. . When interference does occur, the interfe ring metal is re movell from the

)
4fm. A 2.5·module , 20" pinion of 20 teeth drives a gear of 45 teeth. Using a computer
ca culate _the backlash produced when the ccnler distance is incrcasc:d from 81 25 mm t~
flank of the pinion tooth by the cutter when the tee th arc gcneratt'.d. This removal
of metal by the cutter is known as undercutting and would normally occur unless
82.00 by mc1cments of 0.025 mm. · steps are taken to prevent it. If the cutter d id not remove this metal, the two
) ~·~Sm . A 0.3-module pinion of 34 teeth drives a gear with 60 teeth. If the center distance gear.; would not wtate when meshed together because the gear causing the in-
1s increased by 0.127 mm, compare the baclclash produced with pressure angles of p•• terference would jam on the flank of the pinion . Actually, howeve r, the gear.;
) 20", and 25". · ..,. '
will be able to rotate freely together because the fla nk of the pinion has bee n
) undercut. This u ndercutting, however, not only weakens the pinion tooth but
may also remove a small portion of the involute ad jacent to the base circle , which
) ma y cause a serious reduction in the length of action .
j 171
>
)
)
..
 ,
)

,,
)

172
,.
NONSTANDAllD SPUR Gt;AJtS

'Ilic attempt to eliminate interference 1111d its oonscquent undercutting has

led to the development of several nonstandard systems of gearing, some of which
F.XTF.NUEO CENlER OISTANCE SYSTEM

These two methods were developed primarily as a means of eliminating

17J

require special cutters. However, two of these systems have been successful and
find wide application because standard cutters can be used to generate the teeth.
In the first method, when the pinion is being cut. the cutter is withdrawn a certain
amuunl Crum the bla.11lr. so that the addendum of tlae basic rack passci; through
the interference point of the pinion. This will eliminate the undercutting, but the
width of the tooth will be increased with a corresponding decrease in the tooth
space. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.1, where (a) shows undercut teeth, and (b)
shows the teeth resulting when the cutter has been withdrawn. When this pinion
(Fig. 5.lb) is now mated with its gear, it will be found that the center distance
bas been increased because of the decreased tooth space. It can no longer be
calculated directly from a diametral pitch and numbers of teeth and is therefore
not considered standard. The pressure angle at which the gears operate also
increases. This method of eliminating interference is known as the extended unser
distance system.
lbe withdrawal of the culler need not be limited to the pinion blank alone
but may be applied to both the pinion and gear if conditions warrant.
A variation of the eittended center distance system is the practice of ad-
vancing the cutter into the gear blank the same amount that it will be withdrawn
from the pinion blank. nus will result in an increased addendum for the pinion
and ·a decreased addendum for the gear; the increase in pinion addeodum will
equal the decrease in gear addendum. The dedendums will also change on both
the pinion and gear so that the working depth will be the same as if the gears
were standard. The ceriter distance remains standard as well as the pressure angle.
This system is known as the umg and short addendum sys~m.
Because of the change in the tooth proportions, the thick.DC$ of the gear
tooth on the pitch circle is reduced and that of the pinion increased. Because of
the fact that pinion teeth are weaker than gear teeth when both are made of the
same material, the long and short addendum system will tend to cqualiz.e the
tooth strengths. The long and short addendwn system can be applied only when
the interference occurs on one gear of a pair in mesh. Also, this system cannot
be applied when the gears arc equal or nearly equal in size because, although it
would eliminate the interference on one gear, it would aa:entuale il on the other
gear.
interference. However, Ibey are also used eittensively for improving contact ratio,
,
for changing tooth shape lo increase the strength of a tooth even though inter-
ference may not be present, and for fitting gears to nonstandard center distances.
The two systems can be applied to spur, helical. and bevel geuring. In fad ,
)
,,
,
the standard tooth system for bevel gears is a long and short addendum system.
Formulas for the application of these two systems to spur gears cut with a
hob will now be developed.
S.2 EXTENDED CENTER DISTANCE SYSTEM
·-
Figure 5.2a in solid line shows a rack cutting a pinion where the pinion has fewer
teeth than the minimum allowed to prevent interference. The rack and pinion
arc meshing at the standard center distance, with the standard pitch line of the
,,·-
rack tangent to the standard or cutting pitch circle of the pinion. The addendum
,.
,,
line of the rack falls above the interference point E of the pinion so that the
Danks of the pinion teeth are undercut as shown. For the rack tooth to cut the
necessary clearance at the root of the pinion .tooth, its height would have to be
incccased. To simplify the sketch, this additional height is shown (dotted) on only
one tooth . The same layout may be used to illustrate the action of a hob cutting
the pinion because kioematically a rack tooth and a hob tooth are identical.
J'o avoid undercutting, the rack is withdrawn a distance e so that U1e
addendum line of the rack passes through the interference point E. This condition
is shown dotted in Fig. 5.2a and results in the rack cutting a pinion with a wider
)
,,
,,
,
,.
,,

,,
••

,,
FIGURE 5.1
(a)
DGUJlE 5.2
,,
~- -
, ,
I
)
!!X'ffiNDr!ll CF.l'fll!ll OISTl\NCE SYSTEM 175
) 174 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS

toolh than before. As the rack is withdrnwn, the outside radius of the pinioit l Therefore,
) must also be increased (by machining a larger pinion blank) to allow the clearancq
) between the tip of the pinion tooth and the root of the raclt tooth to remain thd ·:
same. The same clearance is used regardless of whether a gear is standard o~ ~
) nonstandard. To show the change in the pinion tooth more clearly, the rack it\ :.
Fig. 5.24 was withdrawn downward to the right to keep the left side of the tool!\ ; e ~ -1(
p4
N . 1
k - -sm
2
.._)
'I' (U.S.) (S.2)
) profile the same in both cases. When two gears, ooe or both of which have been] :
) generated with the cutter offset, arc meshed together, the center distance willi '
be greater than the standard center distance. In addition, the pressure angle atj ·:· e = m( 1.000 - ~ sin 1
<l>) (metric)
) which these gears operate will be greater thnn the cutting pressure angle. :
As mentioned previously, when a standard pinion is generated by the rack,; ~. Two equations that were developed in the section on involut~mctry (Chap-
) the standard pitch line of the rack is tangent to the cutting pitch cirde of the! '· ter 4) find particular application in the study of no nstandard ge;mng:
pinion. In this case, the standard pitch line is also the cutting pitch line. When! ;
) the rack is withdrawn a distance e, however, the standard pitch line is no longer ·i R,. (S.3)
} tangent to the cutting pitch circle; therefore, it cannot serve as the cutting pitch · COS <l>a =- - cos <t>,.
R,,
line. A new line on the rack will therefore act as a cutting pitch line. Figure 5.2b
) shows more clearly the two pitch lines on the rack when it is cutting a nonstandard .
tooth. From Fig. 5 .24. it can be seen that the cutting pitch circle on the pinion ' '• - 2R,,[_!.L I- inv <j>,. - inv <t>11] (S.4)
~ remains the same regardless of whether the pinion being cut is standard or non- 2R,.
) standard.
The width of the enlarged pinion tooth on its cutting pitch circle can be B means of these equations , it is possible to determine the pressur~ angle
) determined from the tooth space of the rack on its cutting pitch lioe. From Fig. and toJth thickness at any radius R 11 if the prcs.<1ure angle and tooth thu:kncss
)
)
5.2b, this thickn~ can be expressed by 1he following equation:
::s known at some other radius R,.. For nonstandard gears, the reference tluck-
that co~nds to the thickness 1,. in Eq. 5.4 is the tooth thickness on the
cutting pitch circle, which can easily be calculated for any_ cutter offset by Eq.
t = 2e tan cj> + ~ (S.1) 5.1. The reference pressure angle that corresponds to cl>.~ 1s the press~rc a~gle
) of the cutter. The radius at this pressure angle is the radius of the cuttmg pitch
) circle. .
Equation 5.1 can therefore be used to ealculate the tooth thickn~ on the standard When two gears, gear 1 and gear 2, which have been cut with a _h ob ~tfset
) or cutting pitch circle of a gear generated by a standard cutter offset an amount e1 and e2 , respectively, are meshed together, they ~II opc~te on new pitch circles
e; e will be negative if the hob is advanced into the gear blank. This equation of radii R' and R' and at a new pressure angle 4> • The thickness of the teeth on
) can also be used to determine the amount a cutter must be fed into a gear blank the opcratlng pitch circles can be expressed~ t; _and ti and can ea~ly be cal~ulated
to give a specified amount of backlash. from Eq. 5.4. 1bcse dimensions ftre shown m Fig. S.3 together with the th1cknes.-1
) In Fig. 5.2, the rack was withdrawn just enough so that the addendum line of the teeth t 1 and t 1 on the cutting pitch circles or radii R1 and R,.
passed through the interference point of the pinion. It is possible to develop an An equation wiU now be developed for determining the prcs:o;urc angle<!>'
) equation so that e can be determined to satisfy this roodition: at which these two gears will operate:
)
e =AB+ OA - OP (S.5)
)
k
) = - + R. cos 4> - R
P4
) and

) 21TR; 21TRi
1; + ti = - -
N,
= - -
N1
(S.6)
)
)
)
)
)
\
 ,
)

,.
)

176 tfONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS EXTENDED CEl'lrnR DISTANCE SYSTEM 177 ,

By substituting p = ir/P, and solving for inv cl>' ,

inv
.
4>' = mv + +
2Pie1
N
+ e2)
N
tan+
(5.7)
,,r
,,
a .f l

or

e1 ·I el =
(N1 + N 2)(inv +•
~--~~-~---~
- inv cl»)
(U .S.) (S.7a)
2P, tan+

ea + t:z m(N1 +---'=....-

= ---'--'-- +• -inv «!>)
N 2 )(inv...,,___ __

,·-•
'""' (metric)
2 tan cl»

By using Eq. 5.7. il is possible to determine the pressure angle cl>' at which

FIGURE 5.3
the two gears will operate after having been cut with a hob offset e1 and ez,
respectively. To calculate the increase io the center distance (over the standard
cc:otcr distance C) due to the increased pressure angle, Eq. 4.18 can be used and
,, l

,
is repeated here:
Subslituling Eq. 5.4 fort; and ti,
oos-
AC = C [ - cl> - 1] (S.8)
2R:[ 2~ 1 + +- cl>')] + 2R{2~2 + (iov + - 2
";.,~; cos 4>'

Dividing by 2R;,
(inv inv inv cl»')] =
Very often, it is necessary lo design gears lo fit a predetermined center
distance. In this case, the pressure angle is fixed by the conditions of the problem,
,•
'• + cmv"'
[ZRa ,. >]
· ... - .mv .... Ri ( R + cmv
+ R; 2 2
,l
· + - mv
. 4>' >]
aod it is necessary to determine the bob offsets ea and e 2 • 'Ille sum e 1 + e 2 can
be detennioed from Eq. 5.1a. However, it should be noted that the sum of e 1 and
ez does not equal the ilicrease in the coater distance over the standard center distance.
•>
Rj) .
t,
2R
1
Ri
+ Rl 2R2

By substituting Eq. 5.5 and 2R = NIP4 ,

Ii ...
"" N, +
(
l + R; (mv +-
I

inv cl>)
Unfortunately. there is no way of rationally determining e 1 and e 2 independently
of each other. Because of this, the values are usually selected by assuming one
of them or by using some empirical relation such as letting ea and e 2 vary inversely
(oc directly if e 1 + e 2 is negative) with the numbers of teeth in the gears in an
,
~

+ Ni ("lDV .._,
attempt to strengthen the pinion teeth. However, this method of selecting e 1 and
e1 generally does·not yield pinion and gear teeth of anywhere near equal strength. •
-t1P, + -N2 12
- P, == --. + N,
"t' -
.
UlV "t'
.i.)
Io ao attempt to correct ~ situation, a method was developed by Walsh and >
N1 N, N 1 Na Ni
By multiplying by N,rP,,
Mabie 1 for determining the hob offset e 1 from the value of c 1 + e 2 for a pair of
spur gears designed to operate at a nonstandard center distance. By using a digital
oomputcr. it was possible to adjust e 1 and e 2 for various velocity ratios and changes
•
r
+ N2 ctnv
= p'II' + Na P, · cl> · - + in center distance so that the strength of the pinion teeth was approximately
•
I • )
11 + lz wv equal to that of the gear teeth .
4

By s11h..1ituli11g l.!q. 5. J for 11 nnd 11 ,

Because o( the complexity of the problem, the rc..~ults hod to be given in
the form of design charts. ·nacse show curves or e 1/(e 1 + e2 ) veasus. N/(N, + N 2 )
for various changes in center distance. These design charts were developed for
•>
"le, Ian <J> I eI 2e 1 tun .j. I
p
- j~ I -
"' N 1 +. N 1
p;- (Inv+
,
lnv +)
n cut1i111t p1 c~ s111c 11111:lc I)> ur 7.0*, f11ll ·llci11h lcclh (.le · • I), 111111 co 1 11~ c pill:h.
t
2 2
+ N2 c·1ov +' - .mv <J>)
2 tan+ ( e 1 + e1 ) + p = P, +
'II' N.
P,
'E. J. WabJa and II. H . Mabie, "A Simplilicd Mctliod foe OctcrminU!c Hob Olhct Values io lhc
Da1p ol Homlandard Spur Ge.an." Procr~dillp, Scoond OSU Applied Mcchanmn Confc:rern:c, •>
Sti1tw.tr.r 0\1,..._.,m• n ................ 1o·n

·~.- ~Jr.
,,
I
)
)
178 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS
EXTENDED CENTER DISTANCE SYSTEM 179
) J .00
) The value of VC most be multiplied by the diametral pitch because the charts arc based
on PJ - 1:
) 090 -
t.C: .. vc )( "· .. 0.25 )( s
) = 1.25 in.

> ..
-;: 0 .80 -
+ Also
)
)
~
;:.010 - tJ.C = I175
liC= 1.200
in.
_!!1_ - ~
N, 1- N, 20 I- 30
= 0.60

) ll.C• 1250
tJ.C• 1.225
Therefore, from Fig. 5.4,

I-~,,.,~~~'."i"~~~==~~tJ.~C~-~1:27:5~~~~~~~~~-'
) OMl _ e_,- = 0.543
e, I- t,
j 0.50
050 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0 .75 0.80 0.85
) 0.90 By calculating the value oft, + e, from Eq. S.1a ,
Ni1CN1 +Ni)
FIGURE S.4
) (N, + N,)(inv of>' - inv <!>)
e, + et = 2PJ tan<!>
) Although the charts were plotted for data based on a diametral pitch of 1, they (20 + 30)(inv 26.5° - inv 20"}
) can be used for any diamctral pitch up to 19.99 (end of coarse pitdi}. The charts = 2x5tan20"
were also plotted for N 1 = 18 and N2 from 18 to 130 teeth. Where N talces on
1
) other values, a very slight error (less than 4%) is introduced. A sample chart is = 0.29073 in.
shown in Fig. 5.4 for changes in center distance 6.C = J.175 to t.275 in. for
) PJ == I. By combining these results,

) Example 5.J. A pinion and gear of 20 and 30 teeth, rC$pectively, an: to be cul by a 5- e, "' 0.543(c1 + t,)
pitch , 20- full-<lepth bob lo operate on a center distance of S.25 in. with no backlash.
) Determine the value of t 1 and t 1 to ·give teeth of the proper thickness so that the strengths
= 0 .543(0.29073)
of the pinion teeth and gear teeth will be approximately equal. The standard center distance "' 0. l5787 io.
) is given by
) and
C = N, + N, = 20 + 30
) 2PJ 2 x S e, = O.l3286 io.

= 5.00 in .
) Although it is not practical to give all the calculations necessary lo determine the
stresses in the pinion and gear t~lh, it can be shown that
) Operating pressure angle:
9.952W.
) . = c·
c cos <1> 5 .0
S, = - - F - lb/in.'
cos <1> = _ c05 2""
u
5 25
) and
4>' = 26.50"
l 10.1sw.
S, = --F- lh/in . 1
Change in center distance:
)
VC = C' - C = 5.25 - S.00 'ft'ber-e
) w. = normal load at tooth tip (lb)
- ~ 0.25 in.
) F - looth face width (in .)

)
)
•
 ,
•
180 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS
l:!.)(ffiNDED CF..N'TER DISTANCE SYSTEM 181 •
)_
25.0
25.0
)_
)
22.5 - ._
)
)

-;
.5 •
~
.!! •
~
15.0
•
jj
c
it
12.5
•
•
•
,•
,
7 .5
7.5 )

5 .o I I
0.5 0 .6 0.7 0.8 0.9 5
-i .s o.s 0 .1 o .8 0.9
Nzl<N1 + Nzl
Nz!IH1 + N-z' •
flGURE 5.5
flGURE 5.6
•
Jn addition tu tJ1e charts for positive changes in center distance, as illustrated Another approach to the solution of the problem of determining e, and e, •
in Fig. 5.4, a series of charts is also given in the paper by Walsh and Mabie for
negative changes in center distance.
bas been developed by Siegel and Mabie.> By this method, e1 and e2 are selected
for a pa.rtiai.lar application to give tooth proportions whi~ yield_a maximum •)
It is a laborious ~ob to calculate tooth stresses in nonstandard spuc gears ratio of recess action to approach action and, at the same hme, give_a contact
because of the change an standard tooth dimensions caused by the hob offsets e ratio m, of 1.20 or higher. This system is based on the fact th~t a pair of gears
and ez. lo view of this, curves were developed to give stress factors {SNW.) ~ mesh more smoothly coming out of contact than they do gomg mto contact.
t
a function of the ratio N.j(N1 + ·N 2) for various changes in center distance and l
2
diametral pitch. It was not possible, however, lo develop charts for P" = 1 as TABLE 5.1 Sue& Fadon (Ex11111ple S.l)
was done in the case for the hob offset charts shown in Fig. 5.4. Figures 5.5 and >-
5.6 show stress factor curves for the pinion and gear for P" = 5 of E1ample 5.1.
A comparison of the stress factors for the data of Example 5.1 is shown in Table >
Pinion 9.952 in. -• 10.0 in.- • (Fig. 5.5)
5.1 obtained from detailed calculations given in reference 2 and from the ai.rves ·
of Figs. 5.5 nnd 5.6. Gui 10.)8 in. · I 10.Q in.· I (fig. 5.6)
•
1
11. 11. Mabie, 6 . J . Walah, and V. I. 81tc:man, MOdcnainatioaorliobOff&et RequircdtoGC11Cralc 'R. E. Siqd and H . II. Mabie, "Dctcrmin•lion ol Hob Olbd_Valuc:a ~or Noos11n~d Gean Based
•
N0n&tandard Sl"'r Gean with Teeth or r:qual Strcr1&th," N«ltanb,,, tuU/ N«ltilv n.rory. IS (l),
IYlll, Pl'· 1111- 192.
- Mulmu'"' IUitio of Rt'ICUS 10 A~ch Action," Procttdut11, Thud OSlJ Apflhcd McchanlSID
Cborcrcna:, Srillw•lcr, OU•hmn•, NoYCml>Cr 1973.
•·
•
)
~ .----,,
 I

•
)
1!'!'7"·-- ·

182 NON~ANDARD SPUR GEARS

J8J
•
LONG AND SHORT ADDENDUM SYSTEM
1l1ercfc:>re, it is ad.vanlogeous to have as high n ratio o{ recess to approach action
) as poss1~le, especially for gears for instrument application. It should be noted from the sketch that the ad1lendums of the two ge1us 111e nol
It ~s not possible to calculale the addendum and dedendum of an extended equal to each other, nor is either one equal to the klP, of the hob.
) ~c~tcr d1s111m:e gear unless infom1111io11 is avnilnblc regarding the gear with which An equation for the depth of cut cBn also he easily developed from the
11__15 to .me;ih. Figure 5.7 shows IWo gears lhnt arc lo mesh at a given center skeh:h :
) d1s111ncc C · The ![Cars arc to be cul with a hub which is offset e on the pinion
and el on lhe gear. lt is necessary to calculate the outside diamet~r of each gear h, '-- R., t u.., - C' + c (5. IO)
a nd the depth of cut. The centerline of gear 2 has been moved to the right so
j that a ~tter tooth may .be shown engaged with each blank. If one knows the where c is obtained from Table 4.1 or 4.2.
c~nter d1sta~cc, the cutting pitch radii, the hob offsets, and the tooth form and
) d1amclral pitch of the hob, it is possible to write equations for the outside radii 5.3 LONG AND SHORT ADDENDUM SYSTEM
as follows:
~ If the cutter is advanced into the gear blank lhe same amount that it is wilhdrawn
from the pinion, then e1 =- - e 1 and, from Eq. 5.7, <I>' = <I>- Therefore, the
) pressure angle at which the gears wiU operate is the same as the pressure angle
(U.S.}
) at which they were cut. Because there is no change in the pressure angle, R; =
(metric) R, and Ri = R 2 , and the gears will operate at the standard center distance.
) (5.9) The addendum of the pinion is increased to lcJP~ + e and the addendum

) R01 = C' - R, - e 1 + ~ (U.S.)

of the gear reduced to klP., - e. The tooth thicknesses on the cutting pitch circles
P., can be readily calculated from Eq. 5.1, keeping in mind that the gear toolh
) thickness decreases the same amount that the pinion tooth increases. As has been
R., = C' - R 1 - e1 +m (metric} mentioned previously, there are conditions under which the long and short ad-
) dendum system will not work properly. For the long and short addendum system
to be suc~rut , Professor M . F. Spotts of Northwestern University worked out
) that for 141• gears, the sum of the teeth in the gears roust be at least 64; and for
20" gears , lhe sum of the leeth should be at least 34. For 25° gears , the sum of
) the teeth should not be less than 24.
) The proportions of gears cut by a pinion curter for either of these lwu
systems wiU not be lhe same as when cut by a hob. The preceding formulas apply
) only to gears cut by a hob or by a raclc-typc cutter. However, formulas for gears
cut by pinion cutters can be developed using the principles above, and these are
) presented in a later section.
)
Example 5.2. Two spur gears of 12 a nd 15 teeth, respectively, arc to be cut by a 20"
) full-depth 6-pitdt hob. Determine the center distance at which to operate the gears to
avoid undercutting.
)
) e, - k( Ik - sin' 4>)

) :: l(l.00 - 'I sin1 20)

) = 0.04968 in .
' • = l( 1.00 - Y sin' 20)
o,t __________._ _ -~ O.O'l04S in.
)
FIGURE 5.7 . +• . .&.
+
2P.(e 1 + e,) Ian
N, + N,
+
) mv - 1nv""

)
)
)
 ,
}

}84 . NONSTANDARD SPUR

= 0 .01490 +
GEARS

2 x 6(0.04968 + 0.0204S) tao 111' S.4 RECESS ACTION GEARS

RECESS ACTION GEARS 185 ,._
}

12 + IS
Another interesting type of nonstandard gears is recess action gears, so called
= 0.01490 + 0.01134 became most or all the action between teeth takes place d uring the recess portion l
= 0.02624 of coo tact. The long and short addendum system is a form of recess action gears.
It is known that the recess portion of contact of a pair of g~ is much smoother
.-
From the ~ble of involute functions,

.,.. = 23.979
than the approach portion. It was on this basis that recess action gears were
developed, and it bas been found that these gears wear longer and operate with •
R' _ R, C0$ cl> _ l x 0.9397
less friction, vibration, aod ooise than gears with teeth ohtaodard proportions.
Recess action gears can be machined using standard hobs and cutters. The · •
I - WS cj>' - 0.91JS = 1.0286 in. tooth fonn of such gears is the same as that of standard gears, and they mesh at
the ume ceoter distance. Therefore, a pair of recess action gears can be used to
•
R' _ R, cos cl> _ 1.25 x 0.9397
• - C0$ cl>• - 0.9135 - l.2858 in. replace a pair of standBJ:d spur ge ars with no change in center distance. •
• ml
The strength of recess action gears is approximately the same as for standard
gears. However, a recess action gear must be designed to operate either as a •
= R; + R; = 2.3144 in.
driver or as a follower; it cannot be designed to operate as both . A recess action
pioioo, however, can drive a follower in either direction, that is, it can change
•
C'
direction of rotation during an operating cycle. Also, the gears can be used for •
&~pie SJ. Two 3-module, 2fr spW" gean of 32 aod 48 teeth, rC5pCCtively, are
o pcratmg lo~edl~r. oo t~e standard cc.alee distance of 120.00 11\111. To affect a c:baqe io
a speed-increasing drive as well as for a speed-reducing drive, but the power Dow
must always be in the same direction. If the power Dow ehang~ direction during •
th~ ~peed rabo, 11 u_desa~ed to replace the 32.tooth gear with one of 31 teeth. TIH: tooth
thickness o~ the cuttmg pitch circle of the 48-toolh gear and the 120.00 DlfTI center di$tance
operation, binding in the tooth contact area will occur with .resulting high friction
and wear. Because of these limitations, recess action gears cannot be used as
•
arc to n:main unch11Dged.
Detcnninc the value of c, that will give teeth of the proper thickness to mesh with
idlers operating at standard center distances. •
the 48·loolh gear.
There are two types of recess action gears: (a) full recess action where all
•
,•
the contact is recess, and (b) semi-recess action. In order for a pair of recess
N,m 31 x J action gears to have adequate contact ratio, little or oo undercut, and teeth not
R, = 2 =- 2
- = 46.500 mm pointed, full recess action gears cannot have less than 20 teeth in the driver nor
less than 1:1 teeth in the follower. For semi-recess action gears, however , the
n. - -z-
N,m
= -
48 x 3
-
2
= 72.000 mm minimum number of teeth in the driver is reduced to 10 and that in the follower
l
R'
• =
( N, ) ,
N, + N, C = 31 +
31
48 x 120.00 - 47.089 nun TABLE S.l Tooth Proportions, Recess Action Gears •
(Pl m • e Aagle 4> = 20")
•)
R; (N, ~· N,)c· - 31 ~ 48 x
= 12U.OO = 72.911 mm Sc:mi·Rccess Aclioa F11U Retta Aclioo

cus cl> ' = R , cos cf> =

.,.. = 21.88"
R;
46.500 cos zrr
47.089 Addendum (a)
Drit'a-
1.500
P..
FoDowcr

0.500
P.
Dmcr
2.000
P.
Follower

0
,,•
0.796 1.796 0.296 2.296
Dcdendum (b)
t + Cz = _m~(_N~,_+_ N-"C--)(,_in_v_+
1 _,__'_-_in.c.v_cl>::..<.) P. P. P. P,
1
2 tan+
Pitch di1metci- (D)
N N N N
•
= J(Jl + 48)(inv 21.88" - iov
2 tan 20"
20? P,,
N+3
P.
N+
P,,
N + 4
P,
N •
= 1.5660 mm
Outside radius (R. )
2P4 2P.
1.2068
2P4
2.2987
2 P,,
0.8429
•
For t 1 ~ 0, t 1 = 1.5660 mm.
Tooth thickness (t)
1.9348
P. P,
"· P, •
•
- ~ '! -
•
)
)
 I
). ~...,

. 1
..
) '
186 NONS"tANOAR n s ruR Gl!ARS
) NO NSTANDAltO !>rUR OP.J\RS Cl.Tr llY A rlNION cun rnt 187

)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
) A - Utainnlna of aintact
B - End of contact
A - Bealnnlna ol contact
) B - End of c:ontoct

)
) FIGURE 5.&r
) run rec:eu -acl..,;,, flGURE S.Sc
Bt•rs
)
) to 20. Full recess action gears are to be preferred becnuse nil of the action is in
the recess portion. Many times, however, the large number of teeth required for
) full recess action limits their use, and semi-recess action gears must be used
) instead.
Table 5.2 shows the proportions for the two systems of recess action gears.
) To give a comparison between these gears and standard gears, Fig. 5.8 shows
the addendum, pitch, and base circles and length of action of (a) standard gears,
) (b) full recess action gears, and (c) semi-recess action gears in mesh. In Fig. 5.8b,
) for the full recess action system, the pitch circle of the follower (gear 2) become.<:
the addendum circles because the addendum is zero. Therefore, the approach
) A - Sqinnlna ot airirxt portion of tooth contact is zero, and all the length of action is in the recess
8 - End of airitact
portion. Figure 5.8c, for semi-recess action, shows the recess portion considerably
) larger than the approach portion for this system.
)
) 5.5 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS
cur BY A PINION curn:R
j The theory of producing spur gears for an extended center distunce npplication
) when cut by a pinion cutter is much more complicated than when the gears are
FIGURE .5..86 cut by a hob or by a rack. When a hob is used to cut a nonstandard gear, the
) cutting pitch circle of the gear being cut and the cutting pressure angle are the
)
)
>
 ,
•
)
J88 · NONSTANUAIU> SPUR Gl; ARS NONSTANDARD Sl'UR GEARS CUT BY A !'INION CUTil.!R 189 )
&aine as if the gear were a standard gear. This fact grcatJy iiimplifies the analysis . Tbi3 equation can also l.Jc cxp1cssed as t
..
11s hasbeen seen iu previous sections. When cutting with a pinion cutter, however,
and the culler is withdrawn an amount e, a oew culling pitch circle is defined on
the gear and on the pinion culler. In addition, a new culling pressure angle
d~vclops. These changes make the analysis much more complex. ·n1is condition
wbre
C
_ (N
- 21f
+ Nc)P•
COS cl>c
(5.U)
,
\

is shown in Fig. 5.9.

Figure 5.9a shows the case of a pinion cutter generating a gear at a standard
center distance. The equation for the standard cutting center distance is
P• = base pitch
cl>c = standnrd pressure angle of cutter
•
)
._
C.,.. = N
2P,
+ N. (U.S.) (5.11)
Figure 5.9b shows the case where the cutting center distance is increased
an amount e. Because the base circle radii remain unchanged, the generating
pressure aogle cl>, is given by
,
c.. d = (N + Nc)m (metric) _ (N + Nc)P•
)
2 cos 4>, - 2 (C ) (5.13)

where
wbere
1f "' + e
•
N = number of teeth io gear to be cut
e = pinion cutter offset •
Ne = number of teeth io cutler
P, = diametral pitch
m = module
The equation Crom involutometry for the thickness'• of an involute gear
tooth at various radii and corresponding involute pressure angles is given by ,•
'• = 2R.[2~A + inv cl>.11 - inv cj> 8 ] (5.14) •r
wliae
41,. = involute pressure angle at radius R,.
cl>. = involute pressure angle at radius Ra
•j
This equatioo may also be expressed as )

cos cl>.11 2R• c·mv ......

+ --.1..- .1.. •
- 1nv .1.. )
..,. (S.15) •
,
'· = ,,. --.1..-
c... cos..,. cos ....

wllae
R• = radius of base circle = R,. cos 4'.11 = R. cos cl>.
From Eq. 5.15, it is possible to write an equation for the tooth thickness of a •..
'a.
cutter on its generating pitch circle:

le cos cl>, 2Rt

- - - + - - · (inv 4', -· inv cl>,) (S.16)
,
cos "'· cos 4',
•
o,

lal
o.
(I>)
. wliere
le c. thickness of cutter tooth on standard pitch circle pj2, Pc being the
circular pitch or standard tooth
•
>
•"IGURE 53 C.11.ia& of 1laa..,.. •en.a aomt..~ 1ear. R•, "" radius or base t:irclc of cutter
•
•
)
:7'-r- ·-
. .·-~.. )
'
)
l 190 NO NSTANOARO SPUR OF.ARS
NO NSTANDARD SPUR UEARS cur BY A PINION CIJTH'. N 191
) 111e tooth thick~css of the cutter as given by Eq. 5.16 is equal to the space width ; The running pitch circle diameter of gear l is
} ?f the gea~ on 1~s ge~erati~g pitch circle. The tooth thickness 11 of the gear on ·.
11~ generating patch cucle IS therefore equal to the circular pitch on that circle D 2N, (C + t.) (5.22)
) minus the space width. This is given by the equation '• = N , + Ni

) P• le cos ct>, 2R, where A is the increase in standard center distance ~tween the two gears. There -
16 =- - - - - -· (inv cf>, - inv4>6 ) (5.17) fore, the circular pitch on the running pitch circle as
cos ct>. cos ct>. cos 4>.

'
)
)
i,
When the gear is meshed with a se cond gear, a running pitch circle is obtained.
By using Eq. 5. 15, the tooth thickness t, of a gear on a running pitch circle is
determ ined by
-rrD,,
N,
2-rr(C -i t.)
N 1 + N1
(5.23)

) " cos 4> 2R, . .

and
I, = 16 ~ + - -.,_- (mv ct>. - mv cf>,) (5.18)
) COS 't'r COS 'f', 2-rr (C ·-
·I A)
- ~ I ~I
(S.24)
N , +Ni '• '•
) wficre
cl>, = running pressure angle for gear pairs with zero backlash. Substituting Eq. 5.21 fort,, and r,, into Ei1.
) R , = base radius of gear 5 .24 and simplifying gives
) Substituting Eq. 5.17 into Eq. 5.18 gives
inv 4>,,(R•• + R • .) + iov 4>,,(R,, + R.,)
) = 2R,, inv 4>c + inv tt».(R., + R. ,) (S.25)
P• le cos cj>, 2Rt
) I, = cos 4>. - cos ct>, - cos~, (inv cj>, - inv cl>,)
Equation 5_25 can be further simplified by expressing R ••• ~··· and_R•, in tcnns
) +-2R, (" .
- mv cf>t - inv cf>,) (S.19) of number of teeth, cutter pressure angle, and diametral patch lo give
cos cl>.
)
and (N, + N,) inv <t>,, + (N1 + N,) inv 4>,,
) = 2N, inv cf>, + (N1 + N1 ) inv <!>, (S.26)
) • .i. t, cos <!>, - P• + t, cos cf>c + 2R• inv cf>, + 2R, iov cf>,
mv '+'1 = ' (S.20) From Eq. 5.26, it can be seen that there is no way of determining <!>,, n? d cl>,,
2(R•. + R 6 )
) independently of each other~ therefore, e 1 and c 1 cannot_be c~lcuhited directly
The generating pressure angle al which a gcnr must be cut to give a specified from Eq. 5.13. To overcome this difficulty, a second rclatto.l\Slup bctweenc,:rnd
) c was developed by equalizing the static bending stresses an the _two gears.
tooth thickness at a given running pressure angle can be calcuJated from Eq. 1
) 5.20. ·n.e required cutter offset to give this pressure angle may then be calculated A computer program was written to balance the stresses m the teeth hy
from Eq. 5. 13. adjusting the offsets of the pinion cutter used to cut the gears. 111c ge:u system
) When gears 1 and 2 have been cut with a pinion cutter to mesh at an extended as defined by the numbe~ of teeth in the pinion and gear, the pitch diameter
center distance, equations can be written from Eq. 5.19 to give the tooth thicknes.<1 :nd diametral pitch of the cutter, and the center distance at which the gears ~~re
) of each gear on its running pitch circle: to operate. This system was used to produce a set o_f design charts for <leterm1mng

,
)

)
'··
== P• - le cos cl>c - 2R6.(inv cf>, - inv cfl,.) + 2R,,(iov cf>,, - inv cl>,)
cos<!>.
values of c and c 1 as a function of N/N, for v~~ous values of l!C. The charts
1
. were based on a 20" cutter pressure angle and a pmaon of20 teeth . Unfor1u nately ,

= Pt - le cos cf>c - 2R,.(inv cl>c - invct>.,) + 2R.,(inv cf>"' - inv cj>,) 'R N Orecn anJ H . H. Mabie, "Octcrminalion of Pinion.CUll~r Offsets Required to Procluoe
)
1
,, cos<!>. N.;.._l~ndud Spur Gean With Teeth of Equ1.I Strength." Mttluuusm artd Mocltin~ TltLory, 15 (6).
(5.21) 19!!0, pp. •9H06.
)
)
)
)
 )
)
.
•
~

192 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS CUT BY A PJNION CU1TER 193
)
Cutt•• di.n - 4.0 In. TABLE S.3 Range of Design Ch~

C.ller Pildi
Diameter, in.
' '
Diametral Pitdi
I 10 12
,'
. 1000 3 x x
•
It

-.
.c
.~
.0900
.0800
4
s
6
x
x
x
l
x
l
J:
x
x
J:
x
J:
x )

"'~
)(
. 0700
.0600
•f'I, • 20, +• 20", I S N.JN, S 6 . •)
.0500
except for AC = 0, have a slope discontinuity at some point along their length.
.0400 The slope change marks the point where the design o( the gear teeth ceases to t
. 030() be the result of balancing tooth slTcsses and the design becomes governed by the
.0200 need to avoid undercutting. This is accomplished by limiting the depth of cut •
.0100 ~ . made oo the gears to the allowable depth of cut for a standard pinion cutter.
•
•,
0 .0000 The segment to the left of the discontinuity represents the range over which the
5.0 6 .0 tooth stresses have been balanced.
Several other equations are required to complete the definition of lhe gear
FIGURE S.10 Culler ottt1d. syst.e m geometry. From Fig. 5.12, the outside radii of the two gears are

•t
,
it is 001 possible to use lhe charts lo obtain offsets for gear sets with pinions R 01 = C' (C,.d, I· e 2) + R. , - c (c = tooth clearance) (S.27)
containing significantly more or less than the 20 teeth assumed to generate the
figures. Sample charts arc shown in Figs. 5.10 and 5.11 for determining e 1 and R., = C' (C...,, + e 1) + R,,, - c (S.28)

,•
ei. respectively, for a JO-pitch, 4-io.-diameter cutter for changes in center dis-
tances AC = 0.010 to 0. 100 in. Table 5.3 shows the range of diametral pitches 01
used in the development of the charts.

~I
From tl1e charts, it can be observed that the curves for eac h value of AC,

Pd. 10
6 .0
Cult• diMll - 4 .0 i• . R
•1
R'\I
RI ,•
5.0 •
..f
4 .0
4C lncha
. 1000
.0900 c '•
•
5
3 .0 .0800
2 .0700

.....
______·__c~r
)(

•
.0600
2 .0 .o~o

t.O
-::::=..----~~- -~oo
•
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;-0300
.02'00
0 .0
.0100
0000
>
s.o
•
4 .0 6 .0°·
02
.u• ,•
1.0
JolGURE 5.11 Culler olbd. FIGURE S.U Outside l'lldii depCb of C'llt (or Domlaacbnl spur gean.

.
~ - - ·-
•. ·~ ~ )
)
 J
)
l 194 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS cur BY A PINION Ct!rrER 195
)
The depth of cut required is

•
)
h, =- a 1 + a1 + i:

01
)
) (5.29)
The cq11n1ion for lhe outside radii rnay he furrhcr reduced by recognizing that
)
) k
R o, ~ R f-f c (U.S .)
, P,
)
Ro. = R. + m + c (metric)

,
) 1laus,

R., = C' - R 2 - e 2
k
+ p" (U.S.) (5.JO)
)
) Ra, = C' - R2 - e 2 + m (metric)
)
k
R., = C' - R 1 - e1 + - (U.S.)
) -~ p" (5.31)

) R.., = C' - R 1 - e1 + m (metric)

o.
) and so t~~ equations for outsid~ radius and depth of cut for nonstandard gears FIGURE 5 .JJ Limit for uadernatcing tttlb.
) cut by pmmn cutter can be put m the same form as the corresponding equations
for nonstandard gear.; cut by a hob.
) Finally, the dedendum radii for the nonstandard gean arc given by the which, when substituted into Eq. 5.34, gives .
following equations:
)
) (S.32)
e• = (R• ) 2 - (R )' -t R
•• b,
(N1 + N.)Pt -
11'
c•• (5.35)
) (5.JJ)
) . An equation can be developed to determine the cutter offset that will mark
where e• is the minimum offse t that will prevent undercutting.
For the special case of long and short addendum gears, the change in center
) t~e onset of undercutting. By using the law of cosines, it may be noted from distance AC equals zero. For hobbed gears, it was seen that. t1 ~ - ~1 from Eq.
tnangle OcE 10 1 of Fig. 5. 13 that
5.1a. For nonstandard gears cut by a pinion cutter, no such s1mphfica 11on results,
)
and the relationship between e 1 and e 1 remains highly no nlinear, with 1!1 not equal
(R.)1 = (C..d + e) 2 + (R.,)2 - 2R.,(c.., + e) cos cf>, (5.34) to the negative of e 1 . Therefore, long and short addendum gears cannot be cut
J hy standard pinion cutters.
at the onset of undercutting. From Eq. 5.13,
>
) Example 5 .4. It is necessary lo design a 2Ckoolh pinion end a 40-tooth g~or to oP".rate
at a center distance of J . 100 in . with no backlash. The gears are to be cul with a IO-p1tch,
>
)
)
)
196 ~NSTANDARD SPUR GEARS cur BY
NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS A PINION ClTITER 197
20"l>inion cutter, with 4-in. pitch diameter. Determine the vaJue of e, and ea to approx- Cutter diam • 4.0 in.
imately balance the bending stresses in the teeth of the pinion and gear.
4 C inches
0 .0000
+ N 1 = 20 + 40 = 3 OOO .
C = N, 2P4 .0100
2(10) . ID .
.0200
.0300
fJ. C ~ C' · C •• 3. 100 - 3 .000 = 0 .lOOin. .0400
.0500
.0600
N, = ~ a 2 .0700
N, 20 0800
.0900
.1000
"l11crcforc, from foig. 5.10,

~, - 0 .063 in.

and from Fig. 5.11 ,

e 1 = 0.042 in .
20.0'-- -----''---- - -_.,..._ _ _ __..__ __ _ ~---~

The stresses were calculated to be 1.0 2 .0 3.0 4 .0 5.0 6 .0

w. lb/"in. FIGURE 5.15 Tooth stress fadM.

s, = 22.s5 Ji l

and

S, = 22.87 ~· lb/io.• W. "' normal load at tooth tip (lb)

F = tooth fooc width (in.)

cutter diMi - 4 .0 in. N 1 - 20 A3 in the case of nonstandard spur gears cut by hobbing, it is also a very
tedious job to calculate tooth stresses in nonstandard spur gears cut by pinion
cutters. Because of thi.~. curves were developed to give strCliS fuctors (SHW.) as
a function of NIN1 for various changes in center distance .' Figures 5.14 and 5.15
show stress factor curves for the pinion and gear for P" = 10 of Example 5.4. A
comparison of the 'tress factors for the data of Example 5.4 is shown in Table
- - - - - - - - .OJOO 5.4 obtained from detailed calculations given in reference 5 and from the curves
35.0
.0400 of Figs. 5.14 and 5.15 .
.0500

.0600
.0700 TABLE 5.4 Stress Factors (Eumple 5.4)
.0800
Mmnaal Calaalallons Design Clui..U
.0900
.1000 Pillion 22.85 in.- • 22.9() in . - I (Fig. 5.14)
Gear 22 .87 in. - • 22.90 in. - 1 (Fi1t. S. l S)
20.0 - -- _i_ _ _ - -'--- - ---"''::----- _.,..._ _ _ __,
1.0 2 .0 3.0 4 .0 5.0 6 .0
Nz!N1
'R. N. Orcaa •nd H . H . M•bie. ••0ctennin.1tion ol SU.tic Toolh Slreuea in Nonstandard Spuc Geus
flGURE S.14 Tootll streu hctor. Oil by Piaiooo Caller," MrchoniJm onJ Mocltinr Theory. l!i (6). 1980. l'I' ~n- 5 14 .
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t1..·'·
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) I 198 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS
NONSTANDARD SPUR OEARS CUT BY A PINION CUTTI;R 199
) Examplt: S.S. Two spur gears of 32 and 48 teeth cut by an 8-pllch, 711" pinion cull
Problt:m,_u.s. Standard
mesh tog~lh~r. without backlash at the standard center distanoe of S In. To change
) s~ed rallo, 11 1s necessary to replace the 32-tooth pinio n with one of JI teeth The 100 5.1. A 12-toolh pinion is to he cul with a 2·pitch, 20"hob. Make a layout of the rhcnrcliail
lhrc·knc."t.• on lhc cuttin1t pitr h rln·le of the 4H looth Rcnr and tho 5-ln. center dialance a ' rac·IL encl pinio n loath al the a1and1ml aettinK 111 ahown in Ha. S.2a . 0111w lhti pinion
) ·•· lo 1c111aln ~m·hanged. Oeterminc the v11lue of c 1 that will give teeth of the proper thickn Invo lute using the cqualio M of involutomet1y. Show the elfcc:t on the p l11i1111 tooth of
to mesh With the 43-tooth gear. The pitch diameter of the pinion cutter D is J 000 i withdrawing the basic rac k until ilS addendum line jusl paSKa through the in1c1fcrc 11cc
) and the number of teeth in the curter N, ii 2-t . • · nl poinl . This layout should bo shown dotted •nd superimposed upon lhe finl sketch with
the side of the rack toolh passing through the pitch point. Label the base circle, cutting
) R, = .!:!..! - 2!_ - 1 9375 · pitch circle, hob offset, pressure •ogle, and pitch lines (cultiog and standard) of the rack.
2 P, - 2(8) . an.
) S.%. A 24-toolh pinion is to be cut with 11 !~pitch, 14t" ho b. Calculnte rhe minimum
1.
R, = N , - ~ - 3 000 . distance the hob will have to be withdrawn lo avoid underculling. Calculate the radius of
) 2 P, - 2(8) - . an. J: the .cutting pitch circle aod the tooth thickness on the cutting pitch circle.
S.J. A 26-toolh gear is to be cut with a 7-pilch , 20" ho b. Calculate the mu:i111u111 distance
) C= N, +N, _~ . the hob can be advanced into the geu blank without causing undercutting . CalCtJlate the
2P~ - 2(8) ~ 4.938 rn.
) I· radius o r the cutting pitch circle and the tooth thickness on lhe cutting pitch circle.
c· = 5.000 in. i S.4. A 20-tooth gear is cut by a 4-pitch , 14l" hob that has been withdnlwn 0. 10 in .
) Determine if this bob offset is enough to eliminate underrutting. lf so, calculate rhe toolh
cos cl>' = c cos 4>. ~ 4 .938 cos 20" thickness o n the rutting pitch circle and on the base circle.
) ~ . c· s.ooo S.S. A 35-tooth gear is to be cut with a 4-pilcb, 141° hob. Calculate the change in cutter
<I> ' : 2 1.87" = 4>. setting from its standard position to give a tooth lhickness of 0.400 in . on a ci rcle for
) which the pressure angle is 20".
., Be~use c, = 0, the generating pressure angle of the gear = 1I1' and Eq . 26 ' + s S.6. A ~tooth pinion is to be cut with a 6-pilch, 20" hob. What would be the change in
) castly
. be solved for "'
..... · •.. .. • · · can: cutter setting from its standard position to give a toolh thickness of 0.274 in. on a circle
) for which the pressure angle is 141"7
(f'!1 ~ N,) inv <!>,, + (N, + N, ) inv <!>,, = 2N, inv cj>, + (N, + N,) inv +, S.7. A ~tooth pinion is to be cut with a 6-pitch, 20" hob. Calcufote the minimum tooth
) (Jl + 24) inv cl>,, + {48 + 24) inv 20" = 2(24) inv 1JJ' + (31 + 48) inv 21.87"
width that can be produced on a circle for whieh lhe pressure angle is 141°. 1hc tooth is
not to be undercut.
) Therefore, 5.8. A pinion or 11 teeth and a gear of 14 teeth were cut with an 8-pitch, 20" hol>. Tu
avoid undercutting, the hob was withdrawn 0.0446 in. on the pinion and 0 .0227 in . o n the
) inv cl>,, = o.021n3
gear. Calculate the pressure angle and the center distance at which these gears will o perate
) and when meshed together. Determine the difference between the center distance calculated
above and the standard center distanoe, and compare with c 1 + c,.
) cl>,, = 22.59" 5.9. Prove that

) From Eq. 5.IJ, (c, + c 1) >AC for +· > cl>

) _ (N, + N,)p. and that
c, - - - c ..
2.,,. cos+.,
) for +· < cl>
(C.. is the standard center distance between gear I and the cutter.)
) 5.10. A pinion or 15 teeth and a gear of 21 teeth arc to be cut with a 6 -pitch, 14l" hob
'1T to operate on a center distanoe of 3.20 in. Determine whether these gc.1rs c;in be cut
) P• = P cos cj>, = Bcos 20" = 0.3690 in . without undercutting lo operate at this center distance.
j 5.11. Using the data from Example 5.2, calculate the outsille r•.tii o r the g<"ar hlAnlts ,
r.,.. = N, I· N, ~ ~ ~
21', the 1lepth of cut. and lhe contact ratio.
2 (S) 3.4375 in.
) S.12. A pinion and gear of 13 and 24 teeth , respectively, 11re lo be cut by a 4 pi1d 1, 20"
c - {~ 24)(0.3690) hob to operate at a center distance of 4.83 in. O.lculate the pressure angle at whicl1 the
) I 21' COS 22.59" - 3 .43?S gears will operate and the value or c, and c,. Let c, and c 1 vary inversely as the number
= 0.06096 in . of teeth. Cleek c 1 to ace if it is large enough to prevent undercutting. Dc1e11nine the
> outside radii of lhc gear blanb, the depth of cut, and the contact ratio-,
)
)
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200 'NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS

NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS CUT BY A PINION CUTTER 201 ,
)

5.13. A 12·toolh pinion has a tooth thicknas of 0.2fJ08 in. on ii$ aitting pitch c:in:le. A
32·tooth gear that mcsba with lhe pinion bas a tooth thickness of 0 .1880 in. on ita QJtbn'
pitch circle. If both gean have been cut by a ?·pitch, 20 bob, calculate the hob offset e
used in ~tting each gear and the l>n:ssure angle at which the gean; operate.
5.14. A nonstandud 35-tootb pinion has a tooth thickness of 0.188 in. at a radiu of 2.SQ
in. and a pressure angle of 20". The pinion mcsba with a rac!r; at the 2 .50-in. radiUi with
zero backlash. lf the rack is 7-pitch, '2JJ', calculate the <IAtance from the center of the
pinion to the 'tandard pitch line of the rack.
5.15. An 11-toolh pinion is to drive a 23-tooth gear at a center diitance of 2 .00 in. If the
gears are to be cul by a 9-pitch, 20" bob, calculate the value of e 1 and e, 50 that the
beginning of contacl during cutting of the pinion occurs at the interference point of the
pinion.
5.16. A 20-tooth pinion cut with a 10-pitch, 20" hob drives a 30-tootb gear at a center
distance of 2.SO in. It is necessary to teplace these gean with a pair that will give a velocity
1atio of U : 1 and yet mnintain the ume center distance. Using the same diamettal pitch
hob as the original geus, select a pair of gean for the job which vary iu little as pollSible
horn standard gears. Determine the hob offseu, the outside radii, and the depth of cut.
5.17. It is necessary to oonncct two shafts whose center di"8nce is 3.90 in. with a pair
of spur gears having a velocity ratio of 1.25:1. Using a 10-pitch, 14'9 bob, recommend a
pair of gears for the job whose angular velocity ratio will approach 1.25: 1 as closely u
possible and not be undercut. Calculate the hob offsclli, the outside diameters, depth of
cul. and the cont.ad ratio.
5.18. A pinion and gear or Tl and 39 teeth, respectively, ate to be cul with a 6-pitch,
14l0 bob to give long and short addendum teeth. The hob is ollset 0.03 in. Determine for
each gear the pitch diameter , the outside diameter. the depth of cut, and the tooth thickness
on the pitch circle.
5.19. A pair of long and 5hort addendum gean of 18 and 28 teeth, respectively, are ait
with a 4-pitch, 20" bob that bas been offset 0.060 in. Compare the oootact ratio o( lhae
gears wilh the contact ratio of a pair of standard gears of the same pitch and numbel'$ of
teeth.
S.20. A 30-tooth pinion cut with a 20-pitch, 20" bob drives a 40-tooth gear at the standard
center distance. If 0.004 in. backlash is required, calculate the amount the bob must be
fc1I intu the pinion naul inlu the 1:ea1 to .:ive this had.lash . Assume both gems lo hr. U1in11cd
the &ame amount.
5.21. A 20-tooth pinion cut wiU1 an 8-pitch, 25" hob is lo mei;h with a 40-tooth gear at a
center di.~tance ol 3.80 in. If the hob is puUed out 0.0352 in. when cutting the pinion and
U.0165 in. when cutting the gear, calculate the backlash produced.
5.22. A pair o( long and short addendum gears of 18 and 30 teeth, respectively, cut with
a 6-pitcb, 25° hob are designed to give :z.ero backlash when the hob is off5c:t O.OS in.
Calculate the value of e, ud e, if these gears &re modified lo give a backlash or 0.005 in.
assuming that both gears are thinned the same amount.
5.ZJ. An 18-tooth pinion CUI with a 12-pitch, '1J.J' bob drives a 42·looth gear. If those
gcal'$ are semi-rccess action gcan, calculate the ratio of the receu action lo the approach
action.
5.24. A pair or semi-recess action gean mesh together without backlash. The pinion has
20 teeth and the geat 48 teeth. If the gears are cut with a 10-pitch, 20" hob, calculate the
contact ratio.
5.25. A pair or recess action gears are to be dc5igned to mcsb together without backlash.
Tbe pinioo is to have 20 teeth and lhe gear 44 teeth, and tbe geaB are to be cut with an
S.pitcb, 20" hob. Calculate whether a contact ratio or 1.40 can be attained using semi- or
•
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full recess action gears or both.
5..26. A .24-tooth pinion cut with a lG-pitch. 20" hob drives a 40-tooth gear. The gcan
have semi-recess action, and the length of action Z ... 0.4680 in. Calculate the ratio of
l'ea:s5 action to approach action.
•
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S.1.7. A 24-tooth pinion is to be cut with a 10-pitch, 14l0 pinion cutter, N, = 30 and
D. • 3 in. Calculate the minimum distance the cutter will bave to be withdrawn to avoid
undercutting. Calculate the radius of the cutting pitch circle and the tooth thickness on
•>
the cutting pitch circle .
S.28. A 26-tooth gear is to be cut with an 8-pitch, 20" pinion cutter, N. "'24 and D. =
•
,•
3 in. Calculate the maximum distance the cutter can be advanced into the gear blank
without causing undercutting. Calculate the r.adius of the cutting pitch circle and the tooth
thickncu on the t.'Ulting pitch ci1clc.
52'. A 20-toolh gear is cut by a 4-pitch, 14l" pinion culler (N, = 16 and D, = 4 in.)
that has been withdrawn 0 .100 in. Determine if this offset is enough to eliminate under-
•
,,
cutting. If so, calculate the tooth thickness on the cutting pitch circle and on the base
circle. )
5.341. A JS.tooth gear is to be cut by a 4-pitch, 141° pinion cutter, N. = 20 and D. = 5
in. Calculate the change in cutter setting from its standard position to give a tooth thickness
of 0.400 in. o n a circle for which the prcssW'c angle is 20".
5.3L A 20-tooth pinion is to be cut with a 6-pitch, 20" pinion cutter, N, = 36 and D, =
6 in. What would be the change in cutter setting from its standard position to give a tooth )
thickness of 0.274 io. on a wclc for which the pressure angle is 141°?
5.32. A 20-toolh pinion is to be cut with a 6-pitch, 20" pinion cutter, N, = 30 and D. ~
•
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S in. Calculate the minimum tooth width that can be produced on a circle for which the
pressure angle is 14l°. The tooth is not to be undercut.
5.33. A pinion of 11 teeth and a gear of 14 teelh were cut with an 8-pitch, 20" pinion
cutter, N, ... 24 and D. = 3 in. To avoid undercutting, the cutter was withdrawn 0.0446
in. on the pinion ;iml 0.0227 in. on the gear . Calculate lhe pressure angle and the center
distance at which these gears will operate when meshed together. Determine the difference
between the center distauoe calculalcd above and the stamlanl cente r distnncc, mad com-
•)
pare with r 1 I r,.
5..34. A pinion of 15 teclh and a gear or 21 teeth are to be cut with a 6-pitch, 141° pinion >
cult« (N, = 24 and D. = 4 in.) to operate on a center distance of 3.200 in. Determine
)
whether these gears can be cut without unden:utting to operate ot this center distance.
S.35. Two spur gurs of 12 and 15 lceth, respectively, ;ire to be t.'Ut with a 3-pitch, 20"
pinion cutter, N. = 12 and D, = 4 in. Determine the center dis&aooe at which lo operate
t
the gears to avoid undercuuing . Calculate the outside radii of the gear blanks. the depth
of cul, and the contad ratio. •
5.36. A 12-tooth pinion has a tooth thickness o( 0.2(J08 in. on its cu lling pitcl1 circle. A
3~tool_h gear that meshes with the pinion bas a tooth thickness of 0 . 1880 in. on its cutting •
pitch arde. If both gears have been cut by an 3-pitcb, 20" pinion cutter (N. = 24 and
D. • 3 in.), calculate the offset ~ used in cutting each gear and the pressure angle at •
which tbe gears operate.
•
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5.31. An 11-tooth pinion is to drive a 23-tooth gear at a center distance of 2.000 in. If
the gcan are lo be cut by a 10-pitch, 20" pinion cutter (N, = 40 and D, = 4 in .), calculate
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) l NONSTANOARD $PUR (lP.AltS ClrT nY A PINION C.llTn: tt 203
202 NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS
,_ S.7m. A 20-tooth pinion is to be cul wirh a 4-module, 20- hob. Calcularc tl~c mi1~in~11m
Che v11luc of c, and c, so that the beginning of conln<.1 during cutting of the pinion ocxun
toorh width that can be produced on a circle for which lhe pressure 11ngle 1s 1'1l . nie
) al lhc in1erfc1encc point of the pinion.
S..38. A 2ll-tooth pinion cut wilh a IO-pitch, 20- pinion culler (N. = 40 and D. -= 4 in.) tooth i5 not lo be undercut.
5.thn. A rinlnn nf 11 teelh "nd n gear of 14 tcelh wr.re cul with n ~-mrnlulc . "lfl"" hnh. Tu
) drives a JO-tooth &"Ar at a ccnler distance of 2 .500 in. It i& necessary to replace these
avoid un.ten:ulling. the huh was wilhdrawn t .OCWK nun on lhe 1n111n n anti 0 . \-4 M mm nn
i:cars wich a rnlr lhnt will give a vdocity rutin of H : l anti yet maintain the same ccnler
the gear. Calculate the pressure angle and the center distance at which lhcM: gr~n will
) tlistancc . Using lhe same cutter as the original gears, select a pair of gears for the job
operate when meshed together. Determine the dillcrencc between the cenrer 1hs1ancc
that vary as little as possible from standard gears. Determine the offsets, the out.side radii,
)
, and the depth of cut.
S.39. ll is necessary to connect two shafts whose cenlcr distance is 3.900 in. with a pair
of spur gears having a velocity ratio of J _25: I. Using a IO-pitch, Hr pinion cutter (N. ""
30 and D, = 3 in.), rcrommend a pair of gears for the job whose angular velocity ratio
calculated above and the standard center distance, and compare with t, + t,.
S.901. Prove that

(c, + t,) > Ac for

'
)
will approach 1.25: 1 as closely as possible and not be undercut. Calculate the cutter
offsets, the outside diameters, the depth of cul, and the contact ratio.
S.40. A 30-toolh pinion cut with a 20-pilch, 20" pinion roller (N. = 60 and D, = 3 in.)
and that

(e, + t,} < l:1C for

) is to mesh with a 40-tooth gear at the standard center distance. U 0 .004 in. backlash is
required, calculate the amount the culler must be fed into the pinion and into the gen S.10.... A pinion of J2 teeth and a gear of IS teeth arc !o be cut with a 6-mudulc. 20"
) to give 1his backlash . Assume holh gean to be lhinned the 5amc amount. bob to operate at a center distance of 83:50 mm. D_e tcrmmc whether lhese gears ca u be

) S.41. A 20-tooth pinion cut with an 8-pitch, 20" pinion cutter (N. = 48 and D. • 6 in.)
is 10 mesh with a 40-looth gear at a center distance of 3.800 in. If the cutter is pulled out
) 0 .0352 in. when culling lhc pinion and 0.0165 in. when cutting the gear, calculate the
backlash produced.
) of teeth. Oieck t 1 to sec if it is large enough lo prevent undcrcullmg. Dctennme the
) S.U... Using the data from Example 5 .3, check to sec if !be value of c, is large enough
Prob/mu-Metric
) and the contad ratio.
S.lm. A 12-tootb pinioo is to be cut with a 12-module, 20" hob. Make a layout of the
) theoretical rack and pinion tooth at the standard setting as shown iri Fig. S.2a. Draw the
pinion involute using the equations of involutometry. Show the effect on the pinion tooth
) of withdrawing the basic rack until its addendum line just pimcs through the interference
point. This layout should be dotted and superimposed upon the first sketch with tbe side
) o.f the rack tooth pauing through the pitch point. label the base cicclc!, cutting pitch
circle, hob offset, pressure angle, and pitch lines (cutting and standard) of the rack.
) . S.lm. A 16-tooth pinion is to be cut with a 2.S-module, 20" bob. Calculate the minimum
distance the hob will have to be withdrawn to avoid undercutting. Calculate the radios of
) the cntting pitch circle and the tooth thickness on the cutting pitch circle.
) S.Jm. A 26-tooth gear is to be cut with a 3.S-module, 20- hob. C.lculate the maximum
distance the hob can be advanced into the gear blank without causing undermtting.
) Calculate the radius of the cutting pitch circle and the tooth thickness on the cutting pitch
circle.
) S.4ia. A 16-tooth gear is cut by a 6-modulc, 20° hob that has been withdrawn O.SOOO
mm . Determine if this hob offset is enough to eliminate undercutting. If so, calculate the
) too th thickness on the Clllting pilch circle and on the base circle.
) 5.Sm. A 35-tooth gear is to be cut with a 6-module, 20" hob . Calculate the change in
cutler selling from its standard position to g;vc a tooth thickness of 10.2 mm on a circle
j for which the pressure angle is 20".
S.6m. A ID-tooth pinion is to be cut with a 4-modulc, 20" hob. What would be the change
> in cutter setting from its standard position to give a tooth thickness of 6.900 mai oo a
circle for which the pressure angle is 141"7
)
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)
)
)
cut without undercutting to operate at this center distance.
s .thn. A 11inion aml itear of 13 amt 24 leelh, rcspcc~ively, arc to be cut hy a 6 motlu_'c.
1JJ' bob to operate at a center distance of l lS .9 mm. Calculate the _pressure angle al which
the gca1s will operate and the value of c 1 and t,. Let c, and t, vary mve_rscly as lhe ~umber
outside radii of the gear blanks, the depth of cut, aod the contact rario.
to avoid undercutting. Calculate the out.side radii o[ the gear blanks, the deprh of cut,
S.13m. A I2-toolh pinion has a tooth thickness o f 6.624 mm on its cutting pitch circle.
A 32-tooth gear that meshes with the pinion has a tooth thickness of 4 .Jn mm o n its
cutting pitch cifcle. U both gears have been cut by a 3 .S·module, ~ hob, calculate the
bob offset t used in cutting each gear and the pressure angle at which the gears operate.
S.14m. A nonstandard JS.tooth pinion has a tooth thickness o~ 4.604 mm at a radius of
61.25 mm and a pressure angle of 2(1"_ The pinion meshes wilh a nck at the 61.25 mm
radius with zero backlash. If the rack is 3 .S-module, 20", calculate the distance from the
center of the pinion to the standard pitch line of the raclc.
S.ISm. An 11-tooth pinion is to drive a 23-tooth gear at a center distance of 54.0 mm .
U the gears are to be cut by a 3-module, 20" hob, calculate the value of t, and t r so that
the beginning of contact during cutting of the pinion occurs at the inlcrferencc point of
the pinion .
S.J6m. A 2.S-module, 2f1' pinion with 20 teeth driv~ a gear with 30 h:clh al a ~enter
distance of 62.SO mm . It is necessary 10 replace these gean with a pair thal will give a
velocity ratio o f It : I and yet meintain the same center distance. Using lhe same hoh 11s
the original gears, select a pair of ~ars for the _ioh wh_i_c h vary as lillle as possible from
standard gcaJS. Determine the hob offsets, outside radn, and the depth of cut.
S.17m. It is necessary to connect two shafts whose cenler distance: is 99.06 mm with a
pair of spur gears having a velocity ratio of l.2S : I. Us~ng a ~-S-~odule, 20" hoh, rec-
ommend a pair of geaJS for the job whose angular velooty rabo will approach 1.25 : I as
closely as possible and not be undercut. Calculate the hob offsets, the outside diamcten,
depth of cut, end the contact ratio.

204 l,«)NSTANOARD SPUR GEARS
S.tSaa. A pinion and gear or 27 and 39 teeth, rapcctivcly, arc to be cut witb a 4-module,
20" hob to give long and 5bort addendum tccth. The hob i5 ofbcl 0.720 mm. Oetennlnc
for e ach gear the pitch diameter, the outside diameter, the depth of cut, aud the tooth
thickness on the pitch circle.
S.19m. A pair of lo ng and short addendum gears o( 18 and 28 teeth, respectively, ue
cut with a 6-module, 2<r hob that bu bcca ofbct 1.524 mm. Compare the oootact ntio
of thCiC gean with the contact ratio of a pair of standard gears of the same module and
numbers of teeth .
S.ZOm. A 1.25-modulc , 20" pinion with 30 teeth is to mesh with a ·40-toolh gear at the
standa.r d center distance. U 0.1016 mm backlash is required, calrulate the amount the bob
must be fed into the pinion and into the gear to give the backlash. Assume both gears to
be thinned the same amount.
5.2.lm. A 3-mudulc, 20° pinion with 20 teeth is to mesh with a 4G-toolh gear at a ccotu
distance of 90.52 mm. If the bob is pulled out 0 .2271 mm when cutting the pinion and
0.1096 mm when cutting Lhe gear, calrulatc the bacltlash produced.
S.22.m. A pair o f long and short addendum gears of 18 and 30 teeth , respectively~ cul
with a "4-modulc, 111' hob arc desigDed to give zero backlash when the hob is ofhet 1.2700
mm. Calculate the value of e, and e, if these geais are modified to give a backlash of
0.1270 mm, assuming that both gears are tbiruied the same amount.
S.23aa. A 2-module, 2<r pinion of 18 teeth drives a gear of 42 teeth. If these gcan are
semi-recess action gcan, calculate the ratio of the recess action to the approach action.
S.24111. A pair of semi-recess action gcar5 mesh together without bad.lash. The pinion
has 20 teeth and the gear 48 teeth. Uthe gears arc cut with 11 2.5-modulc, 20" bob, calrulate
the contact ratio.
S.2Sm. A pair of recess action gears are to be designed to mesh together without back.lash.
Tue pinion is to have 20 teeth and the gar 44 teeth, and the gean; ue to be cul witb a
J-moduJc, 20" bob. Calculate whether a contact ratio of 1.40 can be attained using semi-
or full recess action gears or both.
5.26na. A 24-tooth pinion cut wilh a 2 .5 module bob drives a 40-tooth gear. The gears
have semi-recess actioo, and the length of action Z is 11.663 mm. Calculate the ratio of
recess action to approach action.
S.17m. A 24-tooth pinion is to be cut with a 2.5-module, 20" pinion cutter, N, = 30 and
D, "' 75 mm. Calculate the minimum di5tancc the cutter will have to be withdrawn to
avoid undercutting. Calculate the ndius of the cutting pitch circle and the tooth thickness
on the cutting pitrb circle.
S.28111. A 26-tooth gear is to be rut with a 3-moduk, 7J1' pinion cutter, N, = 7.6 and
D, = 711 mm. Calculate the muimum distance the aittu can be advanced into the gear
blank without causing undercutting. Calculate the radius of the cutting pitch circle and
tl1c tooth thickness on the cutting pitch circle.
S.Zllm . A 20·tooth gear is to be cut with a 6-moJule, 20" pinion rotter (N, ~ 18 and
D, ~ 108 mm) that has been withdrawn 2.54 mm. Dctcnuioe if this cutter offset is enough
to eliminate underculling. If so, calculate the tooth thiclmcu on the cutting pitch drde
anJ on the base circle.
5.lOm. A JS-tooth gear i' to be cut with a 6-module, 20" pinion amer, N, • 18 and
/J, - 108 mm. O.lculate the cha11KC in cuttCJ" selling (rom it& standard position to give a
tooth thicknC$a of 10.2 mm on a ci1tlc (or which the preuurc angle is 20".
S.Jlm. A 2G-tooth pinion is to be cul with a 4-module, 20" pinion cutler, N, = 7.6 aod
,,
t
)
NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS CITT BY A PINION CIJTTER 205
D, - 104 mm. What would be the change in cutter selling from il5 standard position to
giYO a tooth thicltness oC 6.960 mm on a circle for which the prcssu1e angle is 14r1 •~
5.32m. A 20-toolh pinion i5 lo be cut with a 4-module, 20" pinion cutter, N, = 26 and
D, = 104 mm. Calculate the minimum tooth width that can be produced on a circle for
which the pressure angle is 146°. The tooth is not to be undCJ'Cllt.
l
5.Jlm. A pinion of 11 teeth and a gear of 1-4 teeth were cut with a 3-module, 111' pinion
c:uttcr, N, = 26 and D, = 78 mm. To avoid wtdercuttiog, the cutter was withdrawn 1.0698
mm on the pinion and 0 .5434 mm on the gear. Calculate the pressure angle and the center
,
~.
di5taoce at which lheK gean will operate when meshed together. Determine the difference
betweeo the center dist.aooe calculated above and the standard center distance, and com- ...
pare with e, + e,.
5.Jem. A pinion of 12 teeth and a gcar of 15 teeth are to be cut with a 6-module, 20"
t.
pinion cutter (N, = 18 and D, • 108 nun) to operate at a center distmnoe of 83.50 mm.
Detenoine whether these gears ca.o be cut without undercutting to operate at this center
distance.
5.lSm. Two spur gears of 12 and 15 t.cetb arc to be cut with a 4-modulc, 20" pinion cutter.
,
t
N, = 26 and D. = 104 mm. Determine the center distance at which to operate the gcan ·
to avoid undercutting. Calculate the outside radii of the gear blanks, the depth or cul,
and the contact ratio. ·
,•
5..36m. A 12-tooth pinion has a looth thicL.-ness of 6.624 mm on its cutting pitch cin:lc.
A 32-tooth gear that meshes with the pinioa has a tooth thickness or 4.372 nun on its •
r•
rutting pitch circle. If both gears have been cut by a 3.5-module, 20" pinion cutter (N, =
22 and /), = 17 mm), calculate the offset e used in cutting each gear and tbc pccssw:e
angle al which the gears operate. Can these gears be cut with these tooth thicknesses
without undercutting?
5.J7m,· An 11-tooth pinion is lo drive a 23-tooth gear at a center distance of 54.0 mm. ~
-•.
If the gean arc to be c:ut by a 2.5-modulc, 7J1' pinion cutter (N, = 30 and D, "' 75 mm).
calculate the value of e, and e1 so that the beginning of contact during cutting of the pinion
oa:ws at the intcdereoce point of the pinion.
5.Jlaa. A 20-tooda pinion rut with a 2.5-roodule, 20" pinion culler (N, = 30 and D, =
15 mm) drives a »tooth gear at a center distance of 62.SO mm. It is necessary to replace 1'
these gears with a pair that will give a velocity ratio of U: 1 and yet maintain the same
)
ccoter distaooc. Using the same cutter as the original gean, select a pair of gurs for the
job that vuy as little as pos5iblc from standard gean. Determine the culler ofbets, the
gear oubide radii, and the gear depth of cut. r
5.Jtm. It is occesary to connect two shafts whose center distana: is 99.06 mm with a
pair of spur gears having a velocity ratio or 1.25: 1. Using a 2.5-modulc, 20• pinion cutter
(N, ""30and D, = 75 mm), recommend a pair or gean for the job whose angular-velocity
•>
ratio will approach 1.25: 1 as closely as possible and not be undercut. Calculate the cutter
off:sets, the gear outside diameters, the gear depth of cut, and the contacl ratio.
5.40la. A JO-tooth pinion cut witb a 1-module, ']JJ" pinion cutler (N, "" 76 •nd D, = 76
•
mm) drives• 40-toolh gear at tbe standard c:eoter distance. IC 0. 1016 mm backlash is
•
required, calculate the amount the cutter must be fuel into the pinion and into the gear
to p11e the backlash. Assume both gears lo be thinned the same amount .
,•
•
~ ·- -
,•
~: 't
)
j
 j
)
} 111EOR Y OF BEVEi. O"ARS 207
) together, their cones contact along a common clement and have a common ape x
) Chapter Six where the shaft centerlines intersect. The cones roll together without slipping
and have spherical motion. Each point in a bevel gear remains at a constant
) ~ distance from the common apex.
•• Figure 6.2 shows an axial section of a pair of bevel gears in mesh with the
)
)
)
l~ Bevel, Helical,
and Worm Gearing
shafts at right angles. Because the pitch cones roll together without slipping, the
angular velocity ratio is inversely proportional to the d iameters of the bases of
the conc.s. These cone diameters become the pitch diameters of the gears. The
angular-velocity ratio can then be expressed as 00 1/!J>i = D 1 / D 1 = N 1 / N 1 as in
the case of spur gears. Tbe relation P.1 = NI D also holds as in spur gears .
) In making a sketch of a pair of spur gears in mesh , it was a simple matter,
knowing the pitch iliamcleTS, to dmw the pitch circles in their correct position .
)
) t In the case of hcvel gears, however, pitch angles as well as pitch diameters have
to be considered. Equations for the pitch angles are derived helow; A 0 i3 the
length of the pitch cone clement :
}
. I'I Di- = . f"'i:
\ ... - rl)

'I
) SID =-
2Ao
san

) sin r, = sin I cos r1 - cos I sin r1

'J 6.1 THEORY OF BEVEL GEARS sin r, cos f 1 cos I
) Bevel_gears (Fig. 6.1) arc used to connect shafts whose axes intersect. The shaft
sin I sin f 1 = sin f 1 - sin I
' anglt 1s defined as the angle between the centerlines which oootains the engaging
)
tee!h. AJthough ~he shaft angle is usually 90", there are many bevel gear appli- 1 [sin r, ]
~ -:--r + cos I
) cattons that require shaft angles larger or smaller than this amount. 510 "- SID l
The pitch surface or a bevel gear is a cone. When two bevel gears mesh
) Also,

}
sin f 1 D,
)
)
)
)
)
)

' )
) flGURE 6.1 Slnaight bent guirs. (Courtesy or Glea-
'-----Pilch diameter D ·- - --+l
son Worts.) tlGlJRE 6.2

'
>
206

>
)
 I

)"
t
208 BEVEL, l~CAL, AND WORM OEARING THEORY OF B6 VBL GEARS 2()9 f
'Iliercfore. baclt cone are therefore perpendicular to those of tJ1c pitch cone. For all practical f
sin :I
(6.1)
purposes, the surface of the back cone and the surface of the sphere are identical
in the region of the ends of the bevel gear teeth. The distances from the apex of •
the pitch cones to the outer ends of the teeth at any point except the pitch point
arc not equal, so the end surfaces of meshing teeth will not be quite flush. •
Similarly, However, this va riation is slight and does not affect tooth action.
All the proportions of tJ1e tooth of a bevel gear arc figured at the large end
of the tooth. This will be amplified in a later section. Whe n it is neccs.<wary to
• ~
, sin I
I an I = cos I + (6.2)
1
(N1 /N1 ) show the outline of the large end of the tooth, use is made o r the fact that the
profile of the bevel gear tooth closely corresponds to that of a spur gear tooth
t
Although Eqs. 6.1 and 6.2 were derived for gears with shafts al right angles, having a pitch radius equal to the back cone element and a iliamctral pitch equal
to that of the bevel gear. lllis spur gear is calJed the equivalenJ spur gear, and •>
,
these equations also apply lo bevel gears with aoy shaft angle.
In making a layout of a pair of bevel gears in mesh, the position of the this section through the bevel gear is known as the transverse sedion.
common pitch cone clement can be determined graphically if the angular-velocity In addition to the general type o[ bevel gears shown in Fig. 6.2 , there arc
ratio and the shaft angle at e k.nown. the following three special types:
As bas been mentioned , the pitch cones of a pair of bevel gears have ~
1. Miler Gears. The gcar.i are of equal size aod the shaft angle is 90".
spherical motion. Therefore, lo have the large ends of the bevel gear teeth match
perfectly when in mesh, they should lie in the surface of a sphere whose center 2. Angular Bevel Gean. The shaft angle is greater or less th1n 90°. A sketch
•
is lhc apex of the pitch cones and whose radius is the common pitch cone element. is shown in Fig. 6.4.
3. Crown Gear. Tl1t' pitch angle equals 90", and the p: ;·..: .; becomes a •>
It is not custOmill)', however, to make the back of a bevel gear spherical, so it
is made conical as shown in Fig. 6.3. This cone is known as the back COM and
is tangent to the theoretical sphere at the pitcli diameter. The elements of the
plane. A sk.-.t<h

Up to the ;-,.-
theory and type'..
• ~ shown in Fig. 6 .5.

' line, the discussion has dealt 1 , i1 .. !ily with the general
,
'' bevel gear tooth .
·· : gears. We are now ready to consii.lc r the fom1 of the
•
As was seen : ;,e study of Chapter 4. th<'. 11w~lute profile of a spur gear
was easily generated • . in a base circle and took ' .. form of a cylindrical involute •
when the thidcnCS5 of the gear was considered. • he involute form is no t used for
bevel gears, however. because the base surface would be a cone. This means
that, when a plane is rolled on this base cone, a line in the plane generates a
•r
spherical involute. A spherical involute is impractical to manufacture.
•i'
i
>
•
•
•
• ~

•,
l'IGURt: 6.J FlGllKt: 6.4

y. -··-
·. · ·.
,•
)-"
i· 'l
I 1

\J.
210 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARrNG
BEVEL GEAR DETAILS 211

) '~
·~
r
)
)
)
)
'
~,
{
,
~
t

t
-
\. i
}. i.
) FIGURE 6.5 FIGURE 6.6
) ~

'
"
\
)
~
!.
The bevel gear system that has been developed is one in which the teeth
arc generated conjugate to a crown gear having teeth with flat sides. The crown
gear therefore bears the same relation to bevel gears as a rack does to spur gears.
Figure 6.6 shows the sketch of a theoretical crown gear. The sides of the teeth
lie in planes which pass through the center of the sphere. When the aowo gear
) is meshed with a conjugate gear, the complete path of contad in the surface of
) the sphere is in the form of a figure 8. Because of this, the teeth in the crown
gear and in the conjugate gear arc called octoid teeth. Only a portion of the path
) is used, and for teeth of the height shown the path of contaCt is either APB or
A'PB'.
)
) 6.2 BEVEL GEAR DETA~
) For considering the details of a bevel gear, an axial section of a pair of Gleason
straight-tooth bevel gears is shown in Pig. 6.7a. The Gleason system has been
) adopted as the standard for bevel gears. As seen in the sketch, the dcdendum .
) elements arc drawn toward the apex of the pitch cones. The addendum elements,
however, arc drawn parallel to the dedcndum elements of the mating member,
') thus giving a constant clearance and eliminating possible fillet iotederence at the.
small ends of the teeth. Elimination of this poMible interference allows larger
') edge radii to be used on the generating tools, which will increase tooth strength
) through increased fillets. The large ends of the teeth are proportioned according
·...._, to the long and short addendum system discussed in Chaptel' 5 so that the ad-
) dendum on the pinion will be greater than that on the gear. Long addendums
are used on the pinion primarily to avoid undercutting, to balance tooth wear,
J and to increase tooth strength. The Gleason standard for the proportions of
straight bevel gear teeth is given in a later section. Figure 6.1b is the transverse
) section A - A showing the tooth profiles.
J Tite addendum and dedendum arc measured perpendicularly to the pitch

)
)
)
)
 •>
212 BEVEL, lIBUCAL, AND WORM GHARING GLEASON STRAIGITT BEVEL GEAR roam PROPORTIONS 213 ••
~

cone element at the outside of the gear; therefore, the dcdcndum angle is given
by
and for the proposed International Standard ISO 701 . Symbols that arc the same
as those for spur· gears (Table 4.6) are not included. •
b
•
J
tan & = - (6.3) 6.3 GLEASON STRAIGIIT BEVEL
Ao GEAR TOOill PROPORTIONS
~
Because the addendum element is not drawn toward the apex of the pitch c:oocs, (For straight bevel gears with cues at right angles and 13 or more pinion teeth.}
the addendum angle 11 must be determined indirectly. It can be shown that the
addendum angle of the pinion will equal the dcdeodum angle of the gear. Like- J. ~ber of tcelh: .
•
J
wise, the addendum angle of the gear will equal the dcdeodum angle of the

',
pinio n . The face angle and the root angle are therefore 16 o r more teeth in the pinion
15 teeth in pinion and 17 or more teeth in gear
l'u = r + (1 (6.4) 14 leeth io pinion and 20 or more teeth in gear ~
13 teeth in pinion and 30 or more teeth in gear
(6.5)
2. Pressure angle, .p = 20" t
Because the back angle is equal to the pitch angle, the outside diameter of
a bevel gear is 3. Working depth, hk == 2.000/P, (U.S.) >
r
= 2.000m (metric)
•
D0 = D + 2u cos (6.6)

The face width of a bevel gear is not determined by the kinematics of tooth
action but by requirements of manufacture and load capacity. Manufacturing
4. Whole depth, h, = 2 .188/P, + 0.002

s.
= 2.188m + 0 ,05
(U.S.)
(metric) ,•
difficulties are encountered if the face width of the gear is too large a proportion Addendum, )
of the cone distance A 0 . Therefore, the face width is limited as follows:

Gear: ac
0.540
= - P,- + P~(N /N )
0.4W
(U.S.) •
1 1
•t
1
F < 0.3Ao or lO.O (or 10.0m) (6.7)
p~
0.460m
Oc "" 0.54Um + (N/N,)J (melcic)
whichever is smaller.
Although integral diametral pitches or modules arc frequently used on bevel
gears , the re is not the 5ame necessity for reslridiug designs on this aa:ount since
tooling for bevel gears is not limited to standard pitches or modules as in the
Piaio
n: a,. ""
2 .000
---p;- - ac (U.S .) ,•
case of spur gearing. Table 6.1 shows the symbols for bc:vel gears for the AGMA

TABLE 6.1 Benl Gear Symbols 6. Dedendum,

a,. = 2.000m - ac (metric)
•>
AGMA ISO '111
Gear:
b 2.188
-p; + 0.002 - •
Cone di.stanoc
Pitcla angle
Shaft angle
Ao
r
I
R
&'
I be
c ==

= 2.188m + 0.05
ac

- ac
(U .S.)

(metric)
•
)
Addendum angle
l>cdcnitun1 •n11tc
h1cc angle
a
I .,•• . I 2 . lllR
Pinon: b,. - · - ·
P,
I 0.002 - a,. (ll.S.) •
l"o
Root angle r.
&.
&; b,. = 2.188m + 0.05 - a,. (metric) •
• )
~ - ·-
-.;; )
)
J
)-
SPlRAL BEVEL GEARS 215
) 214 BEVEL, HELICAL. AND WORM GEARING

) 7. Circular thickness (tooth thickness on pitch circle),

l Gear: 10 '"' ~ - (a,. - a 0 ) can ~ (11pproxim1tcty) 1

) Pinion: 1,. ,.,. p - la
)
where p is the drailar pitch.
1
) PJGUU U Dtagnm lltowlng ledloa throoch urol pinion
6.4 ANGULAR STRAIGIIT BEVEL GEARS •diem-~ .. aesb.
\ The proportions of angular straight bevel gears can be determined from the same '
} relations as given for bevel gcan at right angles with the following exceptions: ' that it can have its tooth surfaces ground. Also, the Zcrol gear has localized tooth
contact, that is, contact over only the central portion of the tooth inst.cad of along
) I. The limiting numbers of teeth cannot be taken from item one in section 6.3. the entire tooth , whereas the straight bevel may or may not, depending upon the
Each application most be examined separately for undcrrutting with the aid of bevel gear generator used . Modem straight bevel gear g~nerators produce~ tooth
), a chart in Gleason's Design Manual. This chart shows a plot of maximum pinion wich localized bearirig by curving the teeth along their length ever so shghtly.
dedendum angle for no undercut versus pitch angle. Curves are given for several Mating teeth arc therefore slightly convex _so th.a t conta~ takes place near. the

I
}
pressure angles. middle of the tooth. A straight bevel gear with this feature 1s known as a Com flex
) 2. The pressure angle is detennined in conjunction with the preceding item. gear. The localized contact allows a slight amount of adjustment d~ring assembly
and some di3placement due to deflection under operatmg loads without concen-
) J. In determining the gear addendum from ilem five in ~ction 6.3, it is necessary
trating the load on the ends of the teeth. Photographs of ~niOex and Z:erol
Co use an equivalent 90" bevel gear ratio for the ratio N,IN1•

I
bevel gears appear in Fig. 6.9. Figure 6.10 shows the machuung of a Comflex
)
bevel gear.
) . Ient 90" raho
E qwva . =
~NN,1 cos
cos rf,
2
)
For a crown gear (f = 90"), this racio equals infinity. 6.6 SPIRAL BEVEL GEARS
) The second type is the spiral bevel gear, which bas obliquely curved teeth. Figure
) For angular bevel gears where the shaft angle is greater than 90" and the 6.1la shows a section of a pair <!f teeth in co~tact, and Fig. 6.1 lb shows the tooth
pitch angle of the gear is also greater than 90", an internal bevel gear results. In spiral of one gear. Tue teeth arc given a spiral an~le such th?t the f~cc adva~cc
) this case, the calrulations should be referred to the Gleason Works to determine (Fig. 6.llb) is greater than the circular pitch, whtc~ results~ con?nuous p1t~h
whether the gears can be cut. line contact in the plane of the axes of the gcaB. ~is ma~'7 1t pos.s1bl~ to ob!am
) smooth operation with a smaller number of t~th tn th~ ptru?n than wtCh stnug~t
') or Zerol bevel gcan, which do not have continu?us pitch hne contact. Also, m
6.5 ZEROL BEVEL GEARS spiral bevel gears, contact between the teeth begtns ~l ~~c end of the tooch and
') progtesseS obliquely across the face of the tooth. This Ill in contrast Co the tooth
In addition to straight bevel gears, there are two other types of bevel gears, one action of straight or Zerol bevel gears, where contact takes place all al once
-) of which is the Zcrol bevel. Zcrol bevel gears have curved teeth with zero spiral across cbc en~ width of face. For these reasons, spiral bevel ge~ have ~moother
'-
angle at the middle of Che face width, as shown in Fig. 6.8, and have the same action than either straight or Zcrol bevel gears and arc espec1ally suuable for
) thrust and tooch action as straight bevel gears. They may therefore be used in high-speed work. N shown in Fig. 6.1 ta, s~irat bevel ~~ars have localized co~th
Che !rame mouncin!r'. The advantage or the Zerol gear over the straight bevel i! contact which is easily controlled by varymg the rndu o( curvntnre of mnhng
J
teeth. Spiral bevel gears can also have their_cooth surf~ces growtd. Figure 6:12
) · shows a pair of spiral bevel gears in mesh. Figure 6.13 1Uustratcs the production
'To oblain lhc exact value, a sci of CUIVCS is nttCSSary which is 001 suilable few indusioa buc. Sec of a spiral bevel gear pinion.
) Gleason, Daqtt M-.....J.

>
>
)
 I

,
)

216 BBVEL. HELICAL. AND WORM G EARING SPIRAL IJEVEL GEARS 217
,)
,,-...

ti
1 •t
•
:! )
a
0
u
1l
t
~1
e_
'
~

f. >
..
5 t
i
.x ~

FIGURE 6.10 C.ltiac comi.llu bevel sear. (C.ourtay or Gleason

Worb.>
•,
•
)
t
t

•
•>
-
,
flGURE 6.11 (a) Diapui aowiac section tluougta spinll buel
pillioa and Ctar feelJI iD mah. •
)

•
•
·if:?ts;tjJi
,,,, I
OCURE 6.U (b) Spiral of ODe sear looth.
•
•
~

•
•
)
)
 }

)
---
l·
l

) llYPOID O P.A RS 219

) 6.7 llYPOID GEARS

At one time, spiral bevel gears were used exclusively for automotive renr axle
) drive gean (ring gear and pinion). In 1925, Gleason Introduced rite hytM>i l-1 gear,
which bas replaced the spiral bevel for this application . llypoid gears arc similar
)-
,. in appearance to spiral bevel gean, with the exception that the axis of the pinion
is offset from that of the gear so that the axes no longer intersect. See Hg. 6.14.
To take care of this offset and still maintain line contact, the pitch surface of a
r· hypoid gear approaches a hyperboloid of revolution rather than a cone as in
r· bevel gears. In automotive applications, the offset is advantageous because it
aUows the drive shaft to be lowered, resulting in a lower slung body. In addition,
f hypoid pinions arc stronger than spiral bevel pinions. The reason for this is that
hypoid gears can be designed so that the spiral angle of the pinion is larger than
) that of the gear. This results in a larger, and hence stronger, pinion than the
corresponding spiral bevel pinion. Another difference is that hypoid gears have
) sliding action along the teeth, whereas spiral bevel gears do not. Hypoid gears
'-' FIGURE 6.12 Spinl benl gens. (Coan~ o( Glea- operate more quietly and can be used for higher reduction ratios than spiral bevel
) - Worb.)
- gears. llypoid gears can also be ground.
) The tooth form for Zero! bevel, spiral beve l, and hypoid gears is the lo ng
-· and short addendum system, except when both gears have the same number of
l, teeth. Standards similar to that given for straight bevel gears have been developed
fur these systems and may be found in the Gleason Design Manual for bevel a nd
)_ hypoid gears.
b
).
)
l
)_
)_,
).

>
)'"
)
J
J
'} FIGURE 6.13 Genentiq spiral henl plaio•. (Co~ FIGURE 6.14 llypoid &Hrs. (Coartesy of C leasoa
tesy or GI-.. Worts.) Wotb.)
~
}
~-

) 218
)
j
~
 ,
l
>
220 B5VEL. lll!UC/\L, AND WORM GliARlNO TitEORY OF HELICAL GEARS 221 •..
6.8· THEORY OF HELICAL GEARS
I( n plane is rolled on a base cylim.ler, a line in the plane parallel to the axis of >
the cylinder will generate the surfaa: of an involute spur gear tooth . If the t
generating line is inclined to the axis, however, the surface of a helical gear tooth
will be gcnera&cd. These two conditions are shown in Figs 6.15a and 6.156, t
respectively. f
Helical gears are used lo connect parallel shafts and nonparallel, noninter-
FIGURE 6.17 p. = nor·
sccting shafts. The former arc known as paral~I helical gears and the latter as
crossed helical gears. Sec Figs. 6 .16a and 6.16b.
••I
p =
circulu pltc:b,
ciraalar pitch ia , , _
>
In determining the tooth proportions of a helical gear for either crossed or oC robtioa, + = hem •• I
paral.lcl shafts, it is necessary to consider lhe manner in which the teeth arc to gle.
)
be cut. If the gear is to be hobbed, a.II dimensions are figured in a plane that is
nonnal to the tooth pitch element, and the diametral pitch and the pressure angle spur gears or a given pitch; in a spur gear the norma.1 plane and the plane of >
arc standard values in that plane. Because the cutting action of a hob oc:cur5 in rotation are identical. Figure 6.17 shows a sketch of a helical gear with the circular
the norma.1 plane, it is possible to use the same hob to cut both helical gears and pitch measured in the normal plane and in the plane of rotation. From the sketch, t

p. = p cos "' =
cos+
'11"
--p;- (U.S.)
(6.8)
,•
p. = nm cos+ (metric)

where P,, = diametral pitch io plane of rotation (also known as transverse dw-
,,•
,
mdrol pilch). Figure 6.18 shows hobbing of helical gears.
(o) When a helical gear is cut by a hob, the normal circular pitch p. of Fig.
6.17 becomes equal to the circular pitch of the bob. From this and from the fact
FIGURE 6.15
that p = wfP11 the following relation cau be written: I'

)
11'
(U.S.)
p. = P,.,,
~

I
p. = 'lfm. (metric)
•
l
! where p- is the normal diametral pitch and is cqua.1 to the diametral pitch of the
l
,
.t
.I
hob, aod m. is the normal module. Substituting for p. in Eq. 6 .8,

P, = P,.,, cos+ (U.S.)

•
Also, by substituting P,
m = m.
cos+
= NID in Eq. 6.9,
(metric)
(6.9)
,•
)
N )
D= (U.S.)
l'w cos+
(a) (lo)
FIGURE 6.16 Helical gears (o) fOI' ,...ad llullb ucl (b) fOI' cro-4
daalb. (Comta1 or D. O. J ...eii Gear M...r.ctwiac C-pa1.)
D =Nm.
cos + (metric)
(6.10)
,
)

•
.,,
~..--- ·
; ~

" ..., ,
 )
)_
) 222 DEVEL, HELICAL. AND WORM GEAIUNG
THEORY OF HELICAL G l!ARS 223
)
)-
)-

,,
)-

t
)
)
--
)
F. • Normal bC!!
P1 • Tnmm~ lorce = , --
F. =Aldal ~
F• .. Sepa111dn1 locce
y. . _

.... ,
-
)
)
OA Bii .. Plane ol roi.ttan
OADa • Tan.,.nti.ll plane
ODC • Homuil plane
<I> .. PrHSUfll ancle in plane o f rotation
<1>. • r.tt....e •"lie Ip n«lnel plane
} I/I ~ Heli K MIPt
ftGURE 6.1'
},
1
l aod

) .... tan 4>.

tan ... = - - (6.t I)
. While it .is. not our intent to go into detail concerning the forces actio on cos"'
) a helical gear. ~JS necessary lo consider them in determining the relation be g
J +
prcssu~ angle in the plane of rotation and the normal pressure an le +~ It is also interesting to consider the effect of the helix angle on the number
the helo: angle +. From Fig. 6.19 showing lhese forces, g • an of teeth that can be cut by a hob on a helical gear without undercutting. By
) referring to Fig. 4.17 (spur gears), an equation can be developed for the minimum
) tan += ~ (plane OABll) number of teeth for helical gears cul by a hob as was done for spur gears in
F, Otapter 4. (See Eq. 4.12.) This results in
)
)
tan +. = ; 0(plane ODC) N = 2k cos iii (6.12)
sin2 +
) OD = -Ii_ (plane OADG) A table has beeo compiled by AGMA (207.05, June 1971) to give lhe
) cos"' minimum number of teeth that can be bobbed on a helical gear without under-
Therefore, cutting. These are given in Table 6.2 as a function of helix angle tjl and normal
I pressure angle cl>. full-depth teeth.
If it is necessary to use a pinion smaller than those given in Table 6.2 , rhe
1 tao +. = F. cos + pinion may be cut without undercutting by withdrawing the hob in a manner
') F,
similar to that shown for spur gears in Otaptcr 5. An equation which is equivalent
"-
>
>
>
)
)
 ,
)

224 B&VE1., HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING

TABLE 6.2 Minim11111 Number

'IHEORY OF HELICAL GEARS 225 ••
or Teetb for Helical Gears
Witboat Underaitting" •
~
••l r
~

0- (spur gears)
s·
141•
32 18
~

12 '•
,,•
32 17 12
10· 31 17 JI
1s· 211 16 11
20" 27 IS 10
23" 26 14 10 FIGURE 6..28 PiaicNi mUen for 1p11r ud bdical gun. (Cour·
is· 25 l4 9 tay or Fellows Corporallo..}
30- 22 12 8 >
35° 19 10 7
40"
45"
15
12
9
7
6
s
cutter IO that the following relations apply:
•f
-rrD

,
11"
·Elltactcd from AGMA Standard Syst~Tooth p=--- (U.S.) )
Proportions for Fine-Pitch Spw and Helical Gears N P, (6.14)
(AGMA 207.06}. with the permission of the pul>-
1.ishcr. the Amclicu Oear MaauflCl\U'CrS Associ - p = "Tlm (metric)
ation, 1500 King Street, Akxandria, VA 22314.
and

N )
•
to Eq. 5.2 for spur gears can be derived for helical gears as P, = - (U.S.)
D

e = _l [ k _ N sin
1
ct>]
D
m=-
N
(metric)
(6.15)
•t
(U.S .)
P.,, 2cos.jl
N sin1 4>] (metric)
(6.13)
lo the Fellows method , the same cutler cannot be used to cul both helical and •
e = m. [ 1.000 - 2 cos iii spur gears. Figwe 6.20 shows pinion cutters for sp11r and helical gears.
The features discussed apply to helical gears with parallel shafts and with •
TI1e value of e given by Eq. 6.13 is the amount the bob will have to be withdrawn
crossed shafts. The two types will oow be considered separa tely.
Table 6.3 shows the symbols for helical gears for the AGMA and for the
•
io order to have the addendum line of the rack or hob just pass through the >
interference point of the pinion being cut.
Although most hobs are designed to have the diametral pitch a standard TABLE 6.l Helical Gear Symbols
>
value in the normal plane, some hobs are produced that have the diametral pitch )
AGMA ISO 701

•,
a standard value in the plane of rotation. These bobs are known as transvu.sal
hobs, and the pitch in the plane of rotation is known as the trans11erse diamt:tral Circul.u pitch (plaoe of rotation) p p
,,.
pitch.
U tltc gear is to be cut by the Fellows gear shaper method, the di.mcosioos
are considered in the plane or rotation, and the diametral pitch and the pressure
anr.lr. Are stancl1ud valur.s in that plnnc. When a hclic~I ge~r is cul hy a Fellows
Circular pilch (nonnal plane)
l'rcssure angle (plane of rotation)
Pruswe angle (normal plane)
I Jelill 1ni,:lc
p.
+
~­
+
...,,.. ,
cutlet , the circulnr pitch I' of Fig. 6 .17 bc1io111eli cqunl to the circulur pitch of the Shalt angle I I ~

•
•
r."·.:-
.·'
I ·-
•
j
I
 f
. ..
}

)
) 226 BEVEL. HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING PARAU..EL HELICAL OBARS 21:1
) proposed International Standard ISO 701. Symbols which are the same as those
r for spur gears (Table 4.8) are not included.

)
6.9 PARALLEL HELICAL GEARS
) Fo~ p:irallcl helical gears to mesh properly, lhc following conditions must be
sal1sficd: ·
)
"" I . Equa l helix angles.
)
2. Equal pitches or modules.
)
__, 3. Opposite hand , that is, one gear with a left-hand helix and the other with
a right-hand helix.
l
From Eq. 6 .10, the velocity ratio can be expressed as
1
t W1 - Ni - p - D2 cos ~ DJ
(6.16)
Wi - N, - P• D 1 cos "1 1 = D 1
)
) The spur gear equation for center distance.

) C = (N, + N2)
2P4 {U.S.)
)
) C = (N, + N 2)m F1GUllE 6.21 F1GUllE 6.22 Henin&bone cean. (Co•r1esy or D. 0 .
2
{metric) J-es Gear MHaramrinc Company.)
)
can also be used ~or parallel helical gears provided p~ is the diametral pitch in
) the plane of rotation. · Helical gears connecting parallel shafts have line contact similar to spur
) . In a p~rallel helical gear, the face width is made large enough so that for gears. However, in spur gears, the contact line is parallel to the axis, whereas in
+.
? given he~lX angle the face advance is greater than lhe cirmlar pitch as helical gears, it runs diagonally across the face of the tooth. Parallel helical gears
) illustrated m Fi~. 6.2~. It will give continuous contact in the axial plane as 'the have smoother action and hence less noise and vibration than spur gears and arc
gears rotate. This ratio (face advance to circular pitch) may be considered as a therefore to be preferred for high-speed work. The reason for the smoothe r action
l contact ratio. From Fig. 6.21, it can be seen that to have the face advance just is that tbe teeth come into contact gradually beginning at one cod of the tooth
) +.
equal t~e circular pitch, the face width would have to equal pltan To provide and progressing across the tooth surface, whereas in spur gears, contact takes
~ margm of safety, the AGMA recommends that this limiting face width be place simultaneously over the entire face width. The disadvantage of parallel

.,
)
'--J
)

)
mc:reased by at least 15%, which results in the following equation:

(6~7)

In ~ddition to .the contact ratio r~ulting from the twist of the teeth, parallel
helical gears is in the end thrust produced by the tooth helix. If this end thrmt
is so large that it cannot be conveniently carried by the bearings, it may be
i:ounterbalanced by using two helical gean of opposite hand or by using a her-
ringbone gear which is in effect a double helical gear cut on one blank. Figure
6.22 shows a photograph of a herringbone gear.

helical gears will also have a contact ratio in the plane of rotation the same as Example 6.1. ~an example of parallel helical gears, consider lhat to reduce t he noise
J spur.gears. The total contact ratio wiU therefore be the sum of these two values
and 1s greater than that for spur gears.
In a gear drive, two 16-pitdi spar gears of 30 and 80 teeth, respectively, arc to be replaced
J by helical gears. The center distance and the angular·'Welocity ntio must remain the same.

)
l
)
J
)
 ,
)

228 BEVEL, HELICAL, ANO WORM GEARJNG

CROSSED HELICAL GEARS 229
'
}-
Oe'~oe the helix angle, the oul£ide diameten, and the face width or the
Assume the belical gears to be cut by a 16-pitch, '1JJ' full-depth hob.
DCW gcaJS.
Note that the addendum was calcu1ated using the diamctnl pitch o( the hob ( P.,.).
The face widlh is •
From spur gear data,
•
c .. N, + N, ... JO + Ill • 3.437S in.
2P, 2 x 16
F > 1.15p
tan.,,
..
p = P, =
'II'

14.4 = 0.2185 io.

••·
Ni 80 8
1111
~ = N, = 30 = 3 ~

',
Therefore,
For the hdical rean, •:
F > (1.15)(0.2185) O .
N, + N, tan _ • > .5189 m.
C = N, +Ni 25 84
I'., = 16
2P,
or P. = -U-- ·: ·
>
•,
Use
P, < 16
(.Y. )N. 8 9 .
F = 16 ID.
P, - 2(tl) ... 15 N,

C = 3.4375 in. (3!. in.) •>

6.10 CROSSED HELICAL GEARS

,'
By trial, find numbers oftuth: [.
f
~or cr<>S¥:<1 helical gears to mesh properly, there is only one requirement, that
N, N, p• REMARKS . .,·. as, they must have common normal pitches or modules. Their pitches in the plane
30 80 16 OrirJnal spur gears
N, not whole number
of rotation arc not necessarily and not usually equal. Their helix angles may or
15.47
29
28
77 .33
74.67 14.93 N, not whole number
may not be equal, and lhe gears may be of the same or of opposite hand.
Fro:'D Eq. 6.10, the velocity ratio becomes •
27 72 14.40 Satisfactory to use
),
+ •
Therefore, Jct
w,
Wz =
N1
N, =
P.,, Di oos
P .J D 1 cos
1
+
1
Di cos
D 1 cos
+1
+1
(6. 111)
•
N, ~ 27
If I is the angle between two shafts oonnected by crossed helical gears and .ji 1 •l.
N, - 72 aud +z arc the helix angles of the gears, then
"· 14.40 o.9000
t
005 "' = -
p_. = -16- = (6.19)
)
+= 25.84° The plus aod minus signs apply, respectively, when the gears have the same or )
'There arc other combinations of numbers of teeth and bclix angle that will atisfy the opposite hand. Equation 6.19 is illustrated in Fig. 6.23 showing pairs of crossed
the oonditions, but tbc one listed should be 5elccted becauge it will give the smallat belix helical gears in and out of mesh.
The action of crossed helical gears is quite different from that of parallel •
angle.
The outside diameters o( the two gears arc helical gears. Crossed helical gears have point contact. In addition, sliding action
tatca place along the tooth. which is not present in puallcl helical gears. For
•
)
Do, = l>, + 'LI ~ ~: + 2(;..) .. 1~4 + 2(i16) '"' 2.000 ia. these reasons, crossed helical gears arc used to transmit only small omounts of
power. An a ppli~liun or thci;c gcnrs is on the distributor drive 0111111 automotive
engine. •
Do, - D, + 'LI ~
N1
r. t
le )
2 ( p.. 72
~ 14.4 + 2 ( 16
1)
- .
5.125 ID . Using the principle of lhe velocity of sliding developed in Chapter I, ii is
•
•
·1;:-· •
,
J
'
)
) 230 BEVE L, H ELICAL, ANO WORM GEARING
WORM GEA RI NO 2Jl
)
Example 6.l. To illustrate aossed helica l gcan , coMidr.r " pair of gears cnnncctin11
\

~
two shafts a t a n angle or 6(J" with a velocity ratio of 1.5 : I. T he pinion has a no rmal
d i11111etral pitch or 6, a pitch diameter of 7 .75 in ., and a he lix angle o f 35• . Determine the
) hcli1t angle and the J>itch diameter or tht: 11cnr nncl the 1111111 l>cr~ of teeth on holh 111<1 p inion
and the gear.

'
)
)-
Ge~r I
(left - hand) (left-hand)
To find the helix angle of the gear, assume both gears have the 5:1111e han<I . 'll1e11,

~~ )~'
where l: = fH' and ojl1 - Js-. Therefore,
)
+. = 25"
)
The pitch diameter of the gear can be determined as follows:
)
) 6>a N, D, cos +,
Gear I
(ietl-h.llnd)
Ge~r 2 ">i = N, = D , cos + 1

f f<.IGUR E 6.21
(rig~t-hand)
D _ D, cos+, x ~ • (7.7SO)(cos 3S"')(l.5)
) • cos ~ ..,. cos 25"
D, = 10.SO in.
) possible t~ determine ~be tooth helices across lhe faces of two crossed heli
) gears p6r02Vlded the ~npheral ~elocity of the pitch point of each gear is
Figure · 4 shows this oonstruction h v dy
mo::!' ·
The numben of teeth on the pinion and on the gear arc

) to find thet~th ~elices and helix a:i;c;~~rtli:e vei::1 :::::·;::~~~;::ir;:d N, ~ P"' D, cos +1 - (6)(7.7SO)(cos 35j
The two hehces m contact at point l' are parallel to the line MM th. g .
N, = 38
) occurs on the bottom of gear 1 and on the top or gear 2. ' l· IS contact

)
}
...
N, = N, "'1 = (38)(1.S)

N, = 57
)
} 6.11 WORM GEARING
) If a tooth on a helical gear makes a complete revolution on the pitch cylinder,
the resulting gear is known as a worm. The mating gear for a worm is designated
) as a worm gt!ar, or worm whul; however, the worm gear is not a helical gear.
) A wonn and wonn gear arc used to oonnect nonparallel, nonintersccting shafts
usually at right angles. Sec Fig. 6.25. The gear reduction is generally quite large.
) The relation between a spur or helical gear and it11 hob during cutting is similllr
to the relation between a worm and a worm gear. Worms that arc trnc involute
) helical gears may be used to drive spur or helical gears, but point contact obviously
re.~ults, which is unsatisfactory from the standpoint of wear. It is prn:..~ i hle, how-
) FIGURE 6.24 ever, to secure line contact by mating the wo rm with" worm gcn r lhnl hns hccn
) cut with a hob having the same diameter and same form of tooth as the worm.
If this is done, the worm and worm gea r will be conjugate, but lhe worm will
J
>
)
J
)
 I

,
)

232 IJEVEL, HBUCAL, Al'ID WORM GBARING WORM GL:ARING

not. have involute teeth. Figure 6.26a shows a sketch of a wonn, where). is the
233
,,
)

,
lead angle, 1ft the helix angle, p. the axial pitch, and D the pitch diameter. The
uial pitch of the worm is the distance between corresponding poinls of adjacent
threads measured parallel to the axis.
lo considering the characteristics of a worm, the lead is of primary impor·
tance and may be defined as the axial distance that a point o r.•he helix of the
worm will move in one revolution o( the worm. The relation between the lead
,•
and axial pitch is

L = p,N, {6.20)
,,
where N 1 is the number of threads (or teeth) wrapped on the pitch cylinder of
the worm. A worm may be obtained with one to ten threads.
, >
U a complete revolution of a thread on a worm is unwrapped, a triangle
. results as shown in Fig. 6.26b. From the figure, it can be seen that ,
tan). = - -
L
1TD1
(6.21)
,•
where D 1 is the diaml'lcr of the worm.
The diameter of a worm gear can be calculated from
,, J

(6.22)

•
where Ni is the number of teeth in the worm gear. The velocity ratio is
•
w1 N1 D1 cos +1
(6.23) •
c.>i = N 1 = D 1 cos .j. 1
•
r·, I
r- L---·1 •
•
•
(I>)

nGlll<E 6.25 (41) w- and worm sear· (C.Ouiesy or Foolc B...iltcn

LWA/~
I -1 •• 1-
.L. •
•
•
Gear & Maauradmillc Corp.)<•>ff"'!._•-•- -rm pu. (C_,.
tuy o( Coae Drin Gean, Dlwldoa or Mldil&• Tool Compmy.) FIGURE 6.26
(ul (bl
•
•
•
•
-~ ~ - -
, )
 J
)
,,
,
)
,
I
'
B EVl!I., l lE!LICAL, ANO WORM GEAIUNO

TABLE 6 .4 Wona Gear Symbol!

WOR M OEARIN(i

lead a ngle of the worm, the helix angle of the worm gear, and the distance between shafl
2J5

) AGMA ISO '111 cent en .

Orculor pirch (worm gear) The lead angle of the worm can be found from
) Axial pitch (worm)
µ p
p, P. L .. p, N , where p, - p
' I Lead
\ L p,
Helix angle .,, p
L "" 1.250 x 3 = 3.750 in.
) Lead angle
~ 7
l tao A "' L
.,,D, =,. J.x 3.800
SO = 0.314
5· and
.. '
) Jj
Therefore,

,
)

,_ for s hafts at right angles.

(6.24)
A = 17.4•

The helix angle of lhe worm gear equah the lead angle of lhe wonn. Therefore,

For a worm and worm gear with shafts . h +, = 17.4°

the following conditions must be satisfied: at rtg tangles to mesh property,
) The center distance is found by
) I . :C:~d ~gle of worm = helix angle of worm gear
2. "-'lal pitch of worm = circular 't h f D, "' e!:!J = (1.250)(60) = 23.90 in.
• p1 c o worm gear
) 1f 1J
.A worm and worm gear drive
) the application. When used as ad . m~y or m~y n?t_bc rcvenable depending oo C = D, ; D, = 3.800 ; 23.90 = 13 .SS in.
self-locking and driven only b th nve or a hoist, rt '~ necessary that the unit be
) an automotive drive it is ric~ ctworm. H~wever • if a worm drive is used for
) gear be able to driv~ the worm 1'lthha: t1:: dnve be reversible and that the worm
friction angle of the sudaces in ~nta: t~a da?glewiJ?fl the WO~ is greater than the Probltm.s-U.S. Standard
) of friction µ. and the fricti gl ..&. • e nve be reversible. The coefficient 6 .1. A pair of bevel gears have a velocity nitio of ..,1/i»i, and the shaft centerlines intersect
on an e 'I' are related by the .-.nuafi
~orm and worm gear arc considered self-I k" h -, on µ. .. tan cf>. A at an angle I . If distance.s i and 1 are laid off from the intenection point along the shaft
) 1s less than 5". oc mg w en the lead angle of the worm ucs in the ratio m1/i»i, prove that the diagonal of a parallelogram with sides x ond y will
) Table 6.4 shoW3 the symbols for wo . . be the common pitch cone clement of the bevel gears.
proposed International Standard ISO 701 ';1
g:rs for. the AGMA and for the 6.l. A Gleason aown bevel gear of 24 teelh and a diame lral pitch of 5 is drive n by a
} for spur gears (Ta ble 4.8) arc not included. ym Is which arc the same as those .16-tooth pinion. Calculate the pitch diameter and pitch angle of the pinio n, the addendum
and dedendum, the face width, and the pitch diameter of the gear. Make a full-size axial
) Examp/~ 6.3. Asan example or worm a · .· sketch of the pinion and gear in mesh using reasonable proportions for the hubs a nd webs
a worm gear of 60 tcelh; the shal'l angleg~ ;;;!g, c;;;sader. a triple-threaded worm drivina as shown in Fig. 6.7a.
) o f rhe wo rm geu is If in. and th ·rch di as own in Fig. 6.7:1. The circular pib:h 6.J. A Gleason aown bevel gear of 48 teeth and a diametral pitch of 12 is driven hy a
• c Pl ameter of the worm is 3.80 in. Determine the
"} 24-tooth pinion. (a) Calculate the pitch angle of the pinion and lhe shaft angle. (b) Make
a sketch (to scale) of the pitch con~ of the two gears in mesh. Show the bad ronu of
) each gear and label the pitch con~ and the back con~ .
worm

m
6.4. A pair of Gleason miter gears have 20 tcelh and a diametral pitch of 4. Calcula te
)
- .,_. 2
- the pitch diameter, the addendom and dedendum, the face width, the pitch cone distance ,
the face angle, the root angle, and the outside diameter. Mate a full -size axial sketch or
) the gears in mesh using reasonable proportions for the hub and web as shown in fig. 6.1a.
Dimension the dn.wing with the values calculated.
1 FIGURE 6.%7 Worm I 6.5. A Gleason 6-pitcb, straight bevel pinion or 21 teeth drives a gear of 27 teeth . The
1baft angle is 9<1'. Calculate the pitch angles, the addcndums and dedendums, and the
)
_)
>
J
)

236 D~VEL, llEUCAI., AND WORM l.if!ARJNG
0
facc width of each gear. Make a full-5iz.e axiaJ 6ketch of the gears in mesh using reasooablc
1noportio11s for the hubs and webs as 'hown in Fig. 6.7a.
6.6. A Gleason 4-pitch, straight bevel pinion of 14 teeth dtivcs a gear o( 20 teeth. 1be
d1art angle is 90". Calculate the addendum and dedendum, circular tooth tbick.oca for
each gen, aud the pitch and base radii of the equivalent spur gean. Make a full·siz.e
sketch of the equivalent gear' showing two teeth in contact as in Fig. 6.7b.
6.7. A Gleason S-pilcb , straight bevel pinion of 16 teeth drives a gear of 24 teeth. Tbc
shaft angle is 4S-. After making the necessary calculations, lay out a full-5izc axial sketch
of the pinion and gear in mesh using reuonable proportions for the hubs and webs as
shown in Fig. 6.7a.
6.8. A pair of Gleason bevel gears mesh with a shaft angle of 75". The diamctral pitch
is 10, and the numbers of teeth in the pinion and gear arc 30 and 40, rcspccti¥ely. (a)
Calculale the pitch angles and the addendums and dedendums of the pinion and gear. (b)
Make a full-size sketch of the pitch cones and the back cones of the two gears in mesh.
Label the pitch cones, back cones, and pitch angles of both gears. (c) Mark off {double
size) the addendum and dedendum of the pinion on the sketch and clearly label them.
6 .9. Prove with the aid of a suitable sketch that in a Gleason straight tooth bevel gear
the addendum angle of the pinion equals the dedcndum angle of the gear and that r 0 =
r +a.
6.10. A 14-tooth helical gear is to he cul by a lG-pilch, 20" hob. Calculate the foUowing:
(u) the minimum beliJ[ angle which this gear must ha¥C to be cul at the standard setting
without undercutting. (b) the a11>0unt the bob will have lo be withdrawn to avoid under·
culling if the hclill augle uf the gear is made 20".
6.11. A 12-toolh helical pinion is to be cut with ao 8 -pilch , 20" hob. If the belill angle i1
lo be 2<J', calculate the amount the hob will have to be withdrawn to avoid undercutting.
6.12. Two equal sptU gears of 48 teelh, 1 io. face width, and 6 diametral pitch mesh
together in the drive of a fatigue tester. Ca.Jculate the bclix angle of a pair or helical gcan
to replace the spur gears if the flee width, center dist8DCC, and velocity ratio are to remain
the same. Use the following cutlers: (a) Fellows of 6 diamelral pitch, (b) bob or 6 normal
diametnl pitch.
6.13. Two standard spur gears were cut with a lG-pitch, 2ff' bob to give a velocity ratio
o[ 3.5: 1 and center distance of 6.75 in. Helical gears are tD be cut with the same hob tD
replace the spur gears keeping the center distance and angular-velocity ratio the same.
Determine the helix angle, numbers of teeth, and face width of the new gears keeping
the helix angle to a minimum.
6.14. Two standard spur gears arc to be replaced by helical gears. The spur gears were
cut by an 8-pitch, 20" hob, the velocity ratio is 1.75:1, and the center distance is S.S in.
1be helical gears arc to be cul with the same hob and mainlaia the same center di5tanc:e.
111e helix angle is to be between 15" and 20" and the velocity ntio between 1.70 and 1.75.
Find the numbers of teeth, helix angle, and velocity ratio.
6.15. Jn a proposed gear drive, two standard spur gears (16 diamelral pilch) wilh 36 and
100 teeth, re1pcctively, aro meshed at the :slandani center distance. It ls decided to n:placc
lhe5e spur gears with hdical gears ha¥in& a helix angle or 7Z' and the same number of
teeth. Oelermine the change in center distance required if the helical gears are cut (a)
with 11 16-pitdi, 20" hub, (b) with a l6-pitcJ1, U1' Fellows cutter.
6.16. A pair of helical gears for parallel ibarts arc to be cul with an 8-pitch, 25" hob. 1bo
helill angle is to be 20" and the center distance belWeen 6 .00 and 6.25 in. Tbc angular-
vclocity ratio is to approach as closely as possible 2: 1. Calculate the circular pitch and
,
)
237 •
WORM GEARING
•
•>
the diamctral pitch in the plane of rotation. Delennine the numhcrs of teclh, pitd1 di-
ameters, and center dista1Ke to satisfy the above conditions.
6.17. A 10-pitch, 20-tooth spur pinion drives two gears, one or 36 teeth and the othe r of
48 tecth. It i5 desired to replace all three gears with helical gears and to change the velocity
ratio between the 20-toolh gear shaft and the 48-toolh gear shaft lo 2: 1. ll1c velocity t
•,
ratio and the center distance between 1he 20-tootb gear shaft and the 36-toolh gear shaft
is to remain tbe same. Using an 8-pitch, "1JJ" stub hob and keeping tJ1e helix angle as low
as p<>5Sible, determine the number of teeth, heli1 angle and hand, face width, and outside
diameler for each gear. Calculate the change in center distance between the shafts that
originally mounted the 2G- and 48-tooth gears. ·
6.18. A 12-pitch, 24-tooth spur· pinion drives two gears, one of 36 teeth and the other of
60 teeth. It is necessary to replace all three gears with helical gears keeping the same
•t
velocity ratios and cenler distances. Us.ing a 16-pitch, 20" stub hob and keeping the helix
angle as low as possible, determine the number or teeth, helix angle ancl ha nd , race width ,
and outside diameter for each gear. •
6.19. Two po.rullel 'hafts are to be connected by a pair or helical gears (gears 1 and 2). •)
The angular-velocity ratio is to be 1.25 : 1 and the center distance 4.5 in . In addition, gear
2 is to drive a helical gear 3 whose $haft is at right angles to shaft 2. The angular-velocity
ratio between gears 2 and 3 is to be 2 : 1. Using a 9-pitch, 20" bob, deacnninc the number
of teeth, helix angle, and pitch diameter of each gear and find center disuncc Cu.
,
6.20. Two puallel shafts are to be connected by a pair of helical gears (gears 1 and 2). >
1 The angul1r velocity ratio is to be 1.75: 1 and the center distance 2 .75 in. In addition,
gear 2 i5 tC? drive a third helical geu (gear 3) with an aoi:ular velocily rat io of 2 : 1. "J11rce •
hobs ere available for cutting the gears: hob A (7 pilch, 20"), hob 8 (9 pitch, ZlT'), and
•
hob C (12 pitch, 20"}. (a) Choose the hob that will result in the smallest helix angle +.
{b) Which bob will permit the shortest center distance C 21 between shafts 2 and 3 while
maintaining a helix angle less lhan 359?
•
,•
6.21. The formula for the center distance between two spur· or parallel helical gears is
gi¥eo by C - (N1 + NJ12P. where C is dependent upon the number of gear teeth N,
aod N, and the diametral pitch P1- Show llut Cn is independent or P, for three gears
(spur or parallel helical) in mesh whose center distance Cu and angular-velocity ratios
w1/w,, and w,lw, are known .
,
..
,
6.12.. Two 18-pit~ spur gears of 36 and 90 teeth, respectively, arc to be replaced by
helical gC31$. Tbe center distance and the velocity ratio arc to remain the same. If the
width of the gears cannot cxa:ed I in. because of space limitations, delcrminc a pair of
•>
helical gcar5 for this job keeping the helix angle as small as possible. Use an IS.pitch, 20"
hob, and determioc the numbers of teeth, helix angle, face width, and outside diameters. )
6.23. Two 18-pitch spur gears of 32 and 64 teeth , respectively, arc to be replaced by
helical gears. The center distance and velocity ratio arc to remain the same . If the width
of the gears cannot Cllteed h in. because of space limitations, determine which or the •
foUowing hobs should be used keeping the helix angle as small as possible: hob A (18-
pitch, 209) or hob 8 (ZG-pitch. 20"). ln addition, determine the numbers or teeth, helix
angle, face width, and outside diameters.
•>
,.2A. 1Wo parallel shafts are lo be connected by • pair of helical gears (gean; 1 •ml 2) .
>
11lc angulu velocity ratio is lo be ll: 1 nnd the center distance 3.50 in . Considering that
bobl arc available from 6 to 12 pitch (inclusive). labul;atc the numbcl5 or teeth, helix )
angle, and face width for the various combinations (of N, ind N,} that will satisfy the
given conditions. What is the best selection for this drive? Why? Let IS be the lowest
number of lecth for the ~mailer gear at P.J = 6. •
•
)
~ -
> - ·· j
J
.,
I

l
)
)
Ii 238 DJ!VEL, llEUCAL, AND WORM GEARING

6.2S. Two shafts crossing ar righr nngles arc lo be connected by helical gears. Tho angular
velocity riitio is to be Ii: I and the center di.stance 5.00 in. Assuming the gean to ba¥C,'
equal helix angles, calculate the diametr.al pitch of a culler to generate 20 teeth on th~'
pinion if the cutter is (a) a bob and (b) a Fellows culler. :.
.
sketch of the hob cuttutg a 47-tooth ~lg
WORM OEAIHNG 239
. ht·htuid helical cent with a helix nngk o f 70". 'l11c
r d f the hob on lop of the gear blank w1lh
gear blank is U in. wide. Show the pitch ~y m crho 'tch clement of the gear tooth. Show
f th thread 00 the hob· pos11ton l e.~c
. h h b · correct rclatton to t c pt .. h

I
) the pitch heh.11: oft c o m
h
I
r and l turns o c ' l ._
6.26. 'lltc following helical gears, cut with a 12-pitcb, 20" hob, are meshed without bact-".! three tooth elements on t c gca . . ch label the a.xis of the bob and gear b an ...
lash: ·
~ elements by means of lhc normal arcular pit .
the lead angle of hob' the helix angle of the gear• an
d th direction of rotation of the hob
c
) Gear 1-36 teeth, right-band, 30" helix angle and gear blank.
ff Gear 2-72 teeth, left-band, 40" helix angle 6 34 wilh a left-hand helical gear. .
)- \ 6.35. Repeal Problem . . d of2.00 in. drives II worm gear wirh a veloc.•ty
6.36. worm having:s·~~ If the center distance is 9.00 in. • tldcrmmc
Dctcnnine the •hart 11ngle, the angular velocity ratio, aud !he center distaocc. ratio ofA20:
double-threaded
1; the angle between the sba is .
)
the pitch diameter of the worm ~d won::~~ and a center distance of 7.00 in . arc to
6.27. Two shafts cnmcd at right angles arc oonncctcd by helical geais (gears 1 and 2)
) t cut with a 12-pitch, 2'r full-depth hob. Both gcan an: right-hand and the angular vcJocity
ratio is 15:1; D, = .S.196 in. and.,,, = 60". A design modification requires a.reduction 6.JT. A worm and worm gear with sh~ "t h 0 f the worm is to be l in., determine rhe
have a velocity ratio of 18:_1. If the ll1 ~ c that cnn be used for the drive a nd
) of the o utside diameter (o.d.) of gear 1 by 0.25 in. to provide clearance for a new marimum number of teeth m lhc worm on worm gear
component. AMuming that the same hob must he used for cuniog any new gears, sh°" h · pondin• pitch diameter.;. ·
) that the o.d. of gear 1 c.an be reduced without changing the velocity nlio, the shaft angle, I cu oorrcs d" fts 90" Derive equations fo 1 the , f1,1111de1s
rm gear connect sba at · . . I d
and the numben of gear lecth N, and N,. The o .d. of gear 2 and lhc center distance may 6..JS.
of the A worm
worm andanworm
wo gear m . terms of the center distance C, vcloaty rallo "'• w.,, an
)- be altered if necessary. 1n the analysis, calculate and compare the following data f<n both
the original and the new gears: Cu. D,, D,, N,. N,. +..oj.,. lead angle X. . at 90" and a ccnlcr distance u( 6.00 in .. are lo
) 6.28. A 21-looth helical gear of 6 normal diametral pitch is to drive a spur gear. The 6.39. A worm and worm gcarfwi~h sh~ "ti:h of the worm is to be I in., detcnmne the
have a velocity ratio of 20: 1. I t e Ula pr h d .
angular velocity ratio is to be 2: 1 and the angle between the shafts 4.S-. Detcnnine the . th 1 can be used for t c nve.
) pitch diameters for the two gcan and the helix angle for the helical gear. Make a fulkil.e smallest diameter worm a ·ib shafts at 90". If the center
- sketch of the two gears (pilcb cylinders) in contact silllilar to Fig. 6.24 1rith the pinion on 6.40. A four-threaded worm nves
d · a ©-tooth worm gear WI
f be 0- calculale the axial pilch of the
) distance is 8.00 in. and the lead angle o t wonn 2 •
. top; the width of the gears is to be l in. Show the tooth clements in conmct and also a
· h d " etcrs of the two gear.;.
) tooth clement on top of the pinion. Label and dimension the helix angle and the shaft
angle. worm and the prtc iam . 8-rooth worm gear having a pitch diameter of 7 .64
6.41. A four: threaded wormld(nvhcs 5ah43 fts arc at right angles, calculalc the lead and lhe
) in. and a helix angle of 2f1'• t e
6.29. Two crossed shafts arc to be connected by helical gcan. The angular velocity ratio
is to be ll: 1 and the center distance 8.50 in. If one gear is available from a previous job pitch diameter of the worm. "th an angular velocity ratio of 8: I and
) with 30 lccrh, 30" helix angle, and a normal diamctral pitch of S, calculate the shaft angle 6.42. A six·thrcadcd worm drives a worm gear~ I . and the lead angle 20". Calculate
that must be used. Let both gears be of the same hand and let the JO.tooth gear be the The · I pitch of the worm ts m.
) pinion. a shaft angle of 80". llXJI d gear and the circular pitch of the gear.

6.30. Two crossed shafts are connected by helical gears. The velocity ratio is 1.8:1 and
the pitch diameters of the wo:;: an ~':"oorh worm gear with a sha£t angle of 90". The
) 6.43.
center A five-threaded and thevcslcaad ang Ic '}ff . Calculate the pitch diamelen , the lead,
worm
the shaft angle 4.S-. Jf D, ~ 2.31 in. and D, "= 3.73 in., calculate the hcli11: 1n1Jea if both distance is 2.75 in.
gears have the same haod.
} and the uial pitch of the worm. . h fts at 90• uml n center distance of 3. 10 in . 111e to
ti 0 0 f 7 · l Usmg a ea angIe of~
6.31. Two shafts crossed al righl angles arc lo be connected by helical gcan. The angular· 6.44. A worm and worm gear _wuh st ad
) velocity ratio is to be H: 1 and the center distance .S.00 in. Select a pair of gears for this I · "'v • dclerminc the pitch diameter:i a nd
have ave oaty ra • • M k the axial pitch a simple fraction.
)
application to be cut hy the Fellows method.
nnm~r.i of teeth for the gcar.i. . a c at 90" and a cenlcr distance of 3.00 in . arr. In
6.32. Two crossed shafts arc connected by helical gears. The velocity ntio is 3; I, the 6.45. A wo'"'.11 and .worm g~ar ~~~e:!:~ a pair of gears for the job, and specify. the
shaft angle 60", and the center distance 10.00 in. Uthe pinion has 3S teeth aod a normal
) diamcrral pitch of 8, calculate the helix angles and pitch diameters if the gears are of
have a vcloaty rano
numbcnofteeth, _30.1.
pitchofd1amctcn, an d Icadangle. Make the axial pitch a simple fntction .
the same hand.
)
6..13. A helical pinion of 2.00 in. pitch diameter drives a helical gear or3.2S in. as shown Problems-Metric .
) in Fig. 6.24, I = 30". Let the velocity of the pitch point of gear 1 be represented by 1
vector 2 in. long and that of gear 2 by a vector 3 in. long. Using a face width of 1 in. for · f be I cars have a veIoary . rat·1 0 of ..,•/.....
-.. and the shaft ccnlertincs
.
) lhc gears, graphically determine the tooth clement on the top of each gear, the helix angle 6.tm.
• A pllU' o t vc I Ug distances .r and 1 arc la"id off from the intersection point
· ·along
and the hand of each gear, and the velocity of sliding. intersect
the shaft at an m
zacs _ang e ratio
the · . w,/WJ, prove that the diagonal of a parallelogram with sides .r
) . on itch cone clement of the bevel gears.
6.34. An 8-pilch, 141° hob is used to cut a helical gear. The hob is right-band with a lead
angle of 2° 40'. a length of 3.00 in . , and an outside diameter of 3.00 in. Make a fuU-cize and y will be the comm P vet car of 24 tccrh and a module of S.08 is d1iven hy a 16-
) 6.2... pinion.
A Olea.son crownthe . gh d"tame ter an d pitch nnglc of the pinion
tooth Calculate bepile . , the nddendum
>
>
I
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240
BEVEL. HEUCAL. AND WORM GEARING
and dedcndum, the face width, and lhe pitch diameler of the gear. Make a full-si%.e axial
sketch of the pinion and gcai- in mesh using reasonable proportions for the hubs and webs
as shown in Fig. 6 .7a.
6..Jm. A Gleason crown bevel &car of 48 teeth and a module of 2 .12 is driven by a 24-
tooth pinion. (a) Calculate the pilch an,lc of the pinion and the abaft angle. (b) Make 'a
~kelch (to scale) o( Uic pitcli cones of the two gears in mesh . Show the back cones of each
gear and label the pitch cones and the back cones.
6.4m. A pair of Gleason miter gears have 20 teeth and a module o( 6 .)5. Calculale the:
pitch diametc:r. lbc addendum and dcdcndum, the face width, the pitch cone: distance,
the face angle. the root angle. and the outside diameter. Make a full.Mz.e uial U.etch of
lhe gears in mesh using reasonable proportions for the hub and web as shown in Fig. 6.7a.
Dimension the drawing with the values calcolalcd.
6.Sm. A Gleason 4.23-module. straight bevel pinion of 21 teeth drivC5 a gear of Z1 teeth.
The shaft angle is 90". Calculate the pitch angles, the addendwm and dedcndwm, and
the face width of each gear. Malec a full-size axial sketch of the gean in mesh using
reasonable proportions for the bubs and webs as shown in Fig. 6.7a.
6.6m. A Gleason 6.35-modulc, straight bevel pinion of 14 teeth driVC5 a gea1of2.0 teeth.
The shaft angle is 90". Calculate the addendum and dcdcndum, cin:ular tooth thictnea
for each gear, aod the pilch and base radii of the equivalent spur gc:an. Malec a fuD-sizc
sketch of the equivalent gears showing two teeth in contact as in Fig. 6.7b.
6.7m. A Gleason 5.08-module, straight bevci pinion of 16 teeth drives a gear of 24 teeth.
'The Waft angle is 45". After malting the De<:cliSary caJculatiom, lay out a full~ uia)
sketch of the pinion and gear in mesh uung reasonable proportions for the hubs and om:bs
as shown in Fig. 6.7a.
6.8ru. A pair of Gleason bevel gcan mesh wiU1 a i>baft angle of 75". The module is 2.S4,
and the numbers of teeth in the pinion and gear Ille 30 and 40, respectively. (a) Calculate
the pitch angles and the addendums and dcdeodums of the pinion and gear. (b) Make a
fuU-tiiZC: sketch of the pitch cones and the back cones of the two gears in mesh. Label the
pitch cones, back rones, and pitch angles of both gcan. (c) Mark orf (double size) the
addendum and dedcndum of the pinion oo the sketch aod dearly label them.
6.9m. Prove with the aid of a suitable sketch that in a Gleason straight tooth bavd gear
r
the addendum angle of the pinion cqualli the dcdeodum angle of the geaJ and that r 0 =
·I a .
6.lOm. A 14:-Looth helical gea1 is to be wt by a 25-module, 1Jr bob. Calculate the
following: (ci) the minimum helix angle which this gear must have to be wt at the sUodard
setting without widcrcutting; (b) the amount the bob will have to be withdrawn to avoid
undc(Qltting if the helix angle of the gear is made 20".
6.Um. A U-tooth helical pinion is to be rut with a 3-modulc, 20" bob. Uthe helix angle
is to be 20". calculate the amount the bob will have lo be withdrawn to avoid undcrt:Uttiog.
6.llm. Two equal spur gcan of 48 teeth, 25.4 mm face width, and of a 4 module mesh
together in the drive of a htiguc tmcr. Cakulatc the helix angle of a pair of helical geus
to replace the spur gcan if the faoc width, center distance, and velocity ratio are to remain
the same. Use the following cutters: (a) "-module Fellows, (b) 4-normal-modulc bob.
6.ll•. Two standard 'f'Ur geara were cut with a 2.5-module. 20" hob to give a velodty
1111111 of :I .\: I and t""Outor di&lanco of 1611.7~ 11u11 . llclK:al gc81• a10 to bo ~-u t wlll1 the MUUO
hub to replace the spur gcan keeping tho oeoter diatance and angulu-velodty ratio the
same. Determine the heli1: angle, numben of lccth, and face width of the new scan
._L-e11ing the hcli1t angle to a minimum.
)
,J
241
WORM GEARING
J
'
6.14-. Two standard spur gears are lo be replaced by helical gears. The spur gean were
cut by a 3-modulc, 20" hob, the velocity ratio is 1.75:1, and the center distance is 132
mm. The helical ecan are lo be cul with the same bob and maintain the s.amc center
distance. The helix angle is lo he belwecn is• and 20" and the velocity 1a1io between 1.70
,•
ind 1.75. Fmd the nwnbers of tceU1 , helix angle, and velocity ralio.
6.15m. In a prOpoied gear drive, two standard spur gean (1 .5·mo<lule) with 36 anJ 100
teeth, respectively, arc meshed at the 5tandard center distance. It is decided to replace
,,•
these spur gears with hclical gears having a helix angle of 12" and the same number of
'C:C"'·Determine the cllange in center di5WICC required i( the helical geus are cut (a)
with a 1.5-module, 7JJ' hob. (b) with a 1.5-module, 20" Fellows cutter.
6.16m. A pair of helical gears for parallel shifts are to be cut with a 3-module hob. The
· ,
helix ~nglc ~'?be 20" and the center distance between 152.40 and 158. 7S mm. TI1e angular
vcloaty ratio IS to approach 2: 1 as closely as possible. Calculate the circular pitch and •
the module~ the plane of rotation. Determine the numbers of teeth, pitch diameters,
and center distance lo satisfy the above conditions. •
6.17m. A 2.S-modulc, 20-tooth spur pinion drives two gears, one of 36 teeth and the
other of <CB teeth. It is desind to replace all three gears with helical gcan and to change
•t
• the velocity ratio between the 20-tooth gear shaft and the 48-tooth gear shaft to 2 : 1. The
velocity ratio aod the center distance betwceo the 20-tooth gear shall and the 36-tooth
gear shaft is t~ remain the_same. Using a 3-module, 20" bob and keeping the helix angle •>
,,
as ~w as_possible, detcmune the number of teeth, helix angle and band, face width, and
outside dwnetcr for eacb gear. Calculate the change in center distance between the shafts
that originally mounted the 20- and 48-tooth geBJli.
6.JS.. A 2-module, 24-tooth i>pur pinion driv" two gears, one of 36 teeth and the olhcr
of 60_lccth .. It is necessary ~ replace aU three gears with helical gears keeping the i>amc
,•
vcloaly 1'2tios and center distances. Using a 1.5-modulc, 20" bob and keeping the hclU
angle as low as possible, determine the number of teeth. hclilt angle and hand (ace width
and outside diamcler for each gear. ' '
6.Um. Two para~el sb~I~ arc to be connected by a pair of helical gears (gears I and 2) .
The angulu-vcloaty ratio is to be 1.25: 1 and the center distance 114.3 mm. In addition
gear ~ is to_ drive a helical gear 3 whose shaft is al right angles to shaft 2. The angular: •
~oaty ratio belwcen gears 2 and 3 is to be 2 : 1. Using a 2 .75-module. 20" hob, deler-
mme the number of teeth, helix angle. and pitch diamete1 of each gear and rind center dis- •
tance CD·
6.20m. Two parallel shafts are lo be connected by a pair of helical gears (gean 1 aod 2).
•
>
1be angulu-vdocity 1'2tio is to be 1.75 : 1 and the center distance 69.85 mm. Jn addition
gear 2 is lo drive a third helical gear (gear J) with an angular-velocity ratio of 2 : 1. Thrc~
bobs are available for cutting the gears; bob A (3.5-modulc). bob B (2.7S-modulc), and
bob_C (2-module). (a~ Choose the bob that wiU result io the smallest helix angle +. (b)
•>
Which bob will pemut the shortest center distance Cu between shafts 2 and 3 while
maintaining a helix angle less than 35..,
•
':21-·
,
The formula for Che center distance between two spur or parallel helical gears is
pvcn by C • ((N, + N.)/2lm. where C is dependent upon the number of gear teeth N 1
aod N, and lbe module m. Show lhllt Cu is indcpeodcot of m for three gears (spur or
•
p1rallcl helical) in me1h whu~c center cli1lancc r.11 111111 nngulnr· vcloc-ity rntio&"'•'"'• •ml
w.lw, .. c known.
>
6.U.: 1Wo l .5·module, 20" 5J>Ur gears of 36 and 90 teeth, supcctivcly. are to be replaced
by helical scan. lne center distance and the velocity ratio arc 10 remain the same . If the t
•
•
,
·r:-
~ 'l.•
J
.,
}
..
242 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARJNG
WORM GEARING

b helical cars. The velocity ratio is 18. l : 1

243

connec~d
and the shaft angle 4S-. U D, "" 57.73
6.30m. Two crossed sha& uc Y d D g= 93 _17 5 mm, calcolate the helix
) width of the gears cannot exceed 12.70 mm because of space limitatiom, dctcnnine • mm an •
of helical gears for this job keeping the helix angle as small as posaole. Use a 1.S-module ·r both ..-•rs have the same hand.

' hob, and dctcnnine lhe numbers of teeth, helix angle, face width, and outside diatneters. , anglcs, - . arc to be connected by helical gurs . The angular-
6.31•. Two shafts cro~d al nght angles d" t l 2..'i 0 mm Select a pfti• of r,r.ftr~ for
} ,.nm. Two t .S-module spur gears of 32 and 64 tcelh, respectively, arc to be replaced velocity ratio is to be It: I and the center IS anr.e . .
by helic11l gears. The center distance and vclocily rario are to remain the $Ulle. U lhe . be t b the Fellows mctho<I .
widlh of the gears cannot exceed 11.11 mm becau~ of space limitaliona, delcrrnino whldl this apphcatlon to cu Y d b helical gears The velocity ratio is J : l, the
) ...,..~ crossed shafts a.re oonncctc
'.Jllft. •..., _ ......
Y ·
If the pinion has 3S teeth and a nom1a
I
of lhc following hobs should be used keeping rhe helix angle u small as pcmtole: bob A ,,_,.,. and the center distance LJ<O . 0 mm.
(LS-module) or hob 8 (J.25-module). lo addition , detennine lhc numben of teeth, helix ·· shaft aogIe uu , . d "t h diameters if the gears arc of the snme
) module o( 3, calc:ulalc the hcln: ang1es an fll c
angle, face width, and outside diamclers.
) 6.24m. Two parallel shafts arc to be connected hy a pair of helical gears (gears 1 and 2). . hand. A h r I . 'on or so 0 mm pitch diameter drives II helical gear o ( 84 .0 mm
The angular-velocity ralio is to be 1} ; I and the center distance 88.90 mm. Considering ' 6.l3m. . e n:a ~Ill . - 30" Let the velocity of the pitch Point of gear 1 _bc
diameter as shown '" Fig. 6 - • ~on and that of gear 2 by 8 vector 72 .5 mm lo ng. ll~mg
24
) that hobs arc available for modules from 2 10 4 inclusive, tabulate the numbers of teeth, ·
helix angle, and face width for the various oombioatioos of N, aad Na that will satisfy the represented by a vector 50.0 mm g h"cally determine the tooth clement on the
) given conditions. What is the best selection for this drive? Why? Let IS be the lowest a fece width of 26.0 mm_for tble gedarsth' ghrapn~ of each gear and the velocity of sliding.
f ch gear the hehx ang c an e a ' .

,
number of teeth for the smaller gear at m. = 4. top o ca ' b . used lo cut a helical gear. 1'1e hob is right-hnnd with :I
~ 6.2Sm. Two shafts crossing at right angles arc to be ronnected by helical gears. The 6.J4m. A 3-module, 20" ho is d o tside diameter of 7S mm . Make a full
angular-velocity ratio is to be 1l: I and the center distance 127 .0 mm. A._s.,urning the gun lead angle of r <40' •a len~h of;~ mi~h ·~ h:-~a:d hdical gear with a helix angle o( 2cr.
size sketch of th~ hob cultln~ a ;~: :Cg ' tcb cylinder of the bob on top of the gear
)-_;
to have equal helix angles, calculate the module of a cutter to generate 20 teeth on the
pinion if the cutter is (a) a bob and (b) a Fellows cutter. Determine the change that must
be made in center distance in each case in order to use standard cutters.
The gea~hb~nk ~~~Sh~:;;~:~ hob in
blank. Wtt e P1 c c
co.:ct
relation to the pitch clement o f the gear
and 1l turns of the thread o n the hob;
)- tooth. Show tllrce tooth clements ofnththe grmeaarl circular pitch. Label the axis of the hob
6.26m. The following helical gears, cut with a 2-module '1JJ' hob, are meshed without · · th tements by means o e no . (
backlash: =~:, b~:. the lead angle of hob, the helix angle of the gear ' and the direction o
)-
rotation of the hob and gear blank.
)- Gear 1- 36 teeth, right-hand , 30" helix angle 6.JSm Repeat .Problem 6.34m with a left-hand helical gear. .
Gear 2- 72 teeth, left-hand. 40" helix angle • dcd havin a lead of 64.292 mm drives a worm gca1 with a
) 6.J6m. A ~oublc-t~th woglnnbetw gn the shafts is 90"_lf the center distance is 235.0
Determine the shaft angle, the angular-velocity ratio, and the center distance. velocity rauo of 191: 1, can e cc
mm detcnninc the pitch diameter of the worm and worm gear.
) 6.rha. Two shafts ~ at right angles are connected by helical ge.rs Cge.n l and 2) ' · h h f... al 90" and a center distance of 178.0 mm ;ire
6 .37in. A w· orm. and worm gear wit s a •• .
e11t with a 2-module, '1JJ' hob. Both gears are right-hand and the angular-velocity ratio is Ii of 171· 1 If the axial pitch of the worm is to be 26.192 mm,
) IS: l; D, ~ 131-64 mm and+ - ro". A design modification requires a reductioo or the to have a vcl0C1ty _ra 0 be. - rt th ·n the worm and worm gear that can be used
outside diameter (o.d .) of gear 1 by 6.3S mm to provide clearance for• ocw c:ompooenL determine the ro3Xlmom num r o e~ I .
) Assuming that the same bob must be used for cutting any new gean, show that tbc o.d.
for the drive and their corresponding pitch diameters. .
.38m A worm and worrn gear oonnec t sh afts at 90" · Derive equations.
for the diameters
. rl
of gear 1 can be reduced without changing the velocity ratio, the shaft angle, and the 6
) · d nn acar in terms of the center distance C. vclocaty ratio "'• / "'" an
numbers of gear teeth N, and N,. The o .d . of gear 2 and the center distance may be altered of the worm an wo "
) .. lead angle ~- of \52 .o mm are
iC ncceuuy. In the analysis, calculate and compare the following data for both the original ·
' th hafts al 90" and a center distance
and new gears: C11, D., Da, N., Na. ojl., +a· 6.J<>m A wonn and worm gear W1 s d ·
f 6.:ZS... A 21-tooth helical gear of a normal module of 4 is to drive a spur gear. The
• I ·1 ratt'o of20 · l If the axial pitch of the worm is to be 17 .463 mm, etcnnme
to have a vc oct Y • •
the smallest diameter worm that can be used for the dnve .
•
angular-velocity ratio is to be 2: 1 and the angle between the shafu 4S-. Determine the
) pitch diameters for the two gears and the helix angle for the helical gear. M•ke a fuD~ize
d d d ·vcs n 31 tooth worm gear with shafts at 90". U the
6.40m. ~ doub~e-threa e wonnd thn lead ang-le of the wonn 18.83" • calculate the axial
sketch of the two gears (pitch cylinders) in contact similar to Fig. 6.24 with the pinion on center distance tS 210.0 mm an e
) top; the width of the gears is to be 2S.O mm. Show the tooth clements in contact and also itch of the wonn and the pitch diamcten of the two gears. . . .
p d d · es a 35-tooth worm gear haVJng a pitch diameter o[
a tooth clement on top of the pinion. Label and dimension the helix angle and the shaft
} 6.41JD. A thrdee-hthrl~ade glwc oonnf21 ; If the shafts arc at right nnglcs, calculate the lead
angle. 207.8 mm an a c tX an · ·
! 6.29m. Two crossed shafts are to be connected by helical gears. The angular-velocity
ratio is to be ll: l and the center distance 2JS.9 mm . U one gear is available from a
and the pitch diameter of the worm .
d d
. .
drives a worm gear with an angular-veloaty ratio or Rf : I
6.42m. A four-tbrca e worm . I "t h of the wonn is 18.654 mm and the lurl angle
~­ previous job with 30 teeth, 30" helix angle, and a normal module of 5, calculate the shaft
angle that must be used. Let both gc11rs be of the same band and let the 30-tooth gear be
and a shaft angle of 90". The 8Xla P1 c
27.rt'. Calculate the pitch diameters or the wonn and worm gear.
l the pinion.
).
)
)
>
)
}
 )

244 JH!VEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARJNO >

6.43m. A six-threaded worm drives a 41-Cootb worm gear with a shaft angle of 90". Tho •••
center distance ii 88.90 mm aod the lead angle 26.91r. Calculate the pitch diamelers, the
lead, and the axial pitclt of the wonn.
6.44m. A worm and worm gur with shafts at 909 and a oenter distanoe of 76.20 mm arc
Chapter Seven
,•,
,
to have a velocity ratio of 7l: 1. UAilg a lead angle of 28.SS-, detennine the pitch diUDClers.
Select numbers of leelh for lbe gears considering worms wilh I to 10 threads.
,.4Sm. A worm and worm gear with shafts al 90" and a center distance of 102.0 mm arr:
to have a velocity ratio of 161: 1 and a lead angle of the worm of 13.63•. Detcnniac tho
Gear Trains
various pain of gean that can be used considering wonns with one to ten threads. Specify
the numbers of teeth and pitch diameters. •
>
•
•
•
•
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO GEAR TRAINS ,,•
Often, it is necessary to combine several gears and to obtain by so doing what
is known as a gear trai11. Given the inpul angular velocity to a gear train, it is
important to be able to detennine easily the angular velocity of the output gear
and its direction of rotation. The ratio of the input angular velocity to the out~
,,
put angular velocity is known as the angular-velocity ralio and is expressed as
wJw_.
Figure 7.1 shows a pinion driving an external spur gear and a pinion driving
,
an ioteroal spur gcai. In both cases, the angular-velocity ratio is inversely pro-
portional to the number of teeth as indicated. The external gears rotate in opposite •
'
directions, and the internal gear rotates in the same direction as its pinion. This
i$ iodicatcd by a minus sign on the velucily ratio in the first case and by a plus •
sign io the second case. Up to the present time, it has been unnec.essary lo assign •
>
,
•
,,•
flGUR.E 7.1
')AIC
~
,,
~ ,-.,. -- ·
.$,,,...
~ :
I
}

l ..--M.-

)
246 GEAR TRAINS
) INTRODUCTION TO GEAR TRAINS 247
an algebraic sign to the angular-velocity ratio of a pair of gears. However, when
) can be easily shown:
gears arc combined to give a · gear train, it is important to consider the sign
) hccnu~c it indicntes direction or rotntlon. ·111i! is e~pceially true in the analysis
or plnnelary gear I rains. w, ~ - NJ Anti ~! :"";; !°"!
) Occasionally, it is necessary lo change the direction of rotation of a gear WJ N, W4 N,
without changing its angular velocity. This can be done by placing an ldkr gmr
) between the driven gear and the driver gear. When an idler gear Is ui;ed, the
11>1
x (&)) <=
+ -N1 x N•
ll>i 1>14 N, N,
direction of rotation is changed but the velocity ratio remains the same.
)
It can be shown that the angular-velocity ratio of a gear train where all But
) gears have fixed axes of rotation is the product of the number of teeth of all the
driven gears divided by the product of the number of teeth of au the driving
) gears. This relation is given in equation form by
Therefore,
). C&I;. =~ = Product of teeth of driven gears
(a)~ (7.1)
) w- Product of teeth of driving gem

) To illustrate the use of Eq. 7.1. consider lhc gear train of Fig. 7.2, where
gear 2 and gear 3 arc mounted on the same shaft. The angular-velocity ratio is
) given by
)
)
) TI1e plus sig1I is determined by observation. That the prcceding "equation is correct
)
)
)
) .·i---lo\-I .--.
'

l
)
)
/ i
)
2
)
)
)
)
· -- ~
FIGURE 7.3 Tltple-recladloa speed reda<'U'. (Courtesy or
) FIGURE 7.l
Jones Mllchlauy, Dtrislon or llmH-Roblm, lac.) .
)
)
)
l
 ,
)

•
248 GBAR TRAINS

Wh.e n two gears are faxed to the same shaft as gears 2 and 3 in Fig. 7.2, the gean
PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS

planet. The angular-velocity ratio may be obtained by the instantaneous center

method, the fonnula method, or the tabulation method. The instantaneous center
249
•
)
fonn a compouruJ. gear.
Although the angular-velocity ratio is used for calculations involving just
one pair or gears, it is more convenicot when working with a gear traio to use
method will be reserved for Chapter 8, with the other two methods presented
here. The formula method will be treated first. •
the 1eciprocal o[ U1e angular-velocity ratio. The reason for this is that the angular
velocity of the diiver will be known from the speed of Uie motor, and it is necessary
In ~g. 1.4, let it be required t~ determine Cl>Ji given wJ 1 • It should be noted
that WzJ ts defined as the angular velocity of gear 2 relative to gear 1 and w11 is •
only to multiply Uie speed of the driver by a factor to find the speed of the last defined ~.the angular velocity of ann 3 relative to gear 1. Because gear 1 is •
gear in the train. This reciprocal is known as the train value and is given in
equation form by
fixed, thas 1s the same as the angular velocity of gear 2 and of arm 3 relative to
the ground. In the solution of the problem, wrfw13 plays an important part . . •
wdri... _ Product of teeth of driving gears
('7.2)
. Consider the gear train in Fig. 7.4a to be changed so that ann 3 is stationary
mstead of gear_1. Arm 3 then becomes the ground, and an ordinary gear train
•,
w6 " .., - Product of teeth or driven gears results. The raho wulwu can therefore be evaluated as - N 1/N2 • If the mechanism
is now_returned t~ its.original condition, that is, arm 3 moving and gear 1 futed,
the ratio "'nfw11 will still be - N1INJ. The reason for this is that when a mechanism •
In general, gear velocities step down so that this value will be less Uiao UXJ. A
typical gear train is illustrated in the triple-reductioo speed reducer shown in
Fig. 7.3. .1-
is ~verted, the relative motion between links does not change. A solution for
11111 lR tenns of the known quantities w11 and wr/wu can now be affected by writing
•)
-~ .
.... an equation of wu and dividing by w11 as follows:

7.2 PLANl!.'TARY GEAR TRAINS

'
•
To obtain a desired gear ratio, it is ofteo advantageous to design a gear train so
W21 = 1 + W2J = 1 - Wu •
that one of the gears will have planelal)' motion. WiUi this motion, a gear will
1&>11 WJI 11113
•
,
be so driven that it not only rotates about its own center but at the $CllllC time
its center rotates about another center. F'igures 7.4a and 7.4b show two planetary Therefore, >
gear trains, where gear 1 is often referred to as the sun gear and gear 2 as Uie
planet gear. Jn Fig. 7 .4a, arm 3 drives gear 2 about gear 1, which is a fixed
c.>11(1 - ta>n)
eittemal gear. As. can be seco, gear 2 rotates about its center B while this center
rotates about center A. As gear 2 rolls on the outside of gear 1, a point on its
surface will generate an epicycloid. Figure 7.4b sho"W3 the case where gear 1 is
an internal gear. In this case, a hypocycloid will be generated by a point on the
For Fig. Via,
Ca>ii =
Wu (7.3)
,•
}
surface of gear 2. Because of the curves generated, a planetary gear train is often
referred to as an epicyclic, or cyclic, gear train.
It is more difficult to determine the angular-velocity ratio of a planetary •
gear train than that of an ordinary train because of the double rotation of the
Mowin& •Ills ol
and •
)
rolation of

•
19r 2 (7.3a)

For Fig. 1 Ab,

•
)

(oJ (l>J
and ,•
flGURE 7.4
(7.Jb) •
•
~,.--
•
>
)
}
__ ....1. ,_
)
)
250 GEAR TRAINS
) PLAN ETARY Ol' AR THAINS 251
F rom compnrison ~f ~qs. 7.Ja and 7.Jb, ii is appnrcnt why it is important that ,:
) the corrcc~ algebraic sign of rDJ../w 11 be substituted into Eq. 7.J. · {. e11uations of relative velocity were w1it1en 11111J combined lo contain this ratio.
Although this method is basic, it means thot a new equation must he devclopctl
_ . Cons1d~r next the case where nll of the gcnn; rotate as well u the arm. This ·
) for each 11hmetary system encountered. To avoid this repetition, it is po~~! hlc tu
is illustrate~ m 1:ig. 7.5, where w 11 and"'•• nre known, nnd it i.°' required to find _:
derive a general equation which can he applied to any planetary gear Imm.
w,. . In solving this pr~blem, w,Jw,. is the key ratio because it is the velocity ratio !
) of the_two gean; relahvc to the arm and can be easily evaluated. Equations can ·
Consider Fig. 7.5 again and the equations
) ~e- wntten fo_r <a>:i, and w14 and combined so that the ratio <a>:iJoo14 appears. This
1s illustrated m the following:
)
) and
)
By dividing the first equation by the second , w,. = 1.U11 - Wo
) W>4 W11 - W41

) IC in Fig. 7.5, gear 3 is considered the first gear and gear 2 the last gear, the
) preceding equation may be written as

) Wu= W1. - WA
(7.5)
)
w,.,. w,. - w,.
where
) But velocity ratio o[ last gear to first gear both relative to arm
) w,.. . =
Wu

= angular velocity or last gear in train relative to fi xed link

1Jl1.
)
w,. - angular vctO:City of arm relative lo fixed link
) Therefore, w,. = angular velocity of first gear in train relative lo fixed link
) In using Eq. 7 .5, it must be emphasized that the first gear and the la.st gear mu~I
be gears that mesh with the gear or gears that have planetary motion. Also , the
) (7.4) first gear and the last gear must be on paraJlel shafts because angular velocities
cannot be treated algebraically unless the vectors representing these vclnciti~s
I _In de~ving Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4, it was seen that in each case the angular- arc parallel.
) velOCtty ratio of the gears relative to the arm was first obtained, and then the Equation 7 .5 will ng~ be used to write the equation for the gear train in
Fig. 7.4a. Let gear 1 be considered the first gear and gear 2 the last gear:
) Movina ••Is or
roblion of c.>1. - ~~
) Wu =
~r 2
w,.... w,. - I.I)...

)
)
)
)
FIGURE 7.S
)
)
>
)
)
 ,,
)

252 GEAR TRAINS

PLANETARY G EAR TRAINS 253 ,
Substitu ting these values gives

_ N,
N,
"'11 - "'>•
3(300 ~m

I
I
.
Mowinl HIS
rGCabonol
CHI'S 3 a nd 4
r>I )
,
11121 - c.>11 =
0 -

(Z)w11
W11

• )

•,
fi1ed ~•is r>I
rotation ol 1e., 2
•od of arm 6
and

7(76D )

which agrees with Eq. 7.3a. The application of

train is given in the following example.
Eq. 7.5 to a more complicated
FIGURE 7.7

Therefore,
,
•
25 Wz1 - 150 •
Example 7.1. If arm 6 and gear 5 in Fig. 7.6 arc. driveo _doc~ (viewed ~-the
right end} at 150 and SO rad/s, respectively, detenrune WJl 10 magrutude and diRdioa.
Use Eq. 7.5 and let gear 5 be the fir5t gear and gear 2 lbe last gear:
21 = 50 - 150
25
•)
w,, = 21 ( -100) + 150

(&)'-"'=~
W1A w, - WA
· = +30.9 ra<.l/s

Because the sign of "'" is the same as that of w,. and "'", w 1 , is in the same direction,
, )

w.
- =
"'11 - w., namely, doc:kwise viewed from the right end. t
Occasionally, it is necessary to analyze a planetary gear train that cannot be solved
)
by a uogle application of Eq . 7.5 as was done in Example 7 . 1. For instance, if a fixed
internal gcac 7 is lidded lo the train of Fag. 7.6 to mesh with gear '4 as shown in Fig. 7 ._7
and it is required to calculate..,,. given wu, it will be nca:ssary to use Eq. 7.5 twice to

•·->
solve the problem. The 6rst application or Eq. 7.5 would considcs gears 2, 3 , 4, and 5
and the um 6; and the second applicatioo would consider gears 2, 3, 4, and 7 and the
3(301)
Movinl His Gf
ann 6 . This will be illustrated in the following example.
4(281)
rolMion of
&""rs 3 end 4 Exa111ple 7.2. U Wu rotates clockwise (viewed from the right end) at 60 rad/s, detennine
or
..,. and its direction rotation (Fig . 7. 7). •
Considering first gears 2 , 3, 4 , and 5 and arm 6, let gear 2 be the first gear anJ gear
S the last geaz : •
~ = ~
•>
..,,,._. w,. - WA
)
liatd ••Is ...
rolallon ol
w• N, >< N, 18 x 28 21
•
•
•••, !>
~ • N, x N, " JO -XlO • 2S
tlGUKE 7.6
•)
,
J
I
)
)
) 254 C EAR TRAINS l'l.ANl\"TAKY CiEA R " lltAIN~ 255
Therefore,
)
11
) ~!L.:..~!! =-- ~~~~
25 Wu - WH 6() - Ca>6 1

)
However, Eq. (a) cannot ~solved bec1usc it contains two unknowns, c.i11 and W..· It is ·C
) necessary therefore to consider gears 2, 3, 4, and 7 and arm 6. Let gear 2 be the first gear
nnd gear 7 lhe last gear:
}
)
F12d ws 81
) N, >< N, 18 x 28 21 .. rotation /
cl gear 2
- N, >< N, = - 30 x 76 = 95
)
FIGURE 7.11
) (6)
) fly solving EcJ. (b) for"'•" Al'\O,
)
21 N, 20
-95 (60 - cu.,) = 0 - w 61 ..,., - "'>• - "'• >< N, = 2000 x 4(i
)
) w., = ~
21 x 15
= + 10.86 rad/s
+ 1000 rad/s and same direc tion as ..,A
) From Eq. (aJ,
and

) 21 w., = fllA = 350 rad/s

) 25 (60 - w.,) = "'si - "'"

By making the substitutions,
) 21
25 (60 - 10.86) = ...,, - 10.86
S W71 - 350
) - ii = 1000 - 350
= + 52.14 rad/s , wi1h the direction of rotation same as that of "'n·
) 1l1e refore, "'"

Exampl~_ 7.1. Consider that in the dirfcrcntial shown in Fig. 7 .8 the angular velocity
. ., ~ -i (650) + 350
) of shaft A is 350 ~ad/s in the direction shown and that of shart B is Woo
rad/s. Determine -406.3 + 350
the angular velooty of shaft C.
) - 56.3 rad/s and opposite direction to "'A
_LJse Eq. 7 .5 and remember that the first gear nnd the last gear selected for the
) ec.i111111011 must be ~cars that mesh with the gears that have planetary motion. Therefore,
let gear 4 be lhe first gear and gear 1 the lasl ge:ir: The tabulation method is another convenient way or solving p lnnctnry gear
) problems. To illustrate its use, consider the gear train of Fig. 7.4a and the fol-
Wu = (a)l - WA lowing procedure:
) c.>,A (J), - WA

w. w,. t. Disronnect gear 1 from the ground and lock it to arm 3 together wi th gear
) = ea> 11 -

w. w .. - 11111
2. There can now be no relative motion among members 1, 2, and 3.
) 2. Rotate ann 3 (and gears 1 and 2) one positive revolution abo ut center A.
w,. = N, x N, 30 x 24 5 3. Unlock gears l and 2 from arm 3 . Hold ann 3 fixed and rotate gear 1 one
) "'• - N, >< N, = - 64 >< 18 ~ 8 1
negative revolution . Gear 2 therefore rotates + N 1IN1 revo~utions.

>
,
)

\
 I

256 0GEAR TRAINS

TABLE 7.2
PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 257 ,
)

,•,
TABU: 7.1
Curl Gearl Anal Gearl Gearl Gcarl Ann4

Motion with arm relative to frame (item 2) -t 1 ... +I Muliun with um 1cl11tivc tu frame +I +I I l
- - --
+I

Motion relative to ann {ilcm 3) - I

0
N,
+-
N,
+-
N,
0

+I
Motion relative 10 a11n

Tota! motion 1clative to fJame

- 1

0
N,
~-
N,
N,
+-
_N,
N,
1 - N,
0

+l
,
,,
Total motion relative to frame N, N, N,
t

The results o[ steps 2 and 3 arc entered in Table 7 .1 together with the total determine the value of w3 ., this could have easily been accomplished from the
number of revolutions made by each member of the train relative to the ground. data in the table.
It c.an be seen from the "Tot.al" line of Table 7.1 that with gear 1 stationary,
gear 2 turns i + (N 1/N2) revolutions for one revolution of um 3. This agrees
with Eq. 7.3a. - Example 7.5. Example 7.1 and Fig. 7 .6 will now be worlc.ed by the tabular method.
,•,
l'wo examples will be given to illustrate the use of the tabular method.

Example 7.4. Consider that arm 4 of Fig. 7.9 rotates counterclockwise at 50 radls.
Detenninc w 11 in magnitude and direction. Sec Table 7 .2.
,,
Because all of tbe gears in this train rotate, it is easier to work with the actual speeds of
gear 5 and arm 6 in the table rather than with ooe revolution as in Example 7.4. Because
ann 6 rotates 150 rad/s, this must be the number of turns to which the entire train is
subjected when locked together for line 1 of Table 7.3; note the 0 for ·arm 6 in line 2 .

~!! __ !_.:! -~ 1 /N,~

..... . 1
With + 150 for gear 5 in line l . -100 mu5t be inserted for gear 5 in line 2 to give 1he
oom:d total of + 50. With arm 6 stalionary in line 2, and gear 5 now rotating a lc.nown
amount,_the ruiation of gears 2, 3. and 4 can easily be determined for line 2. ,
"'u = w.,(1 + Z0 50(1 + .: )
= "'n = 150 - loo(N, )( N~)
N. )( NJ = 150 - 100(20 x 30)
28 x 18 •
= + 150 rad/s and same di1ection as "'•• 25
= 150 - 100 x - •
21
•
•,
One distinct advantage of the tabular method is that more than one ratio
~ +30.9 rad/sand same di~tion as..,., and w.,
can be obtained from a solution. In Example 7.4, if it had been neassaty to

TABLE 7.3

Motion with arm

Gear2 Gcar3 Gcar4 Gears Arm6 ,•
relative to frame
Motion relative
to arm
+ 150
- IOU N, )( N,
N, >< N 1
+150

-t 100 N,
N,
+ 150

+ 100 N,
N,
+150

-- 100
+150

u ,
>

FllWd • .,~ ot --Movin& ads

ol tllUlion
Tolal motioo 150 - 100( x N, Nu +50 +150 ~
rolalion ol &taf 2 relative to fnme N, x N
ind ol arm 4 ol ~ar 3
•
Example 1.6. Eumple 7.2 and Fig. 7.7 will now be solved using the tabular method
•
FIGURE 73
(Table 7.4). lo this problem, the anguhll velocity of lbc arm is unknown, which requires
a variation in the solution from that of Example 7.5.
In Fig. 7.7, wilh data from Example 7.2, "'" = 60 rad/s with clockwise direction ,•
•
•
,
)
 , ' ..
- .'_i_
)
)
258 GEAR TRAINS
APPLICATIONS OF PLANETARY GEAR TRACNS 259
) TABLE 7.4
) Gear2 Gea.-3 Gear4 Gar5
Mocion with arm
Gar7
Alm'
l relative to frame z Jt z z z JC
) Motion relative to um +z(NiN ><x N,N,)
2 +x(Z;) -z 0
~ Total motion
relative co frame 60 y 0
) x

)
viewed from the right end. II is required to determine wn and its direction· w is unknown
) and"'"• 0. ' " '
Let Jc ~ "'•• and y - o.i,.: FIGURE 7.10
)
) (N, N,)
z + J c -x- - •60
N2 x N,
aircraft power plant. Figure 7.11 shows a photograph ~f an actual unit. T_he
earlier aircraft engine reduction drives used bevel gears m the plane tary tram .
)
x(i + 1s·30 xx 2876) = 60 These were discarded , however, in favor of spur gears because the spur gear
planetary drive could transmit more power in a given space. .
) In Fig. 7.10, the engine drives the internal gear 3. Gear 2 meshes with the
) x(1 + ~~) = ro fixed gear 1 and with the gear 3 so that it bas planetary motion . A rm 4, or planet

)
21
) z = 116 (60) = + 10.86 rad/s

) :. w., = + 10.86 radfs and direction of rotation same as that of 11121

)
,, = z + x(Z;)
)
i = x(1 + z:)
,
)
= 10.86( I + ~) - + 52.13 racl/s

) :. "'" = + 52.13 rad/s and direction of rotation same as that of w11

) As can be seen, this method of solution is somewhat ·shorter than that used in the
solution of Eitample 7.2.
)
) 7.3 APPLICATIONS OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS
~ Planetary gear trains find many applications in machine tools hoists aircraft
propeller reduction drives, automobile differentials, automatic tr~nsmisslons air-
) craft servo-dri~es, and many othe_rs. Figure 7.10 shows a diagrammatic aket~b of FIGURE 7 .u Pluelary redactloa Hit ror alrcnft propc:.ller drl ~e .
a planetary tram used u a reduction between the engine and the propeller io an
> (Courtesy or Foote: Brothen Gear & Machinery CArp.)

I
}
 ,
,
260 GEAR TRAINS APPLICATIONS OF Pl..ANETARY GEAR TRAINS 261
•
)
c:anler, which is connected to gear 2, drives the propeller at a slower speed than
•
•,
the engine. The equation for the ratio of engine speed C&>)1. to propeller speed w41
can easily be determined from Eq. 7.5 as follows :

w,.
Wo
= 1 - w,.
W 14
,
where •
•
•
Therefore,
,
)

It is interesting to note that it would be impossible to obtain a velocity ratio
as high as 2:1 because this would mean that gear 1 would have to have the same
number of teeth as gear 3, which is impossible. In determining the limiting ratio
for a given drive, it should be noted that all of the gears will have the same
diametral pitch.
A planetary gear train used as a differential in an automobile is shown in
Fig. 7.12. Figure 7:13 shows a cutaway view of a differential and housing. This
mechanism makes it possible for an automobile to tum a comer without the rear
wheels slipping. lo Fig~ 7.12 gear 2 is driven by the engine via the clutch, trans-
mission, and drive shah. Gear 2 drives gear 3, which is fastened to the carrier
7. If the car is moving straight ahead, gears 4, 5, and 6 turn as a unit with the
carrier and there is no relative motion between them. Gears 5 and 6 tum the
)
FIGURE 7.13 AutomotiYe diD'eraiti.i. (Courtesy otGleasoa Works.) ,•
axles. When the car makes a turn, however, gears 5 and 6 no longer rotate at
the same speed and gear 4 has to turn about its own axis, as well as being driven
,,•
,,
by the carrier. It is interesting to note that, if one of the wheels is held stationary
and the second is free to rotate, the second wheel will tum at a speed twice that
or the carrier. This characteristic is a disadvantage when the car is stuck in snow
or mud.
As. previous[~ mentioned in Chapter 2 (section 2.13. Computing Elements).
electromc computing systems have largely replaced mechanical systems. How-
ever, there are applications where mechanical elements are prererable because
they do not require electrical power. Figures 7.14a and 7.14b show a bevel gear
,
differential and a spur gear differential, respectively. The bevel gear units are •
•
'•
)

•>
)
)

FIGURE 7.U
•
)
~--·-·
j
•--.,r;i~
j
,
) --· __:."_; ,;..:._

) 262 OEAR TRAINS ASSEMBLY OF PLANETARY OE.AR TRAINS 263

)
)
)
)
)
)
) FlGURE 7.15
)
To determine the number of planets that can be used for a given number
) of teeth in gears 1, 2, and 3, it is necessary to determine the angle AOB in Fig.
7.16a resulting from gear 3 having been rotated a whole number of tooth spaces
) with gear 1 stationary. The case must also be investigated where gear 3 is sta-
) tionary, and gear 1 has been rotated a whole number of spaces. This gives angle
AOB' as shown in Fig. 7.16b. The following method was developed by Professor
) G. B. DuBois of Cornell University.
Let the numbers of teeth in gears 1, 2, and 3 be N 11 N» and Nl . H 811
) equals the angular motion of gear 3 after it has been rotated one whole tooth
) space with respect to gear 1, then ·

)
631 - N1 revo Iubons
.
) 1

) The angular motion of arm 4 with respect to gear 1 when gear 3 has been rotated
one tooth space is given by
) FIGURE 7.14b Spu gear dilferealial. In thb dif-

)
ferential gears S (48T) 1111d 6 (691') arc com-
pou11ded, and carrier 7 Is plnned to shaft 8. The 641 ~ On >< - w., revoIullons
.
power llows trom gear 2 (481') to planet 3 (181) to W31
) planet 4 (18T) to gear 5, and finally to gear 6.

) available commercially in several stock sizes and are used extensively where a
mechanical computing or control s13tem is required.
)
There are many planetary gear train designs and a wide range of possible
) ratios. The applications mentioned arc only two of a wide variety. In many
instances, it is possible to obtain a greater reduction ratio with a smaller drive
) using a planetary train than when using an ordinary gear train.
)
7.4 ASSEMBLY OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS
)
When a planetary gear train is designed, the question of assembling the train
) with equally spaced planets must be considered. With the train illustrated in Fig.
7.15, it is possible that for a given number of teeth in gears 1, 2, and 3 It might (a) (6)
) not be possible to have three equally spaced planet gears. flGURE 7.16
>
)
)
 ,
264 GEAR TRAINS ASSEMBLY OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 265
,
)

)
and
From the velocity analysis of the planetary train of Fig. 7 .10, which is identical
to the one under consideration,
LAOB' = c(8c,) = N I+c N,
(7.7)
,
)

By comparing Eqs. 7.6 and 7.7, it can be seen that ~rm 4 rotates through
lhe same angle regardless of whether gear 3 or gear 1 rotates one or more tooth
•
)
TI1erefore , spaces. )
If angle AOB is the fraction of a revolution between plane ts, then its re-
1
Ou - NJ x
N,
N, 1
+ N , • N J + N I revo uhoos
I . ciprocal will be the number of planets. By taking the reciprocal of Eq. 7.6, it is
•)
,,
possible to obtain an expression for the number of equally spaced planets around
gear 1. If n represents the number of planets, then
Angle AOB is the angle turned through by arm 4 when gear 3 moves relative to
gear 1. If gear 3 moves one tooth space, angle A OB equals841 . 1bis is the smallest N, + N 1
possible angle between planet gears if the planets are allowed to overlap. If gear n = (7.8)
c
3 rotates a whole number of tooth spaces c, then
These planets may or may not overlap each other, depending on the value of c.
)
(7.6) It is now necessary to determine tbe maximum number of planets n_ that )
LAOB = c(941 ) =N c N revolutions
can be used without overlapping. In Fig. 7.17, the outside radii R 0 , of two planet
)+ I
gears are shown almost touching at point C. From the figure , )
and represents the angle between planets with possible overlapping. )
Consider next the case of Fig. 7.16b where gear 1 has been rotated one 360180
tooth space with gear 3 stationary and it is required to find angle AOB'. If Bu
n
..
m --- = ---
LAOB LAOC )
equals the angular motion of gear 1 after it bas been rotated one tooth space and
00 equals the resulting motion of arm 4 (both relative to gear 3), then LAOC • sin- 1 AL'
VA
>
)
1 where
0
u
= -
N, )

and ,,
)

Wo
9u = Ou X -
Wu
)
But it can be easily derived that
,,
)

TI1erefore, >
)
FIGURE 7.17
,
)

>
•
J ....
) - -- ~

'i
l 266 OEAR TRAINS
) CrRCULATINO POWER IN COr-ITROLLED PLANETARY OEAR SYSTEMS 267
and
without overlapping. The gears a.re slandard :
)
N, _ N 1 - N1 _ 90 - SO _
) 2 2
20

) (k = 1 for standard full-depth teeth) 180 180

n.,. "" sin- 1(N1 + 2)/(N, + N 1 ) - sio - 1(20 + 2)/(50 + 20) - 9 · 8 planets
) or
Therefore, the number of planets in the gear train cannot exceed 9.
)
N, + N , 90 + 50 140
) n = -- - = - - - = -
c c c
) Tbe value of c must be a whole number of tooth spaces between planets tha t, when divided
and
into 140, will give a whole number n. Fo r this case, c can equal 140, 70 , 35, 28, or 20.
) Therefore,
) n = 1, 2, 4, 5, or 7 equally spaced planets
)
Therefore, for standard full-depth teeth , 7.5 CIRCULATING POWER IN CONTROLLED
) PLANETARY GEAR SYSTEMS
) n < 180 As has been seen in the previous work, a planetary gear train designed as a
.... sin- 1(N2 + 2)f(N1 + N2) (7.9) differential consists primarily of three rotating elements, with the speed of any
) one element depending upon the speeds of the other two. In all the designs
) AJso, from _the geometry of Fig. 7.16, considered so far , there have been two independent inputs. It is possible, how-
ever, to design a planetary differential where the speed of one element is con·
) trolled by a gear train connected to either of the other two elements. Th is additio n
is known as a branch control circuit and may contaio a fixed-speed or a variable-
) spced gear train.
Because R = Nl2P, for a standard gear and because the diametral pitches of
gears 1, 2, and 3 are equal, Although the angular-velocity ratios for a planetary system with a control
) circuit arc easily calculated, it is difficult to determine the circulating power load
) within the system. It is very important that the amount of circulating power be
considered in the design of the unit, or low efficiencies may result.
) The design of a gear train on the basis of strength is beyond the scope of
For no~standard gears•. Eq.· 7.9 can be used to give an approximate value kinematics. However, the calculation of circulating power is so directly connected
) of n~ . In this case, the fractional value of N 2 resulting from use of the standard
equation to kinematic design that we thought it advisable to include a brief treatment of
) the subject as presented by Laughlin, Holowenko , and Hall 1 and by Sangcr. 2
Figure 7.18a shows a sketch of a planetary gear train with a branch control
) circuit consisting of gears 2, 3, 4, and 5. Shaft A is the input shaft which powers
gear 2 and arm 10. Gear 6 is powered by shaft A through the control circuit.
) Shaft B , which is powered by gear 9, is the output shaft.
) would be substituted in Eq. 7.9. As a final check, a layout drawing should be
made.
1H. 0 . Laughlin, A. R. Holo...,nko, and A . S. Hall, "How 10 Dciennine Circul11ing Power in
)
Controlled Eplc:ydlc Oear Systems," Mach!N DeJl/f"· l3 (6), March 22, 1956.
) Example 7.7. In a planetary gear train similar to tha1 of Fig. 7. lS, gear 1 bas .50 teeth 'D. J. S1oger, "The Detennin1tion of Po...,r Flow in Multiple-Pith Transmission Sysrems," M <ch -
and gear 3 has 90 teeth . Determine the number of equally spaced planets that can be used onism and Macliint! 77arory, 7 (1), Spring tm.
)
)
)
)
 ,,•
268 OBA!\ TRAINS CIRCULATING POWER IN CONTROLLED PLANETARY GEAR SYSTI::MS 269
amount of power circulating through the branch circuit can easily be developed )
from the gener'.'-1 torque and energy relationships between the three elements. If
the power flowUlg through the branch control circuit is defined as the circulating
power P• an~ the power flowing through element c is labeled P,. a ratio 'Y of
•)

P10 -
- 5 hp
these powers as

(7.10)
•)
)
Also, by considering the differential as an isolated unit,
)
4(40TI (ti) IT= r.+ r.+ T.=O

I\., - 5 hp c
I P = T.w. + T•w• + T,w, = O ,,•
,,
Oillerentlal Solving the preceding equations simultaneously gives
25 hp

b 'Y = w.(w, - w.)

w,(w. - w.)
Pu. - 20 hp
or
,,
,,
(b) r(l - R)
'Y = (7.U)
FIGURE 7.18 1- T
where

,,
In analyzing the power flow in a planetary differential, it is necessary to
label the three basic rotating clements of the system as element a, element b,
and element c. One of these elements is always an arm that carries the planetary
gears, and the other two elements are gean on independent axes. Element a will
always be that member projecting from the differential to outside the system and
connecting to element b through the branch control circuit. Element b will a1ways
be that member which transmits power to or from the differential to the branch
control circuit but does not transmit power directly to or from outside of_the
,
system. Element c will always be that member projecting from the differential
If 'Y is positive, it means that power flows into or out of the differential
•
,,
through both elements b and c. If 'Y is negative, power flows into the differential
directly to outside the system but having no connection with the control circuit. thr~ugh one of these clements (b or c) and out through the other. )
In Fig. 7.18a, arm 10 is element a, since ittalces power from outside the differential
and is connected to gear 6 through the control circuit . Gear 6 is the controlled E:ra'!'pl~ 7.8. Consider that in the differeotial 1hown in Fi&. 7.18a, "'A - 3600 rpm In
clement and has no direct conneclion to outside the system and is therefore
element b . Gear 9 transmits power directly to outside the system and bas no
co1U1ection with the control circuit and is therefore element c. It should be men-
tioned that if the power input were through shaft B and gear 9 which would result
the direction ahown,

"'• - "'*' •
and the power input is S hp. Determine the power circulating In the
branch control circuit.

3600 rpm
,,
in the output through arm 10 and shaft A, the same notation would apply. It can
be seen therefore that the notation depends only on the configuration of the
differential and not on the direction of power flow.
N, x N •
..,• • Cl).. D ( a ) I O -
N, x N, ,,
The planetary system of Fig. 7.18a is shown schematically in Fig. 7.18b,
with the three rotating elements labeled. From Fig. 7.18b, an expression for the
- 3600
40
x
20 x 20
40
.. 14,«>0 rpm
,,
,,
J
) ·.
)
270 OEAR TRAINS ORCULATINO POWlJR IN CON"rROIJ.EO PLANETARY OEAR SYSTEMS 271
l By using the relation (Eq. 7 .S) . I b . Fi 7 1912 with w "" lClO rpm in the
) E_xa"!ple 7.9. C.Odmider th~ di~:~e;~:l's ;e':r:in~~he -pow,cr circulating in the b ranch
d1rect1on shown an a power mpu
~ = ~ control circuit.
) WfA ~, - OJA From the given dala ,
) 1he angular velocity of gear 9 can be found as follows: .., 11 = 100 rpm
Let gear 6 be the first gear and gear 9 the last gear. By making the substitution of
)
)_
lhcse gear numbers into Eq. 1.S, the following equation results: ..... = - loo(Z:) = -100(~~) -133.33 rpm

Wm
~= <&>91 -
w., = w11 -= -133.33 rpm
) w..,.
) w.,,o
C&>" -
N,
w,~

x N, 45 x 14 I
w., ,; 100 rpm
w.,1e - N, x N. = -90X28- 4 -200 rpm
)
I w,. - 3600
) - 4- =
14,400 - 3600 <»>• = ..,11 = -200 rpm

)
"'" - - 4I ( 10,800) + 3600
)
- 900 rpm (same direction of rotation as ..,,.,,)
) s<30n
Therefore,
)
w, ~ «>)" = 900 rpm 4-
B
) P... • 20 hp
By substituting in Eq. 7.11,
) Element c

) ., - r(l1 -- R}
r
)
)
)
) 4fl - 4\ (o )
.,.,~.., +4 9t6on 21so11
) 1 - 4
..... - 20 hp c b
) Therefore, from Eq. 7.10, Oiff11e ntial

) 10.3 hp

) - 4 x s- 20 hp 9 .1 hp

I\. - 20 hp C4ntrol
) The positive value of.., indicates that power floW3 lhrough clements b and c in the same circuit
10.3 hp
direction (out of or into the differential). Bcc4use power flow was given from the differ-
) ential through clement c, the circulating power flows from the differential through element
Pc11 • 10.3 hp

b. The magnitude5 and directions of the ftow of power are shown on Fig. 7.18b.
> FlGURE 7.1.9 (b}

I
)
)
~
 ,
)
)
)
272 GltAR TRAINS HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 273
'Ibereforc, )
· By using the relation (Eq. 7.5)
)
-- - - _1.199(1 - 0.915)_ - 0 13
.s
,
W1A (all - ....
-"" .., 1 - 1.199 )

the angular velocity of arm 10 can be determined as follows:

and
Lei gear 4 be the first geu and gear 7 the last geu. By substilllting these gear
Po. = -yP, c: -0.513(20) = -10.3 hp )
numbers into the above equation, the following relation is obtained:

~-
W 11 - W1r1
The negative value of "Y indicates that the power Oow through clements b and c will
•
where
w.,., c.>41 - Wuw1
be in opposite directions relative to the differential. That is, since power flow was given
from the ditterential through clement c, the circulating power flows through element b
into the dittereotial. The magnitudes and directions of the Dow of power are shown in
Fig. 7.19b.
,
)

~=
.......
_ N. x N.
N, x N,
= 64 x 38
- 59 x 36 =
- 1.145 •)
1
7.6 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING
Therefore , )
Harmonic drive gearing is a patented principle based on nonrigid body mechanics.
It employs the three concentric comp~:>nents shown in Figs. 7.20a and 7.20b to )
-200 - "'"''
- 1.1 45 - - 166.67 - ..,,.,

,
produce high mechanical advantage and speed reduction. The use of nonrigid
body mechanics allows a continuous eUiptical deflection wave to be induced in )
and a nonrigid external gear, thereby providing a continuous rolling mesh with a rigid,
internal gear.
..,,,., - -182.2tpm (direction opposite to w,.) Since the teeth of the nonrigid flexsplioe and the rigid circular spline are
in continuous engagement and since the flexspline has two fewer teeth than the •
From the analysis given above, the angular velocities of elements a, b , and c shown
in Fig. 7.19a ue

w. • w., ~ - 166.67 rpm

circular spline, one revolution of the input causes relative motion between the
flexspline and the circular spline equal to two teeth. Thus, with the circular spline
rotationally fiir;ed, the fleir;spline will rotate in an opposite direction to the input
at a reduction ratio equal to the number of teeth on the flexspline divided by 2.
, )

"'• = w 11 = -200 ·rpm

This relative rotation may be seen by examining the motion of a single •
w, = "'••• = -182.2 rpm
flexspline tooth over one-half an input revolution, as shown in Fig. 7.20c.
The tooth is fully engaged when the major axis of the wave generator input •
The circulating power can now be determined from Eq. 7.11:
is at zero degrees. When the wave generator's major axis rotates to 90°, the tooth
is disengaged. Full reeogagement occurs in the adjacent circular spline tooth
•
)
space when the major axis is rotated another 180°. This motion repeats as the
.., ~
r( l - R)
1- ,
major axis rotates another 180" back to zero, thereby producing two tooth ad-
•
,
vancements per input revolution.
It should be mentioned that any elements of the drive can function as the )
where input, the output, or the fixed member depending on whether the gearing is used
for speed reduction , speed increasing, or differential operation .
.... -200 )
r - :;: - - 166.67 - + 1 · 199

R - ~ • -166.67 • +0.915 ~ mat.rial 111 thla eeccioll 11 .d•pted directly frolD tbc Harmonic: Drl~« Dultntr's Monuol or •>
w, -182.2 l!mbu1 Mac:hlocry Group, Wakc6cld, Mau., and ii used with pennbsion.
,
•
,
)
I
)
)
) 274 GEAR TRAJNS
HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 275
) Problems
) 7.1. In Fig. 7 .21, gear 1 rotates in the direction shown at 240 rpm. Determine the speed
of pinion 9 (rpm) and the apced (fpm) and direction of rack 10.
) 7.2. A hoist Is operated by a motor driving 1 4-thrcaded worm lhal engages a 100-tooth
worm gear. The worm gear is keyed to a shaft which also contains a 20-tooth spur pinion .
) The pinion meshes with a 140-toolb spur gear mounted on the cod of the hoisting drum .
Make a sketch of the unit , and calculate the speed of hoisting (fpm) if the motor operate s
)
at tiOO rpm and the drum diameter is 12 in.
) 7.3. Two slitting rolls A and 8 for cutting sheet metal arc driven by means of the gear
Wllve Genenilor train shown in Fig. 7 .12. The roll:! must operate in the direction shown at a peripheral
) An eltplical ball·----
bearing assembly
speed o( 1150 mmls. (a) Determine the angular velocity ratio w/w, to drive the rolls at
the required speed. Gear 1nuuat1800 rpm. (b) Determine the direction of rotation o f

•
).
gear 1 and the hand of 111orm 6 to give the required rotatio n of the rolls.
'·'· la lhe s.kctch of the press shown lo Fig. 7.23, 5 and 6 arc singlc-thtcHt.lct.I sc1cws of
the opposite hand, with 6 threading into 5 as indicated . Gear 4 is fas tened to screw 5.
Aexspllne Plate B is prevented from turning by a slot in it which engages the frame . If the pitch of
)_ A nonrigid. e...ternal
5 is 1 in . and that of 6 is l in., determine the direction and the number of twns of shaft
oea1
) A required to lower plate B t in.
7.!. The gear ttain in Fig. 7.24 shows the essential features of the work spindle d rive for
} (o)
a gear hobbing machine. Gear blank B and the worm gear 9 arc mowttcd on the same
shaft and must rotate together. (a) If the gear blank Bis to be driven clockwise , detcnninc
) the band of the hob A . (b) Determine the angular-velocity ratio w.,lw, to cut 72 teeth oo
Eli~ WcM! Genera1or · the gear blank B.
) inpU defteds Flexspina
7.6. A gear ttain contains shaft A to which is keyed gears 1 and 2, an intermediate shaft
lo engage leelh at Iha
) major axis B with a sliding compowtd &ear 3, 4, and 5 and shaft C to which are k:cycd gears 6 and
7. The gears are numbered- from left to z:igbt and arc all spur gears with shaft center
) distances of 12 in. and a diamcttal pitch of S. The compound gear can be shifted to the
left to give a velocity ratio of 5: 1 through gem; 1, 4, 3, and 6, or to the right to give a
) Flexspline oulptA rotates
velocity ratio 25:9 through gears 2, 4, 5, and 7. Draw a sketch of the unit and calculate
in opposite drection !he number of teeth in each gear if N, = N 1 •
) to input
6(40T)
) 4(120D
10
Rack
)
)
5
) (60D

j 2
c.an
)
7
) Left-hand
3(80D double-threaded
) worm
FIGURE 7.20
)
FIGURE 7.21
)
)

>
 ,
,,
276 PEAR TRAINS
HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 277
•
••
6
A. 563 mm diameter
Hob sln11t
thr11d
9(42T) ,•
t
7
(64T)
J 7
•
3 2(30T) •
+-b:·===:::-=:=-:=-::-=-:=-:=-=:-::::-:=-:=-=::::-=-=-=:::::-=£:=:.j tnp.-~· 392 mm dl1meter 'To motor
•
)
10 worm, lilt-hind 1 (16T}

4(36T)
5
•
5(42T) FIGURE ?.24 •
FIGURE 7.Z1.
7.7. In the gear train io Fig. 7.25, screws Sand 6 arc single-threaded of opposite hand •
as shown. Screw S bas a pitch of 3 mm and screw 6 a pitch of 2 .5 mm. Screw 6 threads
into saew S and saew S threads into the frame. Determine the change io ~ and y io
•
1 (18T) magnitude and direction foe ooc cevolutioo of the bandwhecl in the direction shown.
Gear5 1. and 2 arc compounded on the handwheel 'haft. ·
•
)
7.1. F"18Ufe 7.26 shows part of a geu train for a vertical milling machine. Power input is

2(24T)
through the pulley and power output through geu 12. Compound gears 1 and 2, 3 and
•t
t
3(24T)
>

,•
t

·-
•
•
•>
FIGURE 7.23
11GURE 7.25
•
•
~ · -
,}

~- t
•
'
)
)
..
~

278 GEAR T'RAJNS

) HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 279
) motor? (b) With gear 13 meshing with gear 15 and a spindle speed of 130 rpm, determine
the number of teeth for scan l and 5 if gean 1, 2, 3, and 5 arc 1tandord and have the
) ume diametral pitch.
) 7.10. A conventional automotive tnnsmission is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7.28.
The transmission of power ls as l'ollows: Low gear: gear 3 ahifted to mesh with gear 6.
) Tnnsmission of power through gean I, 4, 6, 3. Second gear: gear 2 1hifted to mesh with
gear 5. Transmission through gean 1, 4, S, 2. High gear: gear 2 shifted so that clutch
) teeth on end of gea.r 2 mesh with clutch teeth on end of gear 1. Direct drive result5.
Reverse gear : gear 3 shifted to mesh with gear 8. Transmission through gean I, 4, 7, 8,
} 3. A car equipped with this tnnsmission has a differential ratio of 2.9 : 1 a.nd a tire ou!side
diameter of 26 in. Determine the engine speed of the car under the following conditions:
) 12 (41T) 11 (32T) (a) low gear and car traveling 20 mph; (b) high gear and car traveling 60 mph; (c) reve1:1e
10(46T) gear and car traveling 4 mph .

•
~
HGURE 7.26 7. ll. In the planetary clutch shown in Fig. 7.29, the stop 6 may be engaged o r disengaged.

•
>-
4 • and 10 and 11 can slide as shown to · · . .
all of the crain values possible between githve vain[ ous cod mbmabons of gearing. Determine
. e pu ey an gear 12.
When engaged, ·a planetary gear train results, and, when disengaged , an ordinary gear
train results because arm Swill remain stationary. If gear 2 rotates in the direction shown
in 300 rpm, determine (a) the speed of the ring gear 4 when the stop 6 is disengaged as
shown, and (b) the speed of arm S when the stop 6 is engaged with the ring gear 4 .
1.9. Figure 7.27 shows part of a gear tr . f . .
) gears 1 and 2 can slide so that either ge=~ or ~ ve~~ milling machine. Compound 7.U . Considering a bevel gear differential as used in automotive drives , prove that, when
gear 3. In the same manner gear 13 mesh ?1~s es wit gear S or gear 2 meshes with one of the rear wheels on a car is jacked up, it will turn twice as fast as the differential
)
)
(a) With gear 2 meshing wlth
motor speed of 1800 rpm Will
.
:a .'r 3 d es w1_t gear 15 or gear 14 meshes with gear 16.
dletenrune. the two possible spindle speeds for a
e spm e rotate m the same or opposite direction lo the
carrier.
7.13. If a truck is rounding a right-band CllIVe al 15 mph , d etermine the speed in rpm of
the d ifferential carrier. The radius of curvature of the curve is 100 ft to the center of the
) truck: , and the truck tread is 6 ft. The outside diameter of the tires is 36 in.
7.14. For the bevel gear planetary drive shown in Fig. 7.30, determine the ratio wJw,
) "'hen gear 1 u stationary.
7.15. For the ball bearing shown in Fig. 7.31, the inner race I is scationary and the outer
) race 2 rotates with a tubular shaft at 1600 rpm. Assuming pure rolling between Che balls
and races, determine the speed of the ball retainer 4.
) 11
(40T) '---rlr---''---4---l 7 .16. A mechanism lcnown as Ferguson's paradox is shown in Fig. 7 .32. For one revolution
)
I
)
)
)
I -
3(26T)

)
I
'
) I Spindle

6(48T)
l - ~- - ~- - ~- -~--
)
) 8(40T) 10(34T)
4 (JOT)
) HGURE 7.l7
FIGURE 7 .28
)
)
)
 ,
280 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 281
,•,
,
OBAR TRAINS

Internal &ear s(71n 4C7on 3 C69T)

•
•
Ann •
6

-------·-
•
2 (301) •
L--"T-"-rr-~

•
•
•}
7,
1 (7on nGURE 7.J2
,
FIGURE 7 .29 FIGURE 7.30
•
of the arm in the direction ~hown, find the number of revolutions of gears 3, 4, and S aod
their directions of rotation . The gears are nonstandard.
7.17. Shaft A rotates in the direction shown in Fig. 7.33 at 640 rpm. U shaft Bis to rotate
7.20. In the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 7.36, determine the angular-velocity ratio
r»Jw,. Compare this ratio with that obtained if the arm 4 is connected direc tly to the
output shaft and gears 5, 6, and 7 are omitted.
,,•
7.21. In the gear train for Problem 7.20, gear 2 rot&IC$ at 600 rpm in the direction 5hown
at I! rpm in the direction shown, calculate the angular-velocity ratio IJ>/w4 • Wbat would and gear 1 (and gear 6) rotates at 300 rpm in the opposite direction . Calculate the 5J>Ced
the ratio w/w. have to be for shaft B to rotate at 8 rpm in the opposite direction?
7.18. In the mechanism in Fig. 7.34, gear 2 rotate$ al 60 rpm in the direction shown.
and directioo of rotation of gear 7.
•
Determine the speed and direction of rotation of gear 12.
7.19. A mechanism known u Humpage'a gear is 1bown in Fig. 7.35. Find the angular
velocity ratio wAlw,.
•}
•
•
2.060 In.
}
•
1.580 In.
,•
worm

6(401)
1
10(401)
worm
)
,
FIGURE 7.31 FIGURE 7.33
,,
~

-:·F .
•
'
)
)
) 282 GEAR TRAINS
28J

'
HARMONIC DRIVE OEARINO
) l
) I' 12(630

) I
- - +----- · -
r /
) 6(JOT)

)
)
)
)
)
flGURE 7.36
)
) 2(20T) 7.24. Figwc 7.39 showsa planetary gear train for a large reduction. (a) U shaft A connects
to the motor, detennine the angular-velocity ratio wiw,. (b) Will gears 2, 3, and 4 and
) gears S, 6, and 7 be standard or nonstandard? Wby7 (c) If the number of teeth in gear 3
is changed from 51 teeth to 52 teeth, calcula1e the angular-velocity ratio wAlw, .
)
5(60T)
7.25. An aircraft propeller reduction drive is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7.40. De-
) flGURE 7.34 termine the propeller speed in magnitude and direction if the engine turns at 2450 rpm
in the direction indicated.
) 7 ..22. A planetary gear train for a two- d · 7.26. In the planetary reduction unit shown in Fig. 7.41, gear 2 turns at 300 rpm in lhc
7:37. Gear 2 is driven by a 63-tooth :!':(no~tr:ft super~harger drive is ihown in Fig. direction indicated. Deiermine the speed aod direction of rotation of gear 5.
) high speed, gear 2 connects to the su g own) which operates at 2400 rpm. At 7.rT. ID the gear train for Problem 7.26, gear 2 turns at 300 rpm in the direction shown,
speed, gear 7 is held stationary and spcharftcharB~er shaft through additional gearing. At low and gear 1 rotates at 50 rpm in the opposite direction. Calculate the !peed and direction
) .
th e same gear ratio as connected to the supe-'- sh .
as wu used between ear 2 d ......arger aft With of rotation of gear 5.
) charger operates at 24 000 rpm at high g d a n the supercharger shaft. If the super-
7.23 Fi • 5 pee , ca1cu1ate the low-speed value ·
• tgure 7 .38 shows the planeta • d ·
) If shaft A connccis to the motor dei'e:~r anth power,shaft as.s~mbly for an aircraft servo.
' me e angu ar-vel0C1ty ratio wAI""•· 3 (54 T) l ntern11 1ear
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
FIGURE 7-35
)
)
>
 ,
,
)
HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 285
284 GEAR TRAINS
2(125T) lntemal 1Hr •
l(142T)-~~~~~~~ 4
(76T) Internal
,•
,,•
Internal Arm
••• , 7

•
~
2
•
FIGURE 7.42

u gear 2 . Detem1ine the speed aod direction of rotation which must be given to gear 5
•,,
to mate arm 6 stand still if gear 2 continues to rotate at 1000 rpm.
7.30. For the gear train of Fig. 7.43 , shaft A rotates at 300 rpm and shaft Bat 600 rpm
in the directions shown. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of shaft C.
,,
7.31. In Fig. 7.44, shaft A turns at 100 rpm in the direction shown. Calculate the speed
l
· of shaft -B and give its direction of rotation.
FIGURE 7.39
FIGURE 7.38 7.32. In the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 7.45, shaft A rotates at 450 rpm and shaft
B at 600 rpm in lhe directions shown. Calculate the speed of shaft C and give its direction •
7.28. In the planetary gear tnin shown in Fig. 7.42, gear 2 turns at 600 rpm io tbe
or rotation.
7.ll. Shaft A rotates in Fig. 7 .46 at 350 rpm and shaft B at 400 rpm in the dircclions
•
direction indicated. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of ann 6 if gear S rotates
at 350 rpm in the same direction as gear 2 . shown. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of shaft C. •
7.29. If in the gear train for Problem 7.28, gear 2 rotatcs at 1000 rpm in the direction
shown and gear S is held stationary, arm 6 will rotate at 625 rpm in the same di.rectioa
7.34. In the bevel gear planetary train shown in Fig. 7.47, abaft A rotates in the direction
shown at 1250 rpm and shaft B ia the direction shown at 600 rpm. Determine the: speed •
of shaft C in magnitude and direction.
•
4 (124T) Internal
11ear •
l (SOT) Internal
Atm6
4(42T)
3(22T) •
Arm
5
4 (22T)

,
>

,•
Propellrr

2(26T)
l
(48T) t
t
FIGURE 7.40 FIGURE 7.41 FIGURE 7.43
•
)
)
--------
(.-r.:
·-- )
\
, _
_.;._

-\ H ARMONIC DRIVE OF.ARINO 287

l I 286 OEAR TRAINS
6(42T)
) 4 Arm

)
)
)
)
FIGURE 7.46
)

t FIGURE 7.44
The sun gear is to JOlate 2.S times the speed of the carrier. The pitch diameter of the
)
internal gear is to be approximately 11 .0 in . (a) Design the gear lrain by determining the
) ~oss1ble without overlapping and the
m the tra in.
ni!i
7.35: For _the planetary gear train of Fi . 7 37 .
b. , C:lculate the maiamum number of planets
\ ers 0 equally spaced planets that can be used
numbers of teeth for the internal gear , the sun gear, and the planets using 10 diametrnl-
pitch 20" full-depth spur gear tee th. Hold the 11 .0.in. pitch diameter as closely as possible .
). 7 .36. In a planetary train similar to that f F (b) Oetennine whether three equally spaced planets can be used in lhis drive.
teeth, a~d gear 3 has 78 teeth. G ean 1 ~nd ig. 7.15, gear l has 41 teeth, gear 2 has 18 7 .41. In the plancl&ry gear train shown iD Fig. 7.48, the carrier (link 4) is the driving
) Determine the maximum number of cq 11 3 arc standard and gear 2 is oorutandard member and the sun gear (link 3) is the driven member. The internal gear is held slationary .
7.37. Ca lculate the maxi ua y spaced plaoel$ that can be used. . The sun gear is to rotate 2.5 times the speed of the carrier. The pitch diameter of the
} d . mum number of equally sp d
use m the gear train of Fig. 7.36. ace compound planets that can be internal gear is to be approximately 12.5 in. (a) D esign the geu train by dete rm.ioing the
numbers of teeth for the internal gear, the sun gear , and the plane ts using 8 diametral·
) pitch, 20" full~eptb spur gear teeth. Hold the 12.S·in. pitch diameter as closely as p0ssible.
7compound
.38. For the planetary gear t;ain sh .
p lanets that can be used own m Fig. 7.41 , calculate the maximum number of
) 7.39. In the planct:iry gear trai h . (b) Determine wbetller three equally spaced planets can be used in this drive .
member and the 'un gear (liolc 3) ~ ~.. ~wod. m Fig. 7 .48, the carrier (link 4) is the dri . 7.42. Design a three-gear planetary train having an output to input spee d ratio of 1 :8,
The JS...., nven member The . t al . vmg
) . sun gear is to rotate 2.5 times the speed of th ·
111
. cm gcarisbeldstationary. with the output shaft tv.ming in the same direction as the input . Use the configuration of
mtcrnal gear is to be approximately ( ) ; c:amcr. The pitch diameter of the Fig. 7 .49 and indicate which shaft is the input. Select the smallest gears p0ssible frorn the
) 280
J~h~
the numbers of teeth for the internal mm. a eSJgn the gear train by dctcrminin following available stock sizes: even tooth numbers from 12 to 100 and every fourth number
20• standard spur gear teeth. Hold sun _gear' _and the planets using 2.S-moduleg from 100 to 160. Also 6od tile maximum number of planets (ge ar 2) that could be used .
) Determine whether three equal! d m pitch diameter as closely as possible . (b)' 7.43. Refer to the tluec· gear planetary train with bevel gears of Fig. 7 .50 and fi nd the
7 40 I th I y space planets can be used. most conservative design to reduce an input of 125 rpm to 75 rpm. Use the same ra nge
) . • n c p anetary gear train shown in Fi
me mber a nd the sun gear (link 3) is the d . ig. 7.48, the .carrier (link 4) is the driving of tooth sizes available in Problem 7 .42. ·
. nven member. The iotcmal gear is held slationary.
)
) 7 (42D
Ann 6
)
)
)
)
)
·-
) 9(24T)
ncURE 7.AS
) flGUltE 1A'1
UGURE 7.45
)
)
)
)
 ,'
288 OUR TIV\JNS HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 289
,,
•
_2 Intimal b.,,11 pat
•
)

B •
~

>
~

•
t

FIGURE 7.52 ,•
FIGURE 7.49 FIGUJlE 7.SO

7.44. Desiga a plane! ~ r; , • train with an output to input speed ratio of 1: 142, with
,
5
the output shaft twnir
and Fag. 7.SO or the
sizes Lor bevel and ,.
tooth numbers fron ,
1te the input. Use the three-gear coo6gurations of Fig. 7.49
••r·gear planetary train shown in Fig. 7.51. Available stock
~ a.re u follows: all tooth numben from 12 to 40 and even
,o. Sketch the selected gear train and indicate the input shaft.
,•
•
8t20 T) 7U9TI
•
4

•
)

•
•
•
•)
)
t
2
l'lGURE 7.53
3(42Tl
•
,•
TIGUR.E 7.51

~- -- -
I
...... ,:
~ )
•
)
• ;_~:-

)
) 290 GEAR TRAJNS

) 7.45. Design the smalleat possible four-gear lanct . .

in Fig. 7.52 to reduce an input of 265 rpm top15 ary trainlndi wuh a .fixed annular gear as
') th · s · . rpm. catc which shaft is chose
fo~~=~:ve~C:~:ri:ui:i:~u:':n';~t2 to Nave 150 teeth. Available.stock mes.,::: Chapter Eight
)" ~= 100 to 150. Also determine If two ~I:~:;:~,~;; ~°u~b~ :.~':'~and every five
• · In Fig. 7.33, shaft A rotates at 640 · h d. . ·
) to gear 2. Calculate th . . . rpm in t e 11cct1on shown and transmits 10 hp
)
e power arcu.latmg 10 the branch
power flow diagram. Shaft B connected to a 12 . thcon
and gear 4 has 40 teeth. rm
trol · ·
circuit 8.lld ma.kc a seflematic
is c output shaft. Gear 2 bas 20 teeth
Velocity and
)
'
7.47. ln Fig. 7.34, 5 hp is transmitted to gear 2 which tu
shown. Determine the power circulatin in th b '
.
nu. al ~ rpm in the direction
Acceleration Analysis
) power flow diagram. Ann 10 is the ou~ut s~al:~och control arcuu and make a schematic
7.48. Figure 7.44 shows a planetary train in wh· h
~ shown and transmits 20 hp to gear 2 Det . ich shaft A l~ms at 100 rpm in the direction
circuit and make a schematic powc~ fl e~oe t e power a~lating in the branch control
) ow ••gram. Arm 10 is the output shaft
7.49 . . ln the spur gear differential shown . F. .
)_ direction shown and transmits 30 b Sha~n t~. 7.53, shaft A turns at 250 rpm in the
circulating in the branch control c:rr!it d 8 15
the outpu~ shaft. Calculate the power
an make a schemaoc power flow diagram. .
)
)
)
8.1 INTRODUCllON
)
Because motion is inherent in machinery, kinematic quantities such as velocity
) and acceleration are of engineering importance in the analysis and design of
machine components. Kinematic values in machines have reached extrao rdinary
)
magnitudes. Rotative speeds, once considered high at 10,000 rpm, are approach-
) ing 100,000 rpm. Large rotors of jet engines operate at 10,000 to 15,000 rpm ,
and small turbine wheels rotate at 30,000 to 60,000 rpm.
) Size and rotative speed in rotors arc related such that the smaller the size ,
the greater the allowable rotative speed. A more basic quantity in rotors is
) peripheral speed, which depends on rotative speed and size (V = wR). Peripheral
) speeds in turbomachincry are reaching 50,000 to 100,000 ft / min. Peripheral speeds
in electric armatures (10,000 ft / min) and automotive crankshafts (3000 ft/ min)
) arc lower than in aeronautical rotors. Although the rotor, or crank, speeds of
linkage mechanisms aie low, the trend is toward higher speeds because of the
) demand for higher rates of productivity from the machines used in printing, paper
) making, thread spinning, automatic computing, packaging, bottling, automatic
machining, and numerous other applications.
) The centripetal acceleration at a rotor periphery depends on the square o f
the rotative speed and size (A• = w2 R). Io turbines, such accelerations arc ap-
) proaching values of 1to3 million ftls2, or about 30,000g to 100,000g, values that
) may be compared with the acceleration of 10g withstandable by airplane pilots
or the lOOOg of automotive pistons.
> Acceleration is related to force (MA), by Newton 's principle, and, in turn,
related to stress and defonnatio n, which may or may not be critical in a machine
)
> 291
>
 292 ~OOTv AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS LINEAR MOTION OF A PARTICLE 293
,,
t
part, depending on the materials used . The speed of a machine is limited ulti-
mately by the properties of the materials of which it consists and the conditions )
that influence the properties of the materials used. High temperature arising from
lhe compression of gases and the combustion of fuels, together with that arising
from friction , is a condition in high-speed power machines that influences the
•
)
strength of the materials. The degree to which the temperature rises also depends
on the provisions made for the transmission of heat by coolants such as a.fr, oil, J
water, or Freon. )
The successful design of a machine depends on the exploitation of knowl·
FIGURE 8.1
edge in tJ1e fields of dynamics, stress analysis, thermodynamics , heat transmission,
and properties of materials. However, it is the purpose of this chapter to deal
solely with kinematic relationships in machines. lo subsequent chapters, ac.cel- vectors shown at A represent the motions of both particles. The angular motions
•
••
cration and force are discussed in connection with the determination of forces of links 2 and 3 are different as given by the angular velocities wt. w> and the
acting oo individual links of a mechanism and in connection with machine balance.
For bodies rotating about a fixed axis , such as rotors, kinematic values are
angular accelerations a1, aJ. Usually , the angular motion of a driving link is
known, or usumcd, such as wt and a 1 of Fig. 8.1, and the motions of the con- •
quickly determined from well-known elementary formulas (V = wR, A" = w2R, necting and driven links are to be determined. •
A' = aR). However, mechanisms such as the slider crank and its inversions are
combinations of links consisting not only of a rotor but of oscillating and recip- 8.2 LINEAR MOTION OF A PARTICLE
•
rocaling members as well. Because of the relative velocities and relative accel-
In useful mechanisms, the particles of the links are constrained to move on given •
erations among the several members, together with the many geometrical relative
positions possible, the kinematic analysis of a linkage is relatively complex com·
pared to that of a rotor. The principles and methods illustrated in this chapter
paths, many of which , such as circles and straight lines, arc obvious. In Fig. 8.1,
the ?articles_of links 2 and 4 are constrained to move on circular paths. The
•
)
are primarily those for the analysis of linkages consisting of combinations of particles of link 3, however, ue in motion along generally curvilinear paths less
rotors, bars, sliders, cams, gears, and rolling elements.
In the following discussions, the individual links of a me<:hanism are wumed
to be rigid bodies in which the distance between two given particles of a moving
simple than circles or stTaight lines.
A particle in motion on a curvilinear path is said to be in curvilinear trans-
laJion. The basic kinematic relationships for a particle translating in a plane arc
•
)
link remains fixed. Links which undergo large deformations during motion , such well Icnown ~om the study of mechanics. These are reviewed in the following )
as springs, fall in another category and are analyzed as vibrating members. A parqraphs with reference to Fig. 8.2 and were contributed by Professor J . Y.
current research topic of co nsiderable importance that should also be mentioned
is the 5tudy or mechanisms having links which undergo small elastic defonnatioos. 1
Harrison, University of New South Wales, Australia.
•
Most elementary mechanisms are io plane motion or may be analyzed as
such . Mechanisms in which all of the particles move in parallel planes are said
• ~
to be in plane motion . An illustration is a four-bar linkage (Fig. 8.1) consisting
or two rocke~ and a ' ·
doubk-rocker mechanism.
ting rod . This arrangemeol is often referred to as a
•
The motion of a link is expressed in terms of the linear displacements, linear •
velocities, and linear accelerations of the individual particles that constitute the
link. However, the motion of a link may also be expressed in terms of angular •
displacements, angular velocities , and angular accelerations of lines moving with
tbe rigid link. ·
In Fig. 8.1, the linear velocity V,. and th~ linear acceleration A,. of particle
•
t
A are shown by the fixed vc:ctors at A . Because of the connecting pin at A,
particle A 2 on link 2 and particle A, on link 3 have the same motion, and the
c
•
)
,., ,,.,
Centar ol curvature
'A . Midha, A . 0 . E!11111an, and D . A. Fcolvib, "Finite Elcmcal ApprolKb to Matbcmadcal Moddilla
o l lligl\·Spced Elastic: l..lnltaaes." M«lt<UWm ond ltlaclsllut TMory, 13, 1978. pp. 60l-618. •
,
FIGURE l.l
l

J
:Trt.:-- )
..
I
) -- -- :'o,...._

)
) 294 VELOCfIY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
LINEAR MOTION OF A PARTICLE 295
) The linear velocity v of · p. .
th .ti0 ,. a paruc1e is the mstantaneous rate of chan f When the origin of the coordinate system coincides with the center of
Fi:. ~. ~ ~f !:r.~~~le, or di~placemeot, with respect to time. Refcrri!; ~
; curved path from posilio;';\~~:: ~ ~'j,~~f~;:1cle Is d~splaced AS along the
curvature, dR/d6 and rPR l d91 are zero so that dR/dt and d1Rldf arc 111 ~0 zero .

)
10
of the particle changes from R lo R + AR . d de same hme, the radius vector
Under this condition, Eq. 8.1 can be simplified lo give

)
AO. Therefor~, lhe displacement AS is
the angular displacement A6 of radi R h
m::e l
~n o~r~~s an angular~isplacemenl
components. one due to
V,. • w, >< R (8.3)

length AR. us an 1 e other due to the change in and

t From Fig. 8.2a,
t 1v,.1- Rw,
AS -= R Aep + ARr
) From Eq . 8.2a,
where p and rare unit 1 •
equation for the vclocityvc~~~ ~~enddrcctuclar ~oddpar~Jllcl to R, respectively. The A,. = w, x (w, x R) + o, x R (8.4)
nnme es 10 lows:
)
lim (AS) = lim (~ + AR )
V,. = ._ The term w, x (Ci>, x R) is the normal component of the_acceleration with di·
)__ At 4t p At r
A>--o rection from point P toward the center of curvature, and oi. x R is the tangential
component with direction tangent to the curve at point P. Equation 8.4 may
)- Therefore,
therefore be written as
) _ dR A,.= A;.+ A~
V ,. - Rw,p + dt r where d&
w =-
) ' dt
where
) or, by using, the vector cross product
A) = w, x (w, x R) (8.4a)
) dR
V ,. = w, x R + -r
) dt (8.1) IMI = Rw~ = V,w, = ';:
) The acceleration of p is given by
and
)
)
A,.= ~(Rw,p + ~~r) A~= a, x R (8 .4b)
IA~I =Ra,
) = dR w p + R.w,p - R l <PR dR
dt , w,r + -. r + - ell p
dt· dt ' If the condition should arise where the origin of the coordinate system is
) on !he normal fo the curve through the point, dR/de and therefore dR /dt will
_ 2w dR . <PR
) - , dt p + Rw,p - Rw!r + dtl r (8.2) be zero, and Eqs. 8.1 and 8.2a can be modified accordingly.
Figure 8.2b shows the instantaneous directional orientation with respect to
) The acceleration of p therefore . t the tangent and normal to the path for lhc velocity vector V,. and the component
2w,(dR/dt) + Rw, in the directi::ns;~ o ~o components, one of magnitude vectors of acceleration A7- and A~; the radius of curvature is assumed to be
> (d1R!dtl) - Rw! in the directi ~ h e u!"t vector p, the other of inagnitude constant. It is important to note that the direction of A) is normal to the path
also be expressed by usiag the ~~~o: c~o~ ;r:C:~~~ :~ The equation for A,. can
1
) and that its sense is toward the center of curvature C of path. The direction of
A~ is tangent to the path and its sense is for increasing velocity. The resultant
) A 2w dR d1 acx:eleration A, is the vector sum of A) and A~ as shown.
,. -_ , dip + a, >< R + w, x (w, x R) + _.!! r (I.lo)
From Eqs. 8.3, 8.4a, and 8.4b, lhe magnitudes of the vectors describing the
~ dt2 linear motion of a particle can be calculated, and they appear repeatedly in the
) where o , =- w,p. development of kinematic relationships of particles in mechanisms where the
origin of the coordinate system coincides with the center of curvature.
)
>
 )

296 VCL0CITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

RELATIVI! MOTION 297 •,
8.3 ANGULAR MOTION
Angular velocity and angular acceleration are the first and second derivatives,
respectively, of the angular displacement 8 of a line with respect to time t. In
addition of equal velocities to each particle docs not change the relative velocity
of the two particles. Therefore, if P and Q are each given a velocity equal and
opposite to V0 , the particle Q becomes stationary in the f&xed plane, and P acquires
an additional velocity component - vQ relative to the fixed plane. The new
•
)
machine analysis, the angular motion of a link is expressed by the angular motion absolute velocity of P(V,. - V 0 ) therefore becomes the relative velocity V l'Q
•
,•
of any line visualized fixed to the link. In Fig. 8.3, line AB is in angular motioQ becau~ Q is now fixed relative to the reference plane. This is shown by the
because or its angular displacement with respect to time. Lines BC and AC vector diagram of Fig. 8.4b from which the equation for v,0 becomes
undergo the same angular displacements with respect to time as line AB because
triangle ABC is fixed in position with link 3 as a rigid body. Since all lines of V,0 = V, - Va (8.5)
link 3 have the same angular motion, the angular velocity and angular acceleration
of these lines are Wi and a , of the link, with the subscript denoting the link
number.
Io a similar manner, V 0 ,. can be obtained by the addition of - V, to each particle.
This is abown in Fig. 8.4c, and V 0 , is given by the equation
•t
Angular motion of a link may be the same or different from the angular
mot.ions of the radii of curvature of the paths of the individual particles of the
link. In Fig. 8.3, since all particles of link 2 are moving on circular paths having
•
a common center of curvature at the fixed center 0 2 , it is obvious that 111, and a. The vector equation for the acceleration of particle P relative to particle Q •
of the radii of curvatwe of the paths of all particles arc equal to the respective
angular velocity and angular aa:cleration 111z and a 2 of the link. In the case of the
connecting link 3 in Fig. 8.3, which is not rotating about a fixed center, w, and
is similar in form to Eq. 8 .S:

Al'Q"" A, - Aa (8.6)
,•
a. of the radius of curvature of the path of any given particle are not the same
as w, anda, of link 3.
It is an important concept in mechanics that a particle, which bas the in-
finitely small size of a point, can only translate; it cannot rotate. Angular motion
The angular motion of a line may be given relative to another line in motion.
Io Fig. 8.5, the angular velocities 111z and WJ of the lines on links 2 and 3, re-
spectiv~ly, are taken relative to line a-a on the fixed link. If -WJ is added to
,•
is motion of a line, and since a particle is a point, not a line, it is not considered
to be in angular motion. This concept must be fully understood to understand
the relative motion among particles. For example, the velocity of the particle on
links 2 and 3, link 3 becomes stationary and the new absolute velocity of link 2
(lalz - w1) therefore becomes the relative angular velocity 11123 because link 3 is
now fixed.
,•
link 2 at 0 2 io Fig. 8.3 relative to the velocity of any particle on the fixed link 1
is zero. Linear velocity is implied, and it is incorrect to hold that, by virtue of
Therefore,
•
the angular motion of link 2, the particle 0 2 has the angular velocity of the link. (8.7)
•
ln a similar manner,

(8.8) '
•
HGURE 8.3
vpqf7.,.
Ki r
,•
•
8.4 RELATIVE MOTION
As will be shown in a later section, the relative motion between particles is very
important in the kinematic analysis of mechanisms. lo Fig. 8 .4a, P and Q are
particles moving relative to a fixed reference plane at the respective velocities of
Q
·~!7 -v,.
(cJ
,•
~
(o}
V,. and V0 , and it is necessary to determine the relative velocity V 1'fl between
the two particles. In determining Vl'fl • use will be made of the fact that the
ftGURE 1.4 HGURE 1..5
•
)

-,--
{~·
,•
~
, 1(
_ ;..........
)
) VELOCITY AND ACCEU!RAnON ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATIIEMATICS 299
298 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
) If unit vecton I, J, and It are fixed to the .x·, y· , and z-axes, respectively,
8.5 METHODS OF VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION ANALYSIS R - .d + yj + zk (8. 10)
or the m1ny methods of determining velocities and accelerations io mechanisms,
\ three find wide usage. These, which arc presented in the following sections, arc Tho absolute velocity of paint P relative to ';ho XYZ:-'ystem, V ,., may be obtained
(a) analysis using vector mathematics to express the velocity and acceleration of by differentiating Eq. 8.9 with respect to tune to give
) a point with respect to a moving and a fixed coordinate system; (b) analysis using
) equations of relative motion which arc solved either analytically or graphically v,. = It,. = ito + it (8.11)
by velocity and acceleration polygons; and (c) analysis using vector loop closure
) equations written in complex form. In addition, velocities by instant centers will Differentiating Eq. 8.10 with respect to time gives
be considered as well as graphical or computer differentiation of displaccmeot-
) lime and velocity-time CUJVCS to yield velocities and accelerations, respectively. it = (xi + yj + .tk) + (xi + yj + zk) (8.U)

,
)

)-
Of the methods of velocity and acceleration analysis listed above, the use
of either of the first two maintains the physical concept of the problem. However,
the third method, using vectors in complex form, tends to become too mechanical
in its operation so that the physical aspects of the problem arc soon lost. It should
The term (ii + YJ + tit) is the velocity of paint P relative to the moving co-
ordinate system .xyz. For convenience, let
(8.13)
also be mentioned that the first and the third methods lend themselves to com- .ti + yJ + !k = v
)- puter solutions, which is a decided advantage if a mechanism is to be analyzed
for a complete cycle. Co Ider next the terms in the second set of parentheses of Eq. 8.12. From the
) taC:~at the velocity of the tip of a vector R, which passes t.!1rough a fixedhbasc
point and rotates about the base point with an aogular.vcloc1ty Cl>, can bes own
) 8.6 VELOCTIY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
to bew x R, the velocities of the tips of the unit vectors 1, j, and k can be expressed
BY VECTOR MATIIEMATICS
) Jn Fig. 8.6, the motion of point P is lcnown with respect to the .xyz-coorclinate
as
) system which, in tum, is moving relative to the fixed coordinate' system XYZ. i = o.iXI
The position of point P relative to the XYZ-system can be expressed as j=Ca1Xj
)
(8.9) k=c.>Xk
)
) where t<> is the angular velocity of the mo~ing c?°r~inatc system xyz relative to
y
the fixed system XYZ. Making the above substitutions, ·
) p
xi + yj + zit = .x(<a> x I) + y(<a> x J) + z(Cd x It) = c.> x (xi + yj + zk)
)
) and using the relation expressed in Eq. 8.10,

xi + yj + zit = c.> xR (8.14)

)
) Equation 8.12 then becomes
) R.-V + w><R (8.15)

)
Equation 8.11 can now be rewritten as follows by letting V 0 = R0 and substituting
) for it from Eq. 8.lS:
) z (8.16)
V,. = Vo+ V + ca x R
nctnu: 11.6
J ·'

)
)
)
 300 veLOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 301
l
wllere

,
where
V,. = velocity of point P in the XYZ-system 2w x V ~ the Coriolis component of acceleration ;
V0 .. velocity of origin of .ryz-system relative to XYZ'-system A,. = acceleration of point P io the XYZ-system
V = velocity of point P relative to xyz-system Ao ...
acceleration of .xyz-system origin relative to the XYZ-syslem -
w = angular velocity or xyz-system relative to XYZ-system
R "' distance from origin of xyz-system to point P
A • acceleration of point P relative to xyz-syslem2
CaJ = angular velocity of xyz-system relative to XYZ-system
V = velocity of point P relative to xyz-system
'
~
The acceleration of point P relative to the XYZ-system may oow be obtained
•t
,
by differentiating Eq. 8. 16: R .. distance from xyz-system origin to point P

A,. = V, = V0 + V + w x R + C4 X Ii. (8.17) Example 8J. Consider the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.7. Unk 2 rotates in the direction
shown at a constant angular velocity. The velocity and acceleration or point A arc therefore
known, and it is nec:cisary to find the velocity and acceleration of point B. Select coordinate
To evaluate V, it is necessary to differentiate Eq . 8.13:
v= (i i + jJ + lk) + (ii + yj + .tk) (8.18)
axes u shown with point O, u the origin of the XY-systcm and point A. as the origin of
the zy-system.
The equation for the velocity of point B can be written from Eq. 8.16 as follows:
,•
The term (ii + jlj + .fk) is the aettleration of point P relative to the moving
· coordinate system xyz. Let
v. = V0 +V + w x R
,•
.ii + yj + ik = A ,(8.19) V • -= direction perpendicular to 0 48, magnitude unknown
Vo• fVA I = (OiA)Wi = '!\- x 24 = •
,•
6.0 ft/s, direction perpendicular to OiA
.
Co nsidering the terms in the second set of parentheses of Eq. 8.18, V =
0 because B is a fixed point in the xy-syslem
,;. >< R • dilection perpendicular lo AB(«» ., «»,. R = AB) . magnitude unknown
ii + yj + .tk = i (w )( I) + j{w x J) + .t(w x k) -= w x (.ti + yJ + .tk)
But from Eq . 8.13,
lbe direction of w x R can be determined by knowing that the vector representing w
will be perpendicular 10 the .ry-plane. When -. is crossed into R, the product w x R will •
+ jlJ + v •
ii .tk =
y
•
Therefore,

.ti + yj + .tk - w x v (8.20)

••
Equation 8. 18 then becomes
•
Also from Eq. 8.15,
V=A+wxV (I.JI)
x ,
)

w x Ii. = w x V + CaJ x (CaJ x R)

Subs1i1uting V from Eq. 8.21 and e.a x R from Eq. 8.22 into Eq. 8. 17 and letting
(8.22)
'•
Ao = V0 , the equation for the acceleration of point P relative to the XYZ-system
becomes
nGURE 8.7
•>
"It should ~ ooted that to epcdly lhc aor111al •ad tanacndal components or A, the pulh or point P
A,. - Ao + A + 2w x V + wx R +w x (w x R) (8.23) relative to tbc ..ryz-cystem must be ltnowa.
,,•
~ --·
. . . .... j
, ~
...
\
) 'l VELOCITY ANO ACCEU!RATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATIU!MATICS 303
302
) r VELOCITY ANO ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

Therefore,
be in the :ry·plane aod perpendicular to R by tbe right·band rule . This can be shown in
) Fig. 8 .8, where the direction of w >< R is the same regardleu of whether • is clockwbc e.a x R • 3.271J ft/a
or counterclockwise. However, the sense of the vector is opposite for the two cases.
) The equation for V• can be solved graphically by a polygon or analytically by unit
and
vcdors. Solution by the latter method follows. Nott that all components laavt bun ta/ma
) rtltJJivt to tht xy-a:rts. This problem could also be worked by taking components relative
3.271 3.271
to the XY·axcs. . w•ca1,-T· -r · 4.91 rad /s (ccw)
J
)
V, = V0 + V +wx R v, 5.21
"' 7.82 rad/ s (ccw)
v. = V,(cos 3•j + sin 3•j) = 0.9986V,I + 0.0523V,j
w, = O,B -T
l Vo - VA - VA(cos 30"I - sin 30"j) = 6(0.8660i - O.SOOOJ)
The equation for the acceleration of point B can be written from Eq. 8.23 as follows:
l = 5.21 - 3.Qj A, - A o + A + 2"' x V + wx R + w x (w >< R)
) v~o
wbHe
) w x R "' (w x R)J 5. 2 l ' ~ 40.4 ft/ s' direction from B toward O,
A • _ _!:'.1. ,,,.
• O,B ,\ '
i Substituting the above relations in tlie equation for V 1 ,
A• = direction perpendicular to O,B, magnitude unknown
) 0.9986V,i + 0.0523VaJ = 5.21 - 3.0J + (w x R)j Ao = IAAI = IA~ I • (O,A)lol) = Ir x 24' = 144 fi ts' , direction fro m
A toward O, (A:. = 0)
) Summing i compoN!nts, A = O because B is a fixed point in the :ry-system
) 2<0 x V = 0 because V = O
0 .9986Val = 5.2i
) c0 >< R = direction perpendicular to AB , magnitude unknown
'V• = 5.21 ft/s
w x (c.> x R) = -1.Y-R, direction from B toward A
) Therefore, w - 4 .9lk rad/s from velocity solution
) w'R = (4.91)' x b = 16.1 ft /s1
Va = (0.9986)(5.21)1 + (0.0523)(S.2l)j = 5.2i + 0.271J
) 1b d ' ti f · x R can be determined from the fact that the direction of the vecto r
Summing J components, e uccb. oo .o ~U be perpendicular to the :ry-plane. When .;a is crossed into R , the
)
)
0.0523VaJ o: -3.0J + ("' x R)J r:
rcpresco ng "' WI

from the velocity solution.

R Th dir .
d ct c;. x R will be in the .:iy-plane and perpendicular to • e
f
ectJon o ~
Xu R) CllD be determined from Fig. 8.9, where w is countcrcloclcwise as d ctcrmtncd
><

(0.0523)(5.2l)J = -3.0J + (w x R)J

) (w X R) = 3.271 ft/s
)
wxR

)
., "(wic IU
B
). • -w1 R
)
) .. nGURE 11:9
) FlGURE 8.8

)
)

>-..
 ,
)

304 V1iLOCTY AND ACCliLERATION ANALYSIS VBLOCJTI' AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS JOS ••
I

. The equation for A. is solved by uolt vectors In the following manner, again usinl and ~
the ~-coordinate

A, = A 0
system.

+ A + 2w x V + cia x R + w x ("' x R)
.
ei -= a1 -
160.5
~ •
160.S
T • 241 rad/s' (ccw) •
~
a. • ~
86 1
'lfbrre
Al "' Al( - sin 3°i + cos 3°j).,. 40.4(- 0.0523i + 0.9986J) • - 2.11 + 0,8
• · .. 129 rad/ a'
Ir
(cw)
•
~
40.3J
Ai • A;(cos 3°i + sin 3°j) = 0.9986Ail + 0.0523Aij
"' A... = A~( -cos 60°l - cin 60,)
A. •
A.= Aa + Ai= -2.11 + 40.3J - 86.01 - 4.SJ = -88.11 + 35.BJ
IA,I - V88.l' + 35.8' a 95.1 ft/s' '•
.. 144( - 0.SOOI - 0 .8660J) - -72! - 124.BJ
A• 0
2w x V = 0
To obtain a better understanding of the vectors involved in the velocity and
acceleration analysis of the linkage of Example 8.1, a graphical solution of the
vector equations will be given. It is often belpfuJ to make a rough sketch of the
,,•
vector polygons as an aid in visualizing and checking the analytical solution. The
cia x R = (w x R)J
linkage of Fig. 8.7 is therefore redrawn in Fig. 8.lOa, and polygons are shown
111 x (111 x R) = -16.11 ft/s2 ~
which give the magnitudes and directions of the vectolS which were previously
Substitutiog the above rclatioos into the equatioo for A ••
determined analytically. Figure 8.lOb shows the graphical representation of the
velocity equation •
-2.11 + 40.3J + 0 .9986A;i + 0.0523AiJ '"' -721 - 124.BJ
+ (w x R)J - 16.11
v. = V0 + V + w x R • )
"here
Summing I components,
Vo=
v-o
v..
•>
-2.11 + 0.9986Al.I .. - 721 - 16.11 Therefore,
0.9986Ail = -86.0i
v, =VA +cox R
• ~
Ai - - 86.1 ft/s2
)
Therefore, y

Al= (0.9986)(-86.1)1 + (0.0523)(-86.l}J = -86.01 - 4.SJ '•

Swnming j components,
>
>
+ 0 .0523A:,j = -124.8J + (w x R)j
•
40.3J

40.3J - 4 .Sj - -124.SJ + (w x R)J

(w x R) = 160.5 ft / s1
l
~
v;.y.,,.R •
1ltcrcforo,
(b)
•
w x R • 160.SJ rt/a' nGURE 11.10
••
,
)
r:;-
, · )
~
J
• f": •
\ --~-

)
) 306 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VELOCTTY ANO ACCELHRATION ANALYSIS BY VECfOR MATIIEMATICS 307
) The addition of the vectors VA and <a> x R to give v.
can easily be seen in the Example 8.J. Ma second example, consider the mechanism shown in Fig. 8 .11, wh~re
polygon of Fig. 8.lOb. the 1.11gular velocity of link 2 is constant, 1.11d it is required t~ find the ~gular vcloaty
)' Figure 8. IOc shows the graphical representation of the acceleration equation 1.11d angular aoc:eleration of link 3. The coordinate system "Y 11 fixed in link 3 u shown
with Its origin at point A,. The system XY has Its origin at point O,.
) Aa "" Ao + A + 2w >< V + ci> x R + (a) x (Cl) x R) Tho equation for the velocity of point A, cannot ~ evaluated directly from Eq .
wbett 8.16 because~ by placing the origin of the .ry-system at potnt A,. Vo equ~ VA,• and an
) identity results. It is therefore necessary to write Eq. 8.16 for VA, u follows:
A.,= Al+ A~
) A 0 = A A= AA (A~ • 0) VA, - V0 +V + w1 x R
l A = 0
whtte
2w x V ~ 0 v,, ~ (O,A ,)..., - S0 .8 x 10 - 508 mm/s , d irection perpendicular to O,A
)
c.> X (w X R ) ~ - wl R V0 - VA, - directio n perpendicular to O,A ,. magnitude unknown
> wh ich results in V - direction parallel to O,A,, magnitude unknown
) ~ xR = 0 because R = 0
Aj + A~ = AA + wX R - w 1R
).- The equation for VA, is s0lvcd by unit vectors, with all compo oent.5 taken relative to the
The addition of. these vectors can easily be seen in the polygon of Fig. 8.lOc. .ry-ues; .,, is calculated from IVA,I·
) In comp~ng. the analytical solution with the graphical solution, it is obvious
tha~ ~he ~raphtc:11 ts much quicker but less accurate. If the analysis of only one VA,~ V0 + V + u XR
)- posu1on 1s required! one would undoubtedly choose the graphical solution. If,
howe~er, the a~alys1s of several positions or of a complete cycle is necessary, tbe v,, "' v..,(cos 2A.41 - sin 2HJ) • 508(0.91071 - 0.4131J)
)
analytical solutton would be preferred possibly with the aid of a computer. = 462.61 - 209.9J
) y
)
V - VI
)
)
Substituting the above relations in the equation for VA,•
y
)
O,A1 • 50.8 mm
462.61 - 209.9J - - V,J + VI
) OsJt3 • 33.0 mm

) Summing I compo~na,

) 462.61 =VI
V -= 462.6 mmls
)
) Therefore,

) V - 462.61 mmls

> Swnmint J components,

)
) FlGURE 8.11 V,. 1 - 209 .9 mm/s

>
)
)
 '
J08 V6LOClTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS . VBl.OCfrY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 309
,•
Therefore,

VA, - -209.9J mm/1

nae
A.A, = A~,(-sin 24.41 - cos 24.4j) .. 5080(-0.4131i - 0 .9107j) ..
- 20991 - 4626J
,•
i.>,
~
= _;:J_
O,A 1
209.9
.. - -
33.0
= 6.36 rad/a (r.cw) A;.1 - 0
Aq - A ..., •,.
The equation for the acceleration AA, cao be written from Eq. 8.23 as follows: AA, - 13351 mm/s2
A:., - A:.,J {assume as positive) •
A,, ~ Ao + A + 2w >< V + ._ >< R + w x (w >< R)
A• - 0 •t
where
A~, = (0.AJwJ = S0 .8
O,
x 10' = SOSO mrn/s'. direction from A, t01'Ud
A' - A 1 i
2w x V = 5884J mm/s1
w><R~o
,
A:., - 0
A 0 =AA,
w x {w x R) - 0

Substituting the above relations io the equation for A..,, )

•
AA, - \0.1
· O,A,
-
209 9
· ' - 1335 mm/s', direction hom A1 toward O,
33.0
- 20991 - 4626j = 13351 + A;.J + A'I + 5884J
•
A;., - direction pcrp:ndicular to 0,.4 1, magnitude unknown S"'""""8 I ccmpontnt.s,
,•
A• - O because radius of curvature is infinite (the path of point Ai
· relative to the .ry-&ystem jg a straight line along the centerline of
tbe slot)
-20991 - 13351 + A'I
. A' .. -3434 mm/s' ,
A' = direction parallel to O,A,, magnitude unknown
2w x V = 2 x 6.36 >< 462.6 = 5884 mmls' direction along positive y-uil
Therefore,
A• - -3434i mm/s2 •
(sec Fig. 8.12)
w x R = 0 because R "' 0 SimtnUng J componmts, •
~
w >< (w x R) = 0 because R = 0
- 4626j "' A:.J + 5884j
..
The equation for A,., is solved by unit vectors and a, is calculated from IA:.,I ln the A;., .. -10.SlOJ mm/Ji'
following manner.

AA1 • Ao + A + 2w >< V + w X R + "' >< (w >< R)

Tben:forc,

A!., - -10,SlOJ mmls'

'•
)
:r
I
A,., = A~, + A:., =
IA,.,I = Vl33S1 +
1335i - 10,510J

10,510' = 10,590 rom/s1 ,

>
_ A~, 10,510 .. JlS d/ ,
a, O,A1
0
33.0 ra 5 (ccw)
•t
It should be mentioned that the origin of the xy-system was taken at point

fJGURI.': 1.11
A, with point A 1 as P because the path of p9int A, relative to point A, (and
hence the xy-system) is a straight line. If the origin of the xy-system had been
•
>
•
•
~-- •
)
•
,
-~
)·
) 310 VELOCTTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY IN MEatANISMS BY VECTOR POLYGONS 311
r taken at point A, with point A1 as P, the solution would have been more difficult
because the path of A, relative to A 1 is not readily known.
where
}" (A!., ""' 0)
. To presen_t the grapb~caJ 1olution of Example 8.2, the linkage of Fig. 8.11

t 1s redrawn In Fig. 8.13a. Figure 8.13b shows the graphical representation of the
velocity equation
A - A' (A• .. 0)
) .· ci>XR=O
V..t1 • Vo + V + w x R
w x (w x R) = 0
where
l Vo ., V..t, Therefore,

) wx R = O
A~, = A~ , + A!., + A' + 2w >< V
Therefore,
t The addition of the four vectors to give AA, can easily be seen in the polygon of
l Fig. 8.13c. The value of a 1 is calculated in the same maMer as in the analytical
solution, namely,
l; The addition of the vectors V..t, and V to give V..t, can easily be ~n io the polygon
of Fig. 8.13b. The value of C&>J i.s calculated in the same manner as io tbe analytical
)-
solution, namely, a, = A!t, = 318 -•
rad / ~- (ccw)
001
)-
VA
) w, = AA • 6.35 rad /s (ccw) 8.7 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY IN
MECHANISMS BY VECTOR POLYGONS
)
Figure 8.13c shows the graphical representation of the accelention equation Vector polygons are a convenient tool for determining velocity in mechanisms.
) These polygons may be solved graphically, analytically , or by some combination
) AA, = Ao + A + 2w X V + w >< R + w X (w x R) of the two. Graphical methods may be used to determine the linear velocities of
all particles of a mechanism quickly with relatively little calculation, as illustrated
) y in several examples that follow. However, a fundamental insight of the relative
" motion of the particles in the mechanism is needed.
)" ::YJ In Fig. 8.14 are shown three types of linkages in which the driving link (link
2) is the same but in which the motion transmitted to the driven link depends
)
' ~: on a different type of constraint. In Fig. 8.14a, motion constraint is achieved
through pin connections; in 8.14b, by sliding in a guide; and in 8.14c, by rolling
)
contact. The absolute velocity of any particle on link 2 is quickly determined if
)
-)
)
)
)
) (•)
(al
) FIGURE 8.14
nGURE 8.13
(oJ (continu~d
nat pagt)
)
)
)
 '
)

RELATIVE VELOClTY OF PARlla..ES IN A COMMON UNK

8,, RELATIVE VELOCTIY OF
313
• )
PARTICLES IN A COMMON LINK
•
Considering the rigid body (linlc 3) in Fig. 8.15a, any particle such as Q may be
at the absolute velocity Va and the link at an absolute angular velocity ll>:J. If
observations arc made relative to Q, then Q is at rest as shown in Fig. 8.15b.
However, since particle Q has no angular motion, the angular velocity w 3 of the
••
link relative to Q is unchanged. Therefore, as in Fig. 8.15b, relative to Q, the
link rotates at the absolute angular velocity <•» about Q as if Q were a fixed •
center. ·
Relative to Q, any other particle in the link such as P is constrained to
•
(b)
FIGURE 8.14 (continued )
move ~n a circular path as shown in Fig. 8.15c because the link is a rigid body
. and the distance PQ is fixed. The relative velocity V l'Q of P relative to Q is
•t
tangent to the relative path as shown. Since the radius of curvature R of the
1he driving angular velocity Wi is known. The magnitude of VA , for example, may
relative path is equal to PQ and the angular velocity of the radius of curvature
•
be calculated from Eq. 8.la:
w, is equal tow, , the magnitude of Vl'Q may be detcnnincd from Eq. 8.la as
follows: •,
IVAI = Rw, IVl'QI = (PQ)w, (8.25)
• (01A)Wi
Because the relative path is circular, dR/dt is zero. • }
The direction of VA is known to be tangent to the circular path of A, and the
sense of VA is know a L um the sense of c.>z. However. to determine the linear
velocity of any particle on the driven links or followers, a knowledge of the
relative motion of pairs of partides is required.
•
)

8.8 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF

•
}
PARTICLES IN MECHANISMS t
Referring to Eq. 8.5 and Fig. 8.4, the relative velocity Vra of one particle relative
to another may be determined from the vector difference of the absolute velocities (6)
•
V,. and Va provided the absolute velocities are known. However, in a lin~age
analysis , only one of the absolute velocities is usually known and the other IS to
be detennined. The unknown absolute velocity V,., for example, may be deter-
mined from Eq. 8.5 in the following form:
,•
~
v, = v0 + vt'O (8.24)
•
All bough V 0 may be known, it is necessary that the relative velocity V J'fl also
be known. In linkages, the motions of partides P and Q arc oot independent as •
in Fig. 8.4 but are constrained relative to each other so that their relative motion
is controlled. In the following section, the basic types of motion constraint ~
•
discussed to show the determination of the magnitude, direction, and sense (c} (d}
•
of V,0 . flGVRE 1.15
•
....... •
)

'•
)
 J
) ~":..._ T"-:""

)
) 314 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS RELATIVE VELOCITY OF PARTia.ES IN A COMMON LINK 315
) It is to be observed from Eq. 8.2.S that if lhe link has no absolute angular
and detcnnlnc the velocity v. of point B, the anautar velocities w, and "'•· and the relative
velocity, the relative velocity V ro or any two particlca of tho link 11 zero. Tho
) link is then in pure translation, and the absolute velocities of all particles of tho
aoautar vcloclllc1 "'o and ..,.,. Also determine the velocity lmaaca of all l111ks to show how
the linear velocity of any poiot In the llnkaac may be dctennlncd. Since Cllch vccror h~s
'- link arc identical.
} a maanitude m and a direction d, we can coovenicntly tabulate the knowns and unknowns
lo Fig. 8.1.Sc, the direction of Vro is tangent to the relative circular path In the :vector equation. One vector equation cao be solved for two scalar unknowns.
) and is shown as a fixed vector at P. The sense of Vl'O is determined by maldng Velocity cqµations can be written u follows.
its turning sense about Q the same as the sense of CllJ· In Fig. 8.15d Is shown the
~ vector V 0,. denoting the velocity of Q relative to P. It may be seen that relative I. v... VA + v••
\
)
to P, the angular velocity w3 of link 3 is the same in magnitude and sense as
relative to Q. Therefore, the magnitudes of V0 ,. and v,.0
arc the same. Their
directions are also the same since both arc normal to the line PQ. However, the
sense of V 0,. is opposite to that of Vl'Q·
wbett
I I j I I;
I I

~ As illustrated in the following example, Eqs. 8.24 and 8.25 and the knowl- . v. - directioo perpendicular to O,B, mainitudc unknown
edge of the direction and sense of the relative velocity of two particles in a given
) VA = (OiA)~ .. (102)30 = 3060 mmls, direction perpendicular to 01A
link arc necessary in the kinematic analysis of mechanisms.
V... "' direction perpendicular to BA , magnitude unknown
}.. Example 8.J , Link 2 of the four-bar liohge of Fig. 8. 16a is the driving liolt having a
unifonn angular velocity "'i of 30 rad/s. For the phase shown, draw the velocity polygon
Measured from the polygon , v. ~ 1800 mm/s and V.,. • 3180 mm/s.
) ·
"'> = BA
v... =
3180
= 15.7 rad/ s (a:w)
) 02A - 102 mm 203
AB• 203mm
) 0 4 B - 76.2mm
AC• 102 mm
v. • --
"'• = -O,B 1800
= 23.6 rad/s (ccw)
BC• 152 mm 76.2
)
"'" = w, - Ca>J = 15.7 - ( - 30) = 45.7 rad/s (ccw)
) w0 = "'• - wi = 23.6 - 15.7 = 7.9 rad/s (ccw)
)
fi. V C : v.A + vCA
)
m. Ve= V.11 +Va
) where
) V c = direction unknown, magnitude unknown
(a) VCA = direction perpendicular to CA, magnitude unknown
J 8 V 0 = direction perpendicular to CB, magnitude unknown
Measured from the polygon , Ve .. 3050 mm/ s, VCA - 1600 mm/s, and Ve, - 2390
mm/s.
)
-) Equation I expresses V1 in terms of V,. and V... ~ indicated, the components. V• .and
v.. are known only in direction, while VA is known in magnitude, sense, and d1recuon.
). lo constructing the velocity polygon Fig. 8.16b starting with the right side of Eq . I. the
vector VA u drawn from pole O., and ib tip u labeled ".A." Next , add the direction of
) v.. itartiog at poiot .A. >J can be seen, it is impossible to complete the solution using
only these two components. Therefore, consider the left side of the equation and draw
) the direction of v. frorn o•. The intersection of the direction of v. and the direction of
(b) V .. completes the polygon. Arrowheads are now added to the vccton V, and V,.. 50 that
) the addition of the vccton of the polygon agrees with the addition of the tc:nns of Eq. I.
flGURE 8.16
The tip of the vector V, is labeled " B ."
)
)
)
~
 '
t
316 V81.0crtY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS RELATIVE VELOCITY OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES ON SEPARATE LINKS 317
•
· The magnitudes and senses of w, and "'• can now be determined &om VM and V,,
respectively, as shown. The values of c.>a and w., can alao be determined u iDdicaled. •
v
To determine C• it is necessary lo use Eqs. n and m.which give the relations
between Vc and VA and V , . The directions of Vc.. and Vai are known u indicated. The •
velocity vecton VA and V 1 an: redrawn in Fig. 8.16c In give a clearer diagram. Use Eq.
U and draw the direction of the vector Ve. from point A in Fig. 8.16c. Ne.xi , coosider
Eq. Ill and draw the direction of the vector V0 from point B. lbe intersection of the
•
I
direction of V cc and the direction of Va oompletes the polygon. 1bis intersection is point
C, which gives Ve. The vector addition in the polygon is checked to see that it agrees
with that of Eqs. n and m. •
The shaded ttiaugle ABC of Fig. 8.16c la known as the velocity image of link 3,
and as such has the same shape as link 3. The velocity of any point D as show on link
•
r
3 ca.a be determioe!f by locating its cone.spoodiog po5ition on the velocity image of link
3. The vector &om O, to Dis V 0 (2080 mm/s) as shown in Fig. 8 .16c. The velocity imaco
of linlc 1 is al the pole 0, because link 1 is.fixed and bu zero velocity. The images of
links 2 and 4 UC lines O..A and 0,B, respectively, which cocrcspood lo 0,A and o.B,
• ~
respectively, in the configuration diagram.
In the analysis above, lhe angular velocity w, was determined from the relatioo
•,
111
v..
= BA
•>
'

nGURE 8.17
It should also be mentioned that after the velocity image of link 3 has been completed,
"'• can also be found from
P, t~ ~lace: relative to Q2 in the tangential direction t- t , and therefore the
Ve. reJative velocity. V"'°'
can be only in the tangential direction of the guide. t
"'= -= -Va Vo.
= -DA _lo mech_a msms ~h~re guidin~ constraint is utilized, the knowledge that the
' CA CB

In other words, all relative velocities of points on a link are proportional to the distana:a
relabv~ vc!OClty o~ coincident particles can be ooly in the tangential direction of
the guide ts sufficient to solve velocity problems as illustrated in the following
•
~
between these poiots. example.
l
Ex~mp~e 8.4. The ~isk: cam of Fig. 8.184 drivu an oscillating roller follower and a ~
radial potnt ~ollower S1multaneo115Jy. The cam rotates couotcrdockwise at a constant ,
8.10 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF COINCIDENT angular vcloaty "'1. of 10 rad/s. Springs (not shown) arc used to maintain contact of the
PARTICLES ON SEPARATE LINKS •
In many mechanisms such as in Fig. 8.14b, constraint of relative motion is adlleved
by guiding a particle A on one link along a prescribed path relative to another
•
link by a guiding surface. Such constraint is to be fouud in cams and the inversions
Bz
•
'
0£ the slider crank, where a surface on one link controls the motion of a particle
on another link by relative sliding or roUing.
lo Fig. 8.17, particle P, oo link 3 i.s in motion along a curvilinear path traced >
on link 2 because of the guiding slot in link 2. The path of P, relative to link 2
is shown with tangent t- t and normal n-n constructed at P,. Consider a particle •
Q1 on link 2 which is coincident in position with particle P> on link 3. It may be
seen that regardless of the absolute angular velocities ~ and c.>, of links 2 and 3, •
the guide constra.im the motion of P, 10 that it cannot displace relative to Q 1 in
the normal direction n-n, and therefore there caooot be a relative velocity of •
the two particles in this direction. However, the·guide permits freedom for particle nGUUl.U
lb/
•
•
•
~ - · --- -

·~·
'!· i.'(1 . ,
)

•
 318 VELOQTY ANO ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

followers with the cam. For the phase shown, determine the velocity V... of point A. on
the oscillating follower and the velocity v,, of poiat B, oa the point follower. Velocity
RELATIVE VELOCITY Of PARTICLES AT POINT OF COITTAC I"

, ,. . . . . -.........._ /.
/".. -----."."' 319

/·~ "/ ~
equations can be written u follows:
\
I . \
1'bere i ~ ·-p·~p~-·--i!f I
VA, - direction perpendicular to O.A., magnitude unknown
\ l \ l i
VA, • (0,A1)c.>i "" (2.5)10 "' 25 in.ls, direction perpendicular to O,A1
"'"' 2
/ ·~
,,-v,, ./
__ ../.
'
}
)
V A,Ai - direction parallel to straight side of cam, magnitude unknown

Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.18b, V.._ - 12.3 in .ls and VA,At =- 26.3 in.ls.
........._ . v,,,, - 0
'-...·-... ___ _./
3 _/

~ n. v., =- v., + v.,., nGURE 8.1.9

) 1'hcrc roincident particles at the point o f contact, P 3 o n link 3 and P1 o~ link 2 . B.e~nuse
V., "" direction along centerline of follower S, magnitude unknown the circles have pure rolling contact, these particles have iden~tcal v~loc1hes 50
l V 11 = (0 18,)c.>i -= (2.8)10 • 28 ID.ls, direction perpendicular to 0 1 8 1 that v - v and the relative velocity between the two p amcles will be zero.
Exam;ie 8.5 Siustrates the use of this principle. .
\ V .,., "" direction along tangeat to cam contour at point Bi. magnitude unknown
) Example 8.5. In fig . 8.20a is shown a mechanism consisting of duce ban, two. gea~.
Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.18b, V,, = 14.7 in. ls and V,,., .. 31.6 in.ls. d cit The velocity V of point A is 122 mis in the direction shown. Determrne the
): an a ra · .ti. and A of the two _.,,.,. and show the velocity images of the two
angular ve1oa es oa. ..,, o-- . · b
Considering first tbe OKillating foUowcr link 4, it can be sc:en that the ltra.igbt lidc of the gears. Determine also the velocity V 0 of point D on gear S. Velocity equations can e
) cam 2 is a gtliding swfllce which constrains point A, on liolt 4 to foUOJr a sttaigbt-line
written as folloM:
path relative to link 2. Point A 1 on link 2 and point A, on link 4 are coincident, and Bq.
) I 1hows the relation of their velocities. As indicated, the components V.., and V...,.. are I. V, =VA+ Vu
known in direction while V _., is known in magnitude, sense, and directioo.
) The construction of the velocity polygon of Fig. 8.18b is started with the right side wlaere · d ~
of Eq . I, and the vector VA, is drawn from pole O. with its tip labeled "A1 . " Next, add v, .. direction parallel to pitch line of rack, magnllu e unr.nown
) the direction of VA,A1 starting at point A 1• Because it is impossible to complete the solution VA = 122 mfs (given), -Oirection perpendicular to O,A
using only these two components, consider the left side of the equation and draw the VM .. direction perpendicular to BA , magnitude unknown
) direction of VA, from 0,. The intersection of the direction of V .._ and the direction of
) v A .... completes the polygon. Arrowheads are DOW added to the vectors v... ·and vA.... IO Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.20b, V, ~ 104 mis and V.,. • 116 m/s.
that the addition of tbe vectors of the polygon agrees with the addition of the terms of
) Eq. I. The tip of vector VA, is labeled "A,." D. Ve .. V. + Ve•
The velocity polygon for the determination of the velocity V ,, of the point follower .
) can be drawn in a slmllar manner from Eq. JI. Points B1 and B, are coioddent, and, as where .
indicated, the components V,J and v.,,, are known in direction while V,1 Is known in Ve "" direction perpendicular to O,C, magmtude unknown
) magnitude, sense, and direction. Figure 8.18b shows the polygon drawn from the same Va "' direction perpendicular to CB, magnitude unknown
pole point 0 0 8S Was the polygon for the determination Of VA..
) Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.20b, Ye = 36.6 mis and V.,. = 112 mis. Measured
on the polygon of Fig. 8.20c, V.,, • v. •
104 m/s, Yaw, • 2f17 m/1, V.,, "' V.,, - 206
) 8.11 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF COINCIDENT mis, V 0 - 215 mis, and
-) PARTICLES AT 1HE POINT OF CONTACT
OF ROLLING ELEMENTS 11>
v., .
= ~--
104 .. 1020 radis (cw)
• BP iNf
), . A third type of constraint in mcc.banisms is that which occurs because one link
) is constrained to roll on another link without slipping at the point of contact. In O>s =~ = 2f17 = 40(i() radls (ccw)
Fig. 8.19 arc shown the rolling pitch circles of a pair of gean in mesh with the CM dh
)
~
)
 ;'
320 ~OCrrY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS OF VELOCITY 321 ') •
,•
l30mm o,A• 50.Bmm 8.U INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS OF VELOCITY .

F:
D AB• 204 mm
1 · ~.. O.C• 15~ mm In the foregoing paragraphs and examples, the velocity analyses of linkages were
c made from an understanding of relative velocity and the influence of motion
102 mm diam.
constraint on relative velocity. In the following, another concept is utilized to
127 \ Mt\...?-- . 1ur
A
. \ /\"'• ~
.. determine the linear velocity of particles in mechanisms, namely , the concept of
the instantaneous center of velocity. This concept is based on the fact that at a •
r- ...,
given instant a pair of coincident points on two links in motion will have identical
•
v,. \ .
\

I
8
\

.
204 mm diam. velocities relative to a fixed link and, therefore, will have tero velocity relat_ive
to each other. At this instant either link will have pure rotation relative to the •
~.

b--/ =·
152 mm other link about the coincident points. A special case of this is where one link

L.~- ~ L '"'
is moving and the other is fixed. A pair of coincident points on these two links
will then have zero absolute velocity. and the moving link at this instant will be t

,•
1 l l
rotating relative to the fixed link about the coincident points. In both cases the
(a}
coincident set of points is referred to as an instantaneous center of vtlocily (some·
times referred to as instant center, or centro). From the foregoing, it can be seen
that an instantaneous center is (a) a point in both bodies, {b) a point at which
the two bodies have no relative velocity, and (c) a point about which one body
•
o;~
may be considered to rotate relative to the other body at a given instant . It is
easily seen that whco two links, either both moving or one moving and one fixed , •
are directly connected together, the center of the connecting joint is an instan-
taneous center for the two links. When two links, either both moving or one •
A lmap of
• •, 4
moving and one fixed, are not directly connected, however, an instant center fo r
•
(b}
the two links will also exist for a given phase of the linkage as will be shown in
the following section. •
ID the four-bar linkage of Fig. 8 .21, it is obvious that relative to the fixed
link, points 0 2 and 0 4 are locations of particles on links 2 and 4, respectively,
which are at zero velocity. It is less obvious that oo link 3 , which has both
•\
{•)
translating and angular motion , a particle is also at zero velocity relative to the
FIGURE 8.20
fixed link. Referring to the velocity polygon mown in Fig. 8.21, the velocity
image of lint 3 appears as the line AB and none of the particles on this line is
•
Since the distance BC between the centers of the two gears is constant in all phases of •
the mechanism, an equivalent link joining the twO centers may be visualized. Therefore, \o, / •
a five-bar linkage is first analyzed to determine the velocities V• and Vc of tbe centers of
the gears. The velocity polygon of Fig. 8.20b shows the detennination of V•and V... bom
Eq. I. In a similar manner, Ve and Ve1 are detennined from Eq. II. I
/
I\
\ "'a
~
•)
':i.w1 '
In Fig. 8.20c:, the velocity vectors V, and Ve of Fig. I0.20b er~ redrawn f~r the / B
construction of the velocity images of gears 4 and 5. Because the veloaty V, , of point P,
is zero and v = V, (V,, • 0), the image of both points P, and P, is at the pole point
I
I
•
,
I
o as shown. With ~int ;.; loaited on the polygon, the velocity image of gear 4 is drawn t
wi•th B u a center and radius BP,. The image of point M, on the circle is determined by
drawing a line through Bon the poly1on perpendicular to the line M,B on tbe coofiiuralloD
diagram. The image or point M, is the same as that of point M, because V.., • ~.,,. The
imngc ol gear 5 ls , therefore, drawn with C as a center and radius CM,. TI-.c 1m11e of
•
point D 13 loc1&1cd on a lliameler of the chclc opposite point M,.
The maanltudcs anll senses or"'• and"'• caa now be determined fi om V,,, and
•
v,.,,. respectively, as shown. JilGURE 11.ll
•
)
)
~- ··

··- )

'
 ,
------=-....

)·
) 322 VELOCITY AND ACCE!LERATION ANALYSIS
) at zero v.elo<;ity. However, if link 3 is visualized large enough in extent u a rigid
l" bod~ to mclude 0, of the polygon, a particle of zero velocity is then included in
the image. To determine the location of 0., the instantaneoua center of link 3
f relative to link 1, on the mechanism, a triangle similar to O,BA of the polygon
Is constructed on the mechanism ao that the sides of the two similar triangles arc
f mutually perpendicular. It is important tcfnotc that for the particles on link 3 at
) A and at B, the fixed vectors v.. and Va on link 3 arc normal to the lines drawn
from the instantaneous center o. to A and 8 .
) . Since A ~nd the instantaneous center O. are particles on a common rigid
lmk, the magmtude of VA may be determined from VA ... ~(O.A) . Similarly,
) Va - ~1(0,8). The magnitude of the velocity of any particle on link 3 may be
)
w,
detemuned from the product of and the radial distance from the instantaneous
center to the particle, and the direction of the velocity vector is normal to the
ra dial line.
)
It may also be seen that the instantaneous center of link 3 relative to link
L 1 changes position with respect to time because of the changes in the shape of
the velocity polygon as the mechanism passes through a cycle of phases. However
) for links in pure rotation , the instantaneous centers are fixed centers such as o'
) and o. of lin~s 2 and 4, respectively, of Fig. 8.21. '
1
The. determination of velocities by instantaneous centers docs not require
) the vcl0C1ty polygon of free vectors and is judged by many to be the quicker
method. By the method of instantaneous centers, the velocity vectors arc shown
) directly as .fixed vectors.
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER NOTATION 323
Fixed velocity vectors may be determined almost entirely by graphical con-
struction. In Fig. 8.22, assuming C&lz is the only information given, VA may be
computed from CO>i(01 A) and v .. drawn normal to O~ using the instantaneous
center of link 2 relative to link 1. Considering particles A and Bas pan of link
3, the magnitude of V• may be determined from similar triangles, as shown by
the graphical construction, since VA and V, are proportional to the distance of
A and B from the instantaneous ceotcr of link 3 relative to link 1. The equation
which justifies the use of similar triangles in detennining V 1 may be written as
Wi = v..
t(CA) .. V,f(CB) . The velocity of aoy particle on link 4 such as D may
be determined graphically from similar triangles as shown using the insta ntaneous
center of link 4 relative to link 1.
For links that arc in pure translation, such as the slider in a slider-cra nk
mechanism, the direction lines of the velocities of all of its particles arc parallel,
and the normals, also being parallel, intersect at infinity. Thus, the instantaneous
center of a link in translation is at an infinite distance from the link , in a direction
normal to the path of translation.
8.13 INSTANTANEOUS CENTER NOTATION
In the foregoing, instantaneous centers of velocity were determined for each of
the moving links relative to the fixed link. The system of labeling these points is
shown in Fig. 8.23, where the instantaneous center of link 3 relative to the fixed

) . Inthe solution of a problem, such as in Fig. 8.22, the locations of the link is labeled 31 to indicate the motion of "3 relative to 1." Link 1 has the same
instantaneous center relative to link 3 when link 3 is considered the fixed link,
mstant~ncous centers.of the moving links relative to the fixed link are generally
) dete~med first. F?r holes 2 and 4, 0 2 and 0 4 arc obviously points ofzero velocity. in which case link 1 appears to be rotating in the opposite sense (w13 = -w, 1)
For ~mks such as link 3, only the directions of the velocities of two particles on relative to link 3. Since points 31 and 13 are the same point , either designation
) t~c h~k n~cd to be known since the intersection of the normals to the velocity is acceptable although the simpler notation 13 is preferred. The instantaneous
d1rcct1on lines determines the instantaneous center. center of link 2 relative to link 1 is labeled 21 or 12, and that _o f link 4 relative
) to link 1 is labeled 41 or 14 as shown.
)
)- '\31 . 13
I \
I \
) I \
I \
} I.
I
) A I 3

)
--_..... --·.,,,,,. ""z
/

)
)
l~nteneous
center al fink 2
rtlatlw to llnk l
--- -
---:::::~--------01
42.24
~­
lnstanteneous
-.w of link 4
FIGURE 8..22 relative !O link I FIGURE 8..23
>
~
)
 I

324 J2S
,•
VliLOCTfY ANO ACCELERATION ANALYSIS DEreRMINATION OF INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS
•
· Also of interest is the instantaneous center of one link relative to another
where both links are moving relative to the fixed link. Such a center is shown at
point A in Fig. 8.23, where both A 1 anct A, have a common absolute velocity VA
because of the pinned joint so that the relative velocities VA,A, and VA,A, are zero.
V c, is determined in a similar manner. From the intersection of the construction
lines at k, a common location of C1 and C, is detennined such that the absolute
velocities VCi and V c, are identical. This location is the instantaneous center 23,
since the absolute velocities of the coincident particles arc common and the
,•
It is obvious that point A is the instantaneous center 32 about which link 3 is relative velocities Vc,c, and Vc,c. are zero. It should be obvious that 23 is on a t
rotating relative to link 2 at an angular velocity w,,. Point A is also the instan- straight line with 12 and 13 in order for the directions of V c. and V c, to be
taneous center 23 . In asimilar manner point Bis the instantaneous center 43 or common. r
34. The instantaneous center 42 or 24 is also spown in Fig. 8.23. However, the Kennedy's theorem is extemely useful in determining tbe locations of in-
me thod of determining its location will not be presented until the next section. stantaneous centers in mecltanisms having a large number of links, many of which
are in general plane motion.
•
t
8.14 KENNEDY'S THEOREM
8.15 DETERMINATION OF INSTANfANEOUS
r
For three independent bodies in general plane motion, Kennedy's theorem states CENTERS BY KENNEDY'S THEOREM )
tha t the three instantaneous centers lie on a common straight line. In Fig. 8.24,
tJuee independent links (1 , 2, and 3) are shown in motion relative to each other.
There are three instantaneous centers (U, 13, and 23), whose instantaneous
In a mechanism consisting of n links, there are n - 1 instantaneous centers
relative to any given link. For n number of links, there is a total of n(n -1) •
locations are to be determined. instantaneous centers. However, since for each location of instantaneous centers
•
If link 1 is regarded as a fixed link, or datum link, the velocities of particles
A 2 and 8 2 on link 2 and the velocities of D 3 and E, on link 3 may be regarded
as absolute velocities relative to link 1. The instantaneous center 12 may be
located from the inter~ection of the normals to the velocity direction lines drawn
there are two centers, the total number N of locations is given by

N = n(n - 1)
2
,•
,
from Ai and Bi. Si1111i. 1he center 13 is located from normals drawn from
particles D 1 and E» Th1. ......stantaneous centers U and 13 arc relative to link 1.
The third instantaneous center 23 remains to be detennined. On a line
The number of locations of centers increases rapidly with numbers of links as
shown below.
•
drawn through the centers 12 and 13, there exists a particle Ci on link 2 at ao
absolute velocity Vc, baving the same direction as the absolute velocity Vc, of a n LINKS N CENTERS •
particle C, oo link 3. Since Vc, is proportional to the distance of Ci from 12, the
magnitude of V c, is determined from the graphical construction shown, and
4
s 10
6
•
!
6 15
7 21 l
~

Example 8.6. For the Whitworth mechanism shown in Fig. 8.25, detennine the 15
locations of instantaneol1$ centers of z:ero velocity. •
>
Solution. Because of the large number of locations to be determined , it is dC$irable to
)
use a system of accounting for the centen as they are determined . The circle diagram
shown in Fig. 8.25 is one of the simplest means or accounting . The numbers of the links
are desigoated on tho periphery of the circle, and the chord linking any two numbers
represents an instantaneous center. In the upper circle are shown eight centers which may
•t
be determined by inspection. Five of tho centers (12, 14, 23, 45, and 56) are at pin-jointed
ronocctioos as shown . Two centers (16 and 34) are at infinity, since link 6 is in translation
relative to link 1, and lin.lc 3 is in transl1tion relative to linlt 4. Because the absolute velocity •
directions of polnts B and Co( link S are known, tho lotcnectioo of the normals locates
U . ThllS, eight centers are located by Inspection , as shown by the solid lines on the circle •
nGUR.E 8.24 diqram.
•
•
}
)
•
 I
)
~
l !
) i 326 VELOOTY ANO ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

) DB'IBRM1NA110N OF VELOCITY BY INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS 327

161t co
)
) t
) 34 at co +24

)
)
)
'
) +
36
)
).
+
13
)

)
l
)
) 6~2 FlGURE 8..26

)
Clrcle dla1rams
sW3 4
8.16 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
) l BY INSTANfANEOUS CENTERS
) 6~2 Kennedy's theorem may be used to great advantage in determining d irectly the

S~J
absolute velocity of any given particle of a mechanism without necessarily de-
) termining the velocities of intennediate particles as required by the vector pol -
ygon method . In connection with the Whitworth mechanism of Fig . 8.25, for
) 4 example, the velocity of the tool sup~rt (link 6) may be detcnnined from the
tlGURE US
) known speed of the driving link 2 without first detennioing the velocities of points
on the connecting links 3, 4, and 5.

For centers less obviously determined Kenned 's h Example 8.7. For the Whitworth 01ccbanism shown in Fig. 8.27 , determine the absolute
) upper circle , to locale cenler 13 a dash d Ii , . d y t eorem. may be used. In the
velocity V c of the tool support when the driving link 2 rotates at a speed such that V .. =
The triangle 1-2-3 represenls th~ three :e I ne ~2 r;;n such that ~t closes two triangles.
according to Kennedy's theorem lie on a st~a~;~ Ii' 5. ~~ I~) of_linh l , 2, and 3, which
1 30 ft/s as shown .
)
the centef3 13 34 and 14 which al 1· n~. im1 ar y, tnangle 1-3-4 reprcscnis
SO IC On a Straight r Solution. Two solutiol\3 for Ve are shown in Fig. 8.27. In the first of these (Fig. 8.27a),
> · ' ' •
Imes on the mechanism locates the cc 1 13 h.
line may be made Jolid lo indicnte tha~ t~r ·i:: me:
Th · ·
e mtersection of the two
ich must he on both lines. The dashed
links 1, 3, and S arc involved such that instantaneous centers 13, 15, and 35 are used. V..
i, !he known absolure velocity of a particle on link 3 relative to link l ; lhus, links 3 and
) circle shows !he ne~( step in which the :c~~r ~:~S c;:tcr hu ~en f_ocaled. The lower
1 arc involvcJ. The ahsolurc vclociry Ve iJ to he d<"l<"m1inrtl for A p11rtidc on link ~ l\lso
1- 2-4. It may be seen that 24 is th I . I aced using biangle.s 2-3-4 and
) 26, which cannot be drawn as commoen ~:: ce~ter lo de~ennine rather than 25 or relarive to liolt l, thus involving links S and l. According lo Kenncdy"s 1hcurc111 , the
dctcrrnined. 0
triangles until orher centers have been instantaneous centers 13, 15, and 35 arc on a common straight line as shown in Fig. 8.27a.
) Using center 13, the absolute velocity v., for• particle P 1 located ar 35 on link 3 may be
In Fig. 8.25, 10 of the IS cc 1 h determined graphieaJly from gmiJar triangles by Swinging VAt0 position V~ USiDg CCnfCr
with all 15 centers located. n _crs arc' own. Figure 8 · 26 shows the same mechanism
> 13 as a pivot point. Point JS represents the location of coincident particles ·p, on link 3
and P, on liok S, for which the absolute velocities arc common (sec Fig. 8.24). Thus,
~
)
328 VELOCITY AND Aa:ELERATION ANALYSIS GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF ACCELERATION IN MECHANISMS 329
velocities Va, and VG. arc common. Va, is determined graphically from VA using center
12 u a pivot point. Since pivot point 16 i1 at infinity, link 6 is in pure translation relative
to link l ao that Ve is the same in magnitude and direction as Ve. and v 0•• as shown.

8.17 ROLLING ELEMENfS

The method of instantaneous centers is frequently applied to mechanisms con-
(ol sisting of rolling clements as in epicyclic gear trains (Fig. 8.28). As shown pre-
•
ii.
viously, th_e relative velocity of the coincident particles at the point of contact of
two rolling links is zero. Thus , an instantaneous center exists at the point of
coot.act.
For the reduction drive shown in Fig. 8.28, the instantaneous centers are
as &hown. The speed reduction ratio WJ1/w 41 (the internal gear speed to carrier
r13 speed when the sun gear is fixed) may be determined from linear velocities of
particles as shown. Assuming that the absolute angular velocity w41 of the carrier
is known, VA may be dctenniocd considering A as a particle on link 4. VA is also
the absolute velocity of a particle on link 2; therefore, using the center 12, the
absolute velocity V ,., of P1 on link 2 may be determined graphically from similar
triangles. Since center 23 is the location of coincident particles on links 2 and 3
•,16.., f 1--::::::--.,
l v..-· having a common absolute velocity, WJi may be calculated from V,., .
l ''f..
I I ' ,
'
I II \ 3
Q •QI
I 26u.__
I
/.
\I, =: V:
· ? q,
I I 2
1/
Q•

(bJ
--
11~>+-f-.......llo...........- - -

FIGURE 8.27

V,, is also the absolute velocity V,, of a particle oo link 5. Sinco both P, and C uo point. FIGURE 8.28
on link 5, the absolute velocity Vc may be determined from similar triangles by awingjlJI
v,, 10 position V~ using center 15 as a pivot point. The length of V e ia measured to
determine magnitude of velocity. 8.18 GRAPIUCAL DETERMINATION OF
Jn the above solution, the a:ntcrs 13 and 15 relative to the fixed link arc pivot ACCELERATION IN MECHANISMS
points, and the center 35 of the movln1 Unka la the trarufer point. By properly Identifying BY VECTOR POLYGONS
these points, the detennination of velocillu becomes 1y11tcmatlc.
~ in the determination of velocities of particles in a mechanism, the linear
111c second aolution (fl&. 8.27b) for Ve Is similar to the firgt, in which pivot points
12 1111d 16 arc used because V• rcprcseou the absolute velocity of a particle on link 2 and accelerations of particles may also be detennincd by graphical construction of
Vc is the absolute vclocily of a particle on link 6. Center 26 is the transfi:r point representing acceleration polygons and acceleration images. It is important that the relative
the location of coincident particles Q, ind Q. on links 2 and 6, for which the absolute acx:eleration of pairs of particles be understood.
)
) RELATIVE ACCCU!RATION Of PARTIO.l!S IN A COMMON J.ltlK 331
JJO VELOCITY ANO ACCELERA'l10N ANAL'VSIS
) Tue magnitude of the tangential relative acceleration A~a may be deter ·
8.19 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF
) PARTICLES IN MECHANISMS mined from Eq. 8.4b:

) If the acceleration Aa of a particle Q is known, the acceleration of another particle (8.28)

A,. may be determined by adding the relative acceleration vector Al'O as shown
) in the following vector equation:
Because the relative path is circular, dR /dt is zero. .
) (8.26) Observe that the direction of A~a .is normal to the relanve path and that
its sense is toward the center of curvature Q so that the vect~r is directed fr~m
) As discussed in the sections on relative velocity, it is shown that the relative p toward Q as shown in Fig. 8.29a. The direction of A~ is tangent to the relative
velocity. of a ~ai~ of particles depends on the type of constraiot used in a given path (normal to line PQ), and the sense of the vector depends on the se~se of
)
mechanism. Smularly, the relative acceleration A,.0 in mechanisms depends on a ,. In Fig. 8.29b, the relative acceleration vector! Aa,
and A 0, of Q relauve ~o
) the type of built-in constraint. p arc shown where the magnitudes and senses of WJ and al arc the same as tn
Fig. 8.29a. llte relative path shown is that of Q observed at P. It is to be not~d
) 8.20 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF that AQ,. = -Ai-Q and Ao, = -A\.Q, where the minus signs indicate "opposite
PARTICLES IN A COMMON LINK in sense ."

'
)
)
As shown in Fig. 8.29a, when two particles P nnd Qin the same rigid link arc
considered, the fixed distance PQ constrains particle P to move on a circular arc
relative to Q regardless of the absolute linear motion of Q. Therefore, since the
Example 8.8. When the mechanism is in the phase shown in Fi~. 8.30a, link 2 rot~t~s
with the angular velocity Cl>J of 30 rad/1 and an angular ac~leratloo «i of 240. rad/s in
the directions given. Determine the acceleration A, of pomt B, th~ accclcra~on Ac of
path of P relative to Q is circular, the acceleration vector Al'Q may be represented point c, the angular acceleration a, of link 3 , the angular accelerallon a.. of hnk 4, and
) by the perpendicular components of acceleration Aro and Ahl normal and tan- ' .
gent, respectively, to the relative path at P. Regardless of the linear absolute
) acceleration of Q, the angular motions of the link relative to Q arc the same as
) relative to the fixed link because a particle such as Q has no angu°lar motion . For Ot.A • l02mm
the circular path of P relative to Q, the angular velocity w, of the radius of AB• 203 mm
) curvature PQ is the same as the absolute angular velocity Ca>J of the link. Also , .AC• 102 mm
CB 2 152 mm
the angular acceleration a , of the radius of curvature is the same as the absolute
) angular acceleration a3 of the link.
) The magnitude of the normal relative acceleration Ai-Q may be determined
from Eq . 8.4a:
) (a )

}- !Ai-QI = (PQ)wJ = ~
PQ
(8.27)

)
)
)
)
)
)
(d)
) (o) (b)
(<}

FIGURE S.29 FIGURE 8.30

J
)
)
 332 333
,,•
,
YELOOTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES

the relative acceleration a,.. Velocity and acceleration equations can be written as follows:
Ac • direction unknown, magnitude unknown
11302
.t. • • V1"' =
""' CA 102
= 12' 500 mmfs' ' direction from C toward A t
Jn. Ve - v. + Va
Al:. • direction perpendicular to AC., magnitude unknown

Ac1 • ~ =
1
~:~ = 20,100 mm/s', direction from C toward 8
,,
..
where AC. • direction perpendicular to A~, magnitude unknown
V, - direction perpendicular to o.B. magnitude unknown
Meuured on the polygon of Fig. 8.30d, Ac - 104,000 mm/s1 . ).
v ... (O,A)w, - (102)30 • 3060 mm/a, direction perpendicular to O,A
V,,. - direction perpendicular to BA , magnitude unknown
Ve= direction unknown, magnitude unknown
The velocity polygon of Fig. 8.30b shows the determination of V• and V"' from Eq. I.
In a 1imilar manner VC:• V "'' and V Cl are determined from Eqs. 11 a.nd Ill. The &haded •
V c. -= direction perpendicular to CA, magnitude unknown
triangle ABC of the velocity polygon is the velocity image of link 3.
Equation IV expresses A, in tenns of A,. and A.,., and aU of the components of •
Ve, = direction perpendicular to CB, magnitude unknown this equation are known 1$ indicated in magnitude, aense, and direction or in direction.
•,
,,
ln constructing the acceleration polygon Fig. 8.30c starting with the right side of Eq. IV,
Mellliured on the polygon cf Fig . 8.30b, V 1 -= 3660 mm/s, V,,. .. 2300 mm/s, V"' = 1130 the vector A:. is drawn from pole o.
to which is added A!.· This gives the vector A A whose
mm/s, and Ye1 -= 1750 mrn/s. tip is labeled "A." Next, add the vector Ai,. starting at point A, and to it add the direction
of~ · M can be seen, it is impossible to complete the solution using only the components
IV. A, = A.. + A,,.
A; + Ai = Al + A~ + Al. + Au
on the right side of Eq. IV. Therefore, consider the left side of the equation and draw
vector Ai from O. and to it add the direction of Ai. The intenection of the direction of
Aa,. and the direction of Ai completes the polygon. Arrowheads are now added to the
vectOn A~ and As so that the addition of the vectors of the polygon agrees with the
,,
,
where
addition of the terms of Eq. IV. The resultant of the vectors Ai and A~ gives A, whose
A• - :.~ - 3:' = 66,000 mm/s
1
, direction from B toward o. a
tip labeled "B." The resultant of AL and~ is also shown on the polygon.
Tbe magnitude$ and senses of a, and a. can now be determined from Ai. and
A~, respectively, as shown.
Ai - direction perpendicular to A•. magnitude unknown

A;: = :~ - ~ - 91,800 mm/s', duection from A toward O,

To determine Ac. it is necessary to use Eqs. V and VI, which give the relations
between Ac and A. and A,. The components of these equations are known as indicated.
For clarity, the acceleration vectors AA and A, arc redrawn in Fie. 8.30d from Fig. 8.30c
·1 •
A'.. = {01 A)a1 = (102)240 - 24,500 mm/s, direction perpendicular to ~ without their normal and tangential components. Use Eq. V, and draw the vecto r A c-,. )'
from point A in Fig. 8 .30d and to ii add the direction of At... Consider next Eq. VI and
~ 2
~:· draw the vector Ac. from point B and to it add the direction of AC.. The intersection of
Ai. =

Al.
= = 26,100 mm/sl, duection from B toward A

= direction perpendicular to A:;•• ID!l&nitude unknown

the direction of At.. and the direction of~. completes the polygon. This intersection is
point C, which gives Ac. Arrowheads ue now added to the vectors A<. and Al:. so that ">
•
the vector addition checks with Eqs. V and VI. The shaded triangle ABC of Fig. 8 .30d
Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.30c, A, "" 701400 mrn/s1 , Ai .. 24,700 mm/s1, Au "" is the acceleration image of link 3. )
129,000 mm/s2, and ........

,
The acceleration of any point D as shown on link 3 can be determined by locating
its corresponding position on the acceleration image of liolc 3. The vector from O. to D }
a = Au =
129•000 = 635 rad/s2 is A 0 as shown in Fig. 8.30d.
(ccw)
' BA 203
Ai 24,700 8.21 .RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF )
a, - o.B • 203
• 122 rad/s' (cw) COINCIDENT PARTICLF.S ON
SEPARATE LINKS. CORIOLIS )
a,. - a , - a. c 635 - ( - 122) ~ 151 rad/11 (ccw) COMPONENT OF ACCELERATION )
The oext mechanism to be considered is one in which there is relative sliding

VI. Ac • A, ·I Ac, + A C.·1

between two links, as between links 3 end -4 es shown in Fig. 8.31, ead it is
required to determine w 4 and a. given ~ and a 1 • In this mechanism, points A 1 •
)
)
~,....-- ·
j )
~
) ' _t_

)
) 334 VELocny AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLf'S 335
)
i where R is the radius of curvature of the path of point A. relat ive to point Ai.
) Thls component is directed from the coincident points along the rudius townrtl
) the center of curvature. The tangential component A:,,,..1 is known in direction
r.' and is tangent to the path of A. relative to A 1 at the coincident points. The
) ti magnitude of the Coriolis component 2WJ x V"•"•is easily calculated because WJ

~
is given data and V"•"•can be determined from the velocity polygon. The direction
) I of this component is normal to the path of A 4 relative to A 2, and its sense is the
FIGURE II.JI same as that of V"·"•rotated about its origin 90" in the direction of w2 • An example
) ~
- of this method of determining the direction will be given in a later section.
) and A 1 are the same point d · A . . In Eq. 8.31, all of the components can easily be determined in magnitude,
J:· and~. the velocity and a~~:raro~n~f th~ :!~~~o~ection ~n link ~- To find oi.. sense, a nd direction or in direction except A~..... This component calculated from
) ~ on separate links, must be analyzed.J cident points A1 and A,, each ~ ... / R can only be determined if the instantaneous radius of curvature R of the
The equation for the velocity of point A, can be written as follows: path of A 4 relative to A 2 is known . Unfortunately, because this path is nol ensily
) determined for the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.31, it is necessa ry to rewrite Eq
1
v .... = v.., + v......, 8.31 in the following form:
\- (1.29) .
In this equation , v,.. is known i . '.
) v......., are known in .·direction. ~;~:;uo:de, s~nse, and d.ir~on and v"- and (8.33)
v. ., detennined, from which II> can be caltylpot dygon can easily be drawn, and
Th . • cuae .
:
: With Eq. 8.31 written in this fonn, A'.4,... , can easily be evaluated as zero because
e acceleration of point A, can be determined from the following equation: ! the path of A 2 relative to link 4 (which contains point A,) is a straight line and
)
R is infinite. The acceleration polygon can now be drawn and A:,, determined,
) A..t; = A.., + AA.A, (8.30) from which~ is calculated.
which can be expanded as follows: While it is easy to see in Fig. 8.31 that the path of point A 2 relative to point
) A . is a straight line by inverting the mechanism and letting link 4 be the fixed
A~• + A~• = A•... + A'..., + A•........ + link, it is very difficult to visualize the path of A, relative to A 1 • As a means of
) A~ A + ?... )( vA.,4 19..Jl)
4 > ~ \U determining this path, consider Fig. 8.32, where link 2 is now the fixed link. In
) In going from Eq. 8.30 to Eq. 8.31, the following substitution was m~e: this figure, link 1 is placed in a number of angular positions relative to link 2,
and the rela tive position of A 4 is determined for each position of link 1. It may
) A........ -- A•......, +A'........ + 2~ x v........ be seen that the position of link 4 is always in a direction from o. through A 2
and that A 4 is a fixed distance from 0 4 • A s shown, the path of A. on link 2 is
) !o determine the relative acceleration betw . _-- . curvilinear and tangent to link 4 at point A 1 • Unfortunately, the path is not
is necessary to add a third co een two movmg comc1dent point! it
) cono· l is' compon~nt mponent as shown This co
which was d
. ,__ •
mpooent IS ....,own as
circular so that the radius of curvature is difficult to determine.
1 d . · Consider next the case where link 4 of Fig. 8.31 has been repla.:ed by a
) 8.6. Also, because points A and ~e ope ~si~g vector mathematics in section curved link of circular form as shown in Fig. 8.33. In this linkage, the pat h o f
do not represent the usual n~nnal ~;~~om~~d~nt, the terms Al.,., and A!t.,t, A 2 rel3tive to A 4 is a circular arc of known radius and center of curvature. The
) the same rigid body as previousl . gen ia ~mponents of two points on magnitude of A~,.... is therefore not zero, and the vector representing this com-
in the literature written with a ~;~1'!:t~· For this reas?n, they often appear ponent will be directed from point A toward the center of curvature C.
) calculated from the relation P a. The magrutude of A~,. 1 can be The Coriolis component is always in the same direction as the A~ , ... com-
) ponent, if one exists, but its sense may or may not be the same. Considering the
Coriolis term 2w4 x V...,,., for the linkage of Fig. 8.33, its direction and sense can
) IA·.......I ""T
11....
(8.32) easily be determined as follows. Draw the vector representing the relative velocity
) v. .,"- in its correct direction and sense. Rotate this vector 90" about its origin in
the same sense as 11>4 • This will give the direction and sense of the Coriolis
) 'Point A, muld haYe been ued iftltc•d of A . . . component as shown in Fig. 8.34. As can be seen, the terms A~.... and 2w, x
°" •
se'!erally pre(crred because it i1 link d! as~ pc>1nt oomadent .with A., Hownu, point A, ii VA,.., have the same sense for this case and will therefore add together. Obvious!y,
) easily vlsu1lized . U11c Y conaected to Ille around and its molioa QA be
this method of determining the direction and sense of Coriolis appt:es even if the
A:,.., component is zero.
>
)
"
 336 VELOOTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 337
',
•
VA, • direction perpendicular to O,A., magnitude unknown
•
VA, • (O,.Az)w, = (4)10 = 40 in.ls, direction perpendicular to O,A,
V...A, • direction parallel to 0.,4., magnitude unlcnown ,,
~

Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.3Sb, VA, = 13 io./s,

VA, 13
w, - - - • - - 1 3 rad/s
O,A. 10 .
(ccw)
v..,.., = 38 in.ls, and
,
~
J
m. AA, .. A,.. + A.,••
A:,,+ A:,, • A:;, + A:,,+ ~.... + A:.,..,+ 2w, X VAi"• •
wlaere
A::, ~ Vl, - ~ •
O,A, 4
400 in.Ir, direction from A, toward O,
,•
A~, - 0 (a1 0) •
,•
-

A:;, = Yi, = 13' = 16.9 in.fs1, direction from A, toward O,

O,A, 10
A:., - di re ction pcrpendicuhu to A:;, , magnitude unknown

'
A· v~.A. o •
nGURE 8.32 ""'•"'T=
2w, xv.,.., - 2(1.3)38
(R = "")

- 98.8 in.ls', direction perpendicular to v..,..,

•
~
A:,,.., - direction perpendicular to 2w, x v.,..,, magnitude unknown
Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.3Sc, A .., • 475 in.fs2, .A~, = 474 in .ls'. and •
•
a. - -
O,A.
A!.,
- "' -10
474
= 47 4 rad/ s
.
2
(cw) •>
1
lint 4 is a guide link which constrains points A 1 and .A, to follow a straight-line path on
link 4. Two pain of coincident points may be considered, either A, and A, or A, and A ,.
For this illustration, A 1 and .A, are chosen, and the straight guide path is the relative path
,
FlGURE 8.33 flGURE 1.34 of A1 on link 4. Thus, the vectors v....._ and A..,.., are involved, and the A:;,.., oornponent
or AAzA• can easily be determined because R • ""·
•
The velocity polygon of Fig. 8.3Sb 1bows the determination of VA, and v ..,,., from •
Example 8.9. In the crank-.hapcr mec:ha.nism sboWD in fig. 8.35o link 2 rotates at a
constant aogular velocity i.>i of 10 rad/s. Determine the acceleration A... of point A, on
Eq. I. The calculation for w, is also shown.
Equation II expresses A.., in terms of A .. , and AA,..,. However, because the path of •
link• and the angular acceleration a. when the mcc:banism is in the pbue shown. Velocity
point A, relative to point A, is not easily determined, Eq. II is rewritten io the form of
Eq. m so as to use the component A ..,.., as discussed above. . •
and acceleration equations can be written as followa: All of the components of Eq. III are known as indicated in 111agnitude, sense, and
direction or ia direction only. In conllroding the acceleration polygon of Fig. 8.35c starting •
with the right lidc of Eq. m, the vector~. is drawn first, followed by the direction of
•
•
~ --·--
•
)
•
J

)
}
)
·r
I
338 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
RELATIVE. ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 339

)
) I
)
)
OJOJ • 229 mm /R

}l
OaBt • 50.8 mm
)
\
) 83 f" OsBJ_·_208_m_m- .:~f.•I
'l FlGURE 8.35
)
) A~, . This is all that can be laid off from the right side of Eq . mat present. Thcrdore.
consider the left side of Eq. III and draw the vector AA1 • Next, draw the: vector
) 2w, x V,. 1. , so that its tip meets the tip of vector AA,· Draw A:.1 ., perpc:adiculu to the
) Coriolis component until it iatersects the direction of the vector rep~nting A~,; this
completes the polygon. Arrowheads are now added to the vectors A~, and A:.,... so that
) the addition of the vecton of the polygon agrees with the addition of the terol.! of Eq.
111. The magnitude and sense of a, can now be determined from AA, as shown.
) FlGURE 8.36

} Example 8.10. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.36a, link 2 drives link 3 through a
pin at point B. Link 2 rotates at a uniform angular velocity w. of SO rad/s, and the tadius m. A,, = A,, + A.,., .
) of curvature R of the slot in link; 3 is 305 mm. Determine the acceleration Aa, of point
B, on link 3 and the angular acceleration a, for the position shown. Velocity ind acccl· A••1+ A'., = A; J + A•J + A;,,, + A•,•, + 2w, x V .,,,
) cration equations can be written as follows:
where
) I. v., = V., + v.,., Al .. V~ = ~ = 127,000 mm/s', direction from B, toward 01
~ 0~81 S0.8 ·
) where
V , 1 = direction perpendicular to O,B,. magnitude unknown A•, - 0 (C11 - 0)
)
V., = ( O,B,)~ - (50.8)50 = 2540 rnm/s, direction perpendicular to 0 18 1 A; _ V)1 = 16502 = lJ,lOO mm/s', d irection from 8, toward O,
) ) - 0,8, 208
v.,,, = direction perpendicular to R , magnitude unknown A' - direction perpendicular to Ai,. mngnitude unknown
)
Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.36b, V,, = 1650 mm/s, v.,., - ~ mm/ 1, and
••
A• _ V~, •• _ 2540' = 21 200 mm/s' , direction from 8 1 toward C
) •••• - R
- 305 '
v., 1650 - 2(7 93)"•40 = 40 300 mmls'. direction perpendicular to V . ,.,
) w, "" O,B, =
208
= 7.93 rad/s (ccw} 2w, x Va,•, - · .., •

) D. A,, - Aa, + A.,.,

A'.,., • direction perpendicular to 2<s>1 >< V . ,,,. magnitude unknown

)
>
)
 I

•
340 VBLOCffY AND ACCBLERA TION ANALYSIS
RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 341 ••
Measure on the polygon or Fig. 8.36c, A,, - 122,000 mm/s•, A~,- 120,000 mm/s•, and ••
l
a - A .. = l20,000 = 517 rad/s1 (cw)
I - O,B, 208 ).

Link 3 is a guii.lc link which a>nstrains point 8 1 on liDk 2 to follow a circulu path ou link
•
3. Points B, and B 1 on link 3 are coincident, and the circular guide path is the relative
path of 8 1 on link 3. Therefore, the vectors V .,., aod A.,., ire involved in the analysis.
The velocity polygon of Fig. 8.36b shows the determination of V,, and V.,., from
Eq. I. The calculation for w, is also shown. .·
,•
Equation II gives A,, in terms of A., and A,,.,. Because ~e path ~f B, relati~c to
B, is known to be a circular arc and the path of 8 1 relative to B, IS not easily dcte11111Dcd,
Eq. II is rewritten in the form of Eq . m so as to use the component A.,.,.
•·.-
All of the components of Eq. lII arc known as indicated in ma~tude, seos:e, and
direction, or i.o direction only. The acceleratioo polygon of Fig. 8.36c is staned with the
right side of Eq. Ill by drawing the vector A~ followed by the direction of_A... This is •
all that can be laid off on the right side of Eq . Ill at the moment, so consider the left
HGURE 8.37
•)
side of the equation and draw the vector A11• The vectors Al,., and ~w, x V .,., have
opposite s.cnse. Determine the resultant of these two vectors, and. add 1t to the poly~
so that its tip meets the tip of vector A.,. Draw A.,,, perpendicular to A~1 ., until It
intcr.;ccts the direction of the vector representing A .. ; this completes the polygon. Ar·
of the absolute accelerations A;., and A;., shown in Fig. 8.37 in the oonnal di-
rection. It may be seen that the absolute normal acceleration of PJ is toward 0
and that of P1 i3 toward Oi. These arc parallel vectors, but the senses of the
1
,
rowbcads arc now added to the vectors A;. and A;.11, so that tho addition of tho vocton
of the polygon agrees with the addition of the terms of Eq. m. The magnitude and sense vectors are opposite so tha1 the magnitude of AT-,,., is the sum of the magnitudes
of AJ, and A;,. Thus, it is important to observe that a normal relative acceleration
•
of a , can oow be determined from A~, as shown.
A;,,., exists although the tangential relative acceleration is zero. •
8.22 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF
COINCIDENT PARTICLES AT THE POINT
OF CONTACT OF ROLLING ELEMENTS
Io a mechanism such as is shown in Fig. 8.37 where the centers of lhe gears
arc fixed, it is not necessary to draw an acceleration polygon to determine Ar,
and aJ. The angular acceleration <l3 can easily be determined from a 2 and from
the ratio of the gear radii using the fact that Aj.. = Ah. After a3 and C&>J have
,
)

been found, the components A~, and A;., can be calculated and combined to give
~
An important type of constraint in mech?nis~ is that whi~ o~ because one .,,
A,.,.
link is constrained to roll oo another hnk without relanve sliding of the two
surfaces at the point .of contact. In Fig. 8.37 are shown the rolling pitch circles
In more complex cases where gear centecs a:re in motion, as in the following
example, it is recommended that solutions be undertaken using polygon con- •
........
of a pair of gears in mesh with particles P3 on link 3 and P2 on link ~ coincid~nt
in position at the point of contact of the rolling circles. As concluded m an earlier
struction.
)
•
paragraph, the relative velocity V ,.,,., of the coincident particles is zero, and the Exampl~ 8.11. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.38a . gear 2 rotates about o, with a
absolute velocities V ,., and V ,., are identical.
The relative acceleration A,. ,. of the coincident particles may be represented
by c0mpooent accelerations, a co~j,oncnt Aj.1,.1 in the 1-t direction of.the ~~n
a>nstant angular velocity c.>i of 10 rad/s, and gear 3 rolls on gear 2. Determine the
Keelcratioa Al') of point P1 on gear 3 and the velocity and acceleration images of gears
2 and 3. Velocity and acceleration equations can be wrirtcn as follows:
•t
tangent to the surfaces at the point of contact, and a component A;,,., ma direction I. v. - VA + v•• )
normnl to the surfaces at the point o f contact. The tangential component of
relative acceleration Aj. ,. is the vector difference of the absolute tangential ac- u. vi) - vA + v,,.
celerations Aj. and Aj. ~hown in Fig. 8 .37. Like the tangential velocities V l"J and
V ,., , the tange~tial ac~lerations Aj., and ~;., are identical be~u~ of the ~ndition
•)
V, - direction perpendicular to O,B, magnitude uaknown
of no slipping of the surfaces at the pomt of contact. No shppmg requucs that
there be no relative motion of the two particles in the direction of possible slidin&,
which is 1hc tangent direction. 1bus, because Aj., and Aj.1 arc identical, the
tangential component of acceleration of P, relative to Pi is zero.
VA • (O,A)c.>i • (2)10 - 20 in.ls, direction perpendicular 10 O,A
Vu - directio~ pe1pcndlcular to line joining points Band A, magnitude wiknown
V,, "" direction perpendicular to 0 1 Pz, magnitude uoknown
,•
The normal component of relative acceleration A~,,., is the vector difference V..,.. • direction perpendicular to P1 .A, magnitude unknown
•
)

,•
)
,
)
)
342 VELOcrrY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS RELATIVE ACCELBRATION OF COINCOEN'l' PARTICLES 343
)
) Measured on the polygon, v. • 16 in.ls, v... - 16 In.ls,_V,._ - •41 in.ls, Y,._. - 2S Oi~slons:
in.ls, and V ,,,_ - 41 in./1.

) m. A, ~ A.A + A ....
)_ Al + A~ - A.1 + A:. + AL + A~

) "here
Yi 16' .
)_ Al ~ O,B ~ S "' 32 tn./s', direction from B toward O,

)... A~ ~ direction perpendicular to Al, magnitude unknown

V' 202 Im age,
) A! = 0 ;. = 2 ~ 200 in.ls>, direction from A toward 0 2 link 2

}_, A:, = 0 (a1 = 0)

(a) (bl
) A•
a. = VL
BA
. 1...i di
= 416' = 64 an. . from B toward A
,.-, rection
)- o~
· .(.
\~
A&. = direction perpendicular lo AL, magnitude unknown
) •_ A ft Image,
IV. A_, - AA + A;,. + A;.,... _r-A-.. link 3
) "here B °\:~
)• A,., ~ direction unknown, magnitude unknown (d

) A •,.,A ~
v~
P,A =
251
.S ~
2SQ • •I I
ID.vs, d' • fr
uection om P, toward A
2
) Al-,A ~ 0 (a1 - 0)

) V. A,, ~ A,_, + A~,,., + Alo,,.,

) 'll'bCl'e
A,, - direction unknown, magnitude unknown
•• AJ,r, • direction parallel to line AB, magnitude unknown
nGUllE 8.31
)
A~,_,= 0 polygon in Fig. 8.38b shows the determination of V, and "!a. ~m Eq. I. In a similar
) manner V and V arc determined from Eq . II. The pomt P, is also known because

) VI. A,, = A, + AJ,, + A)., 1 V -

AP,.
v. "nie vel~ty image of link 2 is a circle with point A a.s the center and a radius
The'\elocity image of link 3 is a circle with point B as t~e ~ntcr and a radius BP,.
...... . where The acceleration polygon of Fig. 8.38c shoM the determination of A, 11nd Aa.. from
) A,., ~ direction unknown, magnitude unknown Eq. lII whose components are known as indicated. .
• VJ.,, To have a cleareT diagram for determining A,., and A,.,, the acceleration vector.; .AA
.) A,.,, = -- = -
4!1
= 1120 in.ts>, direction from P, toward B and A, from Fig. 8.38c are redrawn to a different scale in :ig. 8.38d. The accclerahon
P,B l.S
). polygon shows the determination of A,1 from Eq . .rv knowing AA and A,.,. (Alv - 0) .
A~,. - direction perpendicular to AJ,1 , magnitude unknown The acceleration image of link 2 i1 a circle with point A u the ct'nlcr and a rnd1us A I', .
} To determine A,.,, it is necessary to use Eqs. V and VI. The polygon shows the
Measured on the polygon, A,_, • 965 in.ls>. vector A to which is added the direction of Al)I') from Eq. V (A~,., = 0). Next, from
). Eq. VI, ?tic vector A),. and the direction of ~·. are add~d to the vector A,. The
It may be seen that the motions of the centcn of the gean at A and B are the umc u intersection of the direction of A),,., and the dirccil?n of A,.,, doses the r>ly~on and
) the pins of an equivalent four-bu linkage connecting polnta 0 1 , A, B, and O., 1be ftlocity determines point p,. The image of link 3 is a circle with B as a center and a radius BP,.

)
)
)
 •
344 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ANALYl1CAL VECTOR SOLUTION OP RELAllVE VELOOTI' 345
•
8.23 ANALYTICAL VECTOR SOLUOON
OF RELATIVE VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION EQUATIONS
To illustrate this method in general terms, consider Eq . 8.37 and let
••
Another method of velocity and acceleration analysis is to use the equations of
relative motion but to express the components of these equations In unit vector
form . By doing this, an analytical solution can be developed in place of a graphical
and
,•
one which uses velocity and acceleration polygons.
Consider the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 8.39. The velocity and accel-
eration equation for points A and B can be expressed as follows:
By keeping in mind that ,•
Va =VA + v,A
IXl=jXj=kxk-0 f
As= AA+ AaA Jx
I x j = -j x i = k
k - -k x J= I
r
A; + A~ "" M + A~ + Al.t + A~A k x I= -Ix k =j •
The basic equations from which the magnitudes of the above components •
,•
Eq. 8.37 can be expanded to give
can readily be calculated are
V = w x r = - wyAi + wxAj
V = rw (8.34)

A•= Vw (8.JS)
from which the magnitude, direction, and sense of the velocity of the point in
question, can easily be determined. It is easier, however, to solve Eq. 8.37 if it •
is written as a determinant; thus,
•
A'= ra (B.36)

It is obvious that these equations cannot give direction or sense. By writing them
as cross products, however, directions as well as magnitudes can easily be de-
j
0
k
(I) -wyAi + wx,.j
,,
)

tennined. Equations 8.34, 8.35, and 8.36 may be rewritten as cross products as YA 0
follows:
Consider next Eq. 8.38 written as a determinant: l
V = w x r (8.37)
i j k •>
A" = w x V = (I) x ((I) x r)

A' = 0t x r = ci> x r
(8.31)

(8.39)
A• = (I) x ((I) x r) = wk x

j k
x~
0 0
YA
w
0 ,
0 w
0
= -w2x,.I - w 2y,.j
••
•
From the above discussion, illustrated with Eqs. 8 .37 and 8.38, it can be
seen that it is an easy matter to express the components of
the relative motion
~uations io ~nit vector fo~ . A c~mplete solution is then obtained by substituting
•>
rn the equations of relative motion and summing the I and J components. A
complete solution i3 illustrated in the following example, which 1malyzcs the same
mochanilm aa E xample 8.2. •
FIGURE 1.39
•
•
•
:4 - --· -
,
)

•
 '":~--· ...
~· !;.:
:,....
)
) 346 VELOCTIY AND ACCE1.£RATION ANALYSIS
ANALYTICAL VECI'OR SOLtmON OF RELATIVE VELOCTrY 347

) Substituting the above values for V ..,. V ..,. and V ,.,,., into Eq . l, gives the following:
~xampl~ 8.1~. Consider ~e Geneva mechanism as analyzed lo Example 8.2, and let
11 now be required to detemune w, and a,
using the equations or relative modoa with
460 .0I + 215.SJ - 25.09...,t - 21.43..,,J + o.6494 v.,,.> +- o.7604 v.,.J
) componcnlJ expressed In unit vector form. A skeleton diagram or the mechanism Is shown
ln F ig . 8.40. ·
)" . The velocity and acceleration cquation1 are written as follows considering the ve· By summing I componena,
IOCJty and acceleradoo or point A, relative to A, because the path or point A 1 la known 460.0I .. 25.09..,,l + 0.6494 v.......
) to be a straight line relative to A,.
By summing J componenu,
) I. V,., = V,., + V,.,.., 215.SJ = -21.43..,,j + 0 .7604 V ..,_.J
) where
)
._.J

v.., = c.>, x r, Therefore,

V,., = os, x r,
) v...... -
25.09<.>, + 0 .6494 460.0
v.. ,,., "" v,.,.,(sin40.51 + C0140.5j) • v .. ,..,(0.64941 + 0.7604j) - 0.6494 vA..J +
) 0.7604 v..,..,J -21.43c.>, + 0.7604 v....... - 215 .5

11>, = - lOk rad/s

l w, - w,k
Multiplying the second equation by 25.09/21.43 and adding the two equations give3

) r, ~ r,{-sio25. ll + cos25.IJ) ~ .50.8(-0.42421 + 0. 90S~) - -21.SSI + 1.540 v..... - 712.3

46.00J
) r, = r,(-sio40.5i - cos40.5J) - 33.0( - 0 .64941 - 0.7604j) • -21.431 - vA . .
J '" 462.5 mm/S
} 2S.09J
Therefore,
~bstituting lhe values of..,, r1 and 6',, r, into the equations for V.., and VA,. rcspcdivdy,
) gives VA,.., = 462.5(0.64941 + 0.7604J) = 300.31 + 35l.7j
)
)
}
v... = w, x ,, ... I~
-21.55
j
0
46.00
-~01-= 460.0I + 215.SJ and

eoo,= 460.0 - (0.6494)(46~ 6 36 ras

=. d/ (ccw)

1-2~.43 ~·I
J 25.09
)- V,.1 '"' ea>, x r, .. 0 = 25.09..... - 2U3w,J
-25.09
) n. A,., - AA, + A,.,..,
)- y· AA, + A:., - Al, + A~, + Al,., + 2<o>, x V,.,.., + A~,..,
where
) A~, • .., x v.. , = ~ x (co. >< r,)
0,
)
)
-l(Jtxl -21~ .SS ~
46.00

)
.....
)
Ai,A3

wt• 10 rad/•
. I~ 460.0 21S.S
~ _ko10\

Al, - 21551 - '4600j

) z
~·
OJ A~. • 0 (112 = 0)
nGUltE 1.40
 '
)
)
348 ~CITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VELOCITY AND ACCELBRATION ANALYSIS 349
A:, = w, x

= 6.36" x
V,., "' ..,, )c

I~
(i.>i x r,)

~
md

.
w,•
5762 - (0.6494)(-3434)
25.09
=3
19 d/
ra' J
(ccw)
'
l
)

,'
- 21.43 - 25.09
A:., = 2S .09w,I
:I ~ 159.6
t
-136.3
6~0361
- 21.43w,J

'"' 319(25.091 - 21.43J)

A~, = 866.9i + 1015J A!., • 80041 - 6836j
•
A~, ~ .;., ><
A~,..., = 0
r1 -

(R = oc)
I~- 21.43
0
J
- 25.09
~0~1
_, = 25 .09w,I - 21.430.J
IA:.,I - V 8004'

Al, - 866.91 +
+ 6836' - 10,530 mm/s'
1015j
,•
IA.l,I -
I~ ~ 1~701 - -44741 + 3820J
v'866.9' + 1015' .. 1335 mmls1
•
2.... )( v,.....
A!.,..,
=
300.3 351.7
= A!.,.-,(0.64941 + 0.7604j)
0 •,
c 0.6494A~,_.,I + 0.7604A ~,,.,J
Substituting the above values into the component form of Eq. Il gives
• 10,610 mm/s'

The results of this example, worked using the equations of .relative motion, ue seen to
,,'
,,
agree with lbe results of Example 8.2, which wu worked using vector methods with fixed
2155i - 4600j = 866.9i + 1015j + 25.00W,I - 21.43.A>J md moving coordinate systems. ·
- 44741 + 3820j + 0.6494A~...• + 0.7604A~,..,J

,
8.24 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
By summing I components, ANALYSIS BY NUMERICAL OR
GRAPIDCAL DIFFERENTIATION
215Si ~ 866.9i + 25.00W,i - 44741 + 0.6494AA,.,I
A kinematic method that should not be overlooked is numerical or graphical
By summing J components, differentiation. The displacement curve is differentiated to obtain the velocity l
- 4600J - JOISJ - 2 1.43.;..j + 3820J + 0.7604A!...J curve, and the velocity curve Is then differentiated to obtain the acceleration
curve. Once the displacement curve is known, either of these metJ1ods may be
--1
l11crcfo rc , used regardless of the type or complexity of the mechanism being analyzed.
. Graphical techniques, such as the one to be demonstrated in this section, arc
+ 0.6494A:.,,., : often inaccurate, especially in obtaining the acceleration curves. Fortunately, t
25.09w, ~ 5762
_,
-2I.43w, + 0.7604A:.,.., = - 9435

Multiplying the second equatioo by 25.09/21.43 and adding the two equations gives
; numerical differentiation based on finite difference methods are ideally suited
; for programming on a digital computer, and it is possible to obtain very accurate
; results. All the graphical and numerical methods use one or more points on a
1curve to approximate the derivative. Iii the graphical approach, the slope is found
,
) by drawing the tangent to the curve at the specified point. The method is illus- a
l.540A:.,.., ~
,,
-5288 • trated graphically in Fig. 8.41 for a linkage in which the driving link 2 rotates at )
constant angular velocity and the driven link 4 oscillates as shown. Twelve phases
A:.,.., = -3434 mmls' · of the mechanism are shown to scale K, for equal increments of time as given
, by the equal angular displacements of linlt 2. The velocity and acceleration of
·n1creforc ,
'. point B are desired. Curves are shown for the coordinate displacements X aod
A~,,., • -3434(0.64941 + 0 .7604J) = -22301 - 2611J Y of the point B as it traverses its curvilinear path. See Fig. 8.4lb.
,
)

)
l"r""-- ,
•
J
l ....
) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION /\N/\LYSIS 351
350 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
) velocities Vx and Vr of point B are plotted. However, since QR is in inches, the
) velocity scale K, for the curves must be determined:
~~ ~ ~t'\
pl/ q 1\-)
lv
} V = (QR)K•
..... ._~i.-

~
y
I
111°'1 v
I/ K. - QR
')
~ v I l -i 4 ! 6,\ 1 I L!II(
._
1111 1.:
.-i-..

)
x
Lc;Y ' Ix By substituting for V from Eq. 8.40,

_ (QR)K,
)
,., '" ...._ ._i..-
K. - (QR)(PQ)K,

,) vi-I'-.

• 11' r-;k
-
II

q
v,
~
Uv.
r
... ~
K,
K. "" (PQ)K,
(8.41)

) [\.[.I ~ "7
limo

- I\ ....
> ~
) for all triangles.
) ,., LI
FIGURE 8.41
) inspection of the velocity curves, the maximum velocity of point Bis near positions
) . The abscissa of the displacement curve is a line of arbitrary J!!ngtb L divided
i~to 12 cq~al parts to represent equal time intervals in one revolution of link 2 .
) Smc~ the time for one rcv~luti~n of link 2 is 1/n min, or 60/n sec (n = rpm),
th~ time scale for the abscma is K, = 60/nL s/ in. The displacements X , Y of
) pomt B ar~ shown on the ordinate of the displacement curve to the same scale
l K, as used m the layout of the mechanism.
Graphical differentiation is accomplished by drawing a tangent to the dis-
) K.
pl?c.e ment curve at some point (such as for position 1 in Fig. 8.41b) and dctcr-
numng the_ slo~e of th~ curve from the triangle PRQ. The slope represents velocity
) or the denvat1ve of displacement with respect to time :
) The accuracy of differentiating graphically depends on the care take n in
V = (QR)K,
(PQ)K,
In Eq. 8.40, t_h e lengths QR and PQ arc inches on the paper, and the scales
) ~·and K, ar~ required to ~nvcrt slope to units of velocity. If K, is in inches per
mch and K, m seconds per mch, velocity is then in inches per second.
) . To plot a curve of velocity against time as shown in Fig. 8.4lc, slopes at
the ~ncrcmental points on the displacement curve are evaluated graphically. If
)
PQ 1~ taken as th_e same length for all triangles drawn to determine slope, then
) the distance QR 1s the variable showing the variations in velocity. QR may be
t ransfer~ed from the trian.gle ~f the displacement curve to the velocity curve as
) the ordinate. As shown m Fig. 8.41c, the velocity curves for the coordinate
)
>
)
r ,•~(a/In.) Thus, Eq. 8.41 gives the velocity scale in terms of the other scales and the
length PQ, which, although an arbitrarily chosen length in inches, is the same
The velocity V is the vector resultant of the component coordinate veloc-
/1
ities V x and V r . As shown in Fig. 8.4la, for position 1 of the mechanism V /1 is
the resultant of its components and should be normal to line 0 4 B. As shown by
6 and 7. Also, the curves show that at the extreme positions of link 4, namely ,
positions S and 10, the velocity of B is zero. .
To determine the coordinate accelerations A x and A r of B, the velocity
curves may be differentiated graphically in a similar manner and curves may be
shown of acceleration against time. The acceleration scale may be calculated from
the following expression :
(8.42)
K. = (P'Q ' )K,
where K. is the acceleration scale and P'Q' is an arbitrary length simila r to PQ .
(8.40) drawing tangents and on the number of increments into which the abscissa of the
d isplacement curve is divided . Accuracy increases as the number of increments
is increased and the individual increments are made smaller.
As has been shown above, graphical differentiation is a very simple method
of determining velocity and acccleratioo curves from a displacement-time curve
when a complete cycle of a mechanism is to be analyzed. The method is rapid
in plotting one curve from another but, unfortunately, the accuracy is limited. It
is obvious that in a case where the equations for displacement, velocity, and
acceleration arc readily available, as in the slider-crank mechanism, it is easier
to calculate the values and plot the curves if desired than to resort to graphical
differentiation. In other mechanisms, however, such as that shown lo Fig. 8.41,
 I

352 ~OCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VELOCITY AND AOCELERATION ANALYSIS 353
,
)

x(ln.)
•
,
graphical differentiation is much quicker than analytical methods provided that
sufficient accuracy can be obtained. )
The accuracy of this method can be greatly improved by using a digital
computer to perform the differentiation instead of doing it graphically. This can
easily be done if the displacement-time value5, or the equation from which ·they ~
cao be calculated, are available. The example that follows shows a comparison
of the values of velocity for the piston in a slider-crank mechanism found by
computer _d ifferentiation and by formula.
FIGURE 1.42
,•
Example 8.11. A slider-crank mccbaa.ism with •crank o{ 2 in. and a connectin1 rod
of 8 in. ope111tes at a crank speed of 3300 rpm. Determine the piston velocity (ft/1) for
90" of crank rotation starting from top dead center in increments of 1" by the followiag Values of velocities detennined by fonnula and by numerical differentiation for
',
ioacmenll of 1", 0.1°, and 0.01° are shown in Table 8.1. It is interesting to no te how
mclhods:
d0$dy the velocities by differentiation with 0.01" increments match the velocities calculated
by formula. •
•,
l . Numerical d ifferentiation of the displacement- time values calculated from the equa·
Although not included in this example, piston accelerations can be determined in
ti o n

,,
a similar manner from velocities.
It should be mentioaed that the values of Y with 1° increments will more nearly
R' mat~ those of V by formula if the latter are calculated at the midpoints of the intervals,
x = R(l - cos 9) + L sin' 9
2 that 11, at O.S-, 1.5", 2.S, and so oo. 'Ibis can be seen in the tabulation for the first 10
single-degree increments showa on the following page.
from Cliapter 2 using finite difference methods.
z. Oiiect calculation of velocity from the equatioa
)
TABLE 8.1 Velocity Allalysls by N11111erkal Difrerentbition )
Y, ft/1, Y, ft/a, Y, ft/a, Y, fl/1,
••
Show the improvement in accuracy for numerical differentiation by also taking increments
of 0.1" and 0.01".
•es
1
Fo111l11la
1.26
r lllc:remut
0.63
o.r hCftmeal
1.19
a.or hcremeat
1.25
•
)

Solution
w = ~ = 345.40 rad/s
2
3
4
s
2.Sl
3.77
5.02
6.27
1.88
3.14
4.39
S.6S
2.4S
3.70
4.96
6.21
2.51
3.76
5.01
6.26
,
)
·-.

60 6 7.S2 6.89 7.45 7.49 )

7 8.76 8.14 8.70 8.76

'
Time for stroke (180°) • 0.00909 1
8 10.00 9.38 9.94 10.01
lime for 1" of crank rotatioa = 0.0000505 s 9 11.23 10.62 11.17 11.23
10 12.46
~
11.85 12.40 12.45
K. = (P~)x, = o.~sos - 1650.J ft /slin. 20 24.33 23.76 24.27 24.31 )
30 35.03 34.53 34.98 35.04
The space scale is taken full we and coaverted to ft/in. The term (PQ)K, is the 40 44.11 43.70 44.07 44.11
•)
value of the iacremeot ia secoods and changes if the inacment is changed. ·
After the value of pistoa displacement .a: bu been calculated for each anplar in-
crement, the chaage in displacemeat Ax between increments is determined. The value of
Ax is proportional to the velocity for the particular point under coasideratioo, and the
so
60
70
«I
Sl.21
S6.11
S8.1S
S9.18
S0.91
S5.92
58.67
S9.21
SJ.18
S6.09
S8.7'4
S9.19
51.22
56.02
58.69
59.17
,
product of ~ aad K. gives the velocity in ft/1 , assuming a constant value of Al. An 90 S1.S9 51.12 S7.61 57.59 ~
illustration of this is shown in Fig. 8.42.
~

- -.- ·
,
)

''
, ;.
l .._:... J.~

}
KINEMATIC ANALYSIS BY COMPLEX NUMBERS 355
) 354 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
llTllain•ry
) e, V, FT/S,
p
DEG FORMULA
) 0.5 0 .628
1..5 1.883
) 2.S 3 . 138
3.S 4.391
)
.C.S S.642
) 5.5 6 .890
(b) (cJ
6.S 8 .135 (o)
)

,
7.5 9 .376
) 8.5 10.613
- 9.5 11.844 llTll nary

I
) The ~eason for ~bis 1.s ~at V by numerical differentiation more neally represents the I
veloaty at the nudpouit instead of at the end of the interval . As the increments become I
>.. ~ma lier, this difference will decrease until it becomes negligible as in the case of the 0.01•
increments.

'
)
). 8.25 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS
l
,.,
BY COMPLEX NUMBERS
)
In add.it ion to ~e met1.1ods of velocity and acceleration analysis alrCady prcseoted,
) analyttca~ solut1~ns wit~ vccto~s e.xpressed in complex form arc often used.
A simple kinematic case 1s shown in Fig. 8.43a in which link 2 rotates about
) a fixed axis OJ. It is desired to determine the velocity and acceleration vectors where I;. = dr,.ldt and Bz = d6Jdt = bl]· The term in parenthesis in Eq . 8.44
~,. and A,. of particle P when the link is in the phase given by ~ and the lcoown i.s the unit vector multiplied by i and is equivalent to i(cos 11-z + i sin Oz). By using
J
)
instantaneous angular velocity and angular acceleration are bl] and a .
. The position of particle P may be represented by the vector r:
shown in
Fig. 8.43b . By cstablish.ing real and imaginary axes as shown, r,. may be expressed
trigooometric relationships, it may be shown that i(cos 92 + i sin 92) is equal to
cos(9J + 'ff/2) + i sin(91 + 'ff/2) so that it! 1., = t!l(t,+.izi . Thus,
) by a complex number m any of the following equivalent forms: (8.45)

) r,. = a + ib A s shown in Fig. 8.43c, the direction of the velocity vector V,. is given by
the angle (~ + 'ff/2) and i.s shown to be at an angle 90" greater than the angle
r,. "" r,.(cos 82 + i sin 82) (8.43) of r,.. Thus, multiplication of the unit vector by i rotates the vector 90° in the
) r,. = r,.t"> counterclockwise sense . Also, each subsequent multiplication of the unit vecto r

, )

)
Alth~ugh all_ f~rm~ of the complex numbe r are useful ones, the simplest
form f~r. d1fferenhat1on 1s the eitponential form in which r,. is the magnitude of
the pos1t1on vector and e1.., represents a vector of unit length at a counterclockwise
by i rotates the vector an additional 90" increment in the counterclockwise sense.

foUows:
Differentiation of the velocity Eq. 8.44 gives the acceleration vector A,. as

A,. = f,. = rf"lll(i2e1.,) + r,.~(ie''i)

angular position 92 • Differentiation of Eq. 8.43 yields tbe velocity vector v,..
= rf"llJCi1 e1'i) + r,.a2(it"1) (8.46)
)
V,. = t,. =
r,OJ(ie"')
) where a 2 • d"l]ldt - ~· The first right-hand term o f Eq . 8 .46 rcpre~cnls the
V, - r,.l»)(ie' 01) (1.44)
)
)

>
 I

356 VBLOClTY AND ACCELERAllON ANALYSIS ANALYSIS 01' SUDER av.NK BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 357
normal component of acceleration A~. in which r,.wl is the magnitude and ,-i a2 = constant = k, and Wz is zero at the initial Condition 82 = 0, the dependence
indicates thal lhe direction is 180° greater than Oz as shown in Fig. 8.43d. The of fl>: on 81 may be determined as follows:
second lenn is the tangential component o( acceleration A; of magnitude r,0.1
eod direction 90" greater than 81 as indicated by i. To designate the directions of
the component accelerations, Eq. 8.46 may be rewritten as follows:

(8.47)
Equations 8.46 and 8.47 show that the acceleration vector A,. is the resultant
of two perpendicular vectors. To determine the magnitude of the resultant ~e~or
and its angular position, the following algebraic steps may be made bcgmDJ11g
Wz(~~) = k
with Eq . 8.46:

A, = - r,.w)(cos 6i + i sin 81) + r,al(i cos el - sin B,)

f~ d11>i = k f d61
wf = 2k01 + C1 (8.52)
-(r,.wJ cos al + r,.a2 sin 9i) + i( - r,.w} sin 8i + r,.a2 cos 9J
C1 is the constant of integration and is equal to zero for w2 = 0 at 82 -= 0.
= a+ ib (8.48)

A s Eq. 8.48 shows, the acceleration A,. may also be expressed as the resultant
of two component vectors in which "a" is the real component and "b" is_the 8.26 ANALYSIS OF THE SLIDER CRANK
perpendicular imaginary component. The magnitude of A,. may be detenn10ed BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS
as follows: AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
In th~ slider-crank mechanism of Fig. 8.44a, the crank rotates at constant angular
A,. = VaJ+b2 veloaty WJ, and the velocity V, and acceleration A, of the slider are to be
= v'(r,wJ cos 92 + r,.a.1 sin 92) 2 + (-r,wf sin B, + r,.a.1 cos 8,)1 determined. As shown, the position of particle B relative to the fixed point 0 1
is given by the vector r,. Referriog to Fig. 8.44b, it may be sec:n that two in·
= v'( r,.wn1 + (r,.a2)1 (8.49) dependent vector equatioos may be written for r 6 , namely, r1 . . r 1 and r, = r 2 + rJ.

Tue direction of A,. is given by the angle p in Fig. 8.43d, and this angle may be
determined as follow~:
)
(-wJ sin 82 + «1 cos 82)
tan 13 = -ba = -'-~-------:--:--:-
- (w! cos 82 + a 1 sin 81)
(8.50) )

Using the angle~. the acceleration vector A,. may be expressed as a single vector
l
instead of two vectors as follows: )
(8.51) )

In Fig. 8.43e , the velocity and acceleration vectors V,. and A, arc shown
as Cixed vectors at the particle P on the link.
It is important to note that the preceding relationships are based ~n the
,
)

assumption that wJ and aJ arc known quantities for all phase5 OJ of the link. lo )
many problems related to machinery, the link may rotate at co~stant angular
velocity so that w2 is constant and al is zero. If, for example, a2 1s n~t zero but (cl )
is a constant, then Wi is a function of time or 92 • Considering the case where FIGURE 1.44 )
)
)
~-- ~ -

!?-;' . t
'
, ,...
) · -- ---~
)
) 358 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATIO.N ANALYSIS ANALYSIS Of SUDER CRANK BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUA110NS 359
) The ~bvious result of combining the equations for ra is the following vect 8.56 by separately equating the real and imaginary parts or the equation:
equation:
) t, - r1w 1(i cos 01 - sin Oi) ~ r 1w 1(i cos 01 - sin 0 1)
) r1 = - r1 w1 sin 61 - r 3 c.>, sin 61 (real) (8.61)
j H the vectors are to b~ represented by complex numbers, real and imaginary
axes may be shown as in Fig. 8.44b, and Eq. 8.53 may be written as follows: , 0 - r2WJ cos 82 + r1w-i cos 83 (imaginary) (8.62)
)
Equation 8.62 allows the determination of c.>, .
)
~h~re r2 and r~ ~re the fu:ed.lengths of links 2 and 3, and r 1 is a variable length
) gtvmg the postUon of the slider. The angle 81 of r1 is fixed at 6 1 = 0 so that W]
r 1 cos
= -c.>i ( - - -
81) (8 .63)
)
18
1! ' = 1. Thus, '>cos 81
) Equation 8.61 may then be used to determine ; 1 = V,.
The remaining unknowns, f 1 and a 1 , are determined from the real and
! _Two successive diff~rentiations of Eq. 8.55 yield expres.5ioos giving the imaginary parts of Eq. 8.57:
velocity V 1 and acceleration A 6 as follows : ·
)
f1 - - r 1( wj cos 82 + a1 sin 82)
) (8..56) - r1( wJ cos 01 + a, sin 61) (real) (8.64)
)
(1.57) 0 = r 2(a2 cos &z - w} sin 8J
)
!tmay ~e ~eeo from an inspection of Eqs. 8.55, 8.56, aod 8.57 that, although + r1{a1 cos 91 - wJ sin 0 1) (imaginary) (8.65)
) the differ~nttatio~ are made to determine the kinematic values of particle B,
the equations also wvolve the angular velocities and accelerations of links 2 and From Eq. 8.65, the unknown a 3 may be determined.
) 3 as well as their .angu]ar positions. In these equations ' r2• rl• 6l • -..
'"· and a 2 · -
the known quantities,. ......
and the unknown quantities to be determined are six in
) number, namely, r.,
;i. fh 81 , WJ, and a 1 • a1 =
r1(wl sin 82 - Cl2 cos 8i)
+ wl sin 83 (8.66)
Two of th~ unknowns, r 1 and 81 , may be determined from Eq. 8.55 by
'1 cos 83 cos 61
)
separately equating the real and imaginary parts of the equation as follows: From Eq. 8.64, f 1 = A 11 may then be determined . For constant angular velocity
) of the crank, the angular <!CCCleratioo a 2 is zero, so that Eqs. 8.64 and 8.66 giving
r1 = r2(cos 82 + i sin 82) + r3(cos 83 + i sin 61) A, and a 1 arc somewhat simplified.
) Those kinematic quantities of engineering interest, such as the velocity V,
) '1 = r2 cos 62 + r1 cos 61 (real) (8.58) and acceleration A, of the slider and w1 and a 1 of the connecting rod, may be
determined numerically from the preceding equations for all phases 92 of the
) 0 = '2 sin 62 + ,, sin 8, (imaginary) (8.59)
crank and for arbitrary values of the crank speed "'1 and LI R ratio (r, / r 1 ) . Al-
though the calculntions to be undertaken involve voluminous arithmetical op-
) Equation 8.59 may be solved fo determine 63 . erations, such operations may be assigned to the d igital computer with t he ad-
vantage that a great number of variations of the problem may be solved to
) optimize a design :
) (1.60) The velocity and acceleration of othe r particles of the mechanism may 11lso
be of engineering interest. For example, as discussed in Chapter 9, the acceler-
) ations of the mass centers of the individual links are important because they are
Equation 8.58 may then be used to determine r 1 • related to the forces acting on the links. In considering the acceleration A,, of
) In a similar manner, the unlcnowns /-1 and lllJ may be obtained from Eq. the mass center g 1 of link 3 in Fig. 8.44a, the following equations result from the

>
)
)
 ,'
· 360
'
VELOCITY AND ACCEUiRATION ANALYSIS
vector addition shown in Fig. 8.44c:
ANALYSIS OF SUDER CRANK BY LOOP O.OSUR.E EQUATIONS
be determined from Eqs. 8.63 and 8.66, respectively:
361 ,,
)

r,, = r2 + r, = r2r:'.. + r,e"• (1.67)

(1.61)
.., - - c.>z ~cos
r, cos
e, "'
e,
-314(2.0) oos 30"
8.0) cos 3S2.8r
,
i
(8.69) i
i
a ..
.. - 68..S6 rad/s

(~) coJ sin 81 - a 1 cos 81 wJ sin-

+
91
,,'-
,
J
For constant angular speed of the crank, a 2 "" 0, so that r, cos 8, cos e,

A., = - r2w~e 11• + r,(ia1 - (&)J)e"• • (2.0) 31-41 sin 30" - 0 + (-68.56)' sin 352.82°
8.0 cos 3.52.82° cos 3.S2.82"
( - rz<a>~ cos 6 2

= a1 , + ib1,
- r4a1 sin 61 - r twl cos
+ i( - rz<a>J sin 82 + r~3 cos 8, - r,wJ sin 8,)
6:,)

(8.'70) ;
• 11,840 rad/s 1

With ~e preceding quantities determined, the Teal and imaginary com nents of
,,••
the 1ccelerati0n A,, may be determined by evaluating a,, and in Eq. 70 :follows: b,, s.
The magnitude of A 1, may be determined from A 1, :: + b:,. and the angle
fl which A,, makes with the real axis may be determined from tan f3 = b1 ,f
The vector A,, is shown as a fixed vector in Fig. 8.44d.
Va:,
a,,. a,, = - r,w} cos 8, -
- -2.0(314)1(0.866) - 2.0(11,840)(-0.125)
r ~) sin 81 - r,wJ cos e,
,,•
Example 8.14. The slider crank of an internal-combustion engine (Fig. 8.44a) includes
-2.0(-68.56)'(0.992)
,
a crank of 2.0 in. length and a connecting rod of 8.0 in. length. The crank &peed of the
engine is constant at 3000 rpm (31-4 rad/ 1). Determine the acceleration of the mass center
A,, or the connecting rod when the cntnlc angle i& 81 • 30". The mass center 8> is located
. .., -1n,300 in./st
b,, • - 'iWI sin e, + r,a, cos e, - r,wJ sin e, ,,
,
2.0 in. from the crank pin at A. In addition, detemzine cunes showing (1) the magnirude
- -2.0(314)'(0.500) + 2.0(11,840)(0.992)
of A 11 versus 91 and (2) the angle Jl which A,, makes with the real ws versus 81•
-2.0( - 68.56)2(-0.125)
Solution. The calculation of the acceleration A., may be made using Eq. 8.70 and tbe -74,020 in.ls'
following given data: r2 - 2 .0 in., r, - 8.0in., r, - 2 .0 in., Wi - 314 rad/s, and 81 - 30".
However, before the calculation cao be u.ndertaken, the unknowns 8,, "'>• and a, must
first be determined.
•
)
The connecting-rod angle a, may be determined from Eq. 8.60 as follows: 200,000 ..........
'\.
- ~

"'•· - •
,,
I
v:... .....-
--
../
20 \. 360 )
· 8, - -
llll !!
r, S1°n 81 -- - 8.0 · 30"
· 5UI !"- ~ "" """"' /
- 300
. / fJ
- 0.12S
~
,,
./ 240
e, .. - 7.18" or 3.S2.82" ..... __. I 80 .:i
,,
CO& 8, • 0.992 v
v I 20

It may be 1een that for 1in e, - -0.125, there ue two positions of tbe conncctin1 rod,
rlthcr 8, - 352.Hr or 187.18", dependlna on whether tho slider la to the riaht or to the
left or tho crank center O,.
0
0 JO 60
_.... ......
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 JOO 330 360
V" ~fJ - 60
0
,
The angular velocity w, 1111d the angular 1cceler1tlon a 1 or the connecting rod may
FIGURE 8.4!
Crin~ an1le fa . d•l•ffs

•
•
•
,•
'
)
)
J62 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ANALYSIS OF INVERTED SLIDER CRANK BY LOOP-CLOSURE EQUATIONS 363
)
The magnitude of A,, is the vector ium of the components:
) lrn1afn1ry
A,. - v'a:, + b:, - V(-177,300)' + (-74,020)'
)
= 192,200 in. ls'
)
and the angle of A,, with the real or horizontal axil is given by p;
)
) tan 13 = b,, ~ -74,020 -= 0.417 (b)
a,, -177,300 (a}
)
f3 = 2<Jl.67°
)
Calculations similar to those illusttatcd for increasing crank angle e, in 10" increments
) make possible the plotting of the curves of A,, and jl for one cycle of tbe cnnk as 1bown
in Fig. 8.45.
)
)- 8.27 ANALYSIS OF THE INVERTED SLIDER (c)

CRANK BY LOOP-CLOSURE EQUATIONS FIGURE 8.46

) AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
) Of the inversions of the slider crank, the crank shaper (Fig. 8.46a) is interesting to Eqs. 8 .71, 8.72, and 8.73, it may be seen that r1> r1 . 62. ll>J, and a2 are the
to analyze by complex numbers because the Coriolis component of acceleration known quantities, and the six unknowns to be determined arc e,, w,, i:i.. '•· t,,
) is involved . Io Fig. 8.46b are shown the vectors giving the position ra, of particle
and F,. By equating the real and imagiaary parts of ea~h of the Eqs. s_.11., 8.72,
) B 2 on the crank at the pin connection to the slider. Two independent vector and 8.73, six equations arc obtained which make possible the detenmnatton of
equations for the position of B 1, namely, r., "" r 4 and r_., '"' r 1 + r 1 , may be
) combined to give the following vector equation: · the six unknowns.
After e,, w,, and ~ have been determined for a k.nown value of wi and an
) arbitrary value of 81, it becomes possible to detennine numerically the velocity
and acceleration of other particles of the mechanism. For example, since the
) (8.71) crank shaper is a quick-return mechanism, it is of interest to determine the velocity
) Vc, of the tool-holding slider (link 5) of Fig. 8.46a for comparison of the mag-
Differentiating Eq. 8.71 yields the following velocity equation: nitudes of the slider velocity during the working and return strokes of the mech-
) anism. In Fig. 8.46c is shown the vector polygon which includes the position
(8.72) vecto r r, of particle C 5. From the polygon,
)
) From an inspection of Eq. 8.72 term by term, it may be seen that the equation
is another form of the equation V •• + V ., 11, - V ,, for the coincident particles r, = r, - r.
) B. and Bz. Differentiating Eq. 8.72 yields the following accclcratioa equation:
(8.74}
)
) = r2wl(i 2~ '.,) + ria1(it!l9a) (8.73) Differentiating Eq. 8.74 gives the following velocity expression:

) Inspection of Eq. 8.73 tenn by term shows that the equation is an alternate form
.. (8.i: '
of the equation A;, + Alt, + 2w4 x V 11,11, + A~11, = Ai1 + A~.
) In the crank-shaper mechanism, link 2 is the driving link usually rotating In Eqs. 8.74 and 8 .75 r. is a known fixed length, and e. and"'• arc known
at a known constant angular velocity Wz, with a 2 equal to zero. Thus, referring from previously developed equations. By equating the real and imaginary parts
)
)
)
)
364
•
VJilOCTTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS OF FOUR-BAR UNXAOE BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 365
•
of each of Eqs. 8.74 and 8.75, four equations become available for the deter-
mination of the four unknowns r., t., r,, and ;,, of which t, is the velocity
magnitude Y c, of the slider.
law ~f cosines was present.ed in Chapter 2, section 2.1. Methods for analytically
solvmg Eqs. 8. 77 and 8.78 m complex number form are somewhat more involved.
For this reason , they have beea presented in Appendix 1. It shouJd also be noted
,•
that numerical techniq~es such as the Newton-Raphson method presented ia
Cb~pter 2 are easy ' ·> implement, provide relatively quick solutions, and arc •
8.28 ANALYSIS OF DIE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE
BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS
AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
ea~ly extended to I: " ;c the position analysis problem for more complex mcch-
amsms.
. Vel.o c!IY loop · .ure equations for the four-bar linkage are obtained by
,•
,,
Although it may at firs t seem surprisiag, velocity and acceleration analysis of the different1atmg the r.. ' ·:i.m loop closure equations with respect to time as follows:
four-bar linkage is generaUy a much simpler task than position analysis. To sec
the reaso n for this, consider once again the planar four-bar linkage of Fig. 2.6, (8.79)
which for convenience has been repeated here as Fig. 8.47. The loop closure
equation for this mechanism written in complex number form is (8.80) •
(8.76) In velocity analysis, it is assumed that the values of r., r 2, r3 , r,, and 82 are given,
and th.at the va~~es of 83 and 84 have already been determined from a position
nus equation may be expanded into real and imaginary parts and written in the analysis. In add1hon, the angular velocity of the input link "'2 must also be given.
fonn used in Chapter 2: The only unknowns in the above equations are the angular velocities of links 3
and 4. These equations may therefore be written in the following form:
(8.77)
AW;i + Bw4 = C (8.81)
r 2 sin 82 + r 3 sin 81 - r4 sin 84 = 0 (8.78)
(8.82)
lo position analysis, the values of '" r2 , r3 , r4 , and the input angle 8z arc given,
and the problem is to find the angles 93 and 94 • Since these unknowns are embed- where the values of A through F are calculated from
ded within the sine and cosine terms, the equations are said to be transcendental.
A relatively simple Jllettiod for solving the position analysis problem using tho A = - r3 sin 93
B .. r4 sin 9,
1
C = r2(sin 92)w2
(8.83)
D = T3 cos 91
E = -r, cos 94

This form clearly shows Eqs. 8.81 and 8.82 to be linear in the two unknowns w
1
and c.>4. Solving this pair of equations gives·

FB - EC
WJ - DB - EA (8.84)

DC- FA
FIGURE 8.47 4 (8.85)
c.> =DB - EA

.
~
J
)
)
)

,
) I
'
366 YELOCTry AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

Differentiation of the velocit

- Ti(cos 81)w} - r2(sin 9Ja2 -

.
to time yields the acceleration equ~:I:::::tions (Eqs. 8. 79 and 8.80) with r

r,(cos 9 )wJ -
'
( •
r3 sm
e )a,
3
ANALYSIS OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGE BY LOOI' CLOSURF. l:QIJAll ONS

anism bas been pcdonncd in O.apter 2, Example 2.2. The results of this analysis arc
J67

e, .. 22.812°, 8, - 71.798". The values of variables A through F may no w be calculated

from Eqs. 8.83:

A = - 8 sin 22.812 = -3. 102

) + r,(cos B,)wJ + r,(sin 9,)a. == 0
B = 6 sin 71.798 = 5.700
) - ri(sin Bi)wJ + r1(cos 8i)a2 - r,(sin 9,)wJ + r,(cos e,)a,
c = 3(sin ro)(l) = 2.598
) + r,(sin 9,)wJ - r,(cos e,)a, 2 0 (8.87) D = 8 cos 22.812 ~ 7.374
In acceleration analysis, it is assumed that th . E = -6 cos 71.798 ~ -1.874
) and a1 are given and that the values of e values of ri. r1. r,, r,, Bz, Cl>],
determined from position and vel "t al&,, .9,, <A>J, and ru, have already been F ,.... - 3(c0<; 60)(1) = -1.SOO
) above equations are the aogul oa ~an . ysis. Th~s, the only unknowns in tho
Eqs. 8.86 and 8.87 may be re~tt:~::r:o~· ~':s~f liob 3 and 4, o, and o,, and
) 1 10 ••••••••••••••••• • ••• ••• ••••••••••••••••••• •••••••• •••••• ••••••••••••
20 • • "!CBl\NI S" DESIGN - DISPr.ACD112fT, VELOCITY l ACC!LEIUITION ANALYSIS
) lO •• - D•e• Mevt on-R•ph• on r oot f indi ng ••thnd to d•tet • ine unknown
Ao, + Ba, "' C ' • O •• angle• of link• l and 4 of • four bar linkage. Al•o ca lc. a
50 •• an9ular velociti•• ' acceleration• or l inks ) a nd 4.
) 60 •• - K•bie a nd Reinholtz , •tb ll:d.
Da, +Ea,= F' 10 •• - Pro9ran re•i •ed by - It••• Wampler ( 7/ 9/ 851
) 80 •••••••
90 CLS: •••••••••••••••••••••••••
KAX.PASSt- l01D2R-3 . 141St/ 180 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• COD•tant to convert d9<J .• to rad.I
where .A through F can be caJculatcd as follows: 100 IJIPDT •Enter an9. poi. ot llnt1 2,3,4 (de9.•)"1TB!TA2 , TBETA3 , TBETA4
) 110 TB!TAl•TBl!TAl *D2lh TBITAl•TB!'TAl -02R1 TB!TA4•TBETA4 * D2 R
120 IRPDT •Enter a n9. val. of llnk 2 (rad.•/ •ecl"10t1EGA2
A == -r3 sin 93 130 DIPOT "Enter an9. acc. of llnk 2 (rad.1/ 1ec·21°1ALPBAl
) 140 INPDT •Enter ll1t ot lint length• rl,r2,r3,r4" 1Rl ,12,R3, R4
B .,,. T4 sine, 150 IllPUT •r:nter a n9. atep eiae for input link rotation ( d99.• l"11J!IG. DIC
) 160 PRDlT • TB!TAl
170 PltlJllT • (d99.l
TB!'l'Al
(deg,)
T8!TU OltlGAJ Olt!GAC ALPBA3 ALPBA4•
(deg,) (rad/ •) (rad/el (nd/ a·l l (rad/ a·21
180 WBILr: I1UCEY$•""
) C' = r1(cos 81)wJ + ri(sin 9Ja1 + r,(cos 9,)wJ - r,(cos 9,)wJ 190 PU!IC . l•l ' force neat WBILI •tateaent to be true
D = r 3 cos 93 (8.90) 200 WBILB (ABS(FUNC.l)>.001 OR ABC(FONC.2) >.001) AllD PASS\<MAX . PASS\
210 rtnlC.l•Rl+(R4*C08 (TBITA•ll-(ll2•cos(TBr:TA2 ) )-(al*COS (TB!TA3 ))
) 220 FUNC.2•(R4*Sill(TBETA4))-(R2*Sill(TB!'l'A2))-(RJ•SDl( TBl!!TA3 ))

)
E == -r, cos 9, 210
2' 0
DFlDTl•R3•8D1(TBE'l'A3)1DPlDT4•-R4•SDl(TBITA4) 1 t•ke pa r tials
DF2DTJ-Rl*COSITB!TAJl rDP2DT4•R4*COS (TBETA4)
250 DP2DT4•R4*COS(TBITA4) 'Partial of tune. 2 v/ r••p•ct to tbet a4
F' = r (sin e2)Wi2 - ( e ) + rJ{sin 9,)wj
COS l C11 - r.(sin 9,)wJ 260 Dr:t.-DtlD1'3°Dr2DT4-DFlDT4*DP2DT3 'calc. del !uncti on
) l Ti
270 DELTA. TBETA4•(DP2DT3•nJRC. l-DPlDT3*PUNC.2J / DEL
280 DELTA. T8ETAl•-(DP2DT4*PmlC.l~DPlDT4•rowc.2J /DEL
) It is i~lercsting to note that the values of 290 TBETAl•TBETAJ+D!LTA. TB!TAJ 1TB~U •TBE:TAHDELTA . TBlrfA4
used m velocity analysis and h th A, B, D, and E arc the same as those 100 PASS\•PASS\+l
) The form of Eqs. 8.88 •and 8 es~c:ie:ie values do not need to be recalculated. 310
320
WEND ' 90 back if func.• <>0 and nullb•r of pa•••• not to high
IF PASSH~.PASS\ TIEii GOSOB 3,0 EI.Sf! GOSUB 410
unknowns a, and a,. Solving
.
th' .
fy sho~s the~ to be linear in the two
u pair o equations gives
330 PAS6\•0 1TRE'TA.2•TRETA.2+ANG.IllC*DlR 1 i ncrement i nput l ink
140 WtND 1!ND
) 350 ' calc. vel. and acc. of link• 3 and 4 and print reaulte
160 A--Rl•Sfll(TBETA3) 111•R4*Sill(TBITA4) t C•R2*SIH(T8t'tA2) *0"EC.U
) F' B - EC' 370 O-IU*COS(TBtrAlJ1!i--R4*COS(TB!TA4) tF•-R2•cos(TBITA2)* 0~ EC A2
a, 180 0ttECAl•(F•a-1•c1/ 1o•e-1•A)10111CA4•ID•c-r•Al / (D*B-l*AI ' velociti ••
DB -EA (8.91) 390 Cl•R2*COS(TB!TA2) •C>MEGA2.2+Rl*Bill(Tll!TAl) *ALPllA2 'part of c. PRIM!
) coo c. PRIKE-Cl+Rl •cos(TBE'l'AJ J •OM!CA3 ·2-R& •cos(TB!TA41 *OMEGA4 ·2
410 Fl•R2*Sill(TBETA2) *0ltBGAr2-11.2•cos(TBETAl) •ALPllA2 'part Of I' . PRDU
) DC' - F'A 420 r. PJUM.,.Fl+IO*SIR(n!TA3) •0MEGA3·2-a.•sm( T&r:TA4 ) *Olt11CAr2
ci. == 430 ALPBA.l•(P. PRIM!*B-!*C.PRINl)/(D*ll-l*A) 1 an9ular acceleration•
DB- EA (8.92) 4•0 ALPBA4•(D*C.PRIM!-F . PIIJl~A)/(D*l-r*A)
> Example B.15. For the four-bar llnko c f Fi
450 PRDIT OSD1G•t1t1. ti "1TBIT"2/ D2R1THTAl/Dllt1'J'BSTA4/DlR1
460 PRINT OSING"tttt.tt "1 0"llGA.l1°"!GA41ALPRA31ALPRA4
) the angular accelerations of link$ 3 d g o '~· 8.47, find the angular velocities and • 10 Rl:"nJIQI
r, - 8 in. , r, - 6 iQ., Uie input link ai:,d~~ ~e ':'le:
length~ are '! *" 7 in., r, .. 3 in., 480 • e ech. do•• not a•••nble ••••&<J•
•90 PRINT "K•ch•n••• do•• not •••eabl• at TB!!TA2 •"TllETA2/ D2R" d~ . ·
rad/s, and the input link acceleratio ~ 9, 60°, the input link velocity is lllz "' 1
> n ts a, - 1 rad/s'. A position aoalysis of this mech-
500 RETURN
FlGURE 8.48
)
)
)
"'
 ,

368 VELOcrrY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS COMPLEX MECHANISMS 369

TBl>TAl THITAJ THl>TA4 OlllCAl OllEQA4 Al.PHAl A1.PHA4 Tberdore,
(de<J.) (de9.) (de9 . ) ln4/•l ( r114/•) (n4/e·:u (nd/••21
o.oo '6.57 75.52 -o. 75 -0.75 -o . n o.u
10 . 00
20 . 00
39.51
:U.71
U.24
65.65
-0,,5
-0,Sl
-0.50
-0.22
0, 10
0,33
1.01
1.26 II) :s
{021s2{5.1002 - { - t.874H3.87~ = 0 235 di J
30.00 29.35 U.63 -0.37 0.01 0 . 3' 1.1' (7.374)(5.700) - (-1.874)(-3.102) · ra '
40.00 26.25 '5.66 -0 ,26 o.u o.n 1.0S
50.00 24.15 u.20 -0.17 O,ll . 0,27 o.n - (7.374)(3.875) - (0.218)(-3.102) = 0 808 di'
60.DO 22.11 71.ID -0.10 0,40 0.2l D,11
70.00 22.07 76.11 -0 ,05 0,46 0 . 22 0.72 'r (7 .374)(5. 700) - ( -1.874)( -3.102) · ra s
80 ,00 21.79 80.90 -0.01 0.50 0.22 0.66
90 .oo 21,91 85.96 0,03 o.s2 0.22 0,60
100,00 22.37 91.17 0.06 0.52 0.24 0,54 A BASIC-language computer program for iterative position analysis of the four-bar linkage
110 . 00 2l.U 96.41 0 . 09 0.52 0.26 o.u wu described in 1eelion 2.2. The velocity and acceleration analysis methods discussed in
120.00 24 ,20 10 l. 5 7 0 . 12 o.51 0.2' 0.42
llO.DD 25.57 106. 58 O.lS D.U D,32 D,36 this section have been added to that program, and the new luting is shown in Fig. 8.48.
140 .oo 27.22 111 . 35 0 . 11 o.35 D.21 The corresponding output for 10• increments of the input angle is showo io Fig. 8.49.
lSD.00 29 .18 115 , 12 0.21 0·"
0,43 0.3' 0.22
160,0D ll,'5 lU.91 0,2' O.lt 0.42 o . 1s
170.00 34,01 12).U 0.27 0 . 3S D.U 0.09 8.29 COMPLEX MECHANISMS
110 , 00 36.17 126.17 0.10 0,30 0,46 0,02
uo . oo 40,00 129.62 0.33 o.2s 0.47 -D,DC
200.00 41.38 131.17 o.1s 0 , 2D o.u -0.10 The addition of extra links to the basic four-bar mechanism increases the com-
210.00 46.95 lll .59 0.37 0,15 0,45 -0.16 plcxity of the kinematic analysis of the mechanism. In Fig. 8.50 is shown a six-
220 . 00 50,'6 134. 78 0 .31 0,0t 0.42 -0 . 21
230.00 54.44 llS.U 0,31 0 . 04 0.37 -0.21 bar linkage in which the addition of links S and 6 to the basic four-bar linkage
240.00 51.20 135,56 0.37 -0.02 O.ll -0 , H
61,84 llS.11 o.36 0.22 -0,42 (1, 2, 3, 4) forms a second four-bar linkage consisting of links 3, 4, 5, and 6. By
250 . 00 -0.01
260,DD 65.26 l34.D7 a.u -o.u o.u -0.51 the addition of the two links, the number of kinematic unknowns is increased by
270.00
280 ,OD
61.31
70,82
131.36
12'. 92
0.21
0.22
-0 . 21
-D.21
-O.D2
-0.20
-o.n
-a. 77 six (&,, e,, Cll,, w,, a,, and a.) so that the total number of unknowns is 12. Thus,
290.0D 72.:U 126.64 O.ll -o.ll -o.o -o.u 12 independent equations arc required to determine the unknowns.
300,00 73 ,31 122 . 37 0.02 -o.n -o. 71 -1.1'
By a>mbining the independent vector equations for the position of point
310 . 00 12. 90 11'. 95 -0.12 -o . so -1.03 -1.H
320.0Q 70.85 110.26 -o.n -0.74 -1.34 -1 . 50 B, the following equation is obtained to include the kinematic quantities of the
330.00 66.!ll 102,26 -0.48 -o.86 -1.55 -1.48
links in the loop formed by the lower four-bar linkage:
HO.DO 61,29 n.21 -0,65 -D,93 -1.0 -l.12
)50 .oo 54.18 8) .92 -0.15 -o.n -1.06 -0 .ll
360 . 00 46.57 75 , 52 -0 . 75 -0.75 -o . u o.u
r2 + rJ = r 1 + 14 (8.93)
FIGURE 8.49 The output from the BASIC computer program or Fig.
8.48. The position mialysil b pafonned U-., the ~oa-Rapt.a mdh~
(Chapter 2, Section 2.3): nlodtle1 aad atcdcratioos mre calculated Ill Similarly, a second combined vector equation may be written for the position of
dosed form from Eqs. 8.84, 1.85, 1 .91, and 1.92.

Therc!o1e,

( -1.500)(5.700) - ( -1.874)(2.598) • -0.102 rad/s

..., = (7.374)(5.700) - (-1.874)(-3.102) .
= (7 .374)(2.598) - {-1 .500)(-3.102). 0.400rad/s
.... (7.374)(5.700) - (-1.874)(-3.102)

Substituting the lmown quantities into the expression& for C' and F' in Eq. 8.90 gives --....
Cll •

C' = J(cos 60)(1) 1 + J(sin 60)(1) + 8(cos 22.812)(-0.102)'

- 6(cos 71.798)(0.400)1 - 3.875
F' - J(sin 60)(1)' + 3(cos 60)(1) + S(sin 22.812)(-0.102)'
- 6(sio 71.798)(0.400)' "' 0 .218 ftGUR.E 8.SO
,
)
) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS USINO THE (IMP) 371
370 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
) BIREVl
point C such as to involve a loop of links including links S and 6:
) Poin t>
(8.94) TA?.AAJ
) anl, sn•
0 0 2, 004
The independent equations 8.93 and 8 .94 may be writt~n in complCJr number
) fonn:
)
(8.95)
) 0 R2(REVl
002
(8.96) (a)
)
) By equating the real and imaginary components of the preceding equations,
four independent equations arc obtained from which the four unknown angles B (9.2242, 5.9388, 0)
) 91. e•. e,, and e, may be determined as functions of 92. The angle e~ may be given
y
as a. minus the fixed angle 'Y of link 4 shown in Fig. 8.50. The de termination of
) the unknown angles is complicated trigonometricaUy and requires the detenni-
)
)
nation of auxiliary lengths and angles as illustrated in the discussion of the four-
bar linkage.
Differentiation of Eqs. 8.95 and 8.96 and equating the real and imaginary
A

2
z.,
(-2.1213, 2 .1213, 0,1

~J:
~" ....!+- ....!+-
components result in four additional independent equations which may be used - - o - - - - 1 - -- - o - - - -- X
) in the dctennination of the four angular velocities CU), w4 , w,, and w6 as functions z
OH4
of Wi· The solution of the numerous simultaneous equations is best accomplished 082
no. o, 01
) by the use of determinants. Further differentiation and equating of real and
(0, o. 01
(b)
) imaginary parts yield four equations for the determination of the four unknown
angular accelerations. FIGURE 8.51
) The preceding method of analysis may be applied to plane mechanisms of
h igher order of complex:ity. If two more links arc added to the linkage of Fig. reproduced from section 2 .4 as follows:
) 8.50, making an eight-link mechanism, a third independent vector equation en-
closing another independent loop of links makes available the additional equa- GROUND=- FRAME
)
tions required for solution. REVOLUTE IFRAME . LNK2l=OH2
) REVOL UTE(LNK2 . LNK3l ~ A
) REVOLUTE ( LNK3 , LNK4l•B
REVOLUTE ( LNK4 , FRAME)•OH4
) 8.30 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION DATA:REVOLUTE(OH2)=-~.9.~ 1 9 . ~ .1/ 1,~ .~/ -2 . 1213,2 . 1213,~
ANALYSIS USING DIE INTEGRA1ED DATA : REVOLUTE(A)•-2 . 1213 ,2. 1213.~ / -2 . 121 3 , 2.1213 . 1 / $
) MECHANISMS PROGRAM (IMP) ~ . ~.~ / 9 . 2242 , 5.9388 .~
) In Chapter 2 (section 2.4), the use of the Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP) OATA :REVOLUTE(B)z9 . 2242,5 . 9388,9/9.2242 ,5 . 9388,1 / $
was introduced as a convenient method of displacement analysis of four-bar -2 . 1213.2 . 1213 , d 1 1~ . ~ .e
) linkages. At that time, it was stated that IMP could also be used for velocity and DATA : RE VOLUTE(OH4 ) •19.~.9 / 1~.~.1 / 9 . 2242 , 5 . 9388 . 9/ $
) acceleration analyses. The use of IMP for the determination of velocities and 12.d . ~
accelerations is presented below. POINT(LNK2l•002 ,AA2
J Figures 2.9b and 2.9c from section 2.4 are repeated as Figs. 8.5la and 8.51b
DATA : POINTl002 , 0H2l·~.H.P
here.
) DATA : POINTIAA2 , A)•g , S , ~
The following revolute statements, rcvolute data, and point data arc also
)
)

,.. )

, J
 ..! !-
·-·~

372 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VBLOCITY AND ACClil..ERATlON ANALYSIS USINO IBE (rMP) 373
POINT ( LNK3l•AA3, 883 1.3. ~ ao automotive engine, the maximum piston acceleration is lOOOg (g ~ 32.2 ft/s')
DATA : POINT<AA3,Al•H.P,j ~t a ~Yell co~t cnnk speed. 1be crank radius is 21 in., and the connecting rod length
OATA:POINT(BB3 , Bl·%.H.H ~s 10 in. Detemune tbe cnnk speed In rpm and the linear speed of the c.-.nk·pin <:enter
In reet per 1aeood and feet per minute. DoterD1ine also the maximum piston velocity in
POINT!LNK4l•BB4,004 tits aad ft/ min at this crank speed. Sec Eqs. 2.18 aod 2.19 of Chapter 2.
DATA :POINT(B84,Bl•H,, ,, 8.4. Th~ particle Q of the body shown in Fig. 8.52 is in motion along a <:urvilinear path.
DATA : POINT!004,0H41•,s' , %,,S' The radi~s of_ curvature of the path, its angular velocity and acceleration, and its rate of
ZOCM!71•5,1 . 5,jf change With time arc as showo . Determine the magnitudes of Ag, A~. and Ao and show
as vectors on a sketch of the figare.
RETURN
It is now necessary to enter the angular position of link 2 (135°) for which
the analysis is required and to enter the angular velocity of link 2 (500 rad/s, cw)
which is constant. These will be specified for rcvolutc OH2. The velocity and
acceleration of point B arc to be determined as well as the angular velocity and R,. 5.00 In.
Ac
,.*
(127 mm) It:. " I
acceleration of link 4. These requirements will be catered for point 884 and \ , ~''"'•I r1d/s
revolutc OH4. The velocity of point AA2 will also be determined as a check on , , 45•
the computer anaJysis. "' er,• 2 ad/s•

DATA : POSl(OH2)•135 I
DATA : VEL0(0H21•-500
PRINT : VELOCAA2 , BB4,0H41 dR
f,t • - 600 "
· 1n.1a ( - 152 mmlsl
. PRINT : ACCEL(BB4,0H4)
~ • 19.l "in.ls2 (486 mmts2)
EXECUTE
FIGURE 8.52
Table 8.2 gives the velocity of point A and the velocity and acceleration of
point 8 . Also included arc the angular velocity and acceleration of link 4. For
comparison, values found by unit vectors arc included. ·
8.S. A point mass P travels a curvilinear path about point A as shown in Fig. B.53. If
A, - 640 mm/r, determine"'•·
TABLE 8.2
Vdodly Acceleration
AA2 BB4 OH4(wJ• BB4 OH4(caJ•
IMP 1499.99 1369.39 -228.64 453242 - 54717.5
in.la In .It rad/1 In .ls' rad/,•
Unit 1371.1 -228.64 4~3903 -54740.3 dR
ve<:ton in.ls rad/s in .ls' rad ls' dl • 0. 197 In.ls 15.00 mm/ 1)
d 1R
•values of"'• 1Dd a, •re s;ven relarive to Ibo frame. d,1" • 0. 195 ln.l1Z (4.95 mml s 2)

Probltms
8.1. A turbine oper1tes et lS,000 rpm. QilcuJale the velocity aod a<:<:eleration of the tip
or !he 1otor bl•da wllic.b u 10 in . trom the center or rotation.
8.2. 111e tip or a turbine blade has a linear velocity of 600 mis. Cakulate the angular
velocity in revolutions per minute for the following wheel diameten : 70, 400, 750, and
900mm.
FIGURE 1.53
'·'· lo Fca. 8.54, link 2 and disk 3 rotate about the Arne fixed ax~ O; "'• - IS radls
(c:w) aad ca, • 0, ..., • 10 rad/1 (cw) and CIJ • 30 rad/11 (ocw) . Point P in link 2 is
coincident with point PJ in disk 3. Determine V ,,,.,, A"i'" "'"• and au. •
8.7. Given J>'.>ints A and B in a common link u shown in Fig. 8.55 celculate the velocity
and acceleration of point B relative to point A .

•
,
}
) 374 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

}
)
)
)
)
) 2
) 3

)
) B

) flGURE 8 .54 nGURE 8.55 FIGURE 8.57

)
8.8. The wheel in Fig. 8.56 rolls wilhout slipping. The velocity and acceleration of Pare
) as shown. For each phase, make a sketch of the wheel and graphically determine the
values of A1o and A; using oonvenient scales. Calculate R and ..,, of the path of P and
) locate the center of curvature C. What infonnation is needed to detennine a.?
PllM of
) rotation v,..
)
Ar= SOOtn./sZ Pl v,.= 53.I lnJs
(13'49mm/ s)
(12700 mm/ sl)
~.-,--=:::--- Axil of relation
) Vp= 50in./s
-~-
. -~-- ~- - ~-

(1270 mm/ s)
)
,.. P-1<-__.-~
) Ap = 500 in./s2
(12700 mm/ sZ)
)
)
)
FIGURE 8.56
)
) 8.9. The centrifugal blower sbown in Fig. 8.57 rotates at an angular velocity of 900
rad/s. The velocity of a particle of gas P relative to the blade is V,, = 82.3 mi s. Deter·
) mine the velocity of the blade tip and the absolute velocity of particle P. Exit duct
~~~«!(«M:<'(\
8.10. ln Fig. 8.58 is shown a gas pe.rticle P leaving the passage of a turbine wheel at a
) velocity V,. rdative to the blades. The angle er is the departure angle of the particle
relative to the passage and is measured fro m the plane of rotation. If the wheel speed is
J 10,000 rpm, detennine angle at so that the absolute velocity of Pis 100 mis in a direction
) parallel to the exit duet axis. What is the sense of rotation of the wheel when viewed from
the right? The radius from the axis of rotation to pe.rticle Pis 300 mrn. FIGURE 8.58
)
375

,
)

)
...
 - ---- .. _ - -· -

376 VELOCTTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VELOCITY Al'ID ACCELERATION ANALYSIS usrNO THE (IMP) 377
8.11. For the linkage shown i.n Fig. 8.59, link 2 rotates at a constant an&ular velocity. 01A • 15 in. (381 mml
(a) Detemune w, and a, '!JSina unit vecton . (b) Drew the velocity poly1on and determine 0 4 8 • 10 In. 1254 mml
v. uod V 0 . (c} Detenninc the 1bovc value1 usin& computer analysis. AC• IO In. (254 mml
Oz04 • JO In. (762 mm)
B

O~A • 6 in. 1152 mml

AB• 7 in. 078 mml
BC• 5 In. 1127 mml
CD • 5 in. 027 mml ~

4 AD• 7 in. 078 nvnl 1

0204 • 14 In. (356 mml FIGURE 1.61
0 4C • 10 In. (254 mml

02A • 1.97 in. (50.0 mm)

Os(>4 • 4.72 In. (120 mm)
O,A • 3.15 in. (80.0 mm)

FIGURE 8.59

8.U . for the linkage or Fi&. 8 .60, link 2 rotates 11 a constant angular velocity. (a)
Determine V, and A 1 using unit vccton. (b) Draw the velocity polygon and determine
Ye . V0 , "'>· and w, . Indicate the velocity image or link 3. (c} Solve for the above values
"'
1

using computer analysis . FIGURE U2

D2A • 4 In. 1102 mml AC• 6 In. (152 mml

1 1.15. For the linkage shown in Fig. 8.63, link 2 rotates 1t a constant angular velocity.
AB • 8 In. 1203 mml BC • 4 In. 1102 mml Determine v•. co., Aa , aod a. by (a) unit vectors; (b} velocity and acceleration polygons;
O.S • 4 In. 1102 mml AD • 3 in. 176.2 mml (c) proportion from results of part b for 3000 lpffi.
1.1'. For the linkage shown in Fig. 8.64, link 2 rotates at a constant angular velocity of
160 radls . Determine v•. "'••A. , and a. by (a} unit vectors; (b) velocily and accelcrotion
polygons; (c} computer analysis.

8.5 In. I r- ll.8in.

(300mrn)
-J
~ 8
(216mm)
.flGURE 8.60

8.13. For the linkage or Fig. 8.61, link 2 rotates at 1 constant angular velocity. (a)
Determine Ve and Ac u5ing unit vecton. (b) Drmw the velocity polygon and determine 0,A • J .94 In. (100 mm)
Ye. w,. and "'•· lnJicate the velocity imasc of each link. (c) Use computer methods to A.I • 13.8 In. 1350 mml
determine the above values.
8.14. for the crank-shaper mechanism 1hown in Fi&. H.62. link 2 rotates at a constant
angulur velocity. (a) Cakulate VA,• w., AA,• and a. usin& unit vccton. (b) Draw the velocity
polnon and dctennlne the relative velocities v..,., and v..,.,. Also calculate c.>,., "'"· and
"'"· (c) Determine the above values using computer analysis. nGUllE UJ
,
)
) 378 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

)
I; .,
14 In.
(356 mm)
4
)
;-----1--1
I

) / 0
01A • 6 In. 1152 mm) "''. l rad/ s
) A 61n.
(152 mm) AB • 8 In. !203 mml
04B • 8 In. (152 mm)
) -~
)
(J 2 A • 4 In. (l0 2 mml
o2 B • 4 lo. (102 mml
) 0.,4 • a In. ll52 mm)
o,o, • 8 In. !203 mml
B AB • 3 In . (76.2 mml
) FlGURE 8.64
flGURE 8.66
)
8.17. I n the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.65, link 4 rotates at a constant angular velocity
) and v. - 24 .4 mi s. Determine a 2 by (a) unit vecton ; (b) velocity and acceleration
pol ygo n~ ; (c) computer an11lysls. 0.5 In.

'
)
(12.7 m m)

I·t==
141n.
(356 mm)
)
) -- -~
) I OS In.

'"I_
l.SO in.
6 in. Va= 801t/s (12.7 mm)
(152 mm) t (24.4 m/s)
)
)
)
l !asI
i.
0 1A • 6 In. Cl52 mm)
AB • 8 Jn. 1203 mm)
O.S •6 in. (152 mm)
)
)
FlGURE 8.65 nGURE 8.6'7
)
) 8.18. For the linkage shown in Fig. 8.66, link 4 rotates at a amstant angulu velocity.
Detennine a 1 by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acceleration polygons; (c) computer o 2A • 3 9 4 in. (100 mm\
o,o, • 8 .R6 In (225 mml
) analysis.
8. 19. fn Fig. 8.67, a cam rotates at a constant angular velocity driving a ndial roller
) follower. Determine the acceleration of the follower by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and
acceleration polygom; (c) velocity and acceleration polygons to determine the follower
) acceleration when tbc cam is rotated 45" from .the position shown . For convenience in
drawing, rotate the follower relative to the cam.
J 8.20. For the Jrank-shaper mechanism 1hown in Fig. 8.68, link 2 rotates at a co~tant
l
) angular velocicy. Determine w.. A,.., and a. by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and accel· . FlGURE 8.68
cration polygops; (c) computer analysis. _ 379
)
)
)
>
 ,
-· _........;,:._ _
•
•
)

380 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VElOClTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS USING l1iE (IMP) 381 •
8.21. The driviDg link 2 or the Whitworth quick-return mechanism shown in Fig. 8.6!1
rotaics at a constant angulu velocity. Detennine the velocity and acceleration or the tool
holder (link 6) by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity a.ad acceleration polygons ; (c) computer
,•
analysis.
•
OiA • 7.5 1n . (191 mm)
048 • 4.0 in. (102 mml
03P • · 5.0 in. Cl 27 mm) •
~
BC • 14 1n. (356 mml OiQ • 8.0 in. 1203 mml
0 20 4 • 3.5 In (89 mm)

•
)

,•
I
nGURE 8.69
ncuu a.n •l
8.22. Link 2 of the Geneva mechanism "shown in Fig. 8.70 ri:>tatC$ at a oonstant angular l.U. ln the llidcr-cnnk mechanism of Fi&. 8 .74a, the velocity and acceleration of the •
velocity. Determine w, and a, by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acceleration polygons. slider arc given aod w, is constant. Derenninc VA. 1o1i, 411,, aod a, by (a) unit vectors; (b)
velocity and acceleration polygons; (c) computer analysis. (d) Wilh the value of v.. found •t
for Fig. 8.74a, detenuine the acceleration of the slider in Fig. 8 .74b and a , using an
acceleration polygon.
8.Z7. Par the linkage shown in Fig. 8.75, link 2 rotates at a constant angular velocity .
Determine w, aad a. by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acceleration polygons; (c)
,,
oomputer analysis.

•
•,
•
l
J
lo
(30.2 mm)
In. ,•
___l
FIGURE 8.70

•
8.23. A cam and follower arc shown in Fig. 8.71, with point Pon body 3 and point Q
on body 2. Determine Vg, c.>,, ..4 11 , and 11, by (a) unit vectors for the curved follower; (b)
velocity and acceleration polYSons for both the Oat-faced foUower and the curved follower.
8.24. [11 Fig. 8.72 , a cam rotating at 1 constant angular velocity drives an oscilla1 ing roller
028 • U In. 131.8 mm)
o,s • II in. (38.1 mm)
,
t

follower. Determine V,,, w., A,,, and a, by (a) unit vectors ; (b) velocily and acceleration
polygons.
8.25. An offset slider·crank mechanism is shown in Fig. 8.73. If w, is constant, determine
V,, w,, A,, and a , by (a) unit vectoD; (b) velocity and acceleration polygons; (c) computer •
,•
analysis . nGuu 1.n t
)
•
I
)
382 VELOCTTY ANO ACCELERATION ANALYSIS VELOCITI AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS USrNO lHE (IMP) 383
)
01A • 9.84 In. (250 lllln)
) AB • 29.S In. (750 mm)

2.!l ln.
) (63.!I mm)

) ! 4 .75 In.

) • "'Tm' ,,. 02A • 6 in. (152 mm)

AB - 3.79 In. (96. 2 mm)

)
) (6~ ~ ~;, }~cf:. --------J.~-. _]m)
)
·I
)
)
a .a2 1n.
i-.-- - - -- (724 mm) _ _ _ ___,..i
..
l
flGURF. 8.75
) FlGURE 8.73
velocity and acceleration polygons constructed fo r a unit speed o[ '"' ~ 1 rad /~ nnd u~ing
) proportion to increase to 3600 rpm; (c} computer analysis.
8.28. For the mechanism shown ·n Fi 8 76 link . 8.30. The wheel of the mechanism of Fig . 8.78 rolls without slipping. (a) Construct the
)
)
~;~::;n~!~~~!:;;:r=~~~.~~~fa~::l~Ii~esu:tc~:;~; ~~f!:C::;a~
if the angular velocity of the driving link . • d ty and acceleration of point D
velocity image of the wheel and determine Ve and w,. (b) Construct the acceleration image
of the wheel and determine Ac and a...
for w, = 1 r~d/s. II mcrease to 1200 rpm. (c) Computer analysis 8.31. A linkage that was used on steam loco01otivcs is shown in Fig. 8.79. For a locomotive
) speed of 96.6 km/ h , determine the velocities and accelerations of points C, R, and Sand
8.29. For the link~ge shown in ~g. 8.77, link 2 rotates at a constant angular veloci of w,, w,. a,, and a, by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acceleration palygons.
) 3600 rpm. Determine the veloaty and accelention of point F by (a) unit ~ecton~(b) 8.32. In the epicyclic gear train shown in Fig. 8.80a, the earner (link 2) rotates such that
"" c 12 rad/sand a "" 48 rad/s' at the instant shown. (a) Construct the velocity polygon
) 1
and show the velocity image of the planet (link 3). Determine w,. (b) Construct the
acceleration polygon and show the acceleration image of the planet. Dete rmine a,.
)
8.33. The carrier (link 2) of the epicyclic gear train shown in Fig. 8.80b rotates clockwise
) at a uniform speed of 10 rad/s. (a) Draw the velocity polygon and show the velocity

}
3 0 2A • 2 in. (50.8 mm)
) 6
D AB • 4 In.
AC • 8 In.
(102 mm)
(203 mm!
BD • 4 In. (102 mm!
) OeD • 4 in. (102 mm)
020e • 4 in. (I 02 mm!
) "'2 • 1 rad i i
A
)
0,A - 3 in. (76.2 mm!
) A AB - 7 In. U 78 mm)
Va • 8.79 Ills <2.68 m/sl"
) Aa • 79. l ftls2 (24. l m/s2) Ot 0

) (a) ,,,,l
) FlGURE 8.74 nGURE 8.76
)

>
)
)
,.. 1
::·
I

02A • 2.00 In. (50.8 mm)

VELOCITY AND Accr:LERATION ANALYSIS USING TilE (lMP) 385 •
'•
O,.D • 4.00 in. (102 mml
AC • 4.00 In. 1102 mml o._g - 6 00 In. 1152 mm) c c
AB • 1.75 In. 144.5 mmJ 4 In. d iameter
BC • 2.50 In. 163.5 mmJ llF • 4.00 In. 1102 "Mll
BD • 2.00 In. (50.8 mm) 0 201 • 6.81 In. 1173 mm) (102mm)

6 in. (152 mm)

•
i~25.40im)
1 In. ,•
~
,.., (b)
t
FlGURE 1.80

imqu of &cars 3 and 4. Determine the velocity of poiot D 1 • (b) Draw the acceleration poly-
•t
gon aod show the acceleration images of gean 3 and 4. Determine the a<=lelation of
point D>- •
1.34. For the meclanism shown in Fig. 8.81, link 2 rotates at a constant angular velocity.
DetcrD!iDc the velocity and acceleration of the slider and WJZ and a,. by (a) unit vectors ;
(b) velocity and acceleration polygons. ,•
,>
14-- -- - - - 1 7 3 mm - - - - - -..i

FlGURE 8.77
OR • 5 .0 In. U27 mml
RQ • 2.0 In. (50.8 mm)
QP - 20 In. (508 mm)
t

,•
10 In. 0 2 A • 4 in. II 02 mml
•
»
(254 mm) AB • !ii in. (229 mm)
HGURE 8.78
•t
QP • 25.0 In.
SQ • UlO in.
(t>J5 mmJ
(2540 ~
B •
RQ • 40.2 In.
SR • 80.4 In.
(1020 mm)
(2040 mm)
FIGURE 1.11
•
88 ft/ s •>
-
( 96.6 km/h) l.35. In the mcchanimi shown in Fig. 8.82. memben 4 and S are gears in muh. Link 2
rotates at comtant anaular velocity. (a) Construct the velocity polygons and show the
=
imaguofgea.n4 audS wbenw, = Oandwbenw, S rad/s. (b) Constroct the acceleration
polygons and shaw the images of gean 4 and S wben w, = 0 and when w, = S n d/s. •
Tr~ck
1.3'. For the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.83, link 2 rotates at constant angular velocity
•
384
FIGURE 8.79 and slider S moves with constant linear velocity. Detennine the velocity aod acceleration
•
 J
)
) 386 VELOOTY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
Oi A - 8 In. (203 mml
) 0,8 • 1.5 In. (38. l mm)
.AB • 12 In. (305 mm)
o~c - 5 In. 027 mml
CB • 3.0 In. 176.2 mm) CD • 6 In. (l52 mm)
)
)

,~
)
2 °,
)
) ~--""-
"

_
(lo~'::;m)
dlame~a-r --_ -+- _J_
1 2 In. (50.8 mm)

)
)
I
....__ _ _ _ 5.51 In.
~ (140mm)-----•
I FIGURE 8.84

OiA • 4 in. (102 mm)

) FIGURE· 8.82
AB • 8 In. 1203 mm)
AC - 8 in. 203 mm)

)
)
of point C by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acceleration polygons; (c) computer f
3.50 In. (89.0 mm}
analysis.
) 8.37. In Fig. 8.84 is shown a double slider-crank mechanism with the cranks rotating at _L
constant angular velocities. Detcnnine the velocity and aa:eleration of point D relatiw
) to point B by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acceleration polygons; (c) computer

)
analysis.
8.38. A double slider-qank mechanism is shown in Fig. 8.85. Crank 2 rotates at constant
1
lf--•1---- 9.4 lln.
(239mm)

angular velocity. Determine !he velocity and acceleration of each slider by (a) unit vectors; FIGURE US
) (b) velocity and acceleration polygons; (c) computer analysis. .
11.39. A diagram of a three-cylinder radial' engine is shown in Fig. 8.86. Uthe crank rotates
) ot constant angular velocity, determine the velocity and acceleration of each piston by (a)
) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acceleration polygons; {c) computer analysis.
8.40. A toggle mechanism is shown in Fig. 8.87 with link 2 rotating at a comtaot angulu
) velocity. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the slider by (a) unit vectors; (b)
velocity and acceleration polygons; (c) computer aoalysis. o2A• 5.0 in. (127 mml AD - 20 In. 1508 mm)
) AB • 20 in. (508 mml
AC • 20 in. (508 mm)
"'! - l rad/•

)
)
'
)
)
OtA • 6 in. (152 mm)
) AB • 7 In. (178 mm)
AC • 4 In. (102 mml
) BC • 5 In. (127 mml
BD • 8 In. (203 mm)

J
) FIGURE 11.116
FIGURE 8.SJ
I 387

>
)
~- -
) -~ .
• • r·
 ,
)

388 VELOCTl"Y AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

..2 :; 2 rad / I
VELOCITY ANO ACCELERATION ANALYSIS USING TllE (IMP) 389 ,,•
02A • 3.0 In. 176.2 mml BC • 12 In. 1305 mml

•,
028 • 3.0 In. (76.2 mml DE • 14 In. (356 mml
AD • 3.0 In. 176.2 mml 813 • 4.0 in. 1102 mm)

01A
AB
0 48
BC
•
•
•
•
4 In. 1102 mml
8 In. (203 mml
6 in. (152 mml
8 in. (203 mm)
5
4
E
,
•
•
I 5 .75 in. ·~1 •
FIGURE 1 .87
13 .5 In. _ __
(343mm)
Cl_4_6_m_m_)__
FIGURE 1.19

ceoters; (b) determine velocity of point B by instantaneous center methods; (c) check v.
,,
>

,,
)
found iD part b by drawing a velocity polygon.
8.41. For the linlcage &hown in Fig. 8.88, slider S movea with constant linear velocity. 1.44. For the ofbct slider-crank shown in Fig. 8.91 , determine the velocity of the slider
Detcnnioe VA c• t1>,., AAc• and"" by (a) unit vectors; (b) velocity and acc:clcration polygons; iu mm/a IUing instantaneous centers If c.>, "' 2 nd/s.
(c) computer analysis.
8.42. For the mecbanism shown in Fig. 8.89, determine: v., and A,, of the center of gravity
of the conncctiog rod. Also, determine the velocity of alidiog between links S and 4,
V c,c,· Solve for these quantitie' by (a) unit vectors; (b) velOcity and 1ca:leratioo polygoos; >
(c) computer aoalysis.
8.43. For the slider-crank mcchanim1 shown in Fig. 8 .90, (a) determine all instantaocmu •t
I •
0 2A • 3.0 In.
AB • 7.0 In.
(76.2 mml
(178 mm) I 0 1 A· • 5.00 In. (127 mml •
CD - 12 in.
CB • 6 .0 In.
(305 mm)
U:i2 mm)
1 All • 8.86 In. (225 mml
•
I ,•
FlGURE 8.90
,•
~
)
0 1A • 1.94 In. 1100 mml t
AB • 11.45 In. 1240 mml

Aoc=;c---4--(0)--------__._l_
3 in.
(76.2 mm)
)
,,
FIGURE 8.88 FIGURE 8.91
"'2"' 2 red/ s
,,
•
I
l
) 390 VELOCITY AND ACCBl...ERATION ANALYSIS VELOOTY AND ACCELERATIO N ANALYSIS USING Tilf. (IMP) J91
) 03A • 2 In. 150.8 mml 0 8 0 • 4 In. Cl02 mm) 8A9. Jn Fig. 8.82,..., ~ 15 rnd/s and w1 - S rnd /s. Determine"'• usinit the im ta nlanenu~
AB • 4 In. 1102 mm) ¥. • 4 In. 1102 mm)
) AC • 8 In. 1203 1111n1 centers 1.5. 14, 45.
BD • 4 In. 1102 mm ... • l rwdl1 8 -~· for the crank-Rhaper mechanism shown ln Fia. 8.93, determine (a) ell in~tantaneous
center locations, anc1 (h) lhe velocity of the 1001 hol<ler (link 3) udug lhc k11nwn velodly
v.. , ~ 12.2 mis .
) 8.51. (a) Given the mechanism shown in Fag. 8.94, locate all instan!aneous ce?ters. (b)
A Determine V 0 by instantaneous center methods if V, ~ 25 In.ls with "'1 lurrung coun·
) terclockwise .
)
l>JA - 3.0 In. C76.2 mml CD • 12.0 In. 1305 mm)
AB - 7.0 In. (178 mml CB • 6 .0 In. Cl 52 mm)
) I
nGURE 8.92
) 2 ·1
) - --- ~ - - r

)
8.45. Given the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.92, locate all instantaneous centers.
8.46. Without determining other instantaneous centers, locate the instantaneous centers
9%
•
---1---.-- 4 .5 1n .
3 In. ( 114 mm)
1
13 and 17 in Fig. 8.n . On what line is 37 located? l j<76.2
) 8.47. Locate the six Instantaneous centers or Fig. 8.78.
l-c102~./£L
' 4 In mm)

8.48. Determine all instantaneous center locations for the mechanism of Fig. 8.81; v. is
) 83.3 ft/sand V, is to be determined. Determine V, using instantaneous centers u.
15,
25. Checlc your answer by determining V, using instantaneous centers 13, 14, 34 and also
) 13, 15, 35.
)
)
)
f1GURE 834
)
8.52. The claw mechanism shown in Fig. 8.95 is used to shift items to the left with
) intermittent motion_ Gears 2 and 3 are in mesh at .P, and the velocity of Pis given by a
6.51n.
(165 mm) vector 1 in. long. Using instantaneous centers, determine the vector representing the
) velocity of C of the claw.
) /

)
)
)
)
)
J
]ml
101n.

) ,l
FIGURE 1.93 FIGURE 8.95
>
)
)
)
 •
•
•
392 VEL00TY AND ACCBl.J!RATION ANALYSIS USING TiiE (IMP) 393 / •
•
VELOatY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

8.SJ. In the mechanism 1bown in Fig. 8.96, gem 2 8Jld 3 are in mesh. The velocity of 1.56. 1be link abown in Fi&. 8.43a is made to rotate counterclockwise about 0 1 at a
poinl A is pveo by a vector I in . long. By using instantaneous centers, determine the
velocity or the slider (link S). Also determine w,.
uniform angular ac:cclcntion a, beginning frora rest 11 8i • 0. From the equations of
section 8 .25, determine expressions for the magnitude A, and angle jl in tem1s of a 1 rather •
than w,. Nu111erically, cvalu•te A, •nd ll for a, - 10 rad/s1, O,P • 4 in., and 9, - 120".
1.57. In ~ample ~-14 arc shown the c:alculation1 of A,, anJ jl of the 1cceleralion A,, of •
rhe connccllDg rod Ill the sUder crank in fig. 8 .44. Determine A, aod ~ when the crank
angle e, ~ 120" instead of 30". J
•
018 • 2.0 In.
01C • 3.0 In.
t50.8 mml
(76.2 mm)
BD • 6 .0 In. 1152 mml
DO • 8.0 in. t203 mml
1.51. Using the equalioas io section 8.26, continue the calculations of Example 8.14 10
determine V, and A, of the lilider for &i • 30". .
•>
C1' • 10 in. (2S4 mml Dlf • 4 .0 in. 1102 mml
CE • 5.0 in. (127 mm) 1.59. The crank of the Scotch yoke in Fig. 8.518 rotates at const.lnt ...,. Beginniog with

'•
the vector equation r,, ,. r, + r., derive expressions for the magnitudes V • and A. of
G 6 the yoke using the equations of COIIlplex numbeu. ' '

,•
'
t
>
•
•
flGURE 1.96
•
8.54. In the epicyclic gear b'ain of Fig. 8.97, the 1un gear (link 3) and the internal geu •
(link 5) have the 1ame KOSC of rotation; v., i& one-half the length of V ,,. Delenninc the
location or instantaneous center 14. Determine the angular-velocity ratios "'•'"'• and
fJGURE 8.98
•>
w,lw,.
8.60. In the mccbaoism of Fig. 8.99, the crank drives the linkage at constant "'i· Using
8.55. Usiog real and imaginary axes, sketch to scale the vectors given by the following complex number equations, determine expressions giving 8,, 111,, and a. in terms of w, and t
complex numbers: r "" Se'•ll, r"' -<k'•, r - B(cos flJ" + i sin (IJ"), r .. 10 - 40i, known lengths.
r = -4 - 8i, t c i(cos 120" ~- i 'in 120"), f = 1-i(cos 120" + i sin 120"). t
•
•
12 In.
•
)
(305mm)
rl>dlu•
•
I
•
flGURE 8.97 FIGURE 8.99

,•
•
 f
)
) 394 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

) 8.61. In Fig. 8. 100 is shown an offset slider crank for which the in.stantaneous values of
)
ea>,
th known•al the phase 91 • Bcgioaing with the vector equation r• + r4 • 1• + •••
and .ex, arc
and USJng e equat;oos of oomplcx numbers determine "'"'ressions for • - u r. ..
and '·· ' -r VJ• ~· :lit •• '"•• Chapter Nine
)
) Imaginary
Force Analysis
'' I of Machinery

-J. . .
I
)

••f
B
la ll
)
"'2...... rJ A l '
r,
t 2

, )
I
,.. ·I - A•I

FIGURE 8.100
)
) ~.62. With refc_rencc to the .four-_bar linkage of Fig. 8.47, the angular positions of the
links arc numencally detenruncd IQ section 2.1 for the data given in the figure and for
Oz .. f:l.J'. Evaluate numerically the values of w,, w., a» and~ when 8i "" fir, e»i • 1 9.1 INTRODUCflON
ra~/s, and cxz · = 0. Evaluate also the magnitude and angle of the accele.ration vector of To design the parts of a machine or mechanism for strength, it is necessary to
) point B.
detennine the forces and torques acting on the individual links. Each component
) , 8.63. Equations 8.84 and 8.8S for the four-bu linlcage show that a>, and "'• may be zero
when (~, - 6i) or (e, - BJ are zero, respectively. By sketches, show possible positions
of a complete machine, however small, should be carefully analyzed for its role
in transmitting force. A four-bar mechanism, for example, in reality consists of
) of the linkage for (a) !iii = 0 and (b) G1, ,,. 0. The same equations show that w, and-.
eight links if the pins or bearings connecting the primary ~~mbcrs are inc.luded .
may be infinite when link angles arc such as to make the dcnominaton of the equatioaa
zer~-_ Sketch possible positions of the linkage for (a) !iii = .., and (b) °'• = co. Are these Bearings, pins, screws, and other fasteners are often cntical elemen~ 1.11 ma-
) positrons practical? chinery because of the concentration of force at these elements. Mecharusms that
) transmit force by direct surface contact on small areas of contact, such as ca.nu,
gears, and Geneva wheel pins, arc also important in this respect.
) In machines doing useful work, the forces associated with the principal
function of the machine arc usually known or as.~umcd . For example . in a piston-
) type engine or piston-type compressor, the gas force on the piston is known or
) assumed; in a quick-return mechanism such as the crank shaper or the Whitworth
machine, the resistance of the cutting tool is assumed. Such forces arc termed
) static forces since in a machine analysis they arc classed differently from inertia
forces, which are expressed in terms of the accelerated motio n of the individual
) links.
) In mechanisms operating at high speeds, the forces on an individual link
that produce the accelerated motion of the link arc often greater than the static
I forces related to the primary function of the machine. In many rotary machines,
such as bladed compressor and turbine wheels, precautions are necessary to avoid
) runaway conditions in which speeds may exceed structurally safe design speeds .
)
) 395
)
)
 '•
396
9.2
FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE IN ROTOR BLADES ia PIA , in which P "" F and A • bt:

CENTlUFUOAL PORCE IN ROTOR BLADES 397 ''
In rotors, inertia force , the product of mass aod acceleration, is known as an- ·
f."-it. R dR •
trifugal force . In high-speed rotors with blades (such as compressor and turbine ~
wheels, supercharger wheels, fans, and propellers). centrifugal forces tend to .
s• .. -F ~ w w1
bt _ g
-
"·"·
(9.3) •
separate the blades from the rotor. Figure 9.1 shows a simple type of bladed '.
rotor. To determine the centrifugal force producing a resisting centripetal force Equation 9.3 shows that the stress at the base of the blade is independent •
at the base (section a-a) of any given blade, an integration is required since the of the cross·scctional area A = bt but depends on rotor speed, mass density, •
acceleration is a function of R. Assuming that the rotor is at constant angular
velocity w, the iucrtia force dF acting on the element of the blade shown is the
product of the mass of the clement dM and tbc centripetal acceleration A• z:
and the inner and outer radii of the blade$.
Rotor blades such as the wide blades of a fan are idealized in Fig 9.2. The
fan has the form of a disk with slots between the blades. The clement of inertia
•>
w 1 R from 'Eq. 8.4a. 1l1ercfore, force dF is the same as given by Eq . 9.1, in which the mass of the cle ment is
>
dF = (dM)A• = w 1R dM (9.1) w

It is recalled from the study of mechanics that inertia force is opposite in

dM = - tR d4> dR
g •
and

,
sense to the centripetal acceleration, benoc the term centrifugal force. The mass )
of the clement is the product of mass density wig (w is weight density io pounds
per cubic inch and g is 386 in./s1) and the volume of the clement bt(dR) ; b, t, and
R are in inches.

dF = w 1R ~ bt dR
Therefore,
•
~
g F = -W tw J.+•n/N1ll·~ R2 dR d<j>
2
g •-o
(9.l)
w tw1 I.If·~ R1d.R
211'-
R•llt
•t
F= - (9.4)
"-Iii
The average tensile stress s, at the base of tbc blade due to the inertia force , .
Ng
•
•~
f •
•
•
•
•
/
•
•
,•
/

FlGURE U FIGURE !1..l

)
,
)

•
'
) INERTIA FORC E, INF.R11.I\ TORQUB 399
l 398 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY
produces a tensile force on the blade parallel to the blade axis and d.F, produces
where N is the number of blades and Fis the force tending to separate the bl · a twisting moment dM, about the axis of the blade because of the moment arm
)
from the hub. The average stress at the base of the blade with cross-scCti :x sin p.
) area A .. 21f R;tl N is
R 1
)
1& ~ -w -w
1
11t·ll. R 1
dR
dF. - - dF • w R dM
a
} 8 R, tt-tt,
(9.6)
dF. = ~ tw1 R dx dR
) In aircraft pr~pcll~rs, the blades are set .at. a blade angle as shown in Fig> g
9.3. In such cases, mertJa forces produce a tw1sttng moment on the blade With cos 13 dF
) reference to Fig. 9.3, the inertia force dF on an clement t dz dR is · dF', ~ -
.t
= w 1 .t cos ll dM
a
)
dF - w 2a dM (9.7)
dF, = ~ tw1x cos 13 d:x dR
) g
in which dM = (w lg)t dx dR . The inertia force dF, which is due to A" of the
) cleme nt of mass , may be shown as the co mponents dF. aod dF., in which dF. dM, = x sin Jl dF,

,
)
dM, = ~ t cos 13 sin f3w2.t2 dx dR
g
(9.8)

) The total inertia force of the blade producing tension in the shank parallel
) to the axis of the blade is
Blide uls
) dF.. dF
F.. = -W
8
tw12 •&n f"-"• R dx dR
f'.-o 11•1',
(9.9)
)
) and the total twi.stiog moment on the shank is
,,
) (9.10)

)
)
9.3 INERTIA FORCE, INERTIA TORQUE
)
From the study of mechanics, it is known that the following equations of motion
) Hub apply for a rigid body in plane motion.
) Shenk (9.11)
l: F =MA,
(9.U)
Blade l:T==la
)
in which I F is the vector sum, or the resultant R, of a system of forces acting

,
) on the body in the plane of motion; M is the mass of the body ; nnd A, is the
acceleration of the mass center g (center of gravity) of the body. I Tis the sum
of the moments of the forces and torques about an axis through the mass center
) F1GURE 9.3
)
) ·'

)
)
 )

•
400 FORCE ANALYStS OF MAOIINERY

oonnal to the plane of motion; I is the moment of inertia or the body about the
INERTIA FORCE, INERTIA TORQUE 401 ,•
same axis through the mass ceoter; and a is the angular acceleration of the body
in the plaoe of motion. The unit of mass M commonly used is the slug (lb · r/
ft) , and the unit of moment of inertia I is slug · ft2 (lb · s2 • ft) . For the Inter-
)
,
national System of Uoits, the unit of mass is kilogram (kg), and the unit of
moment of inertia is kg · m 2•
Figure 9.4 shows a rigid body io plane motioo acted upon by forces for
which the resultant R is determined from the polygon of free force vectors shown.
,,•
Since R represents :I F, Eq. 9.11 may be rewritten

R =MA, (9.13)
•
~
For the case in which the forces arc known , the acceleration A, or the body may
be calculated from Eq. 9 .13 provided the mass is also known. The direction of )
FIGURE !1..5
A, is parallel to R and in the same sense as R.
The line of action of R is detennined as shown in Fig. 9.4 , and, from the •
principle o f moments, Re is c~ual to l: T. Equation 9.12 may be rewritten is sho_wn parallel io direction to A,. which is also parallel to R and is equal in
magrutude to R from Eq. 9.13. To be the equilibrant of R , however, F0 must be •
Re = Ia

The angular acceleration a of the body may be determined from Eq. 9.14 if the
(9.14) ~bown in a sense opposite to A,. Also , the line of action of F0 must be such that
Its moment about the mass center is equal and opposiJe to the moment of R.
Equation 9.14 may be used to determine the distance e of the line of action of
•t
Fo:
forces and the moment of inertia I of the body are known; a is in the same
angular sense as the moment Re. •
Equations of motion in the forms of Eqs. 9.11through9.14 are useful when
accelerations are to be determioed including magnitude, direction , and sense. e•
la
R •
•'
However, for mechanisms with constrained motion, accelerations are usually
Ia Ia.
known from a kinematic analysis as discussed in Chapter 8, and the forces and e=-ss-- (9.15)
moments which produce the accelerations are to be determined. F. MA,
When A, of a given link is lcoowo aod MA, is ~lculable, a simplification
in concept results if MA,, expressed io units of force, ia regarded as a force vector . It abould be noted that the moment of F. about the mass center is opposite •
F. and is shown as the cquilibrant of Ron the free-body diagram of the link. In
Fig. 9.5, the body of Fig. 9.4 is 6howo with F0 as an equilibraot. As a vector , F0
ID sen~ ~o. a . By showi_
n g F. opposite io sense to A, and
opP?s1te 1~ sense to a, 1t appean to represent a resistance
the moment of F.
to the accelerated •
motion of the link and in a sense is a measure of the inertia of the link. Thus,
•
F0 is termed ao inertia force.
. I~ Fig. 9._S, F. is shown as the cquilibrant ofR. An alternative representation
as m_ Fig. 9 .6 1s t.o show F. at the mass center g and to add an inertia torque or
•
lntrt:i.a couple T. 10 a sense opposite to a. The magnitudes of F0 and r. are given •

P
1'a by the followiog equatioos: I
F. =MA, (9.16) •
•t
l

0, T... Ia (9.17)

Wh~ A1 is zero aod a is of a value other than zero, only the inertia couple T0
remams.
•
FIGURE 9.4 · It may be seen from Fig. 9.5 that, by showing known mass acceleration
)
•
I
) FORCE DETERMINATION 403
l 402 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY

) I'

)
)
)
)
)
FIGURE 9 .6 FlGURE 9.8
)
ncuRE ' ·'
)
effects of a link as an inertia force, the equations of motion (9.11and9.12) may i
be interpreted as equations of static equilibrium and may be written as: currency k. In some cases, a greater number than three forces on a body m ay
) be reduced to three by determining the resultant of the known for~es.
) :IF= 0 • A ri ·d body acted upon by a co'u ple is in static cquilibri~ ?nly if acted upon
3
:t T == 0 by ano~er coplanar couple equal in magnitude and opposite 10 sense as shown

'
) in which :IF includes F and l: T includes T.,. This is sometimes referred to as
0 ,

the concept of dynamic equilibrium. In Fig. 9.5, the polygon of free force vectors; ·
in Fig. 9.9 .
In the case of a static force analysis, the vector sum of the force;; on cac_h
·bn'wn This must also be true for a dynarruc analysis
) including F• • closes as required for static equilibrium. · liok must cqual zero f or cquil1
· · f
• • . f
re used -r0 use the concept of inertia forces 1s there ore an
The inertia force method is a simple and useful method since kinetic prob- when inertia orces a · .. , · h
) lems involving rigid-body linkages in plane motion arc reduced to problems of advanta e because both static and dynamic cases can be treated 10 t c ~ame
static equilibrium. Becl\use of the constrained motion of linkages, accelerations manner~In both cypes of analyses, the vector equations can be solved analyttcally
) or raphically to detcnnine the unknown forces . .
and inertia forces and couples of the individual Jinks may be determined tint,
g Factors which determine whether an analytical or a gra~?ical solut1on should
) and the forces producing accclenited motion may then be determined from the
laws of static equilibrium. be made arc the type of mechanism and the number of positions to ~ analyz~d.
) For relatively simple mechanisms such as cams and gears, an a~~yt1cal solu~on
· rail cd For the analysis of a linkage at only one position, a graphical
) 9.4 FORCE DETERMINATION ts gene Y us • • al ··
solution is much quicker than an analytical one. However, if sever pos1uons ~r
In the force analysis of a complete mechanism, a free-body diagram of each link complete cycle arc to be studied, analyti~ methods should be selected. This
) should usually be made to indicate the forces acting on the link. In determining
8
1s es cciall true if computer facilities arc available o~ pocket or desk calculators
) the directions of these forces, the following laws from the study of statics will be .thPvecto~ resolver capabilities. It should be mentioned, however, that even
recalled. :'hen an analytical solution is used, it is often desirable to check the results at
)
one position by graphical means.
1. /\ rigid body acted on by two forces is in static1cquilibrium only if the two
> forces are collinear and equal in magnitude but opposite in sense. If only the
) points of application of the two forces arc known, such as A and B of Fig. 9.7,
the directions of the two forces may be determined from the direction of the line

,
) joining A and B.
2. For a rigid body acted upon by three forces in static equilibrium, the lines of
action of the three forces are concurrent at some point such as le in Fig. 9.8.
I Thus, if the lines of action of two of the forces are known , the line of actioo of FJGURF. 9.9
the third force must pass through its point of applicatioo aod the point of am-
)
)
)
)
)
 '
J
•
404
9.5
FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY

METHODS OF LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS

1\vo methods for an11lyring the forces in mechanisms are currently used: (a) tbq
LINKAOB FORC!i ANALYSIS BY SUPERl'OSITION

Example 9 .2 aives a sim~ar solutioo done graph.ically using only the inertia forces
and offsettmg them a distance ~ to produce a couple equivalent to the inertia
405
,•
superposition method and (b) the matrix method. Both of these methods will be
torque .
•
discussed in this text. The superposition method is best suited for haod cakulatiori
or graphical layout, whereas the matrix method is best suited for computer so! Example 9.1. Io Fis.. 9.lOa is '!3own the linkaae from Fig. 8.7 of ~ample 8 .1 for which
,•
lutioo. In the superposition method , a separate analysis of the mechanism is mad~
for each moving link considering the inertial and external forces and torqu~
acting oo that link alone. A mechanism having n moving Jinks therefore require$
• veloaty aod ac:ceiccabon anal)'SIS bu been made. It is required to determine the bearing
forces on each link and the shaft torque T, al 0 1 by superposition using unit vectors.
,
•,
n separate analyses. The results of these analyses are then summed together td Solution. From the solution of Example 8.1,
determine the total forces and torques in the mechanism. In the matrix method~
the equations of motion are written for each moving link taken as a free body! w, = 4.91 radls (ccw)
This results in a system of 3n linear equations in 3n unknowns, which must be
solved simwtaneously.
1\vo variations of the superposition method find Wide usage. The first method
w, • 7.82 rad/s

a > ""' 241 rad/s1

(ocw)

(ccw)
•
uses inertia force and inertia torque directly and is best suited for analytical work~ •
The second method eliminates the need to consider the inertia torque by offsetting
the inertia force by an amount e. This method is preferrable in graphical solutions:
Both these methods are illustrated in the following section.
a, "' -129 rad/51
AA - - ni - 124.SJ
(cw)
•,
IAAI - 144 ft/r
A• - -88.li + 3S.8j •
9.6 LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS
BY SUPERPOSmON
IA.I = 95.1 ft/5l •
l
The principle of superposition may be used in the force analysis of a rigid body By using the above values, the followiog aa:clcrations were calallated and their directions
in static equilibrium. This principle states that a resultant effect may be deter-
determined:
•
mined from the summatioa of several effects which are equivalent to the total
effect. By this method , a linkage with several forces acting on it can easily be IA,.I "' 91 .6 ft/s 1 •
analyzed by determining the effect of these forces taken one at a time. The results IA,.I - 62.1 tt1s1 •
of the several single-force analyses are then added together to give the total forces
acting on each joint in the linkage. Superposition can also be used advantageously
The angles at which the vector A., and A._ act arc shown in Fig. 9.lOa.
•
to combine the results of a static and an inertia force analysis that have beeo
made independently.
Although this method is easy to use, it bas the disadvantage that the link.age
must be analyzed several times, which often beoomcs tediow . Another disad- ·
The magnitudes of the inertia force$ and torques can be calculated as follows:

F., ~ 0 (A,, "' 0)

'•
4 x 91.6
~
vantage is that an accurate analysis cannot be made if friction forces are to be
F., - M.AD - 32.2 - 11.4 lb
considered. ln linkages with turning pairs, this problem does not usually arise
because friction forces a.re small enough to be neglected. However, with sliding 8 )( 62.7 •
pairs, such as with the piston and cylinder in the slider-crank mechanism, su-
perposition would not be a suitable method of analysis if friction is to be con-
F., • M,A,. ., .
32 2
= 15.6 lb
) •
sidered between the piston and cylinder. Errors would occur because of a change T., • -/J«, • -0.006 x 241 • -1.446 lb · ft • - 17.35 lb · in.
•
in direction o( the force between the piston and cylinder in the separate solutions
required for superposition .
T., • -1,a. • -0.026 x - 129 • 3.351 lb · It • 40.21 lb · in. /
•
An analytical force analysis by superposition is given in Example 9.1 using
inertia forces and inertia torques directly in the equations o( dynamic equilibrium . .
'. The vccton F.,, F.,. T., and T., are shown in Fi&. 9.lOb and c in their correct positions
.and with the correct orientations. •
I
•
)

•
 ,
\
)
406 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY SUPERPOSITTON 407
)
w, - 10 lb The solution or this problem will be carried out u.,ing superposition considcrin& (a)
) w, - 4 lb
y only F., and r .. acting, (b) only F;, aod T., .aing, aod (c) additioa of the two analyses .
w, • 8 lb 0iA • 31<1. All romponents h11ve been 111ken rdarivc to the xy-u e1 rued In link l .
) 12 • O.Ol 7 1b . a1 . rt AB• I In.
r, - o .006 lb . s2 . 1t o,s • I In.
r, - 0.026 lb . s2 . n roacs ANALYSIS wrnt ONLY F., Arm T.. ACTING. F igure 9 .10b shows a free-body

..
) "•• - 4111. diapam of link 4 upon which act fortes F... F;., and F;, and to rque T.,, where F;. b the
o.,, - 1.27 hi. force link 3 exerts on link 4 and F;. is the force link 1 exerts on link -4. Tbe single prime
)
is wed to indicate that these are only that part of the actulll forces which act between the
) links due to F., and T... Note that the d irection of F;. is known , because link 3 becomes
a two-force member in this portion of the superposition process. Both the d irection and
) the magn itude o f Fj, arc unknown, however. Since link 4 is In equilibrium under the action
- - - --z of forcu F.,, F;., and F;. and torq ue T.,, moments rnay be summed about any convenient
) point and set e qual to zero.
2
) By summing moments about point o ..
) F•.(O,g,) sin 115.1° + F',.(O,B) sin 81" + T., - 0
(a)
) (15.6)(5.27) sin 11s.1· + .F",.(8) sin trr + 40.21 = O

) F;. = -14.35 lb
Lillk 4 must also be i n mmslational equilibrium under the action of the given forces, so
that
) A
I F., + F;, + F;. = 0
./ r;, dl.-.ctlon Expressing F., and r;. in the .ry<00rdinate system sjves
) - l l.4lb1
F._ = I 5.6 (cos 7.4" I - sin 7.4" J)
) 87"
- IS.SI - 2.0JJ
)
F>J -

,
Id F). - - 14.351
) r And the translational cquihbrium equation for link 4 becomes
IS.SI - 2.0lJ - 14.351 + F;.,I + F;.,.J = 0
)
where F;., and F;,, are the .r- and y-compoocnts of Fj,, respectively.
)
By summing I componenb,
> I5 .51 - I4.351 + r..,1 ,. 0
)
C.I F;., ~ - 1.15 lb
) FIGURE 9.10
By summing J compontnts,
) - 2.0tJ + r ..,J - o
)
,.
F;., = 2 .01 lb
) To calculate the shaft torque r, ne~ary to bold link 2 in equilibrium under the
)

>
)
)
·-=··
 ,
_,
,•
408 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAODNERY
LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY SUPERPOSfTION
409 •
action of the couple produced by Fxi and Fu. refer to Fig. 9.lOd, whue

F., - f'., - 14.3 lb

By swnmlnl j componUJJs,
+ Fii,J • 0
•
d' ~ 2.S9 in .
S.SJJ - 0.60J
r;,, - •
-4.93 lb
•
Fis - (F'J, + ~) 111
,
Therefore, 11.1 lb
- )
T; ~ F,..d' .. (14.3)(2.59)
The ihaft torque r:
necesury to hold liak 2 in equilibrium under the action of the
= 37.2 lb · in. (ccw) couple produced by Fi. and F:. can be calculated from F'11. 9.lOt, where .
i
Torque T; could also have been euily "determioed using veaor equations for F.ii and"{
I Fi "" 11.1 lb •
and the relation .
and •
T; = - (F,.. x d ' )
ti' "" 1.66 ~-
•
F., AND T., ACUNG. Figure 9. lOc &hOW$ a free-~
FO llCI: A.NALYS&S WTT1I ONLY •
diagram of link 3 under the action of three forces F.,, r;,, and I:, and torque T.,. H~, ;
the double prime denotes part b of the A1perposition problem. The direction of is r., P.
Therefore,
•
known, and that of F;, is along line O,B because link 4 becomes a two-fon:e member
when F., and T., arc omitted. Li1* 3 is ia equilibrium under the action of forces F.,,
..
~
r: - Iii d" "" 11. 1 x 1.66 •
r.,, and r., and torque T.,. Once again, momenu may be summed about aoy convenient · • 18.S lb · in. (ccw)
•
point and set equal to zero .

By summing moments aboUl point A,

F,,(A.,) sin 29.1° + F:,(AB) cos 3• + T., - 0
U desirable, T: can be calculated using the following vector equations:
Fi:. ... - Fii - 9.98i + 4.9JJ
,,•
(11 .4)(4) sin 29.1° + F:,(8) cos 3° - 17.3S :. 0
er - 0 .7361 - l.49J

r., - - 0 .604 lb and >

Link 3 mu' t be in tran5lational equilibrium under the action of the given for~. 50 that T.' - - CFia x D ") •
F'> + F;, + Fi> = 0 • 18.S k lb · in. (ccw) •
Expressing F., and F:. in the .ry-coordinate 5}'Stem gives •)
F., = ll.4(cos 29.1°l + &in29.l " J) = 9.941 + S.S3j Fxi = F~ + Fi:. - Fu + Fi:.
t
- 14.31 + 9.981 + 4.93J
FU = 0.604(cos 87' I - lin 87" J) .. 0.04i - 0.60J
and the translational equilibrium equation for liolt 3 becomes
- 24.31 + 4.93J •
+ + + F'n.1 + F'llfj - 0
•
9.941 S.53J

lly 111m111t111 I .-um1w11~nts,

0.041 - 0 .60j
/F11f • I
2.U lb
F., • fl~+ r.,
•t
+ 0 .041 + F'xi.1 - 0
9.941
f";,. - -9.981b
- 14.JJ + 0.0321 - 0.604J
•
- 14.31 - 0.604J
•
)

'•
I

'
)
410
end
FORCE AN Al YSIS OF MACHINERY
UNKAOE FORCH ANALYSIS BY SUPERPOSITTON

F., = M,A,, = 3.63 x 19.11 = 69.4 N

411

)
!Fol = 14.4 lb e, = I,a, = 0.008 x 241 = 0.0381 m = 38.11 mm
) F,, - F;, + F,', • F;, + r.'1 F., 50.6

) .. -1.131 + 2.0lJ + 0.0321 - 0.604J e, = I,a, .. 0 .035 >< 129 - 0.0651 m = 65.1 mm
F., 69.4
) - I.lot - 1.41J
The vectors F., andF., are shown on the configuration diagram (Fig. 9.lla) in their corr.ect
) and positions relative to their respective acceleration vecton, that is, p~allel to acceleration
vector, opposite in sense, and offset a distance e so that F. x I! gives a torque whose
~
IF..! = 1.78 lb
sense is opposite to that o[ a .
T, T;+T; Tho solution of this problem will bo carried out using auperposition considering (a)
) only F .. acting, (b) only F., acting, and (c) addition of the two analyses .
.. 37.2 + 18.S
)
55.7 lb· in. (ccw)
) Therefore, u2 - 4 .53 •1
) F,. 1.78 lb
u3 - 1.81 I<&
u, - 3 .63 •a
2
) F0 = 14.4 lb lz - 0.023 kg · m OiA • 76.2 mm
2 AB• 203 mm
ls• 0.008ka· m
> Fu = 24.8 lb 14 - 0.035 kl · m
2 0 4 B - 203 mm

Fu -= 24.8 lb
)
T, =. 55.7 lb · in. (ccw)
)
) Example 9.2. A graphical analysis of the linkage of Exampl~ 9.1 will now be made
using superposition and inertia forces only and using S.I. units. 1be inertia torque& are
} /
or
eliminated from consideration by of!Xtting the inertia forces from the mass centers the
links to produce an equivalent couple. ·
)
) r Solution. The following values were determined from an aca:leration polygon (not
shown) for the linkage.
) (b}
A,,= 0
)
A,, .. 27.92 m/s1
)
A,. = 19.11 m/s1
)
a, - 241 rad/s' (ccw)
) a , = 129 rad/s' (cw)
o,
) Vecton representing the above values a.re sbownon the configuration diagram (Fig. 9.lla).
'"··-Fb
(63.6 H)
The magnitudes of the Inertia ron:es and offset dittancea c:an be caleul1ted u follows:
)
(<I
F., • 0 (A,, - 0) T: •fit " cl'• 4.18 N•m
J
F., .. M,A,, - 1.81 >< 27.92 • S0.6 N
"'
HGURE 9.U
)
)
)
)
)
..
?>·.

. I
4U FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY j LINKAGE FORCB ANALYSIS BY MATRIX METHODS 413
FORC.t ANALYSIS wtnf Ol'ILY F., ACllNG. Fipre 9 .1lb &bows a free·body diasra~ fiiure 9.lle 1how1 the frco-body diagram of liok 2. Force Fi. acts at point A H
of link 4 upon which act F.,. F;., and Fj•. The direction of r .. is knowo and that of F',. ii lhown and is balanced by the equal and opposite force F'u applied at point 0 1 . Because
along liolc 3 because link 3 beoomes a two-force member when r., is omitted from thq . these forces are oot collinear and form a couple Fii x d', it is necessary to apply a torque
T, with a sense opposite to that of the couple to bold link 2 io equilibrium. Torque r; is
analysis. The direction line& of these two Yectors intersect at point k'. Link 4 is in equiJ
librium uoder the action of these three forcu with DO couple acting upon it; therefore! applied to the shaft upon which link 2 is mouoted.
the direction of vector F;, must pass through point& k' and O,. ! fORCE ANALY$1S WJTB ONLY F., ACTING. Figure 9.124 shows a free-body diagram
Figure 9.1 lc shows the force polygon for the determination of the magatiducs an4
senses o f the vectors F;,. and F;.. 8cc.a\1$C link 4 is in equilibrium, F., + Fi, + F;. • ~ .. of linlc 3 under the action of three forces F-i, fi%., and r.,. The direction of F. is blown
-' and that of r., is along line O,B because link 4 beoomes a two-force member ~hen F is
and the polygon closes as shown.
figure 9.lld shows the free-body diagram of liok 3 with force Fb acting at point 1I omitted from tbc analysis. The intersection of the knowo directions of F., and F;, gi·~cs
point le". The direction or fi, must pass through points k• and A because link 3 is in
and t·~ acting al point B. Link 3 is io equilibrium under the action of these two foi:1*.
The directions of these forces arc along the link, and their magoitudcs arc equal to thd equilibrium wider the action of these three forces with no couple acting upon it.
magaitude of F). as shown. !, Figure 9.12b shows the force polygon for the dclcrmination of vectors F;, and F;,.

&s;--
Because link 3 is in equilibrium, P., + r., + FO • 0 and the polygon clo&CG as shown.
Figure 9.12c shows the flu-body diagram of link 4 with force r,. acting at point B
· and Fj', acting at point o.. Link 4 is in equilibrium under the action of these two forces
so that they act along the lioc o.B and their magnitudes ue equal to that of Y., as shown.
... = 50.6N
• ~ _L
r_,di...:tion Figure 9.12d shows the free-body diagram of link 2. Forces Fj, and r., act at points
A and OJ> respectively. Because a couple is fo1U1cd"by (lj, x rt', it is necessary to apply
(aJ
,B torque r; with a &cosc opposite to that of the couple to bold linlc 2 in equilibrium. ./

···-Pb
(49.4N)
TOTAL roaas. Figure 9.12e &hows the free-body diagram of link 3 in equilibrium
with forces F.,, lfu. and f., where by &uperposition Fu • Fii + fi%, and F.., -:= F0 + r.,.
Figure 9.11/ shows the free-body diagram of link 4 in equilibrium under the action of
.·
forces F.., F;w, and F,•. Force F,. = F;. + r..as shown. Figure 9.12g shows link 2 in
~uilibrium with forces F:si and F 11 and torque T, ~ r, + T;.

(cl

LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS

BY MATRIX METIIODS
{c)
• Although the superposition method is computatio nally easy to u se, it becomes
tedious because the linkage must be analyzed 5CVeral times . T he matrix melhod,
..... y;, oo the other band , requires only a single analysis bul results in a set of linear
F.:i equations which must be solved simultaneously for aU the unknown forces and
(64.l N) Fi.)\ •
torques. If a computer or calculator program for solving sets of linear equations
F"~ ~,~ ..•• is available, the matrix method wiU require less effort on the part of the designer.
For hand calculation, however, the superposition method will be easier to use.
Fu(7.92 HI l'i•
• . It should also be pointed out that the superposition method can be checked
graphically at each step aod gives directly the separate force effects due to the
mass and inertia of each link. ·
As an example of force analysis using matrix methods, consider the four-
(9) bar linkage of Fig. 9.13. Note that the mass centers of the moving links g 2 , g 3 ,
and g 4 need not be along the lines connecting the joints. As with the superposition
c method, the position and linear aa:cleration of the mass center of each moving
m "link and the angular acceleration of ~ach moving link must be known from
previous analysis. In the matrix method, each link must be shown separately in
FIGURE 9.U
J
)
) 414 FORCB ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY UNKAOB FORCE ANALYSTS BY MATROC MElltOOS 415
) / . Link 3:
) ,- (9.20)

~ (9.?1)
)
)
•• Unk4:
(9.22)

) (9.23)
) where
r4 - the vector from the center of gravity of link i to joint j
) 1 F,. = the force link i exerts on link k (note that F,. "" - F., as shown io
flGURE 9.JJ the figure)
)
g, = the center of gravity of link l

,> a free -body diagram; this baa been done In Fig. 9.14. Fiom the free-body dia-
grams, the equations of motion for each moving link may be written in vector
A,, - the acceleration o( the center of gravity g,
a, = the angular acceleration of link i
M, = the mass of link i
> form as follows :
11 = the mass moment of inertia of link i about its center of gravity
) Link 2: T, .. the driving torque applied to the input link
) The vector force equations (Eqs. 9.18, 9.20, and 9.22) are separated into
) x- and y-components as follows:

) FJJ.r - Fz!Jt = M1A:,. (9.24)

) Fn, - FJ11 = M1A,.,, (9.25)

J
F,lz - Fni = M3A 1,.. (9.26)
)
) F.,, - F:n, = M,A,.,, (9.27)

) f23 - -F32
F 1., - F,11. = M,A,.. (9.28)
)
F1•1 - F.1, = M,A,., (9.29)
)
Expanding the vector cross products in Eqs. 9.19, 9.21, and 9.23 by using the
) relation r >< F = r,F1 - r,Fi gives
) (9.30)
Fz1

> I (9.31)
) Vffd
flGURE 9.14 (9.31)
)
)
)
) - ~ ··

~-
 ,
•
)

•
416 fORCll ANAl.YSIS OF MAOUNERY
LINKAOE FORCE ANALYSIS BY MATRIX METHODS 417 •
- 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 M1A,u
r
•
0 -1
- rn..
0
- ru,,
1
'u.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
M1A1lr
•
•
'11, ! 101
0 0 -1 0 1 0 0 0 0 M>A,J. 250"
0 0 0 -1 0 1 0 0 0 M0,,,
•
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-rn.
0
0
0
ru,

-1
0
0
1
0
-r'V r"4i
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
/303
M.A,'"
M,A"'
I,a.
,•
i )
flGURE 9.15 I 2
I
l
)
I _ _,_____ x
Equations 9.24 through 9.32 form a set of nine liocar equations in the ninci
•
unknowns Fu,. F11,. Fllz, Fn,. Fe., F437 , F14., F14,,, and T,. With some minorj
rearrangements, these equations may be cast in the matrix fonn shown in Fig.I
9.15. Most computers and many programmable calculaton have programs avail-:
able for solving such systems of linear equations. Nole that it would be an easy. Wa • JO lb 02A • 3 io.
,
)

matter to add the effects of other known external forces to the right-hand side Wj - 4 lb
w,. 8 lb
AB• 8 In.
O,B • 8 In.
>
of this matrix equation.
/2 • 0.0l711> · s1 · rt Ag3 • 4 ln. )
Example 9.3. Figure 9 .16 $hows the linkage from Fig. 8.7 of Example 8.1 for which a Ia • 0.006 lb · 1 2 · ft 0414 • 5.27 in.
velocity and aoccleration analysis bas been made. It is required to determine the bearing
force' on each link and the shaft torque T, at 0 1 using the matrix method.
1, - 0 .0215 lb . s 2 . ti
FIGURE 9.16 •
The first uep in this analysis is to determine vectors A,, and r~ as foll~ws :
•
A,, "' Oi + Oj {ft/s2) M~,,. - (4 lb · s1/32.2 ft)(-91.<>8 ft/s1) .. -11 .31 lb
•
r,, = 01 + Oj (in.) M.A.,,, • (4 lb · s2/32.2 ft)(-9.73 ft/51) - -1.21 lb
•
ru - 3 L37" - 2.4-01 + l.81J (i.u.) /,a, - (0.006 lb · ,i · ft)(l2 in.fft)(24l rad/s 1) .. 17 .35 lb · io. •
A,, = 91.6 Ll86.l • = -91.081 - 9.73J (ft/sl) M.A.., - (S lb· s'/32 .2 ft)(-54.08 ft/s 1) ~ -13.44 Jb •
)
r,, - 4 L1519 - -3.68i + l.S6J (in.) M,A.., - {S lb · s'/32.2 ft)(31.73 ft/s') - 7.88 lb
r., - 4 L - 23" - 3.681 - U6J (in.) I,a, - (0.026 lb · 1 1 • ft)(12 in./f1)(-129 rad/a') - - 40.2.'i lb · in. t
A,, • 62.7 L 149.6" - - S4.081 + 31.73j (ft/s1) The above values arc substituted Into the matrix analysis equation of Fig. 9. JS. The •
r,. ~ 5.27 L85• - 0 .461 + 5.2SJ
r., - r.. + O,B - r.. + 8 L2.SO" - - 2 .281 - 2.27J
(ia.)
(In.)
renlltiog system of analysis equations may be roJved using any one of a wide variety of
111etbodJ. In this case, the equations have been solved by matriJt inversion. A BASIC
computer program for force analysis of four·bar linkages using matrbc methods and in-
venion is listed in Appendix~ - The results of this program are given below.
/
,,•
Next, 1hc inertia forces and torqu~ arc calculaled.
F.,. - 24.29 lb
M 1A 11 , ~ ( 10 lb · s 1/32.2 ft)(O ft/12) - 0 lb F,., • -•.9S lb F.,, - 24.80 lb •
M,A,,, = (10 lb · s 1/32.2 ft)(O ft/s') • 0 lb
F1111 • 2•.29 lb
•
/ 1a 2 • (0.017 lb · s1 • ft)(l2 in./ft)(O rad/r) = 0 lb · in.
F~ = -4.95 lb
Fo. • 12.9S lb
Fu = 24.80 lb
,
)

•
}

l FORCE ANALYSIS USING 11IE rtrrEGRATED MECHANISMS PROORAM (lMP) 419

418 FORCE ANALvsrs OF MACHINERY
l
F,,, = -6.16 lb F., = 14. 36 lb r
)
F,., = -0.46 lb
) F,., - 1.73 lb F,. • 1.79 lb
T. ~ 55 .70 lb · in. (ccw)
\ r 4

·niese results check with those obtained in Ezample 9.1 In whlcb the superposition
) method was used to solve this same problem. The results of that example, however, are
) expressed In the coordinate system attached to the coupler link, whereu the results of x
this exnmple are expressed in the fixed coordinate system. /

) OH2
OH4
004
002
9.8 FORCE ANALYSIS USING
) THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS o.p, - \0 ;n.
W2 • 5 lb
W3 • 10 lb
) PROGRAM (IMP) 0 1 A • 3 in.
w, - 15 lb
OJ8z - 1 in. 2
In Chapter 2 (section 2.4), the use of the Integrated Mechanisms Program {IMP) AB • 12 in. 12 • 0 .001 lb . • . "
) -"'i • 4 In. 13 - 0 .0 20 tb · s2 · n
was introduced as a convenient method of displacement analysis of four-bar
OoIJ • 6 In. r, - o.o10 1b · , 2 · 11
) linkages. A later presentation showed how IMP could also be used for velocity
0 4R 4 • _<!In.
and acceleration analysis. The use of IMP for force analysis is presented below.
) Figure 9.17 is reproduced from section 2.4; the positions of the centers of FIGURE 9.17
gravity of links 2, 3, and 4 have been added to the figure. Listed below the figure
} are the specifications of the link lengths, weights of links, and the moments of centers of gravity could have beeo taken as G2 relative to A, G3 relative to B,
) inertia of the links.
The statements for the revolutes to be listed in the ioput to the IMP program and G4 relative to B.
) are the same as for the Example 2.3 and are reproduced below. In addition, a POINT ( LNK2 l •002,G2,AA2
statement for gravity must be added to the revolute statements as shown. 1bit OATA:POINTl002,0H2)•0,0 ,0
) value is 386 in.ls1 for link lengths expressed in inches.
DATA:POINTIG2 .0H2l•1 , 0,0
) GROUND•FRAME OATA : POINT (AA2 , Al•0,0,0
) REVOLUTEIFRAME,LNK2l•OH2 POINT(LNK3l=AA3,G3,BB3
AEVOLUTE(LNK2,LNK3l•A DATA : POINT(AA3,A)•0,0,0

'
)
REVOLUTE!LNK3,LNK4l=B
REVOLUTE!LNK4 , FRAMEl•OH4
ZEAOIGRAVITYl = 386
OATA:PO INT(G3 , Al•4 ,0,0
OATA:POINT!BB3 , Bl •0,0 ,0
POINT<LNK4)cBB4,G4,004
)
Next, the coordinates of the revolutes arc listed from Example 2.3. OATA:POINT(BB4,B)a0,0,0
) DATA : POINTIG4,0H4)•4,0,0
DA!A:REVOLUTE!OH2)c0,0,0/0,0,1/1,0,01-2.1213,2.1213,0
DATA:POINT ( 004 , 0H4l•0,0 , 0
) DATA : REVOLUTE!Al =- 2.1213,2.1213 , 0/-2 . 1213,2 . 1213 ,1 /$
0,0 , 0 / 9 . 2242,5 . 9388,0 The data for the weights of the links in force units and the coordinat~ of
) DATA :REVOLUTE(8)•9 . 2242,5 . 9388,0/9 . 2242 , 5 . 9388,1 / $ th ters of gravity relative to the local coordinate systems attached to the links
) - 2 . 1213,2.1213,0/ 10,0,0 e revo Iu tes om , A , and OH4 as specified above are as follows:
at ethcen
DATA:REVOLUTE !OH4)•10,0,0 /1 0,0 , 1 / 9.2242,5.9388,0 / 12,0,0 DATA : WEIGHT(LNK2 ,0H2 l •5 ; 1 , 0.0
)
The data for the points defining the links and their centen of gravity are DATA :WEIGHT(LNK3,Al•10 ; 4,0.0
> listed oext as om, G2, and AA2 for link 2; AA3, G3, and BB3 for link 3; and
884, G4, and 004 for link 4. These are given below with the distance of G2
OATA:WEIGHT(LNK4.0H4l•15;4,0,0
The data for the moments of inertia of the links uc listed lclative to the
) taken relative to revolute 0112, distance G3 taken relative to rcvolute A, and local coordinate systems at the revolutes om. A , and OH4. The moments of
distance G4 taken relative to revolute OH4. It should be mentioned that these
)
)
>
J
..
 )

•
•
420 FOllCE ANALYSIS OF MAOilNBRY
LINXAO!i FORCE ANALYSlS BY nm ME'IliOD OF YIRllJAL WORK 421
•
inertia are weight moments of inertia and arc transferred from the centers 01 TABLE 9.1
•
gravity of the links to the rcvolutcs specified using the paralJcl-~ !bcorc~ .
A sample calculation follows for the weight moment of mcrt1a of link 2
IMP Ulllt Vedon
•
taken relative to revolute om: Fia
F,.
21,742 lb
14,093 lb
21,746 lb
14,138 lb •
/2 - 0.001 lb • IJ • ft = 0.012 lb · i
2
" in. Fu
FM
18,886 lb
8,959 lb
18,420 lb
8,980 lb •
W2 "'5 lb
d2 - 1.0 in. {distance from om to gJ
T. 28,624 lb. in. 28,629 lb ·in.
•t
Therefore, 9.9 LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY
•
+ -W2 (d1) = S (12)
+ 386
THE METIIOD OF VIRTUAL WORK
•,
,,
lam = / 2 0.012 The methods of force analysis presented so far have been based on the principle
g ..2 •
of equilibrium of fon:es. Another method applicable for the analyses of linkages
• 0.02495 lb ' II~ ' UI. (mass units
.I
is that of virtual work, and it often results in much simpler solutions. This method .J

,
The moment of inertia in weight wiits (I.) is equal to ~ moment o1.ine'"'f is based on the principle that if a rigid body is in equilibrium under the actio n
in mass units (I) multiplkd by g.1 Therefore, · of external forces, the total work done by these forces is zero for a small dis-
placement of the body.
l otnj•J = (0.02495)(386) = 9.631 lb · in.
2 (weight units) To review the concept of work: , consider Fig. 9.18, which shows a force F
acting on a patticle at point A . If the particle moves from point A to A ' through
•
.I

In a similar manner, for Lln.k. 3, /-«•> - 252.6 lb · in.1; for Link 4 , l oH•M "' 286.3 a amall distance Ss, the work of force F during the displacement Ss is
·'
lli · in~
The data for the inertias are listed as follows:
DATA : INERTIA(LNK2,0H2l•0,0.9.631 ,0,0,0
.
6U '"' F& cos e '•
DATA : INERT1A(LNK3,A)•0 , 0,252.6,0,0,0
OATA : INERTIA(LNK4 ,0H4)•0,0 , 286 . 3,0 , 0,0
. As CllJ1 be seen from the equation, the work done is the scaler product of the
·displacement and the component of the force in the direction of the displacement, •
ZOOM I 7l • 5 , 1 . 5 • 0
, and it can be positive, negative, or zero depending on angle 6. If 6 is less than
90°, the force component and the displacement bavc the same sense and work •
ZERO(POSI l • 0 . 001 is positive. If e ~ 90°, work: is zero, and fore greater than 90" but less than 270°, •
RETURN I work is negative. If the preceding equation is compared with the vector equation
•
',
It is now necessary to enter the angular position of link 2 (135°) for whi~ · .
the analysis is required and to enter the angular velocity of link 2 (~00 rad!s, cw) A · B = AB cos e
which is constant. These will be specified for rcvolute om. It JS required to
determine the forces Fm F1, , F23 , and F,. and the shaft torque T, that must be- it can be seen that the equation for work can be written as the dot product o f
applicd to link 2 to bold the linkage in equilibrium.
DATA:POSl(OH2l•135
! the force and displacement vectors as follows:
•,
&U = F · & (9.33)
DATA : VELO!OH2l•-500
PAINT : FOACE!OH2,0H4,A,B>
The term 'lllrt&uJl work is used for this method of analysis to indicate work
,•
•
•'
EXECUT E jhat rcaults from an infinitesimal displacement which is imaginary. Such a dis-
Tuhlc 9. 1 &ivcs the Corccs Fu. F 1,, Fu. and F,,. and the torque on link 2, T, placement is called a 'llirtual displacement and labeled &s to distinguish it from an
us cilh:ulatcd by IMP. For comparison, values found by unit vccton arc iocluded' actual displacement d:s. Although virtual displacements are imaginary, they must
~ · consistent with the constraints of the mechansim under consideration. A virtual /

•,
'Marla' SlllNIMtl H•ntlbook / 0 , MccJuuMcaJ Enfllvcn, 81h edilioo, McOra•-HiU Book
New )'ort, 1978, pp. l-10.
Corupaoy,~
~;
~
· lacemcnt may also be a measure of rotation 11Dd is labeled 88. The virtual
work done by a torque Tis therefore 6U c: T · 68.
,..
I
) 423

I
422 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY THE MEll{OD OF VlRTIJAL WORK
) y
where

/:.
)
F .V a - W. A,. · V,. (inc rti11 force)
) I
\ A •• '· g
) T •• . w. = - I.a. · <a>" (inertia torque)

) AH-• , After a velocity and acceleration analysis bas been made, Eq. 9.36 c~n ~asilyt~e
solved for one unknown, which w~uld u~~all~ be the torque require on e
)
d . . r k to hold the mechanism m eqwlibnum.
} nvmf ~ 9 36 only the virtual work done by the external forces and .torq~es
FlGURE 9.18 F1GURE 9.19 on a li~ag~ app~rs. The internal forces between connecting li~ks occur in pa~rs.
) These are equal in magnitude but opposite in sense so that their netdwork dalun~~
From the definition of virtual work, it follows that if a system that is iJ! · F this Eq 9 36 cannot be use to cv ua
) any displacement is zero. or . r~on , · ·
equilibrium under the action of extern.al forces and torques is given a virtual. , bearing forces between connecting links. h' I\
) displacement, the total virtual work: must be iero. This concept may be expresse~ Although analyses by the method of virtual work can be made gtap 1c~ .Y.
mathematically as follows: an analytical solution is easier. In a graphical solution, if ~he forces ~ni v~:h~~
) are no t both in the same direction, components of the orc:es mus f d: cfo~ is
au = :I F. · &1. + I T. · se. =o Eq. 9.36 with the terms expressed as dot products, the problem o ire I
)
automatically taken care of. · · al k·
) In the application of this equation, it must be remembered that the virtual dis;. An analytical solution of a force aMlysis by the method of v1rtu wor ts
placements &,, and se. must be consistent with the constraints of the mechanismi gi ven in Example 9.4.
) As an example of this, consider Fig. 9.19, in which a four-bar linkage is acted
upon by forces F1 and F4 applied at points C and D, respectively, and it is required l 9 4 Fi c 9 20 shows the linkage of Fig. 9.lOa. Use the method of virtual
) to detennine torque T2 necessary to maintain static equilibrium. If link 2 is given E:ramp e • •. igur . T -••rv to hold the linkage in equilibrium. In the
work to determuie the torque z n - , .
a virtual displacement 6~, the equations for 65c and &s0 must be expressed .S solution, all compo~eots have been taken telanve to the .ty-axes.
) a function of 682 in order to solve Eq. 9.34 fur T2•
1
·
) The method of virtual work can also be applied to dynamic analyses il Solution. From the solution of Example 8.1,
inertia forces and inertia torques are considered as applied forces and torques:,
) Equation 9.34 can be modified for the dynamic case by dividing each term by . VA = 5.21 - 3.0J a>, "' -24k rad/s

)
dt. This is permissible because each virtual displacement takes place in the same. v. = 5.21 + 0.27j ll>i = 4.9lli rad/s
r- interval of time . Making this change, one obtains
) AA = - 72i - 124.SJ ..-. = 7 .82k rad /s

"" F · -
... &. I T ·68
-•= o 241k rad/s'
• dt+ + 35.SJ o. 1 "'
> • dt A• - - 88.11
a. = -129k radls'
)
and
) By using the above values, the following vetociti~s and accel~a~\o~s of .t h~;~~· of
r gr~vily of link~ 3 and 4 were determined . They are shown on t e n age '" · · ·
(9.35)
)
The refore, the virtual work of the external forces and torques is proportional to
v,, = S.2i - 1.37J An "' - 80.0li - 44 .53j
)
the velocity of the points of application of the forces on the links. Equation 9.35 v,, = 3.271 + 1.06J A,. = - 62.171 + 8.0l!J
) can be expanded to give terms for applied forces and torques and for inertia
forces and torques as follows: By writing Eq. 9.36 for the linkage of Fig. 9.20.
)
I T. · w. + 1: F. · V~ + I F•• · V1 • + I T._ · w. a 0 T1·11>i + F., ·V,, + F., · V,, + T.,·(l)i + T., · w, = 0
)
)
)
>
)
 )

•
•',
424 FOltCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY LINKAOE FORCE ANALYSIS FROM DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS 425
,.
T, • 4.649 lb · ft ,,
. !
- .55.79 lb · in.

; The value for

(ccw)

r, agrees closely with the value found in Example 9.1. ,

t
LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS FROM
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
In the preceding sections, linkages were considered which operated continuously
with the driving link rotating at a known, generally uniform, angular velocity.
t
,
From this, it was ·possible to make a velocity, acceleration, and inertia force
·analysis of the mechanism. CombiniJJg these forces with the static forces acting
on the linkage, one was able to complete the analysis and determine the bearing
,,•
w, - 10 lb
W3 • 4 lb
w, • 8 lb
12 - 0.017 lb . , 2 . It
l I • 0.006 lb · s2 · It
, ' - 0.026 lb . s2 . It
OaA • 3 in.
AB• 8 in.
0 4 8 a 8 in.
.A63 ~ 4 in.
. · loads.
. Occasionally, the problem arises of having to determine the velocity and
. acceleration characteristics of a mechanism where the driving force is produced
';by a rapid release of energy as from a spring, solenoid, or air cylinder. A circuit
,
o,,, - 5.27 in.
: breaker is such a mechanism, with its design depending upon the time required >

where
FIGURE 9.20 . for a motion cycle and the applied force necessary to open the breaker.
.: In the solution of such problems, energy methods are generally p referred
' ecause of the case with which they can be applied. Of the several methods that
:have been developed , the one by Quinn will be presented here. H is method is
,,•
T, · w1 = (T1k) · ( - 24k) = -24T2 ' based on the distribution of kinetic energy in a mechanism and is referred to as
Quinn's erurgy distribution theorem, which states that "the percent of the total )
F., · V,, = [ - ; , A.,] · V,, kinetic energy which the link of a mechanism contains will remain the same in
• ~ ( - 80.011 - 44.S3j) · (S.21 - l .37j)
.any given position regardless of the speed." This theorem applies to mechanisms t
in which there is no change in the mass or moment of inertia of the links with
32.2
- 44.13 ft · Ibis

F., · V,. • [ - gW. A..] · V,,

speed, and in which a linear relationship exists between the vcloci1ies of the
.vllJious Jiok.s in a given position.
· lo applying this method, a convenient value is assumed for the velocity o f
,,
e input link of a mechanism, and a velocity analysis is made including the
.::! (letermioatioo of the velocities of the centers of gravity of the various links. From
=
32.2
(-62.171 + 8.08J). (3.271 +

- 48.32 ft . lb/ 6
T., · w, = ( -1,a,) · w,
1.06J)
this, the kinetic energy of each link can be calculated, and the ratio of the kinetic
ncrgy of any link to the total for all the links is expressed as ,,•
= -0.006(24lk) · (4.9111:) "'
T., · w, - ( - J,a,) · w,
-7.099 ft · Jb/s

- - 0.026( -129k) · (7.82k) - 26.23 ft ·Ibis

(9.37)

ratio fl blown as an energy contribution coeffir:Unt and is a constant for any

,,
in a particular phase regardlcas of its velocity. Values of~ can be calculated

,•
Therefore, r various links over the range of several phases, and curves of ~ versus crank
-24T1 + 44.13 + 48.32 - 7.009 + 26.23 "'0 ',gle or slider displacement plotted if desired. ,)
f.
)
)

•
I
) LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS FROM DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS 427
426 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY
) .~
4. After calculating the value of t for the input link for the phase in question,
In addition lo the coefficient E, which can easily be calculated for any J.ink·
as shown above, it is necessary in making a dynamic analysis to know the variation· determine the kinetic energy for the input link from item 3.
}
of the e1tternal forces acting on the mechanism as well as the input velocity in" s. From item 4, calculate the velocity of the input2 link from the relation KE ""
) r
some reference phase. The reference phase is usually the starting phase where 1Jw2 for a rotating input link or from KE = IMV if the input is a slider.
1!1e i?put vel~ty is zero. With this information, the actual velocity of the input
) link 1n a particular phase can be determined as follows: A sample problem using this method is given in Example 9.5.
From the above procedure, the velocity of the input link can be calculated
} for as many phases as necessary and a gtaph of input velocity ver.ius displ~ccment
1. Knowing the eirternal forces in relation to the phase positions, calculate the
) work input to the mechanism between the starting phase and the phase under of the input link drawn. If many phases are to be analyzed, the calculahons can
consideration. easily be made and the graph plotted using a digital computer.
)
2. Because a change in kinetic energy is equal to the work done, the actual · Example 9.5. For the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 9.21 ,_dctcnn!~e t~e angular
) change in kinetic energy of the mechanism from the starting phase to the phase · velocity w, of link 2 when the mechanism is in phase IV. The starting position is phase I
in question is now known from item 1. where "'' - O. The torque T, on link 2 is constant at 10.2 N · m (cxw) . The fon:e P on
) 3. For the starting phase, the input velocity is zero so that the kinetic energy is pi\ton 4 varies uniformly from 716 Nin ph113C I to 160 N in pha~c IV.
) also zcco. Therefore, the kinetic energy of the mechanism for the phase in ques-
tion is known from item 2 . Solution. The angular velocity ...; of link 2 is assumed to be 1 rad/s (cw), where
the prime denotes an CJ.Jsum~d value . From a velocity analysis of the linkage with ...; -
) 1 rad/s, the velocities at phase IV are as follows:
y 1 -4.06mm
l v~ = 0.0508 mis v;, = 0.0508 mis
) (ccw)
,rv .. 47.Smm v; - 0.0521 mi s w) - 0.049 rad ls
) va.. .. 0.00991 mis
.. BrvQt----...
) By calculatiog the kinetic energy of the links based on the assumed value of ...,; - 1
) O,A • 50.8 mm radls,
AB• 203 mm
} .r
"61 •50.8mm KE; = ll,(..,;)1 = l x 0.00271 x 1
Ms• l.360 k&
lilt - 0 .9068 k& =- 0.001355 N · m
) 11•0.00271 k&·m•
'3 .. 0.01017 k&· m2 KE; = ll,(wi)' + lM1(V',,)'
)
= l x 0.01017 x (0.049)1 + l x 1.360 x (0.0508)'
) - 0.0000122 + 0.001755
) - 0.001767 N · m
) KE: - tM.( Vi)' - t >< 0.9068 >< (0.0521)'

) "" 0.001231 N · m

) Therefore,

) I KE' = 0.004353 N · m

) From Eq. 9.37,

) KEi 0.001355 _ 0.3112

~, - I KE' - 0.0043543

,
) F1GURE '.21

J
)
)
..
 •,
428 FOJlCE ANALYSIS OF MAOIINERY

The external work ioput to the mech~sm by forta P, and W, ud torque T2 betw
LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY COMPLEX NUMBERS 429
''
phase1 I and [V is calculated u follows:
wr _ (~) 112
(20.00271
x 1.804)'
11
•
•
_

Wk,, = •Cf'lv + P.)(y'v - y') Ii

~ i(160 + 716)(47.81~4.06)
= "5.49 rad/1
•,
= 19.16 N · m
Wkw, = W,(h: - h!,)
9.11 LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS
BY COMPLEX NUMBERS
•,
9.s1(•2.11~·os) Another analytical method of force analysis is to express vectors in complex form.
- t.360 x

- 0.5290 N · m
This method is especially applicable when a complete cycle of a linkage is to be
analyzed and computer facilities are available.
/ ' •
)
In Fig. 9.22a is shown a typical four-bar linkage in a given phase of the
WkT, - - T1(8l" - 6l) motion cycle. A shaft torque T. acts on the drive link (link 2) at 0 2• The accel- )
)

-10.2(80 - 20) x 180

... erations A, of the mass centers and the angular accelerations a of the moving
links may be determined numerically by complex numbers as demonstrated in
Chapter 8. The thr~e inertia forces F., which are related to tbe accelerations,
•
)
- -10.68 N · m represent the dynamic loading of the mechanism. The objective of the analysis

Therefore ,
is the determination of the bearing forces and the shaft torque which produce
the dynamic loading. •
}; Wk ~ 9.00J N · m
Figure 9.22b shows the four-bar linkage with inertia force F.,. as the only •
load vector acting so that the bearing forces and shaft torque to be determined
are those related to F., alone. Si.mjlar independent force analyses with F01 and •
From the fact that the change in kinetic energy an"t equal the work done, F•• acting alone may be made, and eventually the resultant bearing forces and
•
•,
shaft torque may be obtained by superposition.
I KE'v - I KE' = 9.009 N · m Io the analysis with P"' acting alone, the free body to be considered first is

,
1
that of link 3 shown in Fig. 9.22c. By assuming that the acceleration A,, (expressed
but 11 A,,e''') and the angular acceleration a 1 have been determined as in Chapter
8, the inertia force veclor P.,. may be delermined from the following expression:
I KE' - 0
J
(9. 38)
Therefore ,
t
I KE'v - 9.009 N · m

The actual value of ..,, in phase JV is Qkulated from the relation

where 131 + w indicates that the sense ofF., is opposite to that of A,,. which bas
the angular sense given by 13,. Because of the angular acceleration a,. the line
of action of P., is offset e1 = 11a 1 1F., from the line of action of All as shown in
Ftg. 9.22b. For convenience in making calculations, the location of the line of
,•,
action ofF-> may be given by the distance/> shown in Fig. 9.22c:

where

K£1v = (af')(I KE'V)

11 =. r,, + smu-1-
. to
e>
8>) ,•
- 0 .3112 x 9.009 . (A~
JJ "" r,. + IOID 8) (9.39) •
- 2.804 N · m
t'l - J

•
)
)

•
 )

430 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY

) LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS RY COMPLEX N UMOERS 431
~.
) It may be seen that the number of unknowns to be determined is three, the
magnitude of Fi, and its direction -y;, and the magnitude of F~. The direction of
) F~ is e, and is known because link 4 is acted on by only two forces when con-

,\ sidering F., acting alone as showo in Fig. 9.22c. To determine the three unknowns.
another equation is required in addition to Eqs. 9 .41 and 9.42. TI1e additional
equation is one of equilibrium of moments, about either point A or B. By choosing
point .A, the sum of the moments about this point is required to be zero as follows:
)
) F"or3 sin (e, - 61) - F.,li sin (131 - 63) = 0

) P. _ F 11 sin (131 - e,)

0 0
(9 .4.,)
' r, sin (0, - OJ)

,
-
)
On determining F4l from Eq. 9.43, the real and imaginary cC1mponents of
F"n may then be determined from Eqs. 9.41 and 9.42 as follows:

, )
!lt Pn = Pn cos -y; = - P,, cos e, - F0 , cos (13, + n) (9.44)

(9.45)
)
) The symbols !l and g indicate nal and imaginary components of the vector Fi,.
The resultant of these components is the vector Fi,, the magnitude of which may
) be determined as follows:
) (9.46)
)
The direction of Fi, is the angle..,;, which may be determined from the following
) expression:
}
(e) • !IF"n
tan -y1 = - - (9.47)
) FIGURE 9.22 9lPn
) ThtL~. the magnitudes and directions of the bearing forces nt A and 8 may
Figure 9.22c shows that three forces act on liok 3 of which F · th lcn be calculated from the precediog equations. From the free body of link 4 shown
) dynamic load and Fh and Fa ace the unknown bearin~ forces to ~ ~ t e . own in Fig. 9.22c, it is to be observed that the bearing force F j, at O, is identical to
For ·static equilibrium of the forces, the following equatiom apply: e emuned.
the force F!1 because only two forces act on link 4. Similarly, since there are on ly

'
)
) Fn(t'Y
01
)
F~ + F., + F., =O
+ F43 (~•) + F.,(ete,••I) c; O
two forces on link 2 as shown in the free body, the bearing force F;2 at 0 2 is
identical to Fb.
The final step of determining the shaft torque r, may be realized from the
(9.40) static equilibrium of couples acting oo liok 2:
) Equating real and imaginary parts of the Eq. 9.40, we obtain
T, - Fs2r2 sin (62 - -yj)
) Fn cos 'Y; + F.1 cos 9, + F., cos (13, + 'TT) = o - - F'ur1 ~ i n (6 1 - -yj) (9.48)
(9.41)
)
+ F., sin 8, + F., sin (!31 + 'TT) .. 0 The preceding analysis has led to the determination of equations giving

,
Fn sin -yj (9.42)
) bearing forces and shaft torque due to the load F.,. A similar analysis with only

,
)

..
---- ',,
432 FORCE ANALYSlS OF MACHINERY LINKAGE FORCB ANALYSIS BY COMPLEX NUMBERS 433 •
F•• acting would yield another scl of equations giving lhe inOucoce of F. OD tbd the resultant bearing force FD may be determined from
•,
bearing forces and shaft torque, and a third analysis would give the mou'ence of
F~. The resultant force al each of lhe bearings would be determined by super~
posi1ion by summing the real and imaginary components calculated in the indiJ
vidual analyses. At bearing A, for example, the superposed resultant real and and the angle 'YJ of the resuhant force from
(!1.49)
,
imaginary oomponcots of the bearing force are the sums I !PJ23 and I SF2J, and
I 9F:o
•
tan "i> = I fPJu (9 ,50)
•
Exalll/l/e 9.6. 1be drive liDlc of the four-bar link.age shown in Fig. 9.23a rotates about
0 1 at a constant angular velocity w, ... 100 rad/1. Using the data given in Fig. 9.23a,
,•
--
wz• JOO
r•l78mm
'1- 76.2 mm
TJ • 203 mm
Rd/S
a 2•0
'3 - 60'
1,-22.82•
,,_ 71.!10'
detennine the bearing forces and the i;ha.ft torque at 0 1 due to the dynamic load F., when
the mechanism is in the phase where a. - 609. The angular positions a, and a, of links 3 •
r, • 152 mm and 4 in this phase arc lhe 5a1De as those dctermioed in Chapter 2, Example 2.1, which
•
,,•
MJ • 09068 ka
]3 ~ 0002034 kl· m~ refers to Fig. 2.4.

Solution. Preliminary to determining the inertia load F.,, the following kinematic quan-

'"'
tities are evaluated from Eqs. 8.84, 8.8S, and 8.91:

w, "" - I0.16 rad/$ (ccw)

,,
w, • 40.05 rad/s (ccw)

3361 rad/12 (ccw)

OlJ •
t
The acceleration A,, of the mass center of link 3 may be determined as the sum of
two aa:cleratioo vectors as follows: •
•
,•
A,, = r1 (ia1 - wl)t"'> + r,.(i01, - wl)~•

By ootins that 0 1 - 0, tbis equation may be expanded as follows:

l"u(S34 N)

l"i.(47.6 N)
A,, = (-r1wj cos 8, - r,,01, s.io 91 - rc.wl C05 9,)
+ i(-:- r 1wj sin 91 + r11 0l1 CO$ 13 - ,wJ liiD 8.i}
r1 ,•
Suhlititutioo of given date yields the following numerical values:
•
A., - -487.6 - 426.9
•
Tbc magnitude of A., and its anaular position p, are determined u follows:

IA,,I - v'(-487.6)' + ( -426.9)' • 648.1 mfs1

_,
•
)

-4269
P> - _ 487:6 • o.8755 •
,•
tan (third quadrant)

FIGURE 9.23 p, - 221.20°

,
}
'
')
ENOTNE FORCE ANALYSIS 435
l 434 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY
P(l410 lb)
The inertia force F., may cow be evaluated from Eq. 9.38:
>
)
)
)
)
)
- 0.9068(648.1¥1''......,
~ 587.7e'l" lrl

which indicates that the magnitude or the vector F., is 587.7 N, and illl aogular positio
is 41.20°. .
The location or the line or action or F.,is I, and may be determined frorn Eq . 9.39.
::~_;~~~>~ 1
~
~c-r· \ \ 0 180
Cran~
360
entift, d..rHI
r:1
540 720

) I - r + ___l"-,a_,,_ _
> " F., sin (131 - 8,)
)
= 76.2 + (0.002034)(3361)
) 1000 (587.7)(sin 198.38")
) = 0.07620 - 0.03691

0.03929 m - 39.3 mm
\ =

} It is to be noted that sin 198.38" is negative.

)
Equation 9.43 gives the magnitude of the bearing roroe F'0 at B. Substitution of:
numerical values in this equation yields the following: r
) F:, = -47.6 N l· lnartl• (on:o:
)
)
and substituting further in Eqs. 9.44 and 9."5 gives the nwncrical values of tlf"D
srlJ. from which the magnitude or the resultant F'n is determined from Eq. 9.46 and Ill
and.,' Data:
Cran)uhalt •i-d. 3000 fl""
Stroke. ' in.
Cnnk leoeth. 2 i,._
F., - M4Aa - ~As -
- 360 lb
'W t
ffi !58001

• w
~ " - -. - '
angle ..,; from Eq. 9.47: Pi1ton W9i1ht. ll lb 2
Pi1ton aru, 7 .06 In. r oJ,2001
., ' •• 32.2
) I Conned.in1·rod w1l1bt. 3 lb - 12.30 lb
f'u - 534 N ..,; = 219.80" i Connectin1-rod i.ncth. 8 in.
~ 10.0076)121.900)
Connect;ni·rod ~Dt or inertia [3
) - 0.0075 lb. a • ll t3 - F., • 1230
Finally, the shaft torque r; at O, is dete.n nined by substituting in Eq. 9 .48: From acttleratioo po\nan: 2 • O.lSS !\ • 1.60 in.
} AA • 16,500 Ills

)
r: = 14.0 N · m A., • 13,200 ft/s
2 Ou force:
p • pA,, • 200(7.051 • 1410 lb
2
Aa • 5,800 1t11
In Fig. 9.23b arc shown the forces on the several ftee bodies of the four-bar tiJlka&e, 13 - 21,900 l'lldts
2
) and these arc shown to scale according to the preceding detcnnincd numerical values. '
· nGURE 9.24
)
) 9.12 ENGINE FORCE ANALYSIS
anal is is made for constaot rotative spc~d of the crank (aJ = 0), the in~rtia
) Io Fig. 9 .24 is shown the slider-crank mechanism of a typical single-cylinder, ou ~e of the crankshaft is also zero. Gravity forces also act on the mecb~m,
four-stroke cycle internal-combustion engine. Shown also arc the vccto n which ~ut ~ecausc the weights of the movinR pnrts uc smftll compnrcd ro the p n n c1pnl
) represent the principal loads on the mech1nism : (a) the static gas load Pon the • loads, the~e are usually neglected. . . . f
piston and (b) the dynamic loads F., and F., acting on the piston and connecting · F . 9 24 is a nipical curve showing the vauauon o com-
Also s h own m 1g. · ·i di ·th tw
) rod, respectively . The inertia force F., of the crank is zero since it is usual to · b as rcssure io the four-stroke cycle correspon ng wt o
) counterweight the crankshaft such that the mass center Is at the &Jds of rotation ~::~;~~=:r:f ~~egcr.!:kthaft. Magnitudes of gH pressure arc determined from
0 1 . Thus, the crankshaft itself Is oominaJly balanced so that ~ is zero. If tho
)
)
)

)
 .. ~ .
:· ;~_:
'
•
436 FOR{:E ANALYSIS OF MAOflNERY ENGINE FORCE ANALYSIS 437
,•
a thennodyoamic analysis or from cxpcrimcotaJ measw-emeots of cornbustioi\
cliamber pressure . The gas force p 00 the pistoo ia the product or gas pressurQ s •
a.nd piston bead area.
Two force analyses of the coginc mechanism will be made using (a) super~
•
po:.ilion solved graphically (Exllmplc 9.7) and (b) an analytical solution with unij •
vectors (Example 9.8) . In the second case, ii wiJ I .au1 he occcuary to use super
position because of certain simplifications that c.. ;~ : , :nade and which arc dis ,
cussed in a later seclioo . '
,•
Example 9.7. The crankshaft speed of the 1lidcr-aaak eu~11c shown in Fie. 9.24 lit
3000 rpm. U~ng the data given, determine the loads on the mechanism when the cnokj
•
is io the phase I, = 60". From a force analysis of the mechanism, determine the fon:c5'
!Jaosmitted through the wrist pin bearing, the ctan.k pill bearing, and the main bearings.:
•
Determine also the crankshaft torque T,. •
Solution. As diown io Fig. 9.24, for the phase 81 - 60" the m~m is in the expansion
•
(power) stroke and tho gas pressure is 200 psig. The corresponding gas load on the pistoa .)
•
ii P = 1410 lb. The inertia force F., (360 lb) also acts on the piston, and its magnitude
is determined from the product M,A •. Inertia foro: F., (123-0 lb) of the connecting rod •
bas the magnitude M,A.,, the direction of the aculeration A,, of the mus center of the
rod, and a line of action offset I!• because of the angular acceleration 111 •
In Fig. 9 .2S is shown the force analysis of the mecbaoiRn in which P, F.,. and F.,
are the l"llown loads on the linkage. Superposition of forces is used to determine the
,,•
unknown forces. In fig. 9.25a forces in the linkage due to the loads P and F,, on the
piston are detennined, aod in Fig. 9.2Sb the forces due to F., on the connecting rod an:
determined. Finally, resultant forces are determined by 1upcrposition as shown in Fig.
9.25c. It is to be noted that friction forces are not included io the analysis; because of the
,,
pressure lubricatioo of the bearings and the cylinder wall, friction is assumed to be small
and negligible.
By referring to Fig. 9.25a, F, (1050 lb) is the resultant oftbe collinear forces P and
t
F.,. Beginning with the free body of the piston (link 4) , three forces are ahown concurrent
at B. The direction of the connecting rod force F). on the piston ii known since only two >
forces act on link 3. The direction of the cylinder wall force Fj, on the side of the piston
is normal to the wall in the absence of friction, and the line of action of F;, is through the ~
point of concurrence at B. Beginning with the known force F,, the equilibrium force
polygoo shown is constructed to detennine the magnitudes and senses of F). and Fl.. The -~
~
•
two collinear forces F~ and Fil on the free body of the connecting rod (link 3) are equal
in magnitude to F). of the polygon. Also, the two parallel but noncollioear force5 Fiz and
0
g •
Fj1 on the free body of the crank (linlt 2) are equal in magnitude lo F).. Thus, all the
unknown forces are detennined from one force polygon. As shown on the free body of
tbe aanlc, the shaft torque T; on the crau.kshaft at 0 1 ii the counterclockwise equilibraot
.!'.l
loo •
i
of the couple formed by r;. and Fj,. .
By 1derring to Fig. 9.25b, lhe known force on the linkage is F., of the connectina
~ )
°' )
rod . Uy isolating the connecting rod u a free body 111bown, it may be seen that three
concurrent forcci act . The direction of the piston forcer., on the rod ia known since only !
t!I •
1wo forces act on 1hc pi1ton, one of which niuat be norm1l to the piston aide . TI1c dire.:tion
of the crank force FD on the rod i5 through the point k or concurrence determined from
the intersection of the lines of action of r., and r.,. Construction of the equilibrium force
r:
•
polygon shown detcnnine' the magnitudes and sense of r., and Fi,. The two noncollincar ./
•
•
, )

•
 ,
) 438 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINBRY
l!NGINE FORCE ANA LYSIS 439
)
)
) r
I B
)
)
)
)
)
) T, (1740 in.· lb)I

> /02
)
l
)
Beu!na fo. -:
) Wn.£ pin. 1070 lb <JP.p
er.Dk p(A, 1210 lb (F23>
) Maim, 2:uo lb <Fu.>
Crmtbla.ft .........,
T, - 1740 In. · lb ("""l
} FIGURE 9.lSc
)
forces f;z aod F,'J on tbe free body of the crank are equal in magnitude to f'D. The shaft
) torque r; is the equilibrant of the couple of the forces on the crank. lt is to be observed
that the moment arm of the couple is small because the inertia force F, 1 very nearly act.s
) through the crank pin center at A .
Although this analysis is primarily graphical, it is interesting to note that the polygon
) of Fig. 9.25a involving fo11:e3 F,, F;., and F;. could have jwt as easily been treated
analytically because the directions of the three forces c:an easily be written in unit vector
) form. The polygon o f Fig. 9.15b with forces F.,, FU. and Po is more quickly solved
graphically , however, because the directions of F., and Pu are not readily known in unit
) vector form without further calculations to determine angles .
) The r1:3uJ!Jlnt forces obtained by superposition are shown in Fig. 9.25c. The free
body of the connecting rod shows the resultant forces acting at the pin-connttted ends of
) the rod. At the upper end or the rod is shown the resultant fo rce F., t r an~mitted through
the wrist pin bearing. F., is the vector aum or F;, and ·~ · Similarly, the rt".s11.ltant force
) FD transmiued through the crank pin bearing at A is the vector sum F;, 11nd F".,. It is to
be observed that the connecting rod is In equilibrium under the action of these resultant
) forces and the inertia force F., and that the three forces Intersect at a common point k '.
The resultant force through the m1in bearings is F,•. which Is Identical to tbe force
) F., through the crank-pin bearing. The crankshaft torque T, is the algebraic sum of r.
and r;.
)
)
>
)
.·.
 ,
,,
)

440 FORCE ANALYSlS OF MAODNBRY

Ij APPUCATION OF EQUIVALENT MASSES 441 ,
i the point masses about g must be equal to the moment of inertia I of the

,•
9.ll DYNAMICALLY EQUIVALENf MASSES
Any rigid link in plane motion, having a mass Mand a moment of inertia I, m~
link.
be represented by an equivalent system of two point masses such tbat the in~ M,l~ + Mgfll - I (9.54)
of the two masses is kioctically equivalent to the inertia of tbe link. In Fig. 9.~
is shown the inertia force F. of a link, displaced a distance e from the mass ceotdr
g by virtue of its angular acceleration a . Also shown arc the two point masses
M,. and MQ• which are to be the equivalent of the link in order that the result~t
U a link is to be replaced by tbe equivalent system of two point masses , it
ii necessary to determine the four quantities of the system, the magnitudes of
the two masses M,. and MQ and the two distances I,. and 10 • The last three equations
,•
of the inertia forces Jo',. = M,.A, and Fa _, MaAa is equal to F0 - MA,. There-
fo~. .
given arc not in the best form for dctennining these quantities. A more useful
form of these equations may be derived as follows: By solving equations 9.52 •
F,. +Fa= F. (9.Sl)
and 9 .53 simultaneously for M,. and Ma , the following equations are obtained:
•
Although the proof is not undertaken here, it may be shown that to satisfy (9.55)
•
)
Eq. 9.51 the following three equivalents must be met:

1. Equivalence of mass. The sum of the point masses must be equal to the
mass M of the link. ·
Ma-M--
I,.
1,. +la
(9.56) ,,•
M,. +Ma= M (9.51) Then, substituting these equations io Eq. 9.54, the following is obtained;
,,
,
2. Equivaknce of mass unter. The mass center of the system of the two point Ml,.la-= I
rnas3~ must be at the mass center of the link. This requires that the point ,
I
masses lie on a common link through g. This also requires that the sum of · t,.la = M (9.57)
the moments of the point masses about g be zero.

3. J;;quivalulce of moment of inertia. The sum of the moments of inertia of

(9..53)
Since there.arc only three equations and four quantities arc to be determined,
it may be seen that ooc of the quantities must be arbitrarily chosen. Usually , one
of the distances I,. or lu il :so chosen, and tbe other is then Cl1lcul111eJ from Eq.
,•
9.57. With the distances determined, the magnitudes of M,. and Ma m ay then be >
calculated from Eqs. 9.55 and 9.56.
J

9.14 APPLICATION OF EQUIVALENT MASSES

Dynamically equivalent systems of two masses arc most widely used in the analysis
,,
of automotive and aircraft piston engines, particularly with regard to connecting
rods. Although applications of the method arc made with approximations of small
error, simplification in engine analysis is the primary advantage. Also, the method
•
has influenced the design of counterweights on the crankshaft to reduce shaking
of the engine.
Figure 9.27 sbows a typical automotive connecting rod for which the center
.J

•>
of gravity, weight, and moment of inertia are given. By arbitrarily locating one
of the equivalent masses M 11 at the wrist pin bearing B, one of the inertia forces
, >
is determined from the piston acceleration. The location of the second mass M,.
is as shown and is calculated from Eq. 9.57 by solving for t,.. Because of the
•>
,,
..I
shape of the connecting rod , the center of gravity is near the crank pin center A

•
,
l
442 FORCE ANALvsrs OF ~OUNE.Ry 443
) ENOrNE FORCE ANALYSIS USr.NO POINT MASSF.S

)
) p
Piston
(writt pin)
) r center
) .E

, ~
aO
II
~
w- 3.1 lb
l .s II SU - o.096'Z lb . •'m
I • .!!.
111 - !'.
::: .S' I • 0.0127 lb · a1 · ft
) I - I 0.0127
I' Ills - 8 16 - 0.19' n • 2.32 In.
) I 0.0962" tr
.!# .s Ma • H _!.e._ • 00962 2.!2 • 0021' lb 1 I/ft
) Crwnk pin '" + la · 2.32 + 8.15 · ·
°""'II
•
N
.....
"' center Mp • M - Ma • 0 .0982 - 0 .0214 - o 0748 lb •'trt
_...
c-J

'
II
~
Utlnr the 1pproxim1Uon 1,. • IA • 2.85 in.,
,.f3 r,,
)
1
Ms - MIA : Is - 0.0962 ~8: -
0.026 lb . •'tn
B
MA • M - Ma • 0.0962 - 0.0250 - 0.0712 lb · 11/lt
1
I • MIAIB - 0.0962 x 2.1& x !:.!,!
12 12
• 0 .0155 lb · ,i · ft
)
FIGURE 9.27
)
) a~ sh~wn. Because of the nearness of P to A , the approximation may be made
) with littl_e en:or that I,. = IA. Thus, the second mass is at the crank pin center,
an~ th': mertia for~e may be determined from the acceleration of the crank pin, fd} fc}

} which tS constant ut all phases of the mechanism when operating at constant
crankshaft speed. As shown in Fig. 9.V, the approximation results in a moment
l r of inertia of the equivalent system slightly larger than the true moment of inertia
of the link since MIA/a is greater than Ml,11 . The magnitudes of the masses MA
) and Ma are calculated from Eqs. 9.55 and 9.56 using IA and /8 •
) Since MA is a mass rotating about the crankshaft axis with constant cen-
trifugal force (at constant crankshaft speed), counterweights attached to the
) crankshaft may be of such mass as to oouoterbalance MA of the connecting rod
a~ well as the mass of the craok.
)
) 9.15 ENGINE FORCE ANALYSIS
USING POINT MASSF.S
FIGURE 9.28
F11, is on the line of reciprocation of the wrist pin, and the force F,., is always
radially outward on the crank line 0 1A when the speed of the crank is uniform .
As shown in Fig. 9.28a, it is usual practice to add a ma$s M~ to the coun·
terweight of the crank so that an inertia force Few is induced to balance the inertia
force F.c, of the connccting·rod mass. By counterweighting In this manner, the
masses rotating with the crank (craolcsbaft mass plus M..,,) arc balanced to put
the mass center of the combination at 0 1 so that no force from these masses acts
on the main bearings.
It is to be observed that all the forces acting on the connecting rod, the

,.
)
~ Fig. ?·2~ is show~ the internal-combustion engine mechanism with approx-
imate ~metically eqmvalent point masses replacing the connecting rod. One of
inertia forces and the bearing forces, act at the ends of the rod at A and B . There
arc no transverse components of force between the ends of the rod to bend or
shear the link, and therefore the member is iD axial tension or compression. This
} tbe point masses, Ms,. is located at the wrist pio axis and the other M at the is a result of assuming that M.., may be placed at the crank pin center A rather
k • • Tb ' A1•
cran p~n ~· us, the dynamic loading of the connecting rod is represented than at the correct point slightly removed ftom A . The fact that the connccting-
) by the mertia force vectors F., and F,.,, the magnitudes of which are F11, • rod force is axial in dircctioo makes it possible to undertake the force analysis
M,,,As and FA, - MA,AA . For all phases of the mechanism, the liae of action of of the engine without superposition aa illustrated in the following eumple.
)
}

>
 .·

444 FOR<::E ANALYSIS OP MACIDNERY

ENGINE FORCE ANALYSIS USING POmT MASSES 445
Example 9.8. An analysis of the engine med11u1ism of Example 9.7 will now be madei muses are placed at points A and B. The equation for Fca can be written as follows:
.I

using approximate kinetically equivalent point masses for the connecting rod. In the!
solutio n, all rompooents have been taken relative to the zy-ucs. · Fca • Fai( -sin 12.5" I + cos 12.5" J)
= -0.2164Fail + 0.9763FcaJ
Solution. From the data and solution of Example 9.7,
Because the piston and the upper part of the rod are in eqwlibrium under the action of
11 ~ 3000 rpm
the four forces,
w, - 31b A. - 16,500 fl/11
I, - 8 in. A, • SBOO ft/11 F, + F-. + F,. + Fca = 0

'· - 2 in. F-. • 360 lb

Substitutin1 the relations previously determined io the equation of equilibrium, one obtains
'· - 6 in. p - 1410 lb
- lOSOJ + l3SJ + F1,i - 0.2164Fai + 0.9763FcaJ = 0
With the data given above, the approximate kinetically equivalent masses of the conncctin&
rod can be calculated as follows: By .summing I camporunts,

3 F1,I - 0.2164Fai • 0
M , - W, = - - - 0.0933 lb · , 2/ft
g 32.2 By 1iunming J components,

M,, = M,(~) = 0.0933(1) = 0.0233 lb · 11/ft

-1050j + 135J + 0.9763FcaJ ~ 0

Fa. - 937.2 lb
M., = M, - M,, = 0.0933 - 0.0233 = 0.0700 lb · s'/ft
Al.so,
The inertia forces of the two ends of the connecting rod can also be calculated.
F,.I - 0.2164 x 937 .21 a 0,
F,, - M,_,A, . = _0 .0233(5800) = 135 lb
F14 = 202.SJb
F., = M.,A. = 0.0700(16,500) = 1155 lb
Therefore,
Figure 9 .28a sbows the forces acting on the mechanism. Of these force$, P, F.,.
r .., . F,, . and Fcw are known in magnitude, Kuse, and direction;
"' • force F" is
• known in Fai =- -0.2164 x 937.21 + 0.9763 x 937.2J
direction only. Nothing is known about force F 11 except that 1t acts at pomt O,. The
equation ~ for thew: forces , except F 11 , can be written as follows: -202.811 + 915J
F,, .- 202.81
F, - P + F., - - 1410J + 360j - - lOSOj
F,, = 135J Consider next Fig. 9.28c, wbicb Ulowa the upper part of the connecting rod acted
upon by forces F.,. Fa. and F,,. The foUowing equation of equilibrium can be written:
F., "' 11S5(coJ 30" I + 5in 30" J)
F,, + Fa + F., .. 0
= iexx>.261 + sn.soJ
where
Few ~ - lCXX>.261 - 5TI.SOj
(direction uokuo'!l'I; >..ii a unit vector
in the direction of F.,)
In Fig. 9.28b ia ahown a free-body diagram of tho piston and the upper part o.f tho
connecting rod. These memben uc acted upon b~ force.a F,, P,,, F,., and F0 . The forc:e Substitutina iii the equation of equilibrium gives:
Fa i3 the force of tbc lower part of the connecting rod acting upon the upper part. Its
direction is along the rod because the rod becomes a two-force member when equivalent l35J - 202.811 + 915J + >..,F.,I + 1',F.,J • 0
 J
)
) 446 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOilNBRY
ENGINE FORCE ANALYSIS USING POINT MASSES 447
) By summing I components,
Figw-c 9.2& shows the crank and couotCTWeight under action of forces Fn, F.. , and
) ,- -202.811 + >._F.,I • O Fu. The equation of equilibrium is

) >.. F.,1 • 202.811

By summing J componLnts,
)
13SJ + 91SJ + >.,F,J - O
) F., - -F., • 1203.071 - 337.SJ
>.,.F.,J • - lOSOJ
) and
Therefore,
) F., "' F,,(>.,I + >.,J) (direction unknown)
F., ~ 202.811 - lOSOJ
) Substituting in the above equ11tion of equilibrium gives:
fF.,f ~ 1069.4 lb
) 1203.071 - 337.SJ - 1000.261 - 577.SOJ + >.,F111 + ).,F,,J = 0
Figure 9.28d shows a free-body dia f h I
) under action of force gram 0 t ~ ower part of the connecting rod
written: s Fai, F..,. and Fn. The following equation ot equilibrium can be By 1ummlng I compo Mnts,
) 1203.071 - 1000.261 + >.,F111 "" 0

)
Fa + FA, + Fn =0 >.,F12I • -202.811
where By summing J components,
)
-; 337.SJ - 577.SOJ + >.,F,J ., 0
) (direction unknown)
).,F.,J = 915J
) and
Therefore,
) FC11 = 202.811 - 91SJ (sease opposite to th•t of force Fa acting .
on upper part of rod) Fu = -20'2.811 + 9ISJ
)
Substituting In the equation of equilibrium gives:
IFul = 937.2 lb
)
Comparing the equation for F11 with that for Fa acting on the upper part of the rod, one
) 202.81i - 9ISJ + 1000.261 + sn.soj + >.,Fnl + >., F.,J .,, o can sec that the equations arc identical so that the two vectors are parallel and have the
same sense and magnitude.
) By summing I compontnJs, The shaft torque T, oecessary lo hold llnk 2 In equilibrium can ea.J!ly be calculated
) from the relation
202.811 + 1000.261 + >..Fni = O
) ,-
>.,Fnl = -1203.071 T, = F,Ji = 20'2.8 x 8.81 = 1786.8 lb · in. (a:w)

) By summing J compontnts, Torque T, can also be obtained from the relation FrJd. The results of the analysi1 ue u
follows:
) -91SJ + Sn.SOJ + >.,FnJ "' 0
F,. = 203 lb
) >., FnJ ~ 337.SJ
F., ~ 1069 lb (wrist pin force)
) Therefore,
Fn • 1250 lb (crank pin force)
) F., = -1203.071 + 337.SJ
Fu = 937 lb (main-bearing force)
) fFul = 1249.S lb
T. - 1787 lb· In . (ccw)
)
)
)
. ~ .
 ,
)
,,
448 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY JI ENGINE BLOCK 449
,,
If these values arc compared with those fro~ Examrle ?·7 io which equivale~
point masses were nor used for the connecting rod, 11 wtU be .seen ~at there • 1
close agreement, with the exception of the force Fu at the mam bcanog. In~
9.16 ENGINE BLOCK
In the foregoing discussion of the piston engine linkage, the frame of the engine,
or the engine block, is considered the fixed member. However, in automotive
,,
analysis, l~c magnitude and. d~ec!ion of Fu arc quite .different from those del
tcnuincd m Exao1plc 9.7. 1h1s difference, however, IS not due lo 1hc use Of
equivalent masses but rather to the use of additional co~oterw~ight on the c j
los1al1ations, the engine block is supported on Oexiblc mountings in order that a
minimum of the unbalanced resultant force of the engine is transmitted to the
engine supports. Figure 9.29 shows a free-body diagram of the engine block (link
,,
,,
to balance inertia force FA ; this partly unloads the mam beanng. 1) fastened to the supporting link 0. The supporting link is shown rigid to illustrate
It is interesting t.o n~te how e~il~ t.hc shaft t~rque T, can ~e .determine, the nature of the forces and moments which are transmitted to the supports.
using the method of virtual work. This 1s illustrated m the followmg. . With flexible supports, the force system becomes one involving nonrigid mem- ./
!

,,
bers, and a vibration analysis is required.
T2 · ~ + F 4 ·Va + Fa,· V, + FA, ·VA + F.... ·V.,, =0 The effects of the slider-crank mechanism of Fig. 9.28 is shown on the free-
~
2nn
.. 60 .,. 2n x 3000
= 314.16 rad/s (cw)
body diagram of the block in Fig. 9.29a, where F., is the reactive force of the

,
60

IVsl = Rw(sin 9+ 2~ sin 2e) ,,

= -i\ x 314.16(sin 60° + 2 ; 8 sin 120")
= 51.01 fl /s

Therefore,
v... - 51.0lj
,)

F, = P + F = -1050j

Fa,= 135j
0 ,
,,
)

T1 • c.>1 "" (T2 k) · ( - 314.16k) - - 314.16T2 ft · Ibis

>

,
F, ·Va = '( - 1050J) · (-Sl.Olj) a 53,563 .7 ft · Ibis
>
F ,, · V• -= (135j) · ( - 51.0lj) - - 6886.8 ft · Ibis

"··~8
,
FA, · VA = 0 (force and velocity vectors at right angles)

F.... · V~ = 0 (force end velocity vectors at right angles) "·· I R(495 lb)
)

Therefore,
- 314.16T1 + 53 ,563.7 - 6886.8 • 0
B(495 lb)
0,
,., ...... body ol block
·' •
wllh 1lld8r-<lftllk
•
aml
T2 - 148.58 lb · ft
= 1783 lb · in. (ccw)
o,
,
)

t
This value agrees closely with the value found previously. } )
,
•
I
)
ENOINE OUll'ITT TOROUP. 451
) 450 FORCE ANALYSrs OF MACHINERY
le.shaft As shown in a following discussion, a flywheel ?(.relatively s~all
piston on the cylinder wall, and F 11 is the force of the crankshaft oo the main
)
bearings fucd to the engine block. The force P by the ga.s pressure acts on the
cr~~eo; of inertia will reduce crank speed variations to neghg1bly small. va ucs
) head of the block. These arc known forces from the analysis made of the slider· CT or 2% of crank speed). Beca113e of its imp~rtancc to _flyw~eel d~!i1gn,I a~
~ 1 ~~:~~~~~c~~~,;r ~:~~~~t~~~q:~,~~~~~r~=ft71t~;q::1~n~r~~ t~r ~:~::~ i~,:~-
r
crank mechanism. The reactive forces R 1 and R 1 of the engine supj>orts are the
) / unknowns to be determined.
"t sc T. is the torque on the mecharusm as a rec y
)
The free-body diagram of Fig. 9.29b shows the force! acting on the com- oitu~e but of .o~pos1 c sen f 0
th~ load· Tis the torque delivered to the flywheel
bination of engine block with slider crank. Forces such as F41 and 1'14 , as well as and 1s the res1sllng torque • sh · Example 9 8
) F11 and F 12 , are internal forces and arc therefore not shown. The gas forces P and to th~ vehicle or load whT.ich the :~~~~~~~vtr:~~the~~~ t~o expre~io~s:
arc collinear, equal, and opposite and therefore do not affect R 1 and R1. F.,.. and the magnitude of the torque • may
) FA, ore also collinear, equal, and opposite. Those vectors shown on the free body T = F11d or T, = F"h . . F 9 28 · which the main
that affect the forces R 1 and R2 arc the inertia forces F0 , and F.e, and the shaft ' In Fi . 9.30 is shown the engine mechamsm of 1g. : a, m . f
) . g . wo to be arallel to the connecting-roe\ axis because o
torque T, . bcanng force F11 IS Imo . hf g ~c crankshaft . Considering the equilibrium of
For static equilibrium of vertical forces, the resultant reactive force R (which the method of co~ntcrwe1g . m a free bod it may be seen that the simple
•> is equal to R 1 + R:J of the supports should be the same for both free bodies.
The equilibrium force polygons for the two free bodies arc shown in Fig. 9.29,
forces on the cntue mecham~m as . i
b th 'and F from the known collinear
polygon of forcesdinFFig. ~3..0 ::~:~~t ~in :~nter. The known forces may be
and R is the same in both. From the polygon of Fig. 9 .29b in particular, it may forces P, Fa,, an '• a....u.g
) be seen that the resultant force R is equal in magnitude to the swn of the inertia combined and shown as the resultant force F fl ·
forces F0 , and F 6 , of the masses reciprocating with the wrist pin ccotcr. R is the (9.58)
) cquilibrnnt of the inertia forces . The opposite vector S, which is the rcsuJtaot of
) the inertia forces, is termed the shaking force since, if flexible supports are used,
the engine block will be raised from its supports when the inertia forces arc
) directed upward as shown and will be pressed against the supports when the p
inertia forces arc directed downward in olher phases of the cycle of the mech-
) anism.
Thus, the reciprocating masses at the wrist pin center cause a vertical vi-
) bration or vertical making of the engine. It is to be observed that no resultant
) horizontal force acts on the engine, so there is no vibrational excitation in this
direction. However, because of the shaft torque T,, a couple acts on the engine,
) which, if mounted on Ocltible supports, excites an angular oscillation of the engine
as the shaft torque changes in magnitude and sense during the engine cycle. Thus,
) T, is a shaking couple, which is also transmitted to the engine supports and makes
) R1 greater than R 1 as shown in Fig. 9.29. Calculations of the magnitudes of R 1
and R 2 are shown below Fig. 9.29 based on the free body of Fig. 9 .29b.
)
)
9.17 ENGINE OUI'PUf TORQUE
)
Of particular interest in engines is the shaft torque variation in the engine cycle
) corresponding to the nrr crank cycle. A plot of shaft torque versus crank angle
6 shows a large variation in magnitude and sense of the torque, since by inspection
) of free bodies it may be seen that in some phases the torque is in the same sense
) as the crank motion and in other phases it is opposite to the crank motion. It
would seem that the assumption of constant crank speed in the engine force
) analysis is invalid since a vanatioo in torque would produce a variation in aank nGURE 9.30
speed in the cycle. However, It Is usual and necessary to fix a flywheel to the
)
)
)
)
)
..
 ,
./

452 FOllCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY ENGINE OU11'UT TORQUE 453

From the force polygoo, ! In Eq. 9.63, xii positive downward from the top dead center (T.D .C .) position
I of the piston and is expressed as a fraction of the stroke 2R. The fraction gives
the location on the abscissa of the indicator diagram at which the gas pressure ~
(9.59J read for a given e. Crank angle 9 is positive clockwise in the sense of crank
I motion as shown in Fig. 9 .30. For convenience, values of ;c/2R for given angles
(~.60j 9 have been calculated for a number of LIR_ratios and are given in Table 9.2.
I The sum of the inertia forces F0 , + F., io Eq. 9.58 may be calculated from
Noting in Fig. 9.30 that d = h sin cjl, we may evaluate the output torque T from (M. + MaJA. , in which A. is the piston acceleration. As shown in Chapter 2,
either of tbe two expressions as follow~: 1 the piston acceleration is a function of 9 in the following expression:

h sin cjl
T = Fud = F . - - -
cos cjl
I
A. = R1a12 ( C0$ e +I cos 2e)
/
= F•h tan 4> (9.61)
-A,2 = ( cose + -cos28
R ) (9.65)
Rw L
or ..)
Values of A.1Rw2 from Eq. 9.65 are tabulated in Table 9.2 for a number
T = Fuh of LIR ratios u •function of 8. At the beginning of the stroke when e is small,
- F•h tao 4> (9.62) A• is positive downward in the direction toward the crankshaft axis. However,
since inertia force is opposite io sense to acceleration, F. aod F. are shown
Although the output torque is evaluated from different equations, Eqs. 9.61 opposite to Pin Fig. 9 .30. ' '
and 9.62 show that they are ideotical. To determine torque as a function of.crank Figure 9.31 shows the variation in one engine cycle of the resultant force
angle 6 from these equations, each of the right-hand factors (F•• h, and cji) must or combined force"•· Also shown are Che individual curves for gas force P and
be expressed as functions of 9. The first of these factors Fa depends on the several the inertia forces F0 , + F.,. It may be seen from Table 9.2 that accelerations are
forces indicated in Eq. 9.58, each of which must also be expressed as functions positive near top dead center aod arc negative near the bottom of the stroke.
of 8. Ao equation for the gas force P cannot be written directly as a function of Inertia force$ arc negative near the top of the stroke and positive near the bottom
e since P is determined experimentally on an indicator diagram and is shown of the stroke as shown in Fig. 9.31.
either versus e as in Fig. 9.24 or versus piston position x in Fig. 9 .30. Pis- The product h tan 4> in Eq. 9.62 may be expressed in terms of e as follows .
ton position is expr~ss ed as a function of e in the following equations lrom From triangles in Fig. 9.30,
Chapter 2:
h tan <I> = (R cos 8 + L cos <!>)tan 4>

= R tan 4>(cos 9 + ~ cos 4>)

- x = -1 [ 1 - cos 8 + -L (1 - cos 4>) ]
2R 2 R
(9.63) ~ tan cl> = tan cl>(cos e + ~ cos 4>) (9.66)

where R is the crank length and L is the connecting-rod length. The angle 4> may
be determined in terms of e from the following relationship given by triangles in As shown in Table 9.2, values of (h/R) tao <I> are tabulated as a function
Fig. 9.30: of 8 for various LIR ratios from Eqs. 9.66 and 9.64. It is to be observed that for
downward strokes (O" < 8 < 180"), (h/R) tan 4' values are positive. Although
L sin 4> .. N iill 0 they arc not shown in the table, for upward strokes (180" < 9 < JW), these
values are neaative because tan 4> is negative.
4> - sin -•(~ sine) (9.64)
A typical curve of output to rque of a single-cylinder engine for one complete
cycle is shown in Fig. 9.32. Positive values of output torque arc those which are .'
---- --------~--~-~--
., -----------~~~ '\

~
d
TABLE 9.2 Slider-Crank Functions for Output Torque, Piston Acceleration, and Piston Position "nrn
>
z
L L
i-4.0 - .,. 4.5
R -LR = 5.0 >
C"'

,,
-tact> ~· r h ~ r h ~ r
~
;:;;
-ta~ - tlll ljl
e R Rw 21' R R0111 1R R Rw 2R 0
"II

0 0 1.2500 0 0 1.2222 0 0 1.2000 0 ~

15 0.3214 1.1824 0.0212 0.3144 1.1583 0.0'208 O.DS 1.1391 O.<rl04 g
30 0.6()1)1 0.9910 0.0827 0..5968 o.m1 0.0809 0.5870 0.96()0 0.0795 z
rn
4.S 0.8341 0.7071 0.1779 0.8196 0.7071 0.1774 O.!Oll 0.7071 0.1716 :a
(JO O.'T169 0.3750 0.2974 0.9642 0.3889 0.29'21 0.9540 0.'4<XX> 0.2878
-<
75 1.0003 0.0423 0.4298 1.0'227 0.0666 0.4230 1.0169 0.0856 0.41i7
90 1.DCm -0.2500 0.563.5 l.DCm -0.2222 0..5563 uxm -0.2000 0..5.505
105 0.9015 -0.4753 0.6886 0.9001 -0.4512 0.6819 0.9149 - 0.4320 0.6765
120 0.7551 -0.6250 0.7974 0.7680 -0.6111 0.7921 0.7781 -0.6aXl 0.7878
135 0.5801 -0.7071 0.8851 0..5946 -0.7071 0.8815 O.(J061 -0.7071 0.8787
l.SO 0.390') -0.7410 0.9487 0.4032 -0.7549 0.9469 0.4130 -0.7()60. 0.94.5.5
165 0.1962 -0.7494 0.9872 0.2032 -0.7735 0.9867 0.2087 -o:rm 0.9863
180 0 -0.7500 l.(J(D) 0 -0.7778 UXXX.l 0 -o.mi 1.CCXX>
"Wiien the valu.e of A,/Rw is negative, the sease of A, is away from the cnaJahaft am.

~:- ,,,.-:;_·;:~~~ ,..-~:,,_~:::::· _;-.~ ~-:.. ~--;:;;.:~~':':7>~-~· -:.~·':\. ~(~~ . '..-:-:~~~·,·.. _ ~:"';?·-' :-.~ >--.-- :""'::''.""..··' ~, ..... -~--:-=:::z.:~-:-.~:I

·l...'"~~l'"' , -_:-__!··_:,. &~":__:.~~:;_:-~-- --, --:-. ~i.-·: ... -- . .... ::.,-...~ ,.~~· - _ .::- , •• ,....._.. .. ~.---=-~~-r""-'-:.. ~--- ~·-::-·-~-.:- #1:."~~~........ c.r.._,.;.

=-(').,O' acc;.
J;· s·

:!l 1111,,
(Mput lOf'QUC. ft-lb
~sg::;IS2is
'80 -~o
~g;;lgt:rrn
n 8 (') .... n"'
..,
::!
-,,
C"l I
• I
F'on:e. lb

§
...,
~
..§
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ § § §
s
FLI ""90.8'"~
'-
0 0
g'E. e: R s- ~
0

~·1
t!l 0

'II
..., .Q
'O
0
:;-8 2.:ss ~
n g:
n r;;· .E
&.no~
Cl"

c e:
• - ....
;:no (')
(')

0
::I

-
tii' ::r
..."°
"" -----:;~r-ti-,~,\ I ' "r.. If
...,
~I :~\ a-~-oe;.ot::i
c:
n - "' ~,... t'-1
~...,n §
•
+:.a: ' •

[ g ~ (') 2. ~
ml'l'.,R'i;.~ ~~ :, a'~
11
<8'n
(') .,, "' -·
n ...
....
;;Ji:sg~" CTg ~
OCIO O~ .
.... =e. g
(') 0 0
c: -
-
i~
~e;."'Q.~9
~ 0 ; . CD,-..~
n9",..:r
··~111cr -cr
< o ~ n
.•
;;
,,,. :-::!
z
2
~. 1:1' ~ ,,; .._, "' z
s-m~=sg r:1
o . " s· c ::i
~I ~ I aao-::!1-e-:r g 0
c;
5' CT .a - - · I» ~ =d
'-o!
ii;·;. g ~ ~ - (IQ "' -
...,~
~ o"i i..> 0 li' s..
o(JQ: ~ .... g- :j
,.
....
q
, . 'r-:;== '
?!!:Q.. SlSl
;. O' g ;;'~ ....
....
9
-l... i-r ?ii
'
<~ .. i
II
,:i
(') ;:i
0
1110_Q
~a.=-:
""g:i
f;l ~
Ci:r
~g;
0

.. ~
us
°"
~OQg
•O. :rn
-09
ncn
tit
 ,

456 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY

fl.YWHEEL SIZE 457
torque would be zero, and the chaoges of torque would be due to the inerti3· 9.68 may be rewritten:
forces alone. Although the output torque in the crankshaft is greatly variable
shown in Fig. 9.32, with a flywheel attached to the shaft, the torque delivere dw
after the flywheel is very nearly constant and equal to the average torque T•• T- TL= Iw-
d8
Under steady-state operation at a given crank speed, the torque T•• is equal td
the resisting load torque T, which the engioe with flywheel is driving. j (T - TL) d8 • lw d..,
Horsepower output for one cylinder may be determined from the average
torque output and the speed of the crankshaft; ., By integrating,

bp -
T.....
SSO .. SSO
T•• 2-nn
00 •
T•• ri
S2SO
\
(9 •67'I 1 1Mw• 1·
..... (T - TL) d& • I ••" w dw

in whi~h T•• is in foot-pounds and n is in revolutions per minute.z If friction

neglected in the torque analysis, the power given by Eq. 9.67 is very nearly equ~
J = II(wl, - w!)

In Eq. 9.69, the )eh-hand term is the work done on the flywheel and is
(9.69)

to the indicated horsepower (ihp) as determined from the indicator diagram of rep~nted by the ~aded area of the torque diagrams of Figs. 9.32 and 9.33;
gas pressure and 5troke. · the n~t-band te~ IS the corre~~nding change in kinetic energy of the flywheel )
•
9.18 FLYWHEEL SIZE
doc to Us change .m s~cd. Pos1.tivc shaded areas·of the torque diagram in Fig.
9.32reprcsent re~ons an the engine cycle where work is done to increase flywheel
spe~d, and negative areas represent the work to decrease speed. Limits of e on
the mtep-al of Eq. 9.69 arc found by inspection so as to determine the greatest
, )

~ shown in Fig. 9 .32, the output torque of the slider-crank mechanism is greater
than the load torque for some portions of the engine cycle and is less in other
parts of the cycle. Since the curve of Fig. 9.32 is a plot of torque versus O, the
shaded area represents work which either increases or decreases the kinetic energy
of the system by causing an increase or decrease in crankshaft speed. The degree
)
change ~ spec~ ?f the flywheel io the engine cycle where "'" is the maximum
and w., 1~ the m101mum angular velocity of the flywheel. The shaded loop in Fig.
9.32 haVIng the greatest area would appear to represent the region of the greatest
speed change. As shown, for a single-cylinder engine, the largest loop is in the
•
)

,•
to which crank speed is increased or decreased depends on the inertia of the power stroke, as would be expected because of the work done by the e xpanding
system since kinetic energy involves both mass, or moment of inertia, and speed.
Control of the crank speed fluctuations is obtained primarily from a flywheel for
which the moment of inertia may be calculated.
Figure 9.33 shows a single-cylinder engine with a flywheel. The free-body >
diagram of the flywheel shows the unbalance of torques acting on tbc flywheel
to accelerate its angular motion. For output torque T of the slider crank greater
than the load torque T,, the equation of motion may be written:
•
J
T - T, - Ia (9.68) •
)
in which I is the moment of inertia of the flywheel about the crank axis and a is )
in the sense of the resultant torque. Since a a (dwldt)(d6/d8) = w(dwld8), Eq.
)
'Whoa workina In SI unita, lhe power i. caprc.-od in w1111ud11 pvcn by )
power • T...., (wans) )
where r. i1 in acwton · mctcn (N · m) and w i1 in radians per second (rad/1). PIGUllE !1..ll )
)

,
)
I
)
458 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY
)
) gas to speed up the engine. Thus, "'"' corresponds with 9 at the end of the first
loop. However, w,,. is not at the beginning of the first loop (1) but rather at the
) ( beginning of the seventh loop (7), since this loop is also positive and is nearly
adjacent to the first loop except for the small negative loop (8) between the
l r positive areas.
The locations of maximum and minimum cnmk speeds w,., and w.. on the
)
torque diagram are not always easily detennined by inspection. In such cases, ·a
) systematic arithmetic method may be used. For example, in Fig. 9.34, a torque
diagram is shown with positive and negative areas above and below the average
) torque line. The relative magnitudes of the areas are given for the loops. H at
the beginning of the first loop the speed is the datum value c.>o, then the speed
) at the end of the first loop is greater than c.>o because of the positive area·A, ~ 7.
) At the end of the second loop, which is negative, the speed is lower than at the
end of the first loop but greater than "lo because the algebraic sum of the first
) two areas is positive: A 1 + A, -= 7 - 4 = 3. At the end of each loop in Fig.
9.34 is shown the sum of the areas from the beginning of the first loop
) (A 1 + A 1 + · ·· + A.). The sum of the areas of all of the loops must equal zero
since the average torque line ls established at such a ·position that the sum of
) positive areas above the average torque line equals the sum of the negative areas
) below the average torque line. The maximum value of the sums gives the location
of w,.,, which is the maximum speed greater than Cl>o· ~shown in Fig. 9.34, the
) location of wM is at the cod of the first loop where the greatest sum is +7.
Similarly, the minimum value of the sums (-2 at the end of the fourth loop)
) gives the location of 111.,, which is the speed most below Cslo· The algebraic sum
) of the areas between the locations of w. and &>.w represents the work done by
torque to change the flywheel kinetic energy from a minimum to a maximum
) value.
The integral expression of Eq. 9 .69 may be represented by the area A:
) The average speed w.. is
....
)
)
A ..
1....... (T- TL) d9 (9.70)
FLYWHl'F.I. SIZF. 459
which is the algebraic summation of areas of loops in the ~ycle giviog the gre~test
change in flywheel speed. The net positive area in square mcbes ~y be obtamed
by use of a planimeter and converted to foot-pounds of work A wtth the proper
use of scales for the diagram. Substitution in Eq. 9.69 gives
(9.71)
A "" ll(w], - w~)
ln multicylinder engines, the firing order and crank arrangement arc such
that the pulses of torque from the power strokes of the indiv~dual ~ylinders .are
unifonnly distributed throughout the engine cycle of 72(J'. ln a six·cyhnder engine,
for example, the cranks are spaced at 120" of crank aogle (720/6) so that a power
stroke begins every 120" of crankshaft rotation. The resul.tan~ !orque c~rve, o?-
tnined by the superposition of the torque curves of the md1v1dual cylinders in
proper phase relationship, is shown in Fig. 9.35 . As shown, the loops of tbc
torque curve arc uniform in the sense that the loops are of the same f~~ every
120". The dashed line of average torque is located to make each positive loop
equal in area to a negative loop. There!o:e, in Eq. 9.70, ~ is determined from
the area of any individual loop. The mm1mum speed w., 1s at the end of every
negative loop, and w., is at the end of eve~ pos.itive loop. .
To determine the required moment of meru.a I of the. flywheel , a coe~oent
of fluctuation K is assigned so that the fluctuallon, or difference of II\3Xlmum
and minimum speeds, is a small fraction of the average design speed w., of the
engine.
(9.72)
(9.73)

)
0 +3 +5 -2 -1 +1 0
) T

)
)
)
)
J
---£nafn1 c,cle - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
) FlGURE 9..34 flGURE 9.35
)
)
)
)
 ~
- --~
,,
,

460 FORCE ANALYSlS OF MAOUNl!RY FLYWHEEL SIZE 461

,
Equation 9.71 may be rewritten Rim •
A = ll(ll)M + 11).)(ll)M - 11),..)
· = l/(2w..)(Klll.,)
,'
A "" /Kiil!, •
4n1n 1 •
= IK (60)2
I Rim type •
Solving for I gives I PIGURE 9.36
•
A
I= 91-
Kn1
(9.74)!
l

I
Flywheels are U5Ually disks in automotive engines and rim typo in steam cngine3 or
punch presses (Fi&. 9.36). lo automotive imullatioos, a thin disk of large diameter gives
,•
the lowest wci&ht for the moment of Inertia required. However, a compromise as to
Equation 9 _74·gives the required moment of inertia of the fl;.wheel for the! diameter must be made because of the stresses in the material caused by centrifugal force
•
average speed n in revolutions per minute at which the torque analysis is made;!
the units of I are lb · s1 • ft, and those of A are lb · ft.
and because of space and road dearaoc:e requirements. Large flywheels of tbc rim type
in steam engines and punch pn:sses arc limited in diameter primarily by allowable SlrCSSC$
,;
•
When using SI units, Eq. 9.74 becomes due to c:c:ntrifupl forc:c:.
For disk-type flywheels, the moment of incrti• and mas.s arc related as follows: •
l=-
A
klll!. (9.75) ,•
where the units of w arc rad/~. the units of l arc kg • m1 , and the units of A arc
N·m.
in which rand dare radius and diameter, rcspectivoly, of the disk.
•
&ample 9.1~. Determine the mus Mand thickness t of a steel disk-type flywheel
•
Example 9.9. Determine the required momeot of inertia of a fiywbecl for a siagle-
cylinder engioe for which Pig. 9 .32 is the torque diagram at a speed of 3300 rpm. The
0.3048 m in diameter to give I '"' 0.320 kg · m . The density of steel is p "" 7.80 x 101
kg/m1• •
maximum allowable Ouctuation in speed in the engine cycle is 40 rpm.
Solution
•
Solut/011. l'rom Fig. 9.32,
r-8
Md1
•
Area of fi rst loop
Area of seventh loop
= +0.762 in.1
- ±!till M • !{ • 8 x 0.320 • 27 6 k •
1.027 d' 0.3048' . '
•
Negative area of eighth loop = - 0.007
1.020.!IJ.1

In Fig. 9.32, the torque 1e11le is 120 ft · lb/in. and the angular scale is (1)-ir rad/in.;
therefore, each square inch of the torque diapm rcpaueoll 335 ft · lb of work.
M • (vol. of disk)p ..

4M
t - -wdlp
-
("! ')p
1

,•
•
A ~ 1.020(335) ~ 342 ft · lb .. x 27.6
1'(0.3048)1 x (7.80 x 1()1) /
•
K =
40
3300
= 0.01212
• 0.0485 m • 48.S mm •
- ~ - (91)(342)
91 Kn' - 0.01212 x (3300)1 It may be seen that a small speed fluctuation may be obtained with a j
•
I - : reasonable weight of flywheel. However, IS Eq. 9.74 indicates, a larger flywheel
r •
= 0 .236 lb . $1 • ft iJ required at low speeds, although A may be much less at low speeds.

,
•
•
I
)
462 FORCE ANALysrs OF MAOUNERY
FORCES ON GEAR TEETH 463
)
For rim-type flywheels, I = Mk1 , in which k is the radius of gyration. It is :
)
sufficiently accurate to assume that the mean radius r,.. of the rim is equal to k. '
) r
1 w (9.76)
) I - Mr ... - -di
4g ..
) The solution of Eq. 9.76 for W gives only the weight of the rim. The weights of . Une ol 1ctlon

) the hub, web, or spokes also contribute a small amount to the moment of inertia
of the flywheel, with the result that the speed fluctuation is somewhat less than
) the assigned value.

v.~
Components of an engine installation other than the flywheel may contribute
) flywheel effect. The crankshaft and the equivalent mass of the connecting rod at
R
) the crank pin act as a flywheel. In automotive installations during road operation·
with clutch engaged, the rotating parts of the driving system as well as the car.
) itself serve to reduce engine speed fluctuation to the degree that almost no (
)
flywheel is required. However, the idling condition at low speed in automotive
engines is the prime condition for automotive flywheel design. f1ywhecl effect
.
\ Driver,
is important also in maintaining motor spin during starting. Aircraft piston engines
)
are normally without a flywheel because of the large flywheel effect of propellers ,......___ _ /
_
FIGURE 9.37
) and propeller reduction gears. In the design of all reciprocating machinery such
as diescl~lectric systems, compressors, steam winches operated by donkey co-:·'
) gines, quick-return mechanisms, motorcycles, outboard motors, and punch presses~
) flywheel effect is required, but the degree to which moment of inertia must bC!; As shown in Fig. 9.37, the tooth force Fis represented by the components
added in a flywheel depends on the requirements of the imtallatioo. F, and F,. of which F, is called the tangential force and F, the separating for~c;
) F. = F cos cf> and F, = F sin <1>. Iu many problems, the shaft torque T, applied
t~ the driving gear is known, and F, may be determined from the equilibrium of
) 9.19 FORCES ON GEAR TEETH
moments about the shaft axis:
) For gears in mesh, the line of transmission of force is along the line of action,
which is always normal to the contacting tooth sudaces as the teeth traverse the: T, = F,R (9.77)
) arc of action. As shown in Fig. 9.37, the line of action of the tooth force Fis at j .
the pressure angle cp to the tangent of the pitch circles. The tooth of the driver ". where R is the pitch radius of the gear. The transmitted force F may be determined
)
shown in Fig. 9.37 is in contact with a tooth of the driven gear at the pitch point.'.. · from
) In this position, the teeth arc in the slate of pure rolling, and no friction due to ~
relative sliding exists. At other positions in the arc of action, relative sliding exists F = _!!_ = T, (9.78)
) and the resultant force on the gear tooth is inclined to the line of action by the cos cf> R cos cf>
) angle of friction. In a force analysis of mccbarusms with gears, the friction angle
may be neglected with little error in the determination of the magnitude of tooth Equati~n 9.78 shows that, for a given torque_applied to the g~ar, the to~th
) force . force F increases with pressure angle. The separating force F, also mcreascs with
If two sets of gear teeth are in contact, the transmitted force is divided pressure angle. It may be seen that F, acts to shear and bend the tooth and that
)
between the two sets of teeth. The free-body diagram of the driving gear, for F, acts to compress the tooth. The transmitted force F causes high local stresses
) example, would show two tooth forces, both of which act along the line of action. in the material in the vicinity of contact on the tooth face .
The resultant of the two forces, equal to the transmitted force, also acts along
) the line of action. The proportion of transmitted force carried by each tooth Exampl~ 9.11. It is desired to determine the toolh forces acting on the_ several ~cars
depends on the accuracy with which the gear teeth are in mesh, which in tum of the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 9.38a. One hundred horsepower is lransm11ted
) by the gear train at corutant speed. The sun gear (link 4) rotating clockwise at 11, - 2000
depends on the accuracy of manufacture of the tooth forms. Since one tooth is
) likely to carry more force than the other, It is usual to assume that one tooth rpm is the input side of the train, and the carrier (link 2) rotating clo:ekwise at n, • 667
rpm is the oulput side. The shaft lorque T,. acting on the sun ge~r is the driving torque ,
carries the full transmitted force.
)
)
)
..
 ,
t
•
•
464 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY FORCES ON OEAR TEElli 465
•
lbe free-body di1gnm of tbe sun gear iD fig. 9.38b 5hows the driving torque T,, and two
tooth forces F,., which ue shown aloog the line of action for 20" pressure angle. Since
the power traosmitted and the speed of the gear arc known, T,, may be calculated as '•
,..,
lnle<ml
follows:
•
hp .. 550
T,,w,

T. .. 550 bp - sso hp
,•
(ll) .. ••
- (550)(100)
2-irn.160
•,
F~
~F.,
2'!1'2000/60
= 262 ft · lb (cw)
/
,
;1<>'1. ,•
,,
(cJ Since two couple& io equilibrium act on link 4,
r..,
t.o \'>) F,.d - T,,
~(840lb)
o,I LN'I
1':.ilO-
lb) <;] F. (76 lb)
I
F,. •
T,,
d •
262
3.75112 • 840 lb
t
The free-body diagram of the planet in Fig. 9.38c shows that four forces act on the
,
-.
link, of which the forces F-0 and F., are known. The direction and sense of the tooth force
Fu may be ascertained by considering the moment equilibrium of forces acting about the •
h = 5.90in.
· planet center. If Fu also acts at the pressure angle of 2<1', then Fu and F., are equal in
•
:.
'
magnitude to satisfy equilibrium of moments about tbe planet center. The force F 21 of the
carrier acting on the planet is the remaining unknown, which may be determined from •
(dJ - the force polygon in Fig. 9.38c or analytically as follows:

u
The equation of equilibrium can be written from the free-body diagram of the planet ,•
~d :.~:g :~ =i><iog of go~ t1 Fu + II., + F0 + Fu =0 •
'1>o wri0< i• •ho Wh '°'quo •ho l?'d · Spu•
involute shaped teeth at 20" pressure angle are used 10 the gear tram .
wi'1>
~··
'· where •
Solution. Carefully drawn free-body diagrams of the individual links as shown in Fig.
I

f Fu .. Fu(ex>s 2C1' I - sin 20" J) •

9.38 aid in the determination of the forces acting on each link for static equilibrium. Inertia t ·
forces are z.ero for tbe sun gear and carrier u weU u for the internal gear since the . ·
• 0.9397Ful - 0.3420FuJ • ~
accelerations of the mass centers of these elements arc zero; the inertia torques ue also'.· F., • 76.0J
zero iioce the train operates at constant angular velocity and zero angular acceler~tioo. ~
Insofar as the planets ue concerned, centrifugal inertia f?rces act because_of the centnpctal ~ F0 • F.,(cos 20" I + sin 20" J) •
acceleration of the centers of the planets. By auummg a planet weight of 2 lb, tbci
centrifugal force acting is ~
- MO x 0.9397& + 840 x 0 .3420J •
- 789.351 + 287.28J ) •
F~ = •
1
MJAn = (3:.2)U2)(2: )' 1
= 76 lb
,•
•
I
)
) 466 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY FORCES ON GEAR TEETH 467
) Therefore, The foregoing solution indicates that the tootb force to be expected is 840 lb.
) However, a subtlety exists in interpreting the effect of the Inertia force F., on force$. In
{ F., - 789.351 - 287.28J the solution above, it was assumed tbat the carrier constrained the planet center to remain
) at the meshing prc5sur~ angle of 20" at the pitch point hy provlcllng the re11dio11 to the
Also, planet inertia force F.,. However, if a large clearance exisu for the pin connecting the
) /' planet to the carrier, then the carrier cannot provide the reaction to F., . in which case
Fu "' Fu(>.,I + >.,J) (direction unknown) the planet will d isplace slightly toward the internal gear in such a way that it meshes with
) the internal gear at a pressure angle slightly Jess than 20" and with the sun gear at a
Substituting in the equation of equilibrium gives: pressure angle slightly more than 20•. The result is that F 0 will be somewhat greater than
) 840 lb and Fu somewhat less.
) 789.35i - 287.28J + 76.0J + 789.351 + 287.28J + >.,Ful + >.,FuJ .., O An interesting extension of this example is to consider the e ffect of replacing the
spur gears in the planetary drive of Fig. 9.38 with helical gears while keeping the center
) By summing I compoMnts, distances, gear ratios, and power transmitted the same. If the helical gears have a normal
pressure angle <t>. of 20" and a helix angle lji of 30", the following relations can be developed
789.351 + 789.351 + >.,Ful ~ 0
> for planet 3 assuming that the normal force in the plane of rotation F., remains at 840 lb.
By referring to Fig. 9.39,
>., Ful = - 1578.701
)
By summing j components,
) tan <t>. tao 20•
76.0J + >., FuJ c O tan <t> ~ cos + • cos 30•
'
)
Therefore,
>.,Fn J = - 76.0j <t> = 22.8"
Fu "" Fu(cos 4> I - sin ct> j)
) = 840(cos 22.8" I - sin 22.s• J)
Fu = - 1578.70i - 76.0j
) ... n4.391 - 325.45J
jF,.I = 1580.53 lb
}
Fro~ the free-body diagram of the earner lo Fig. 9.38d, the shaft torque T. ma
) be determmed from t~e equilibrium of moments about the canier u:is: " y
) T., "' Fnh
)
= 1600 x 5 ·9
) 12

) = 787 ft . lb (ccw)

) . T., may also be determined from the transmitted horsepower and the speed of the
earner:
)
T,,w,
) hp = 550

,
)
1~ = 550 hp = .550 hp
w, 2nn 1160
T. ~ (550)(100)
)
'l 21T667160
> = 787 ft . lb (ccw) flGURE 9.39
)
)
)
 ;-:
- - __ _£__
,
'
•
.- )
468 FORCE ANALYSlS OF MACHINERY
CAM FORCES 469
Therefore, •
,'•
F, - 774.391
F, ~ - 325 .45J

aod
IF.I ~ 1-: tan + - 774.39 tan 30• •
= 447.09 lb •
F. ;. 447.09k •
Therefore:, /
•
F. -= 774.391 - 32S.4Sj + «7.09k •,
IF.I = 951.57 lb .)

It is left to the reader to determine bow this change will affect the bearing furce Fn. ,•
,
9.20 CAM FORCES
,.., ,~,

At high cam speeds, the force transmitted at the contact of cam and follower is •
high and may cause serious wear of the contacting surfaces. Figure 9.40 shows a
disk cam with radial roUer follower. Two phases of the cam are shown as it rotates
counterclockwise at a uoifonn speed n, of 8550 rpm. In Fig. 9.40a, the cam is in
'•
such a phase that the acceleration A1 of the follower is away from the cam. In
this phase, the inertia force Fr or the follower is such that even without the force
S of the compressed spring, the follower is held in contact with the cam. However, '•
in Fig. 9.4-0b , the phase of the cam is such that a high downward acceleration A 1
of the followe r is presen t. In this instance, the follower inertia force Fr is great
enough t o cause the follower to leave the cam unless a force S equal to Fr is
applied by the spring. By assuming that the weight of the follower including
,,•
roller, stem, and spring is l lb,

•
•>
and the required spring force is S - 3140 lb. Since S and F1 are equal forces but
opposite in sense, the force F acting at the contacting surfaces of cam and roller >
is ze ro . Si11Le the spilng is co mptessed l> - I in . co1rcspo111li118 tu Che lift of the
cam, the required spring constant k is l'JGUU 9.441 •
s 3140
= -5 = -1/2
- =- 6280 lb/in . •
k
•
•
'•
I
)
) 470 FORCF ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY OYROSCOrtc FOlll"FS 471

) By returning to the phase of the cam shown in Fig. 9.40a, it may be observed h s inning parts as crankshaft, flywheel, clutch , transmission gears,
that the force F at the contacting surfaces will be high because it represents a : a:, o~1!~~ha~ and wheels. Engine parts as well as the propeller and ~e gear
) reaction to both the inertia force Fr and the spring force S as shown in the free- · p pc · ' f
reduchon system o an aup an
· I e arc under the actio n of gryscopic effects in turns
. . .
body diagram of the follower in Fig. 9.40c. Fis normal to the surfaces of contact, and ullouts. Locomotives and ships are sumlnrly aUccted. .
) (
and the angle which F makes with the direction of motion of the follower is the , pFi ure 9.41 shows 8 rigid body spinning at a constant angular velocity w
) pressure angle cp. For static equilibrium, the summation of forces in the direction about ag spin axis through the mass center. The aogu~ar m~men~m H . of th.e
of follower displacement is zero: spinning body is represented by a vector whos_e m~gmtude ~s lw, lD which I is
) the moment of inertia of the body about the spm axis and axis through the mass
Fcos 4> - Fr - S = 0 center Although the angular momentum of the body is in a plane parallel to the
) lanes. of motion of the individual particles of the body• it is represented by .a
F-F,+S (9.79) p h lane of motion as shown. The sense of the vector 1s
) cos ct> ~:~~:~~i::: t~e ~;hf.hand arrow~cad
screw rule in which the vec~o~~s
of the
) Inertia force F1 is in the se nse of the advance of a right-band screw turned m the sense o. e
) aogul ar ve Ioc1·t y w of the body . The length of the vector represents the magmtude
of the angular momentum. f gul
) F1 = MrAr = ( 3;_2 )(111,000) = 3450 lb From the study of mechanics, it is known tbat the rat~ of change ~ an at
momentum with respect to time is proport~ooal to an applied torque 1 as deter-
) mined from I.he following equation of motton:
The spring is compressed l in.
)
dw d
)
s = k8 = 6280 x i= 785lb T - Ia = 1 - = - (lw)
- dt dt

) The pressure angle cl> = 25° (cos 25° = 0.907).

From Eq. 9.79, Also,
)
H = lw
) F = 3450 + 785 = 4670lb
0.907
)
)
.- A surface force F = 4670 lb aod spring constant k = 6280 lb/in. are high .
Therefore,
dH
T=- (9.80)
for a cam of the size shown. A stress analysis would show that the speed of the :
dt
) cam should be limited to a smaller value. Valve cams in automotive installations
are a constant challenge to the mechanical designer because of the demand for
) increased engine speeds. ·
In the case shown in Fig. 9.41, a torque applied in the plane of motio~ of
the spinning body in the sense of w increases the angular momentum at a given
) In Fig. 9.40c is also shown the free-body diagram of the cam. The shaft
rate which may be shown as an increase in the length o~ the ve~tor . .
torque T, may be determined from the couple formed by F and the shaft reaction
) In the forego ing discussion, the spin ~xis was. cons1dere~ fi'ted. If the spm
equal and opposite to F. Since the center of gravity g, of the cam is not at the .
axis is made to change angular positio!' as 1~ a vehicle tiavcrsmg a plane curve~
a it is of rotation, a centrifugal inertia force for the cam should be shown. However, :
) · h as sh own 1·n Fig . 9 . 42a • gyroscopic action results. For constant w, the mag
pat
since the cam rotates at constant speed, the cam inertia force does not influence
) the calculation of the shaft torque T, but docs enter into the calculation of the
resultant shaft reaction.
) R

) 9.21 GYROSCOPIC FORCES

,
) In vehicles having engines with rotating parts of high moment of inertia, gyro-
scopic forces are in action when the vehicle is changing direction of motion. In
automotive vehicles undergoing roadway turns at high velocity, gyroscopic forces FIGURE 9.41

)
)
~.-- -
)
..
 ,
,
•
)

472 FORCE ANALYSIS .OF MACHINERY

GYROSCOPIC FORCES 473 •
)

,•
axis because the direction of torque T ia normal to the spin axis and lies in the
,f .rz-plane. From ihe orientation of the spin, precession, and torque axes, it can
~ be seen that Eq. 9.81 can be written in the following vector form:

, T = w, x Iw (9.82)
•
I!
j The applied torque Tin Eq . 9.82 is a couple referred to as the gyroscopic
· · couple. Because this couple has the same direction as ~ . the couple lies in the
xy-plane and represents a torque applied to the body about the z- or torque axis.
,•
(a} (b) )
· Thus, it may be seen that to cause precession of a spinning body, a torque must
FIGURE 9.42 ··: be applied to the body in a plane normal to the plane in which the spin axis is
....
ii i precessing. •
\ ~t 1. The flywheel of an automotive engine is an example of a spinning body that •
nitude of the angular momentum remains constant for an angular dis~lacemeqt
66 of the spin axis as shown by the vectors. However, a change lD angular
momentum exists because of the change in direction of the momentum as s~own
'.·.
·
~}
~ is subject to the gyroscopic couple in roadway twns at high vehicular speed. As

a
Shown in Fig. 9.43, the flywheel of a single-cylinder engine is fixed to the cranlt-
shaft, which in tum is supported by the main bearings. The crankshaft and the
•,
by the polygon of free vectors in Fig. 9.42b: For a small value of M , the magrutude -~~ · equivalent mass of the connecting rod are also spinning masses which may be
)
of the change in angular momentum 6H ts ~ l! considered as part of the flywheel. Forces Fu, which represent the gyroscopic
~ couple, are applied to the crankshaft by the bearings. These forces arc superposed >
6H = (Iw) 66 ; on the forces produced by tbe operation of the slider-crank mechanism. Other

The rate of change of angular momentum with respect to time is

~ bearing forces which are induced by the turning vehicular motion are those
·~ resulting from centrifugal force while the vehicle is in the curved path. • )

dH
lim -
AH
lit
AO d0
= lim (lw)-;- = lw -d
~~ Example 9.12. For the single-cylinder engine of Fig. 9.43, determine the bearing forces
· Fu caused by the gyroscopic action of the flywheel of Bxample 9.9 as the engine vehicle ,•
r
dt U-.0 »--O ut t
1.; traverses a 1000-ft-radius curve at 60 mph (88 ft/s) in a tum to the right . The engine speed
b 3300 ''"' ••• ;, lunUog d~•·;.. "''~'· fu>m ,., """'or""··~=·
Therefore , •
dH
-di =lww,
•t
and
Fly.rhtel
•
T = lww, (9.81)
2 Front
•
where w = d6/dt is the angular velocity of precession of the spin axis, or the 7 --,. •
)
rate at ;hich the spin axis displaces angularly. .
The magnitude of the torque T which is associated ~t~ the precession of
the spin axis can easily be determined from Eq. 9.81, and tt 1s now necessary to
• •
)
determine its direction. Referring again to Fig. 9.42b, one can sec that as Al
approaches zero, the vector AH becomes normal to the vector~ · which has the
same direction as the spin ax is. Therefore, the torque vector Twill also b~ normal
to the spin axis in the plane of II and ~H. F~gure 9.42c s.hows the x-axis as the nGURE 9.43
" ·'
,
)

spin axis and the y-axis as the precession axis. 111e z-ax1s becomes the torque J
•
j
)
MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION 475
) 474 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY

) Solution Solution
I of flywheel = 0.236 lb · s' · ft k = r~ = l(3.05) = 1.525 m
)
21rn 21r(3300) I = Mk' = 18.1 x 1.5251
~ w =
00 = -6C) - = 346 rad/s
= 42.1 kg· m'
) v= 88
w, = R 1000
= 0.088 rad/s w = 2"1fn = 21r(1500) "" 157 tad/s
) 60 60
T - ea>, >< lea> w, ~ 1 rad/s

'
)
)
where

w, = -0.088j
T = lww, = 42.1
= 6610 N · m
X 157 X 1

The effect of the couple is to impose n large load on benrings ~upporting

) /ea> "" (0.236)( - 3461) -
) Therefore,
) T - (-0.088J) x (-81.661)
= -7. 18kft · lb
-81.661
the propeller shaft as well as to impose large bending moments on the individual
blades near the propeller bub. The gyroscopic effect is great enough to affect the
maneuver by raising or lowering the nose of the airplane depending on the seMes
of the propeller spin and the precession.
It is a characteristic of the gyroscope that a gyroscopic couple must be
(cw)

)
'
) and

F _ ! _ 7.18 _
" - l - 6/12 - 14.4 lb
) l.
) With the di~ectio~ of torque T cloclcwise, the sense of force F,. applied to the crankshaft;
b~ the beanng will be up at the rear bearing and down at the front bearing as shown inl
} Fig. 9 .43. .~ .~.
) turning transmits a minimum of gyroscopic couple, some torque is nevertheless
As may be seen from Example 9.12, the gyroscopic forces on the bearings . ·
~re small compared to those due to slider-crank action. These forces are greater
) datum position. The rigidity characteristic in gyroscopes is also utilized in control
m .sh.arper roadway turns. Gyroscopic forces on bearings supporting clutch, traru- ;
) m1ss1on gears, and drive shaft are also small because of the low moment of inertia
of the parts. However, the moment of inertia of the front wheel may be great ;
) enough .to apply appreciab~e gyroscopic forces to the ball joints and the steering :
) mecha~1sm. The gyroscopic forces of the spinning parts of the engine that are :
~aosnutte~ to th': car body have the effect of raising the front end of the car on :
) its suspension as 1t tr~verses a curve to the right. · ,
) The gyroscopic forcc:s of heavy flywheels of shipboard engines may be of , :
larg~ magmtud~. Metal auplane propellers of large diameter cause high gyro- ;
J scop1c couples m some maneuvers as shown in the following example.
) Examp/~ 9.13- Detennine the gyroscopic couple of a 3.05-m·diameter solid aluminum ; .
alloy
of th four-bladed
· I ·
propeller in which each blade has a mass o( 18· 1 "A The test maneuver : ·
) "-!.·
~ anp ane ts a p~w~r-on flat spin in which the propeller speed is 1500 rpm aQd the ~ ·
) rotation of the flat spin ts 1 rad/s. The radius of gyration k of the propeller "th respect '
to the propeller axis is approximately one-half of the propeller radius. WI
applied to cause precession. In many instrument applications such as the gyro-
compass and artificial horizon used in aircraft, preccssio.n ~undesirable an~ gre~t
care is taken to reduce the gyroscopic couple to a m1mmum as the vehicle m
which it is mounted undergoes turns that would cause precession. The resistance
of a gyroscope to precession becomes greater as f1J> increases; a high moment of
inertia and high spin velocity give it the characteristic of "rigidity" against pre-
cessing in space. Rigidity is the desired characteristic in the gyrocompass, which
provides a fixed datum reqwred for navigational purposes. Although the gyro·
scope is mounted in low-friction bearings in such a manner that the vehicle's
applied by friction and the gyroscope must periodically be reset to the desired
equipment. In naval gun directors, the gyroscope provides a datum during pitch·
ing and rolling of the ship, and an electrical signal may be transmitted to ma·
chioery which holds gun positions relative to the gyroscope rather than relative
to the ship. Gyroscopes in automatic pilots control the flight position of aircraft
by transmitting signals to the control sudaces as wind currents and other distur-
bances cause the aircraft to yaw, pitch, and roll .
9.22 MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION
In the foregoing discussions of force analyses, th«: moments of inertia I of ~he
individual links were known or assumed. The designer or analyst of a machine
is often confronted with the need for determining moment of inertia . Formulas
are available in handbooks and textbooks on mechanics for the determ ination of
the moment of inertia of bodies having simple geometrical forms such as cylinders,

>
)
)
 I

476 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMlNATION 477

disks, and bars and tubes or round and rectangular cross section. Many machin~ an equation relating time t and 8:
clements such as gears, pulleys, flywheels, gyroscopes, rotors , and shafts ar~
simple enough in form that determination of moments of inertia by formula is (9.85)
quite accurate. Although calculations of I for links of more complex forms such
as connecting rods, crankshafts, planet carriers, and odd-shaped cams may be
made by considering the complicated fonns as composites of simpler forms , the The two constants of integration arc evaluated for the conditions w =
determinations are less accurate. If parts are available, moments of inertia may d6/dl = 0 at t = 0, and 6 = 01 at t = 0. Since the time of the oscillation is meas-
be determined experimentally in most cases. One of the most useful experimental ured from the starting position 8 = 81o the time to reach the vertical position
methods is to mount the part in such a way that it may oscillate as a pendulum is determined by substituting 9 = 0:
and to observe the period of oscillation, which is a function of the moment of
inertia of the pendulum .
Figure 9.44 shows a pendulum suspended from the knife edge at 0 so that (9.86)
o is the axis of rotation about which the pendulum oscillates from 91 to -81•
The mass center g is at a distance 10 from 0 . Two forces act on the pendulum: The period 1' of the pendulum, or the time for ooc complete oscillation, is
the force of gravity Wand the supporting force of the knife edge. The following four times the time given by Eq. 9.86:
equation of motion is written using the moment center 0:
T = 2wVI0 /Wlo
l: To= loo.
. dl8 (9.87)
- Wl0 sm 9 = loo. - lo dt 2 (9.83)

- where 10 is the moment of inertia about the axis through 0. Usually, the moment
where [0 is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the axis through 0 . of inertia I about the axis through the mass center is wanted and may be deter·
The moment T0 depends upon the position e of the pendulum fTom the vertical mined from the parallel axis theorem:
Since a is in the same sense as increasing values of 0, the minus sign of Eq. 9.83
indicates that T0 is in the opposite sense to a . For small oscillations of the
lo= I+ MPo
pendulum, 9 = sin 9 may be assumed with little error. Thus,
I= 10 - Mll,
d 28 Wlo
- = - -6 (9.84)
dt 2 10

Equation 9.84 is a differential equation, which on double integration yields

(9.88)

Thus, I may be determined from Eq. 9.88 by experimentally noting the

time for a large oumber of oscillations of a part suspended as a pendulum. A
connecting rod, for example, may be suspended on a knife edge from either the
wrist pin bore or the crank pin bore. The quantity in parentheses in Eq. 9.88
approaches zero as 10 becomes large because the two terms arc nearly equaJ in
/ ~ magnitude. Under these conditions, the accuracy of determining I depends on
/ the accuracy of measuring both 10 aod T . Accuracy is greatly increased by making
/ lo a small measurable value other than zero. Thus, accuracy is better for the case
in which the connecting rod is suspended from the end closest to the center of
FIGURE 9.44 w gravity. It should be mentioned, however, that it is often difficult to obtain an
J
)
) 478 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY
MOMENT..OF·tNEltllA DETERMINATION 479
)
)
~
)
)
)
FIGURE 9.45
.... _
)
FIGURE 9.46
)
accurate time of oscillation if the point about which the body is swung is too
) close to the center of gravity.
The moment of inertia of a part may also be determined experimentally by The moment of inertia I of the part is determined from the following equa-
) mounting the part on a pendulum made of a lightweight platform suspended by tion in which the second term accounts for the effect of the platform:
) chords as shown in Fig. 9.45 . To determine the moment of inertia of the part
about the centroidal axis g-g, the part is oriented such that g-g is directly below (9.90)
) and parallel to the suspension axis 0-0. The period for small oscillations is
observed by counting oscillations for a tin:ie of several minutes. The following
) equation, which determines I of the part, is a modification of Eq. 9.88, in which
) the second term accounts for the effect of the platform; T 6 represents the period
of the ptatfonn without the part: Problems
) ' 9.1. The rotor ofa jct compressor has blades 100 mm loilg mounted on 11 900-mm-di81Jletcr
bub. Assuming the configuration of Fig. 9.1 and that b . = 70 mm, t = 6 mm, and
)
I = Wlo - r -
( 41r2 -lo) + -WJ (r - Ti) (9.89) w • o.0272 x JO' Ni m', determine the allowable rotative speed of the. rotor for an al-
g 4ir2 lowable maximum blade stress of 690 x 10' N /m1 • The blades arc aluminum.
)
where 9.2. The blades of one of the stages of a jet engine compressor are 4 in. long and ~e
) mounted on arotor hub 36 in . in diameter. Assuming that the blad~ have the configura~on
W = weight of part
of Fig. 9.1, that b = 3 in., and t = l in. and that the rotor spee.d ~ ~000 rpm, detennme
) W,, = weight of platform the force ell.crtcd on the hub by the centrifugal force of ao md1vtdual blade .~ the
) 10 == distance from 0 to center of gravity of part corresponding stress at the base of the blade fo~ (a) a steel blade (w = 0.285 lb/m . ) and
for (b) an aluminum alloy blade (w = 0.10 lb/m .').
) I = distance from 0 to center of gravity of platform
9.3. Consider a blade of the type sbowu in Fig. 9.1 in which.the cross-scctio~I uea of
-r == period of platform with part the base is A. and that of the tip is A,. Assuming a uniform ta~r of cross·scctlonal area
)
T" = period of platform alone with radius, derive an expression for the stress s. due to centnfugal force at the base of
) the blade in terms of the taper ratio k = A,/A.·
To allow for accuracy in determining I when using Eq. 9.89, the length of 9.4. Assuming that a fan is simulated by the configuration of Fig. 9.~. determine the

, ) the suspension should be such that 10 is as small as possible but accurately

measurable.
A third method for determining I is to orient the part on an equilateral
·
ma.XJmum
blade stress (N/ml) due to centrifugal force for a 260-mm-dia meter fan. The

rpm (w "" 0.0769 x 10' Nim').

. d"

.
.
fart has eight blades t.07 mm thick mounted on a hub 60 mm ID 1amctcr rotating a
t 3600

9.5. Assume that a 15-ft-diamcter solid aluminum alloy propellc~ rotating at 1~00 rpm
triangular (or round) platform suspended as shown in Fig. 9.46 and to observe
> the period of the apparatus as a torsional pendulum oscillating about axis g-g. has the unifonn blade shape shown in Fig. 9.3. The blade length 1s 5 ft, b = 8 m., and
) To determine the moment of inertia of the part about the eentroidal axis g-r, 1 · and the blade angle is 20". Determine the tensile force on the shank by the
~:trifu~~ force 00 the blade and the ronesponding twisting moment on the ~hank (w - 0.10
) the part is oriented such that g-g is parallel to the three vertical suspension chords
and is equidistant r from the three chords. lb/ in .') .
)
)
)
 ,
•t
l ,,
i MOMENT-OF-lNERTIA DETERMINATION 481
480 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY !

9.6. In Fig. 9.47, link 2 rotates 1bou1 a fixed axis 11 0 1• For the d1t1 given, determini
~
the inertia force vector F. and show it in its proper position oo a scale drawing of link 2.
200 ft/ sl
•
Show also the resultant force vector R rcprcsentin11 the forces which produce the angular
I 100tt/;·v(60
.9
motions sho wn .
'
=1-1
m / 11) A

Wa - 10 lb (4-4.5 N)
lz • o .Olr.63 lb· s2 . ft
(0 .0212 II& · m21
(30.S m/s2)

B
A
5 In.-

(127 mm)
'\.

••
8 in.
(203 mm)
',
I

µ:__ .~.~ -' t

(254mm)
/

•,
Wa • 'W4 • 61b 127 NI
Ws • 10 lb (44.5 10
2
Is - 0.009 lb· s · ft
2
(0.012 le& • m 1
./
•,
nGURE 9.48 t
f.U. For the linkage shown in Fig. 9.53 with its a«:eleration polygon , calculate F., and Ji
abow it on the configuration diagram in its correct location.
)
,.l3. In the crank shaper mechanism of Fig. 9.54, the tool holder 6 is acted upon by a
static force of 100 lb as the tool cuts the work. Using force polygons, determine the forces
acting on the bearings at A, B, C, OJ, and o. due to the tool force. Also determine the
shaft torque T, applied to link 2 at OJ. Draw the free-body diagram of each link (except
link 1), and show the forces acting to sale. Also show T, on link 2.
,,•
9.14. A 335-N cutting force acts on the Whitworth mechanism as shown in fig. 9.55.
From a static force analysis of the mechanism , determine the forces acting on the bearings )
HGURE 9.47
due to r. and the shaft torque T. applied to link 2 at o,.
,.15. For the mechanism shown in Fig. 9.56, determine the forces acting on the bearings >
due to F, and the torque T, on the shaft at 0 1•
9.7. For the mechanism shown in Fig. 9.48, determine the magnitudes, directions, senses, ~
and locations of the inertia forces acting on links 2, 3 , and 4. Show the results on a scale OaA • 3 lo. 176.2 mml W3 • 16. l lb 171 .6 Nl
AB • 12 In. 1305 mml )
drawing of the mechanism. Draw the giveo acceleration polygon to scale for use in de- Is • 0 .50 lb · lz · It
o.n -
,,•
7 lo. (178 mm) (0.6111 q · m2l
termining unknown ac:cclcr11tioos. AD • 3 In. (76.2 mm)
9.8. In the four-bar mechanism of Fig. 9.49, the center of gravity of link 3 is coincident
with the centroid of the rectangle shown. From the given information, determine the
inertia force of link 3, and show it as a vector in its correct relationship to the mechanism D
in the phase 1hown.
9.9. 1be link in Fi11. 9.50, ro t11ti1111 abou t tho fixed center 0,, i1 in motion in such a way
that the cente1 of gravity 11 accelerating In the direction 1hown and ita nom1al component >
A;, • 2000 ft/~ 1 . Using ve<:tor polygom, determine the force FA and the reactive force at
0 1 that are producing the motion of the link.
t
9.10. For the mechanism of Fig. 9.51, determine tbe forces F,4 and F 11 due to the action
•
of the inertia force F.,. Also determine the shaft torque T, applied to link 2 at 0 1 . Draw
the mechanism to scale and show the answers in their proper locations.
9.ll. Given the mechanism shown in Fig. 9.52 and its acceleration polygon, calculate
F.,, and show it on the configuration diagram in its correct location. nGURE 9.49
14 in.
(356 mm) ,
)

~
 J
)
) MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION 483
)
) fjoo 1
1.5 In. 61,..,_______
) (38.l mm)

)
) 02A • 10 In. (254 mm)
OJ62 • 3.5 In. (88.9 mml
Ii • 0.025 lb • s 2 • ft
(0.034 ~· m2)
t.~
A;. • 2000 lt/s

'
W2 • 10 lb (44.5 NJ
(6 10 m/s 2l
)

>
) c
147 in.Isl
) o.:...r.-~~--(3_._74_m_1_s2_>~_ _,.._,_
)
)
)
)
) ,-
flGURE 9.50 02A =1.2 In. (30.5 mm) =
Aa3 1.4 In. (35.6 mm)
) AB= 2.8 in. (71 .l mm) Wa = 4 lb (17.8 N) A
BC= 1.4 In. (35.6 mm) 13 =0.006 lb • s 1
ft•

} 0 6 C = 1.1 In. (27.9 mm) (0.008 kg · mi)

) F1GURE '.52
lOOOlb

'
)
)
' - - 7.0867 In.
I .(180 mm)----H
F. (4500 N)
4
9.16. Refer to Fig. 9 .57. Using superposition, construct force polygow and determine
the for~ on the bearings at A, B, C, and 0 1 to maintain static equilibrium . Determine
also the shaft torque T, at 0 1 of the driving link.
9.17. The flyball governor of Fig. 9.58 rotates about the Y-Y-axis at a constant angular
) velocity. The spring aerts a force of 100 lb to balance the inertial force on the balls.
Dcrermine the rotation speed (rpm) of the governor in the position ~ho wn . Each ball
) 02A • 7.0867 In. 1180 mm)
weighs 3.22 lb .
) 9.18. The tensioning mechanism of Fig. 9.59 is shown in both the o pen and closed po-
sitions. P is the force applied to the handle , and Q represents the tension in the cable.
J By eye, sketch the force polygons for both the open and the closed positions, and show
that lhe r11tio o ( QI I' Ix-comes infini!e when lhe poinl3 A , fl , 11nd C IUe 011 a str11ight line .
) 9.19. Determine force Q which must be applied 10 li11k ti In Fi ~ . 9.60 to 111 nin111in srntic
9.8431n.
> ~------(250 m m ) - - - - - - . i
equilibrium of the system under the action of force P .
9.20. For the mechanism of Fig. 9 .61, determine the force Q necessary to maintain static
) FIGURE 9.51 equilibrium of the system under the action of the force P - 1000 lb.

> 482
)
~ - --
)
 ·i;.
-- ~~. ;ft...
,
,

•
Oa-( = l .2 in. (30.5 mm)
AB= 2.8 In. (71.l mm)
BC= l.l in. (27.9 mm)
06C = 1.2 in. (30.5 mm)
A6a = 1.4 In. (35.6 mm)
W3 = 4 lb (17.8 N)
13 = 0.006 lb • s2 • ft
(0.008 kg • m 2)
MOMEITT-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION

0204 • 7 in. (1 78 mm)

485 ,,•
0 48 • 8 in. !203 mm)
A
0 4 A • 18 In. (457 mm)
BC• 28 In. (711 mm}
02A • 14 in. (356 mm} •
•
~
3.2 in.
(81.3 mm) 751b
~......~~__;Fs:C334 N)
t

FlGURE '.55
,•
>
9.ll. Refer to Fig. 9.62. Given the resistance P .,. 5338 N, determine the force which
must be applied at M io the direction shown to maintain static equilibrium. ~ •
9.22. The four-bar mechanism of Fig. 9.63 is driven at Oi at a constant angular velocity
•
of 500 rad/s. From the data given, make a complete dynamic analysis including a kinematic
•
168 ft/5t
(51.3 m/51) analysis, inertia force determinations, and a force analysis.
9..13. From the slider-crank data given in Fig. 9.64, make a complete dynamic analysis
including.a _kinematic analysis, inertia force determinations, and a force analysis.
9.24. The Scotch yoke mechanism is often utilized in actuating small vibration tables as
•
)
, shown in Fig. 9.65. The motion is simple harmonic. Determine the maximum force on )
c the bearing when the crank of length t ... l in. rotates at 6000 rpm giving a vibration
flGURE 9.53 frequency of 6000 cycles/min. Include the inertia effects of all parts inducing force on the
bearing. •
100 lb
F 1 (445N)
9.25. From the data given for the donkey engine of Fig. 9.66, make a for ce analysis and
determine the forces on the bearings at O., A, and B . ,
)

B
•
~"~i:~,) ~
14 In.
(356 mm) -.---------A
l c
4
L •
l·
2 5. t
ii'"·

lOin.
0 48 • 24 In. (610 mm)
(58.7 mm)

L~
•
~

•
(254 mm)

_L 02A • 2i In. (63.5 mm) BD • 11In. (34 .9 mm) •

FIGURE 9.54
AB • U In. 144.5 mm}
BC• l in. (25.4 mm)
FlGURE 9.56
CD• l In. (41.3 mm)
o,c • Hin. (31.8 mm)
,,
)
J
)
486
MOMENT·Of.tNl'RnA oFrnRMINATION 487
l FORCE ANALYSIS OF M ACIUNP.RY

)
p
)
)
)
)
)
098 • 4.5 In. (114 mm)
)
I

}
)
I
I

)
10 In.
(254 mm) I

u
p
) c CiMed

) I

) /
) FIGURE 9.57
FlGURE 9.59
) 9.26. In Fig. 9.67a, the uniform steel bar is in motion and the acceleration of points A
and Bare as shown. Determine the following, giving magnitude, direction, and sense: (a}
) · th haft torque ·r that must be applied to link 2 on Fig. 9.63 to hold
r transverse and longitudinal distribution of acceleration; (b) transverse and longitudinal 9.27. Detemune es • .
) distribution of inertia force (for steel w • 0.0769 x 104 Nfm>); (c} transverse and lon- the linkage in equilibrium. Use the method of virtual work.
( gitudinal resultant inertia forces; show line of action; (d) resultant Inertia force; show line • • Using the method of virtual work, calculate the cr~haft torque T, necessary to
) of action. Determine the same quantities for the nonuniform steel bar of Fig. 9.67b. 9 28
hold the linkage in equilibrium for the slider-crank mecharusm of Fig. 9.68. The gas force
) may be assumed zero.

)
)
809 1b
) 2 p :: (36<?0 N)

~
)

> 1'apJUNo • I 00 lb (44!1 N)

) Muu. • 0.1.lb · s2tn. U .46 kll o,A ~ 11 in. !4 4.5 mml
o,B • 21 in. (63.5 mml
) AC • 21 In. (63.5 mml
BD • 3 in. (76.2 mm)
) FIGURE 9.60
ftGURE 9..58
)
486
>
)
 ,..
···:'
'

MOMENr-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION 489

OaA - 2l in. 163.5 mm) 0 4C - 7 in. (178 mm)
02B - 6 In. 1152 mm)
AC - 12 In . (305 mm)
O,D - 10 In. 1254 mm)
DI!; - 12 In. (305 mm) I.-
I
1
.. ,"·
(102 mm) I OaA - 3 In. ( 76 . 2 mm)
AB - 7 In. (178 mml
D A,_ • 3 in. (76.2 mm)
B II Wa • 4 lb (17.8 NI

I
W1 • 8 lb (35.6 NJ
3
E \ W4 • 20 lb (119 H)
~~
---r---- 1

'\~ ~
r2 -0.0031b · s2 · 1t
4 in.
(102 mm)
4 I ~~-
I0.00407 II& · m 2)
ls•O.Ol51b · s 2 · 1t
(0.0203 kl · m2 1
~~
L_ lOln.
(254mm)
\ ;
- o.o 10 lb . 1 2 . It
<0.0136 kl · m 2J

FlGURE 9.61

A Oz.A • 12 in. (305 mmJ CB • 8 in.

BD • 6 in. rad/ s
02M • 5 in. DGURE U4

9.29. For the mechanism of Fig. 9.64, determine the crankshaft torque T. necessary to
bold the linkage in equib"brium. Use the method of virtual work.
9.30. Calculate the shaft torque T, which must be applied to link 2 of Fig. 9.66 to hold
the linkage in equilibrium. Use the method of virtual work.
9.31. Use the method of virtual work to detennine the crankshaft torque 7. ;:,·:essary to
•1
1--
1'
7in .
(178 mm )
~ bold the linkage in equilibrium for the tw<H:ylinder engine shown in Fig. 9.69.
9-32. For the slider-aanlt mechanism shown in Fig. 9.21, a spring provides the driving
FlGURE 9.62 force on piston 4 with a spring rate of 100 lb/in. of deflection. Assume that the spring is
compressed 1.7.'5 in. from ils free length when piston 4 is al its starting position al phase
I and that cu, is zero al this position. Determine "'' at position III if T , is constant al .'50
B lb · in . (ccw) and 8!" "' 60°.

10 In.
(254 mm)

OaA • l In. (76.2 mml Ou4 • 4 in. 1102 mm) . /3 • 0.020 lb . , 2 . ft

Gila • 1 In. (25.4 IMI)
AB - 12 In. (305 mm)
.,..3 • 4 In. (102 mm)
0 4 8 • 6 In. II ~2 mml
FIGURE 9.63
W1 • !I lb (22.25 NJ
Ws • 10 lb (4"4.5C NI
W4 - 15 lb 166.75 NI
12 - 0 .001 lb . s 2 . It
(0.00136 kc · m2J
(0.0272 II& • m 2 J
1, - 0.010 lb . s2 • It
(0.0136 k& · m2 J Yoke 10 lb (44.5 N)
FIGURE 9.65
I
}
MOMEITT-OF-JNERTIA DE'IBRMTNATION 491
l
) OiA - 4 In. W2 • 10 lb / 2 - 0 .010 lb . , 2. ft
AB• 14 In. w, - 151b / 3 - 0 .050 l b • , 2 . It
) .A1'3 • 10 in.
w, - 25 1b r, • o.oao lb • s2 . rt
) ,,
) Counterweight
Crank speed • -4000 rpm
) Piston wei1ht • 2.76 lb 02.2 N)
Connoctini rod ...ight • 2 lb (8.9 N)

'
Stroke • ' in. (102 mmJ
Connecting rod loop • 8 In. (203 aun)
13 a t 2 In. (50.8 mmJ from A
) 13 - 0.0062 tb . , 2 • ft
(~.007 q · iu2)
) FIGURE 9.68
) Steam pressure 20 ps11 =
Piston area : 10 In."'

) 9.33. For the link shown in Fig. 9.70 Ma , la . and !, are known. (a) Determine an equation
for M, in tenn~ of the above values . (b) Calculate the moment of inertia o f the link If
)
lo = 76 mm, 1, - 51 m m, and Ma = 0 .073 leg .
) 9.34. For the link shown in Fig. 9.71 , the two point masses at A and B arc intended to
HGURE 9.66 be kioetically equivalent. Determine whether they are tioctically eqnivalent.
) 9.35." A link is shown in Fig. 9.72 that has its mass divided between points A and B in
) 1700 ft/12 the manaer shown. Determine whether the two maJ&CS arc kinetically equivalent.
\As (518 m/ s2)
) 1000ftls2
\
tAA-(305 m / s2)
\
)

r- .. .
I \ l In.

--~
)
)
o
(25.4 mm)
l tn.
(25.4mm)
c

) ~:
"(a)
,
) AGURE , .67a

)
1700 ftls2
) \A8 (518 m / sl) B
lOOOfVsl
) tAA (305 m/s2) \

} 2 1~
I \
Gas forces:
P1 c 1800 lb 18000 Nl
Lenctha:
Crank, 2 in. l50.8 mml

)
)
(50.8 mmJ
c=::r-
2 in.
(50.8 m m)
D_ c -- - ;--~~
~ /\ 11
(254;',;mi1 In.
~ --t}
(25.4 mm)
P2 • 400 lb II 7ll0 N l
WeiJtits:
P11ton, 2 lb t8.9 NI
Connec:linl rod, 2: lb
t 10 NI a t cnnk pin,
Connectinr rod, 8 In. !203 mm l
Moment o( inerti1 of
ronr>eetinl ""11,
0 .0074 lb . • 2 . It
10.010 kr · m 2 1

)
61n. 6fn I 0.76 lb 13.3• NI e t
o;.1ance from cronk
c:eoter to center or
(152 mm)--f- (152 ,,.;m) pi !lllton pin p vi ty or connocti ns
rods • 2 in. lli0.8 m ml
(6}
) FIGURE 9.676 flG U RE 9 .69
)
490
)
)
 -
·· -- -· - ·- -
,,
)
492 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY MOMENl-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION 493 )
lq 1, 2.361n.
(60.0 mm)
5.12 In.
•
•
(130mm)

FIGURE 9.70
•'
9.36. For lhe lank ~hown in Fig. 9.73, determine lhe locatiop of W 1 and the magnitude~
of· W, and W, so that they are l..;netically equivalent. Determine also the magnitudes;
9 .84in.
(250mm)
W1 • 9 lb (40 NI
,•
directions, and senses of the inertia forces of the poiol masses and show them oo a drawing
of the link to scale.
11 - 0 .0235 lb . • 2 . ft
(0.0318 k1 · m2J •>
9.37. The single-<:ylinder, four -stroke engine of Fig. 9.68 is shown in the intake phase in
which the gas force may be assumed zero. From the data given, determine the following:
(a) the velocity and acceleration polygons; (b) the true lcioetically equivalent masses of FlGURE !1.n
WA • 6.65 lb (29.6 NI
lf'a • 2.34 lb 110.4 HI
,
•,'
the connecting rod locating one of them at point B; (c) the approximate kinetically
equivalent masses locating one at B and the other at A; (d) the inertia forces F.,, F-,; rod equivalent masses at the crank pin. Determine the crankshaft torque T,. Show your
FA,• and show them oo the diagram to scale using the masses of section (c); (e) using the answers on the layout of the mechanism.
free-body diagram of the complete mechanism (excluding link 1), determine F,. and F~ 9.3,. In Fig. 9. 74, two free-body diagrams are shown of a single-cylinder engine in which
due to the inertia forces. Determine the crankshaft torque T,. Assume that the coun1er- the rotating mas.scs arc counterbalanced. Figure 9.14a is a free-body diagram of the moving
weigbt balances the crank and the equivalent masses at A .
9.38. For the two-cylinder, 90° V engine shown in Fig. 9.69 , determine the resultant fon:e\
parts of the slider crank, and Fig. 9.1'4b is a free-body diagram of the engine block together
with the slider crank. Show vectors of the forces and torques acting on the free bodies •
on the main bearings due to the gas forces and inertia forces. The center o{ gravity of the
crankshaft is al 0 1 . However, there is no counterweight to counterbalance the connecting
when the engine operates at constant crank speed and is under gas pressure during the
power stroke. Explain each \lector_
,.40. Sketch a free-body diagram of the engine block of the two-cylinder 90" V engine
,,
>
of Fig. 9 .69 and show vectors of the forces acting. Explain each vector.

,•
, .41. Using Table 9 .2, determine the instantaneous output torque of the single-cylinder
Wa • 10 lb (44 5 N) engine shown io Fig. 9 .68. Zero gas pressure may be assumed since the phase shown is
2 in the intake stroke. Inertia forces act.
12 - 0 .0389 lb . • • fl
l0.0527 k& • 01 21
WA • 6 .85 lb (30 .5 N)
Ws • 3 . 16 lb (14. I HI
•
W • 16. l lb (71.6 NI
l • 0.04171b · s 2 · ft
l0.056!) k& . 0121 •
800 lt/sl
•
A• (244 m/sl)
••
•
•
•
FIGURE !1.73 •
,•
FIGURE 9.71

)
1
 }

\ 494 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMJNATION 495.

)
) 125
100
E
) z
75
50
!{ 25 Crank •n1fe 8,
\
) -
sa 01----il----il--~~-+-~-+-~-+-~-+-~-+-~~~-
25 90 180 270 360 -450 540 630 70
de1rees

J -so

'
}
-75
-too
- 125

) F1GURE 9.76
)
) (a) ,,,, of the 720° cycle. Plot the output torque of the engine versus crank angle by superposing
the torque curves of the two cylinders with a phase angle of 90". Assume that tbe gas
l FIGURE 9.74 ;, t pressure during the power stroke varies u shown in Fig. 9 .7~ and that the gas pressure
is zero for the other strokes. Assume also that all masses rotating with the crank arc
) '· ~
~1.
counterbalanced.
9
•42. By the .analytical me~od and Table 9.2, determine the instantaneous output torqu; 9.44. The torque output d iagram of a single-cylinder engine is shown in Fig. 9.76. De-
) of the two-cyl_mder90° VengincofFig. 9.69 for a crank speed of 4000 rpm. The acceleration f termine: (a) the average output torque and the kilowatt output for the engine which
) polygon of Fig. 9.69 docs not apply. ; i operates at 3500 rpm; (b) the locations of the crank angles at which the crankshaft speed
9.43. In Fig. 9.75. is shown a two-cylioderfour-cyclc engine with cranks 909 apart. Usin; is a maximum and a minimum during the engine cycle; and (c) calculate the work done
) Table 9.2, deterrmne and plot the output torque for one cylinder for each JS crank angle D to change the speed from the minimum to the maximum.
t 9.45. Assume that the torque output diagram of Fig. 9.T7 is for the first cylinder of a
) two-cylinder in-line engine with cranks at 180". On this diagram, superimpose the same
diagJ3Ul for the second cylinder. Determine the locations of muimum and minimum
) crankshaft speeds in terms of the crank angle of the first cylinder.
) Cylinder 2 Power stroke 9.46. If each squue inch of a torque diagram represents 375 ft · lb of work, the area
between the points of "'" and 11>,,, is 1.20 in.1, the engine speed is 3500 rpm, and the
) maximum allowable fluctuation of speed io the engine cycle is 35 rpm, determine the
)
)
100
0 180'
) Oank Ingle. I
80
:e 60
) c:: -40
! 20 Cr1nk •nale tJ,
) ~ dearees
g Ot---90-+-~1~80~27-0+-3-60-+--4-50-+-~540_.__630~~-7~20~~-0.-~
Crank lpe«!, 2800 rpm
I &roke, 6111.
~-rod l•arth. 12 ln..
l'llllDn ••l1ht. ' lb
~=:
c3 - 60
) W•llht or connoctfn1 rod
- so
It crank pin, 3 lb
It pfltton pin, l lb -100
) Platan di1ineter, ti iR.

) FIGURE 9.75 F1GURE 9.77

)
>
)
·- - - · · ·- - --- - --
 I

•
•
496 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION 497
•
following : (a) the moment of inertia of a steel disk-type flywheel; (b) the weight and
thickness of the flywheel if che diamcccr is JS in. (w • 490 lb/ft') .
I

~
't
9.47. A single-cylinder eogine bas a 230-mrn meao diameter rim-cype flywheel weighin~
200 N. The engine operates at 3000 rpm and bas an allowable fluctuation of speed in thC! •
engine cycle of 30 rpm. Decennine Che Cota! work output in N · m. !
•}
9.48. The corque output diagram of Fig. 9.76 is for a siogle-cylindcr engine at 3000 rpmi
Determine che weight of a steel disk-cypc flywheel required to limit the crank speed to
10 rpm above and 10 rpm below the average speed of 3000 rpm. The oucside diameter of
the flywheel is 250 mm. Determine also the weight of !he rim of a rim-type steel flywheel
,
of 250 mm mean diameter for the same allowable fluctuation in speed. . j 01A • 3 In. (76 .2 mm)
•t
,
9.49. In the punch press sbown in Fig. 9 .78a, a slider-crank mechanism with flywheel is 0 1B - 12 In. (305 rnml
used co punch holes in sceel plates. A hole is punched for each revolution of the flywheel; BC • 8 In. 1203 mm)
which operates at an average speed of 300 rpm. The load P oo the punch during punching
is the force necessary to shear the plate, and !he variatioo of punching force wilh shearing

•'
deformacion of the place is shown in Fig. 9.78b. For the maximum size of place and bole
to be punched, it is estimated that 3200 ft · lb of work is required to punch the hole and
that the punching is accomplished in one-sixth of a revolution of the flywheel . Figure 9. 78c
shows the torque diagram for one cycle of punching. Determine the following: (a) the
average crank torque for one cycle; (b) the horsepower required of the motor; (c) the ~
required moment of inertia of the flywheel for a minimum speed of 280 rpm just after
punching. FIGURE t.79
•>
'.51.
,•
For the mechanism of Fig. 9.80 , determioe the force at the pitch point of the meshed
flywheel gears due to the inertia force of link 4. The pressure angle of the gear teeth is 2<:r. The
mechanism is driven by a shaft at O, .

02A • l in. (25.4 min)

AB • S In. 027 mm1
B
•
Bdt
BC • 3 In. (76.2 mm)
OoC • 2 In. CS0.8 mm) •
)

I~'~'e thickness I
! Deformation a •
(b>
•
j ~l-. . l"-'"'
. ..... _'b_ot_._~_°'_k
Punch
>
:-200-ft_._;
•
o·

I ,
90•
J
1so• 210• J60•
Crenk 1n&11 I
One cycle '
~
(c) )
nGURE 9.78
I
•
•t
9.50. Gears arc normally used to drive crank shaper machinery as shown in Fig. 9.79. I
Gean 2 and 3 are in mesh on &taodard pitch circles and have 20" stub teeth. Determine t.51. The aear and rack of Fig. 9.81 are in atatic equilibrium under the static force P .
the tooth force on gears 2 and 3 and the shaft torque at O, to maintain staric equilibrium Note that since there is no bearing support of the gear at 0, the force P causes a tooth
of the mechanism acted upon by the known cutting tool force of 500 lb . of the gear to bear against two teeth on the rack. The resultant of the two forces on the

••
 J
)
498 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MA CID NERY
\ MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION 499
/
p (10 lb)
) 9.SS. A spring-loaded radial roller follower of a disk cam is lifted througb • distance of
SO mm with simple barmooic motion. The weight of the follower including the weight of
) the spring is 45 N. Because of its very low spring c:Oostant , the spring is assumed to apply
r a constant force of 25 N. Determine the maximum speed of the cam so that the follower
) docs not lose contact with the cam.
9.56. Io a Geneva mechanism, the pin of the driving wheel exerts a contactinR force

'
)
)
against the slot of the driven wheel. Determine this force for the following data : driver
speed, 400 rpm (constant); center distance of the wheels, 4 in .; pin location, on 3·in.
radius; number of slots, 4; phase, pin radius at 30" from line of wheel ccnten; weight of
driven wheel, 1 lb; radius of gyntion of driven wheel, 1 in. Determine the pin force due
to inertia or the driven wheel, and determine the torque on the d riving shaft.
\ FIGURE 9.81 9.57. The gyroscope as shown in Fig. 9.83 is often used to demonstrate gyroscopic preces·
') sion due to the action of the gravitational force. Determine the angular velocity of preces-
sion of a gyroscope of 16.1 lb weight spinning at 6000 rpm . The ndius r is 4 in. and a is
i gear tooth must be equ~I, opposite, and collinear with P for static equilibrium of the gear}" 17 .9 in.

$- ~b:·===·
If the gears are of 141 tooth form, determine the force of contact on one of the ra
> teeth. ....---a:--->..!,
9.53. Make a force analysis of the mechanism of Fig. 9.82, which is in static equilibriu
l un~er the action of the force P . The shaft at Oz is capable of producing a ~g torqu~ ::,.-=z:=
. ===Ci)-Swfvel folnt
) Is 1t necessary. to lcnow the pressure angle of the gear teeth to determine T.? Why? Stetcti:'
an enlarged View Of the contact Of the teeth, and show force VCCtOrs. r
> I w
)
) 02A • 4 in.
100 lb
P (-445 N)
4fn.
f·
DC - 7 in.
0,8 • 3 in.
t - - - - M - (102 mm) FlGURE 9.S3
} o,
9.58. The rotor of a jet airplane engine is supported by two bearings as shown in Fig.
) 9.84. The rotor assembly including compressor, turbine, and shaft is 6672 Nin weight and
) bas a radius of gyration of229 mm. Detenninc the maximum bearing force as the airplane
undergoes a pullout on a 1830-m-radius curve at a constant airplane speed of 966 km/h

'
)
and an engine rotor speed of 10,000 tpm. Include the effect of centrifugal force due to
the pullout as well as the gyroscopic effect.

)
12 In.

,,
)
. FIGURE 9.82 (305 mm) R• 1830 m

,
) 9.54. A disk cam rotating at 200 rpm lifts a radial roller follower with simple harmonic
motion through a maximum displacement of 2.5 in. while the cam rotates through 90".
There is lhen a dwell of lhe follower for 180" of cam rotation, followed by 1 return of the
follower in simple harmonic motion in the remaining 90" of cam rotation . For a follower
FIGURE 9.84
V (966 km/hf)

)
weight of 8 lb, determine the inertia force of the follower for each 15" of cam rotation
) and plot the results. Determine and plot the resultant of the weight force and inertia force. 9.59. In the bevel gear planetary gear train of Fig. 9 .8S, the earner (link 4) rotates at
Determine the required spring constant of a spring which will maintain contact of the 1200 rpm. Determine the force on the bearings of planet (link 3) produced by gyr~copic
) follower with the cam throughout the cam rotation . action; I about the spin axi5 of the planet is 0.060 lb · s' · In.
)

>
)
'r~f, ' -·
 I

I
500 MOMENT·OF-INERTIA DETERMINAllON SOI
I
FORCT Al'lALYSIS OF MACHINERY

3 In.
j
II
x
Be.an111 !
I
-P.>...U""-. z !
j

.
I

w FIGURE 9.88
FlGURE 9.85 F1GURE 9.86

9.60. In Fig. 9.86 is shown the gimbal mounting of a gyroscope used in instrument
applications lo maintain a fixed axis in space. Low,friction bearings are used to minimize·
the precession of the gyro. Through which bearings must friction torque be applied to
cause precession ot the x-axis in the xz-plane? If the gyro spins at 10,000 rpm and l of
the gyro is 0.001 lb · s1 • ft, how much friction torque must be applied continuously to
cause a precession at l°/h'?
9.61. ·To determine the moment of inertia I about an axis through the mass center of the
connecting rod of Fig. 9.87a, the rod is suspended as a pendulum and the period of small
oscillations is observed. (a) When wspendcd on a knife edge at 0., 59 oscillations arc
oounted in 60 s. Determine /. Calculate the percent difference in I if 58 oscillations arc
counted in 60 s. (b) When suspended at Oz, 66 oscillations arc counted in 60 s . Determine
l , and calculate the percent difference in I if only 65 oscillations arc counted in 60 s. Which
suspension gives the greater accuracy in determining Why? n
9.62. In an experiment, the ring of Fig. 9.87b makes 107 oscillations in 1 min when
supported as shown. The ring weighs 1.203 lb. Determine the moment of inertia I of the
ring about an axis through its center of gravity (a) theoretically and (b) from the exper·
imental data. Compute the percent error in I based oo the theoretical value.
9.63. In Fig. 9.88 is shown a solid, thin disk suspended as a torsional pendulum by four
weightlus strings. Derive an expression for the determination of I of the disk obout the

n·
1-g-axis in terms of the disk weight W, /, r, lllld the torsional period-r of small oscillations.
!1.64. The slider crank of Fig. 9.89 is operated at a uniform crank speed of 200 rad/s.

01A • 76.2 mm Wz • 26. 7 N

-~
AB• 229mm W3•l7.8N
... co At3 • 102 mm
W, • 13 3 N
12 • 0 .0068 Ila · m 2

I, /3 • 0 .0081 kc · m
2

Wei&hl W .. 3. llb
(o) (b)

FIGURE 9.87 FIGURE 9.19

I

) 502 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MAOUNERY

) The lengths, the centers of gravity, the weigbts, and the moments of inertia I of the links

)
are giveo. Using the analytical method of complex nwnbers, determine the numerical
values of the following for the phase 81 ... 00°: (a) magnitude and angle of the inertia
Chapter Ten
forces F., and F.,; (b) magnitude and angle of the bearing force Fj. due to inertia force
~ F.,; (c) magnitude and angle of the bearing force F;. due to Inertia force F.,; (d) magnltudc
)
and angle of the resultant force F,.. For ldocmatic equations, refer to section 8.26.
Balance of
~ Machinery
)

i
)
)
)

l
)
)
10.1 INTRODUCilON
)
As discussed in Chapter 9, the inertia forces of the slider-crank mechanism in an
) engine cause shaking of the engine block. Shaking forces in machines due to
inertia forces may be minimized by balancing inertia forces in opposition to each
) other in such a way that little or no force is transmitted to the machine supports.
) In Fig .. 10.1, for example, the rotating mass M without counterbalance
induces a shaking force equal to the inertia force F that is transmitted to the
) bearings and the supports. Because of the rotation, the shaking force has the
characteristics of forced vibration at a circular frequency w . The degree to which
)
)
)
)
)

,
) MKhlM
tum•

)
Flnlblt
:> supports

)
HGURE JO.I
) 503
>
) -~
~
 ,
•
)
I

I •
504 BALANCE 'oF MACHINERY
l
j BALANCE OF ROTORS 505 •
the forced vibration is undesirable depends upon the frequency of the force~
vibration and the natural frequency of the flexible members through which force·
balanoe is achieved. For constant cu, the inertia force for any given mass M is
F = Mrw1 with direction and sense radially outward. For balance, the vector
sum, taken either graphically or analytically, of the inertia forces of the system
••
is transmitted such as the shaft or the supports. If conditions arc near resonance}.
amplitudes of vibration may become large enough to cause discomfort as in an
automobile or may cause failure of the shaft, the bearings, or the supports. ~
is zero:
•
shown in Fig. 10.1, the shaking force may be minimized by counterbalancing in
such a manner that the resultant of the inertia forces of the mass M and theI g
IF= I (Mrw2) = I ( W rw2) = g
cu I (Wr) = 0
1
•t
counterbalance is zero.
In the subsequent discussions, methods arc shown for determining the re~ I (Wr) = 0 (10.1) >
quirements of balance in (a) systems of masse~ rotating. about a common axi~
and (b) systems of reciprocating masses. In piston engines, both systems ar~
present, the crankshaft being a system cit rotating masses and the_ pistons being
one of reciprocation. In addition, a method is shown for balancing a four-bar
Since for all masses, w 2/g is constant, balance is achieved if Eq. 10.1 is
satisfied; Wr for each mass is a vector io the same direction and sense as the
.inertia force. Io Fig. 10.2, values of Wr for the three known masses are tabulated,
,>
linkage. and the Wr value of the fourth mass is to be determined to satisfy Eq. 10.1 for
•
10.2 BALANCE OF ROTORS
balance. As shown in the vector polygon, the resultant R represents the unbalance
of the three masses. The unbalance can also be determined analytically by sum-
ming .r- and y-components around the vector loop. Both methods give (Wr), =
•>
Figure 10.2 shows a rigid rotor consisting of a system of three masses rotating in 95 lb · in. In Fig. 10.2, the balancing weight W. is a 10-lb weight at r, = 9.5 in. ,
a common traruvuse plane about the axis 0-0. A fourth mass is to be added although any arbitrary value of W, or '• may be selected. Without the balancing •
to the system so that the sum of the inertia forces (shaking force) is zero and mass, the resultant force in the rotating system is Rw1/g, which causes a bending
of the shaft and exerts forces on the bearings supporting the shaft ; in Fig. 10.2, •
the left bearing would carry a greater part of the unbalanced load . With the
baJancing mass added, the shaft bending and bearing loads are reduced to a •
2 •'
minimum. Any number of masses rotating in a common radial plane may be
baJanccd with a single mass.
For the case in which the rotating masses of a rigid rotor lie in a common
o- -o••
~ I
!' ........
axial plane as in Fig. 10.3, the inertia forces are parallel vectors. Balance of
inertia forces is achieved in this case as io the previous case by satisfying Eq .
10.1. .However. balance of the moments of inertia forces is also required. In the
•
•
system of Fig. 10.2, moment equilibrium is inherent since the inertia force vectors ~
I ,_)' are concurrent. In Fig. 10.3, however, the inertia forces are not concurrent when
viewed in the axial plane . Thus, for balance of moments, the moments of the
inertia forces about an arbitrarily chosen axis normal to the axial pla ne must be
•>
zero:
e• Wr,, lb· in.
•
w, lb r, in . Wr, lb · in. Wry. lb· in.
Number
8 24 134 -16.67 + 17 .26
I 3 W 1 )
I (Fa) = I ( g g
'•
+ 31.80 + 50.88 w1
2 5 12 60 58 rcu a = I (Wra) = 0
4 10 40 15 + 38 .64 + 10.35
3
+ 53 .77 + 78.49 l: (Wra) "" 0 (10.2)
R • V(I.Wr,) + (I.Wr.)1
1
~
- vs1.11 1 + 78.49' in which a ii the moment arm of any given inertio force .
.. 95 . 14 lb · in. (versus 93 lb · IA. by polygon)
The magnitude of the resultant force R of the three unbalanced masses in /
•
9 • t~n · • l:Wr,J
[- - =tan - • (78.49)
--
Fig. 10.3 is the algebraic sum as well as the vector sum of Wr terms of the three
masses since the inertia force vectors arc parallel. As shown in the table of Fig. I
•
• IWr, 53.77
= 55 .6° (versus 56° by polygon)
10.3, upward Wr values arc taken as positive . The line of action of R is dete rmined
using the principle of moments in which moments arc taken about the moment
center 0. The distance a11 from the moment center 0 locates the line of action
)

/
•
)
FIGURE 10.2
)
I

\ 506 BALANCE OF MACHINERY BAU\NCE OF ROTO RS 507

) Fa

)
R
) .......E
N
ci
(4)
\ II

)
)
)
)
(b}
) Number W, N r. m Wr , N · m a, m Wra, N · m• FIGURF. 10.4 FIGU RE 11>.5
I 22 .3 0. 178 + 3.9694 0 0
) 2 44.5 0 . 127 - 5.6515 0 . 127 -0.7177
) 3 44.5 0 .254 + 11.303 0.305 +3.4474 metrical distribution of cranks provides balance wi thout the additio n of coun-
+9.6209 +2.7297 terweights; but to reduce shaft bending, intermediate main bearings arc added.
) R = I( Wr) = 9.6209 N · m The most general case of distribution of rotating masses on a rigid rotor is
W,r, = - R = - 9.6209 N · m that in which the masses lie in various transverse and uial planes as in Fig. 10.6.
)
I(Wra) 2.7297 · Asia the foregoing cases, Eq. 10.1 must be satisfied for balance of inertia forces.
) n. 2
l:(Wr) - 9 _6209 • 0.2837 m = 284 mm As shown in Fig. 10.6b, the ·resultant R of the three unbalanced masses of Fig.
FIGURE 10.3 10.6a is obtained from a vector polygo n. Although it would appear that a single
) balancing mass would satisfy Eq. 10.l, a considerat ion of moment balance sho ws
} that a minimum of two balancing masses is required.
o f R. As shown in the table of Fig. 10.3, counterclockwise values of Wra are In Fig. 10.6a, the transverse plane A-A is a rbitrarily chosen about which
} positi~e. To satis~ Eqs. 1~.1 and 10.~ for balance, the equilibrant (Wr), is equal,
moments of the inertia forces are evaluated. It may be seen that the mo ments
opposite, and coUmear with R. In Fig. 10.3, a 44.5-N weight at r, = 0.216 m is of the various individual forces are in different axial planes. For moment balance ,
) 1· the vector sum of the moments of the forces must be zero:
shown as the balancing weight.
) In some instances, as shown in Fig. 10.4, the resultant of the system of
mas.scs to be balanced is a couple. The resultant force R for the two equal masses I (Wra) = o (10.3)
) in Fig. 10.4 is zero. However, because tho i.nertia forces of the two masses are
E q uation 10.3 is similar to Eq. 10.2, except that a vector sum is indicated rather
) not collinea r, an unbalanced couple exists. To meet the requirements of moment
balance, two additional masses are needed to provide a balancing couple. tha n an algebraic sum. Since, in the general case, the resultant unbalanced mo-
) In the foregoing cases, balancing requirements are met by determining the ment is in a d ifferent ax ial plarie from the re,,ultant R of unbalanced fo rces a
minimum number of additional masses to achieve balance. Often, more than the single balancing mass does no t satisfy both Eqs. 10. t and 10.3. '
) In Fig. 10.6c is shown the vector polygon of moments taken about the
minimum number is used. For example, in Fig. 10.3, the single counterbalancing

,
) mass is added to reduce shaking forces to zero and to remove load Crom the
be ~in~s supporting the shaft. However, the shaft is under the action of bending,
which tn some cases may be severe. Balance ~ay also be achieved by providing
a counterbalance opposite each mass, a total of three counterbalances, with the
transverse plane A-A . Plane B-B is chosen as a transverse plane in which a
balanci ng mass M6 is to be placed to achieve balance of moments. Magnitudes
of the moment vectors are tabulated as shown. Although moment vectors are
usually represented in direction and sense according to the ri ght-hand screw rule
) i.n Fig. 10.6c they are shown in the same direction and sense as the inert ia forces:
advantage that shaft bending is reduced to near zero. As shown in Fig. 10.Sa,
) crankshafts are frequently balanced by counterbalandng each crank separately In Fig. 10.6c, the known moment vectors (Wrah and (Wra), are laid off fi rst ,
to reduce shaft bending. Greater total weight is a disadvantage in utilizing large and the closing side (Wra)6 detennincs the required moment vector for balance.
) numbers of counterweights. As shown for the crankshaft in Fig. 10.Sb, the sym- The direction of (Wra). sho ws the axial plane in which M. is to be placed . As
)
)
)
~
 I

508 BALANCE ·OF MACHINERY BALANCE OF ROTORS S09

shown, the magnitude of the force vector (Wr)6 is calculated from (Wra)blab and
laid off on the fon:c polygon of Fig. 10.6b. For balance of forces, a second mass
. M. is required to close the force polygon as indicated by (Wr),. (Wr). and (Wr)b
form the equilibrant of R . By placing M. in plane A-A such that it has zero
moment about plane A-A, the moment vector polygon (Fig. 10.6c) for balance
is unchanged. Thus, both Eqs. 10.1 and 10.3 are satisfied. As indicated in the
table in Fig. 10.6, a 5-lb weight at r, = 5 in. in plane A-A and a 16.3-lb weight
at '• = 10 in. in plane B-B are used for balance. Figure 10.6a shows the axial
planes of the balancing masses as determined from the directions of (Wr), and
0 (Wr). in Fig. 10.6b.
In Fig. 10.6d is shown the moment vector polygon in which moments are
taken about plane B- B to determine the moment vector (Wrb), due to M, in
plane A-A. The vector (Wr). obtained from this polygon is the same as in the
previous solution. As shown in the table and in Fig. 10.6d, the sense of (Wrb)2
is negative since M 2 is on the opposite side of plane B-8 from M 1 and M 3 •
The problem of Fig. 10.6 may be solved using any two of the tbree vector
polygons shown. Also, for the general case of Fig. 10.6, any number of masses
may be balanced by a mioirnum of two masses placed in any two arbitrarily
selected transverse planes such as A-A and B-B.
The balance of the shaft and weights shown in Fig. 10.6 which was solved
graphically was also solved analytically. The angles are 8 1 = 120", 82 = 59", and
93 = 324°. By considering Fig. 10.6b the following equation was written:
(Wrb)i
(Wr)1 + (Wr)2 + (Wr)3 = R
(Wrb)i O

(WrbJ. This equation was solved to give R = 145.8 lb · in. and 6R = 32.7". From Fig.
10.6c,
(W~b),

(d} (Wra)l + (Wra)3 + (Wra). = 0

Number W, lb r. in . Wr, lb · in . a , in . Wra , lb · in.' b. in . Wrb , lb . in.' 11Us was solved to give (Wra). = 1596 lb · in.2 , compared to 1630 lb · in. 2 found
I 5 8 40 0 0 10 400 graphically from the polygon. Using this value with a• = 10 in. and ' • = 10 in.
-J -360
2 10 12 120 13 1560 gives (Wr). - 159.6 lb · in. and w. ,.. 15.96 lb, compared to 16.3 lb found
500
3
a
IO
5•
10
5
100
25•
5
0 '°°
0
5
JO 250•
graphically.
By returning to Fig. 10.6b,
b 16.3• 10 163* 10 1630• 0 0
(Wra). 1630
CWr). = - - = -10- "" 163 lb · in . (Wr). + R + (Wr)6 -= 0
a.
CWrb), 250 The direction of (Wr). is along the y-axis (i.e ., 90°) and the y'omponents of R
(IVr) - - - .. - lb · in .
• b, 10 - 25
and (Wt). arc known. The equation can therefore be solved to give (Wr}. =
•from polygons and calcula1ions . 25.54 lb ·in. and W, - 5.11 lb. The graphical solution gives 25 lb ·in. and S lb,
nGURE 10.6 respectively, for these values.
As shown in Fig. 10.7, the cranks of six- and eight-cylinder in-line engines
are arranged so that crankshaft balance is· obtained by symmetry, although the
individual crank masses (including equivalent connecting-rod masses) are in dif-
ferent axial planes.
 I
)
510 BALANCE OF MAOIINERY

I
) BALANCING MACHINES 511
)
)
)
l
) _a\~
)
FIGURE J0.7
\iD
)
)
10.3 DYNAMIC AND STATIC BALANCE FIGURE 10.9
)
The requirements for balance of rigid rotor . . .
> those for dynamic balance or balance due tos t as ill~trated. m s~Ction 10.2 are the rotors of Figs. 10.3, 10.4, and 10.6. However, it is not true that if a rotor is
balance is a balance of forces due to th f he act10~ of mertia forces. Static statically balanced, it is also dynamically balanced. The rotor of Fig. 10.4, for
) rigid rotor with the shaft laid on ho . e ~ion of gravity. Figure 10.8 shows a example, is statically balanced without the balancing masses, but it is not dy-
) gravity' the rotor will not roll if it is~nt . p:llel ways. Under the action of namically balanced because of the unbalance of moments in the ax.ial plane. Thus,
position of the rotor Th . m s atic . ance regardless of the angular static balance fails to indicate moment balance required for the dynamic case. A
) gravity of the system. of e requirbcement for ~tahc balance is that the center of
masses at the BXIS 0-0 of rot f .,. th static balance is a reliable test of dynamic balance only in the case of Fig. 10.2,
o f gravity to be at 0-0 of p·g 1 · 10·8, the moments of the a ion. ror c center where all masses lie in a common transverse plane and a dynamic unbalance or
) · d masses bo h
x-axis an t.hc y-axis, respectively, must be zero. a ut t e moment is unlikely.
) The use of horizontal parallel ways as in Fig. 10.8 is a simple method for
I (Wrsin 9) = O " shop" balancing or " production" balancing of rotors having masses in a common
} (10.4) radial plane. As shown in Fig. 10.9, airplane propellers are tested for dynamic
) I (Wr cos 9) = O balance in this manner from a test for static balance. A high degree of balance
(10...S) is achieved by adding washers to the propeller hub as shown. Also, as shown,
) By referring to Fig 10 2 ·t b washers arc added to the blade shank in balancing the individual propeller blades
equilibrium also apply fo;dy~a~ic~:f e se:~ th~t Eqs. 10.4 and 10.5 for static against a standard balancing moment. Balancing can also be accomplished by
) of Fig. 10.2, the vertical components :~c;o~~ert1a forces. In th~ vector polygon
) the horizontal components in Eq 10 5 Th
ance are met , the conditions for ~tali~ balanus,
ifa;; repre::e.oted m Eq. 10.4 and
elsocond1tions !o~ dynamic bal-
removing metal by drilling at 180" opposite to where material is to be added.
This should be avoided in some applications such as propeller balancing because
of the stress concentration caused by holes. Rotors having the general shape of
) ce arc a met. This as true also for a thin disk such as gears, pulleys, wheels, cams, fans, flywheels , and impellers
) are often balanced statically.

) 10.4 BALANCING MACIDNES

> Although the dynamic balance of a rotor is properly met in the design of the
) roto r, some unbalance, however small, results from the manufacture of the rotC'f.
CarefuUy machined parts are likely to be in better balance than cast parts. In
) many instances, it is more economical to allow an unbalance caused by manu-
facture and to balance the part by adding or removing material as indicated by
) a balancing machine. Commercial balancing machines are avnilnhk which ennhle
w,
) FIGURE 10.8 balancing of parts at mass production rates of manufacture.
The degree to which a rotor is to be dynamically balnn~ed depends upon
)
)
)
.
 ;

'
)

•
SU BALANCE OF MACHINERY

tbe speed at which the rotor is to operate. A smaU unbalance of mass may be
BALANCE OF RECIPROCATING MASSES

the ahop for rebalancing. In such case& field balanciflg must be used . The initial
513
•
t
tolerable at low speed since the inertia force representing unbalance may be development of this method of balancing was carried out by Thearle. 1 More
small, but because the unbalanced force increases as the square of the speed, the
unbalance transmitted to the bearings may be large at high speed. The rotor of
recent descriptions of this method are given by Hi.rschhom2 and by Shigley and •
a jet engine operating at greater than 10,000 rpm, for example, must be balanced
Uicker.' ·
•
to a high degree. For such rotors, the individual compressor and turbine blades
are balaDced in pai rs at opposite locations on the rotor in such a way that, if one 10.5 BALANCE OF RECIPROCATING MASSES •
blade is damaged, the pair is replaced to restore balance.
The principle on which dynamic balancing machines are based is shown in
Fig. 10.10. The roto r to be dynamically balanced is supported on flexible springs
As shown in Fig. 9.29, the shaking of a piston engine is due primarily to the
inertia forces of the reciprocating masses located at the wrist pin. The masses
rotating with the crankshaft are nonnaJly balanced, and they do not transmit a
,
t

and rotated at the speed the rotor is to be used. As shown in Fig. 10.10, the shakiog force to the engine block. As shown in the slider-<:rank free body of Fig. >
springs permit only a lateral oscillation of the rotor under the action of the
unbalanced force F. If there is also an unbalanced moment in the rotor, the
10.11, the effect of the inertia force F of the reciprocating masses is the trans-
mission of force to the engine block at the cylinder wall and at the main bearings. •>
amplitudes of oscillation of the two springs will be different and , in so me cases,
opposite in sign. The amplitudes of oscillation of each spring are measured with
a highly sensitive electronic pickup which is calibrated to show the amount of
The vertical component of the main bearing force Ff1 and the inertia fo rce F are
equal, opposite, and coUinear. The horizontal component of the bearing force
Pu and the cylinder wall force F 14 are equal and opposite and form a couple F1,h
,
unbalance. The machine also indicates the angular position of the unbalance on
the rotor by imparting a signal at the instant the rotating force vector is horizontal
and the amplitude is maximum . After the amount and angular position of the
unbalance is read, the rotor is removed from the machine and material is added
since they are not collinear. The effect of the reciprocating masses on the engine
block, as shown in the free body of the block is a shaking force S = F and a
shaking couple F41 h. Since both the shaking force and the shaking couple change
in magnitude and sense during the engine cycle, forced vibrations are imposed
,>
by soldering masses to it or is removed by drilling holes. As shown in Fig. 10.10, >
material is usually added or removed at two specific locations where it is not /
)
injurious to the rotor surface. In electric motor armatures, for example, it is not
r•r.,+F.11
always possible to add 9r remove material in the region of the electrical windings.
Long rotors such as armatures, crankshafts, and jet engine rotors are balanced •
in machines of this kind. "T"----t"-t--lfu •
It is often necessary to balance a rotor that is too large to be handled in a
balancing machine or to balance a rotor assembled in its own bearings. Also, •
when a unit is being rebuilt , it may be impractical to transport the rotor back to
I. • ~

I Modes of
oscillations >
B=F
•
Flexible .
•,
mounts

FIGURE 10.11 •
•
'F. I. Theule, "Dynamic Bal•ncin& in the Field ," Thvu. ASME,Joumal of E11gi11uril1g for Industry,
/
•
1934, p. 74.5.
'J. Hinchbora , DynJJmk.s of Macisinuy . BaroC$ and Noble; New York, 1968, p. 348. •
FIGURE 10.10
'J. J . Shigley and J . J . Uicker, Thtory of MacJainu and M~chatiisms, McGraw-Hill , New York , 1980,
p. 497. • )
..
 I
)
l 514 BALANCE OF MACHINERY BALANCE OF RECIPROCATING MASSES 515
) on the engin_e b~ock. If !he engine block is mounted on flexible supports, the ports connecting the engine block to the supporting frame, the oscillations due
) mod~ of osc1llatton of the block imposed by S is an up-and-down mode; the to the shaking couple may be isolated from the frame for certain shaking couple
shaking couple produces a rotational oscillation or lateral rocking. frequencies.
) In Chapter 9, it was shown that the gas forces do not contribute to the Figure 10 .12 shows a typical arrangement of crank.'\ inn six-cylinder in-line
vertic11I shaking but that they do produce a shaking couple as do the inertia forces ' engine. Io this engine, the cranks are fixed at 120" to each other ns shown and
,,.....
) of the r~ciprocating masses. Since output torque and shaking couple are equal all slider-crank parts are the same as to size, shape, and weight. ~shown in the
) (except m sense), the output torque diagrams of Chapter 9 show the variations table of Fig. 10.12, the inertia force F of the individual reciprocating masses are
of the shaking couple in the engine cycle due both to gas force and to inertia calculated from the following equation:
) forces of the reciprocating masses.
I? the following discussion, it is shown thal the resultant shaking force on
) ~ engme block may be reduced to zero in some instances by combining several
slider cranks to form a multicylinder engine in which the individual shaking forces
F - MA.= MRw1 (cos e + I cos 28)
)
balance o~e another. The resultant shaking couple of a multicylinder engine,
) ho~ever, IS . not_re~uced to zero as shown by the torque diagram of the six- in which Mis the combi~ed masses M 4 and M 6 , for a single cylinder, R is the
cyhnder engme m Fig. 9.35. However, by the proper design of the flexible sup- crank length, Lis the connecting-rod length, w is the crank angular velocity, and
) e is the crank angle from T.D.C. (top dead center).
) As the table in Fig. 10.12 shows, the arrangement of cranks for a six-cylinder
engine is such that the resultant of the six inertia forces is zero for the position
) of the crankshaft given by 01 = 20". It may be shown that the resultant is zero
for alJ positions of the crankshaft. Thus, no shaking force is transmitted to the
) main bearings supporting the crankshaft or to the engine block. The six-cylinder
) engine is well known for its inherent balance of reciprocating masses. The
single-, two-, three-, four-, and five-cylinder engines of the in-line type are not
) inherently balanced against shaking by reciprocating masses as is the six-cylin-
) . der engine.

)
)
)
)
3 4
)
M • 0.0777 lb . sec 211t
) R ~ 2 In. " • 3000rpm
RtL ~ I

) Number
cos 8 + RIL
8,° cos 8 cos 28 RIL(cos 28) (cos 28) F, lb
) I 20 +0.904 +0.766 +0.191 + 1.131 +14~
2 260 - 0 .174 - 0.940
) J 140
-0.2JS - 0.4-09 -S2:5
- 0 .766 +0. 174 +0.044 - 0 .722
4 140 -925
- 0 766 +0.174
I s 260 -0.174 - 0 .940
+0.044 - 0 .722 -925
- 0 .23:5 - 0 .409 -:525
) 6 20 +0.940 +0.766 +0.191 + 1.131 + 14:50
! .. 0 l: ... 0
) FIGURE 10.U
l: oc 0 l: "" 0 l: =0
FIGURE 10.13
)
)
)
~
 ·~

-· ·~

516 BALANCE ·OF MACHINERY ANALYTICAL DETERMINATION OF UNBALANCE 517

10.6 ANALYflCAL DETERMINATION
OF UNBALANCE
Analytical mclhods arc avuiluble for tbe determination of the unbalance or thf
shaking force of a multicylinder engine. The method leads to simple algebrai~
expressions which give the magnitude and sense of unbalance as a function of
crank position 81• Crank position of a multicylinder engine in the engine cycle is
given by the crank angle 8 1 of the first cylinder as shown in Fig. 10.13. In au'·
tomotive engines, the first cylinder is at the front end, and 9 1 is measured clockwise
in the direction of rotation when viewed from the front end. :
The following analytical derivation applies only to in-line types of engineS
in which the cylinders are in line on the same side of the crankshaft. The recip'.-
rocating mass M and the RI L ratio is the same for each cylinder.
As shown in Fig. 10.13, 01 of the first crank locates the clockwise position
of the crankshaft in the engine cycle, 4>z and 4>> are the fixed angles of cranks 2
and 3, respectively, measured clockwise from crank 1. Although three cylinde~
are shown in Fig. 10.13, any number of cylinders may be considered . The inertia
force F of any given cylinder at 9 is
F = MRw 1 (cos 9 + ~cos 28)
R1
- MRw1 cos 8 +. M- w2 cos 29 (10.6)
L
The two right-hand terms in Eq. 10.6 are the first two terms of a series,
the remaining terms of which a.re usually considered negligible. The first teem
(first harmonic) is known as the primary force Fp and the second tenn (second
harmonic) as the secondary force F,. Thus,
(10.7)
where FP = MRw1 cos 0 and F, = M(R 1/ L)w2 cos 20.
The summation of the inertia forces of a multicylinder engine is the resultant
force or shaking force S, which represents the unbalance:
S = 'IF = IF,+IF, (10.tl)
In some engines, the primary forces may be balanced although ll1e secondary
forces may not. The reverse may also be the case. The equation of unbalance of
primary forces is developed as follows, in which a = 01 + cf>.
Siocc cos 8 1 and sin 81 are constant for all tenns of the summation,
I F,, - MRw1((cos 81) I (cos 4>) - (sin 81) I (sin 4>)) (10.9)
The equation of wtbalance of secondary forces is similar in form.
I. F, = M ~ w2[(cos 28,) I (cos 2cl>) - (sin 201) I (sin 24>)} (10.10)
It may be seen from Eqs. 10.9 and 10.10 that, for any given arrangement
of cranks in a multicylinder engine, the angles cl> are known such that I cos cf>,
I sin cf>, I cos 24>. and I sin 24> may be evaluated, and the equations of unbalance
become functions only of 8 1• It may also be seen that for balance, or zero shaking
force, the following summations must all be zero:
I cos 4> =o
I sin 4> ~ 0
Icos2cf>=O
I sin 2cl> =0
Another mode of shaking must ~ considered for multicylinder engines. By
viewing the engine of Fig. 10.13 from the side, it may be seen that the l~e of
action of the resultant shaking force in the axial plane may not lie on a line of
symmetry between the main bearings. Moreover, the line of action of the resultant
Smay be shifting axially in the axial plane as a function of 81• In this event, the
engine oscillates in an end-over-end rotational mode. The line of action of S may
be determined from the principle of moments in terms of a primary moment CP
and a secondary moment C,. in which moments are taken with respect to a
reference plane at ·the first cylinder. In Fig. 10.13, a is the distance from the
reference plane to the line of action of the inertia force of any given cylinder.
C, = I F,a = MRw1 I (a cos 8)
= MR1.; ((cos 9
1
1) I (a cos cl>) - (sin 9 1) I (a sin 4>)) (10.11)
and

l: F, =I MRw 1 cos 0 c, - M~Jwl ((cos 2& 1) I (a cos 24>) - (sin 28 1) I (a sin 2cj>)) (10.U)
= MRw2 I cos 0
C=C,+C, (10.13)
1
= MRw I cos (81 + 4>)
= MRw1 I [(cos 0 1)(cos 4>) - (sin 0 1)(sin 4>)) The distance a11 ·o t the line of action of the shaking force Smay be determined
I
)_.
) 518 BALANCE OF MACHINERY ANALYTICAL DETERMINATION OF UNBALANCE 519
) from the resultant moment C about the reference plane as follows: Lin• throuah c. 11. -.....j
ol enaine J
) ~ S=l:F,

)
l In certain cases, the shaking force Sis zero, indicating a balance of inertia'
forces, but the resultant moment C is not. In this case, the resultant is a couple' •.
)
C in the axial plane, which produces an end-over-end axial shaking couple. In
) some cases, aR is not a function of 81 but is constant. In this case, if constant a,;_
places the line of action of S other than through the center of gravity of the',
) engine, an end-over-end shaking couple exists. I.
) ,
Example JO.I. Determine the unbalance S of the reciprocating rn~ of the conven-· '
) tional four-cylinder engine shown in Fig. 10.14, in which the cranks are at 180". Determine!
also th~ unbalance of the axial shaking couple. ~
~­
) Solutwn. The fi xed angles <I> are shown in Fig. 10.14. It should be noted that, although~
····: FIGURE 10.14
and cj>, are zero, their cosine functions are unity and must be taken into account in the ,
<1>1

) equations that determine unbalance. The following summations arc made to determine ; ,
the constants which appear in the equations of unbalance: ~· 10.11 and 10.12:
)
)
)
l: cos 4> =
I sin cj> = 0
l - 1 - 1 + 1 =0
+ O+ 0 + 0 = 0
I
~;
I (a cos<!>) -= 0(1) + 4(-1) + 8(-1) + 12(1) = 0
I (a sin cj>) .. 0(0) + 4(0) + 8(0) + 12(0) = 0

)
)
l: cos 24> = l + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
l sin 24> = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 ~ 0

By referring to Eqs. 10.9 and 10.10, it may be seen that the primary forces are balanced~
r
~·
I (a cos 24>} = 0(1) + 4(1) + 8(1) + 12(1) = 24
I (a sin 24>) =· 0(0) + 4(0) + 8(0) + 12(0) = 0
By referring to Eqs. 10.11 and 10.12, it may be seen that a secondary moment C, exists
) and that the secondary forces are not: i f about the reference plane and that the primary moments are zero:

) l F, = MRw' [(cos 6,)(0) - (sin 61)(0)J = 0 f!

.t C -- c'
MR1w1
+ c, = 24 -L- cos 261
) MR 1w 1
L F, = - L - {(cos 26,)(4) - (sin 26,)(0)J
)
MR'w'
) I F, = 4 - L - cos 28,

) s ~ !.1-~+IF,

) MR'w 1 MR 1
S = 4 -L-cos 26, = L (2wF cos 26, (10.15)
)
Equation 10.15, which gives the shaking force of the conventional four-cylinder
) engine as a function of 6,. is shown plotted in Fig. 10.15. It may be seen that the shalcing-
forcc curve is a simple harmonic curve whose circular frequency 2w is twice the speed of
) the crankshafl.
The following summations give the constants wbich apply in the moment equations
)
)

,
)
 ,,
520 BALANCE O'F MACHINERY ANALYTICAL DE"JERMINATION OF UNBALANCE 521 ,>
The line o f action of the shaking force S is determined as follows:
trQI
51' •
0
• =
C
S
24(MR'w1 / L) cos 28,
= 4(MR 1 w 1/ L) cos 29, •
a. ~ 6 in.
•rol
2 •
t
1l1e li ne of ac1ioo of !he shaking force is constant lincc a. is not a functio n of 8 1~
Also, by assuming that the line of action of S is througb the ccoter of gravity of the engine
at a. = 6 in ., no a xial shaking couple exists. I •
•
a a

As shown, the only unbalance is a shaking force due to the secondary fore~
which tend to cause an up-and-down vibration of the engine . A common device
used to balance the secondary forces of a four-cyli nder engine is the Lanchester
,•
•,
balancer shown in Fig. 10.16. This type of balancer is currently being used by 2
one automo bile manufacturer in its large four-cylinder engines and is known as
silent slraft. The balancer consists of two meshed gears with eccentric masses as
shown. The pitch point of the meshing gears is directly under the centerline of
the engine such that the resultant inertia force of the rotating masses counter-
balances the shaking force S. A crossed helical gear on the crankshaft drives the
balancing gears at twice the crankshaft speed in order that the balancing forces
nGURE 10.17
',•
b e of the same circular frequency a.:> the unbalanced secondary forces. In cases Solution . From Fig. 10.17 the fixed aogles +arc
where unbalance of primary forces 011! \ exists, the balancing gears rotate at
crankshaft speed . 4>1 = O"
•
+> =
•,
A fi ve -cylinder engine as sho wn in F 11: ~ ·~ ; has been developed for diesel 216"
engin es . While shaking forces are balanced, .. l': ;::iary and secondary shaking
couples are not balanced as will be shown in tb. ·~·iiowing example. 4>, = 144"
4>. = 72•
Example 10.2. Analyze the balance of the five-cylinder engine shown in Fig. 10.17
relative to shaking forces and shaking couples. 4>s "" 288" •
SluUcing /orce.s:
•
From Eqs. 10.9 and 10.10, •t
IF, .. MRw1[(cos e,) I. (cos <!>) - (sin 61) I. (sio 4>)]

IF, = M~'wi [(cos 26,) I (cos 24>) - (sin 2&,) I (sin 24>)] ,•
I cos+ "' cos O" + cos 216° + cos 144° + cos 72° + cos 288"
= 1 - 0.8090 - 0.8090 + 0.3090 + 0.3090 '•
I aln
-o
+ .. 5in O" -1 sin 216° -I sin 144" + sin 72°
- 0 - 0 .5878 + 0 .5878 + 0.9511 - 0 .9511
+ 1in 288° ,,•
H GUR E 10.16 - 0

•
)
....
' ··" · )

•
J
l
) 522 BALANCE OF MACHINERY ANALYTICAL DElCRMINATION OF UNBALANCE 523

) I c.os 24> = cos O" + cos 432° + cos 288° + c.os 144" + cos 576" Example 10.3. Show that the cooveotional six-cylinder engine of Fig. 10.12 is in balance
according to Eqs. 10.9, 10.10, 10.11 , and 10.12. Assume that cylinders are bin. apart .
) =1+ 0.3090' + 0.3090 - 0.8090 - 0.8090
=0 Solution . To show that the silt-cylinder engine is in balance, it is necessary to show that
) the following summations arc zero. From Fig. 10.12, the fixed angles cl> are
I sin 24> - sin O" + sin 432° + sin 288° + sin 144" + sin S76°
) = 0 + 0.9511 - 0.9511 + 0.5878 - 0.5878 cj>, = ct>. = O"
) =0 cj>, == cj>, ~ 240"
) 4>1 =cl>. = 120·
Therefore, as can be seen above , the primary and secondary forces are balanced.
) l cos 4> = 1 - i - l - l - l + 1 - 0
Shaking coupl~s :
) VJ VJ VJ v'3
From Eqs. 10.11and10.12, I sin 4> - 0 - 2 +T +T - 2 + 0 = 0
)
C, "' MRw'((cos 9,) I (a cos cl>) - (sin 9,) I (a sin cl>)) l cos 24> =1 - l - • - • - • + 1 =0
) v'3 v'3 v'3 v'3
MR'w' l sin 24> - 0 + 2 - 2 - T + 2 + 0 = 0
C, = - L - [(cos 28,) I (a cos 2cj>) - (sin 26 1) I (a sin 2cjl))
}
) I (a cos If>) = 0(1) + a(-0.8090) + 2a(-0.8090) + Ja(0.3090) I (acos<f>) = 0(1) + b(-l) + 2b( - l) + 3b(-0 + 4b( -l)
+ 4a(0.3090) + Sb(l) - 0
)
)
I (a sin If>)
=
=
-0.264a
0(1) + a(-0.5878) + 2a( +0.5878) + 3a(0.9511)
I (a sin<!>) = 0(0) + b( -~ + 2b(~ + 3b(~)
)
)
+ 4a(-0.9511)
- -0.3633a
+ 4b ( - ~) + 5b(O) = 0

) I (a c.os 24>) = 0(1) + a(0.3090) + 2a(0.3090) + Ja(-0.8090) I(acos2<f>) = 0(1) + b(-l) + 2b(-l) + 3b(-l) + 4b(-l) + Sb(l ) = 0

)
+ 4a(-0.8090)
-4.7360a
I (a sin 24>) = 0(0) + b(~ + 2b( - ~) + 3b( - v;)
)
)
I (a sin 24>) ~ 0(0) + a(0.9511) + 2a(-0.9511)
+ 4a( - 0.5878)
+ 3a(0.5878) + 4b(1) + 5b(O) = 0
) = -1.5389a Substitution of the preceding summations in Eqs. 10.9, 10.10, 10.11 , and 10.12
shows that there is no resultant shaking force and no resultant axial moment; thi~ ~ignifics
) Therefore, a balance of inertia forces of the six reciprocating masses.

) C, - MRw'((cos 0,)(-0.264a) - (sin O,)( -0.3633a)) The usual straight-eight engine consists of a combination of two four-cyl-
) = MRw1a( - 0.264 cos 01 + 0.3633 sin 0,) inder engines at 90" crank angle as shown in Fig. 10.18. One of the four-cylinder
engines is split with two cylinders at the front end and two at the rear, and the
) and second four-cylinder engine is in the center. As shown in Example 10.1, the four-
cylinder engine is unbalanced as to secondary forces. For the split four-cylinder
) MR'w'
C, = - L - [(cos 20,)(-4.7360a) - (sin 20,)(- l.5389a)) engine, the unbalance is
)
MR'w'a MR 1w 1
) = - - L - ( -4.7360 cos 20, + 1.5389 sin 20,} S 1 = 4 - L- cos 26,

>
)
)
 )

524 BALAHCE OF MACHINERY

The shaking force of the middle set of four cylinders in terms of 81 of the fir$t
!
i
10.7 nR.ING ORDER
V ENGmES 525
,
)

cylinder in the middle set is !

However, since 61 = 9 1 + 270",
MR 2w 2
4 - L - cos 2(8 1 + 270°)
Since S 1 = - S2 , the resultant shaking force is zero. Also, since the lines
o{ action of S1 and S2 are coincident at the center of the engine, there is no axial
shaking couple. Thus, like the six-cylinder engine, the straight-eight of Fig. 10.18
is a balanced engine.
Small engines with one, two, or three cylinders are used in a multitude of
applications such as outboard motors, mowers, and garden machinery. Air com-
pressors and compressors for spraying are reciprocating machines of one; two,
and three cylinders. The balance of reciprocating masses in these machines is
poor, as the equations of unbalance would show. The three-cylinder machine
with cranks at 120° is in balance as to shaking force, but an axial shaking couple
exists. Because comfort is unimportant in small-engine installations, except pos-
sibly with outboard motors, unbalance is tolerable. If the expense is warranted,
small engines may be mounted on springs or rubber mounts to isolate the machine
vibrations from lhe frame on which the engine is supported.
• cyh~ders m the same transverse plane but with the crank pin ends or the con-
In multicylindcr engines, the crank arrangements are such that there is a smooth
distribution of torque in the engine cycle as well as a balance of inertia forces of
the ~cciprocating masses. For example, in the four-cylinder engine, a power stroke
,•
begms every 180" of crank angle in the following order of cylinder numbers: )
1-3-4-2. In the six-cylinder engine, a power stroke begins every 120° of
crank angle with a 1-5-3-6-2-4 firing order. The eight-cylinder eogine fires
·-)
every 9?" of crank angle. In this discussion of firing order, only the four-stroke
cycle engine is coo~idered, where one power stroke per cylinder occurs for every
720" of crank rotation. Four events take place in the 720" cycle, which are intake,
compression, powe r or expa nsion, and exhaust .
,
•
10.8 V ENGINES •
As shown in Fig. 10.19, the V engine consists of two in-line engines in which the •)
crankshaft is common to both engines. The axial planes in which the two sets of
pistons reciprocate intersect at the crankshaft axis and form a V of angle 13. In
automotive installations, V-6 and V-8 engines are common in which ~is either
,
6C1' or 90". Although V-12 engines arc no loogcr used in conventional cars
they arc used in a few sport cars. Small engines and compressors are often
or V-4.
Io Fig. 10.19 is shown a common arrangement of cylinders used in lhc
V-2 ,•
V-8 engine in which the cranks arc at 90" and 13 is 90". The engine consists of )
two four-cyli.odcr in-line engines or two " banks" of four cylinders each. As shown, )
~c connecting rods of each pair of cylinders, one from each bank, are side by
side on a common crank, or "throw." It may be seen that the side-by-side ar-
r~~c~ent introduces a small axial couple. Io some instances, this couple is
m1mm1zed by reversing the side-by-side position of some pairs of cylinders from
•)
th~se of ~ther pairs. Io other instances, the connecting rods are offset, with the
•
nectmg rods set side by side . In the follo wing analysis or balance or the V-8
engine, the effect or the side-by-side arrangement on balance is neglected. •
•
•
Lett b;ink

·"'::.
~,,

I
I •
)
1, 8
0 0 0

•
3,6
@ 2, 7
.
,,5

4
•
•
)
FIGURE 10.18 FIGURE 10.19 )
, _ __
•
j
 J
)

l V ENGINES 527
526 BALANCE OF MACHINERY
) :; -.
Since the couples CL and C 11 are in axial planes at 90" as shown in Fig. 10.20,
Since Eqs. 10.9, 10.10, 10.11, and 10.12 apply to in-line engines only, each :·:
) the magnitude of the resultant couple C i5
bank of the V-8 engine may be analyzed separately for balance or unbalance ..
) Any unbalanced force or couple of a given bank is in the axial plane in which ': (10.18)
the cylinders reciprocate. The resultant unbalance of the complete engine is · · c = v'Cl + q
) determined from the vector sum of the unbalance of the two banks.
The following summations apply to either bank since the fixed angles q, are Substitution of the values of CL and Cit from Eqs. 10.16 and 10.17 gives
) the same for both banks: (10. 19)
)
q,, = 0 4>1 = 90° 4>1 == 270° ct>. = 180" It may be seen that the resultant unbalanced couple of the V-8 engine . i~ inde-
)
pendent of e1 and is therefore constant in magnitude for all angul:U ~os1~1ons of
)
I cos q, == 0 I sin 4> =0 the crankshaft. The axial plane in which the resultant couple C lies tS gi~en ~y
I cos 24> = O ~sin 24> = 0 the angle a measured clockwise from the plane of the left bank as shown rn Fig.
)
I (a cos<!>) = -3a I (a sin cp) = -a 10.20.
)
I (a cos 24>) =O I (a sin 2<!>) = 0 (10.20)
)
As may be seen from the summations, there is no resultant shaking force
) S for.either bank since the primary and secondary forces are balanced. However, It may be seen that a is a function of 81 and that the vector C rotates with the
as shown by the summations, a resultant moment due to primary forces exists· engine crankshaft. The angle that C makes with the first crank is "f, which may
)
since Sis zero, the resultant moment is manifest as an axial sha.Jcing couple. Fo; be determined as follows, since a = e, + -.,:
) the left bank, the axial shaking couple CL may be evaluated from Eq. 10.11 in
terms of 01 measured from T.O.C. of the left bank.
)
) CL = MRw1 [ - 3a cos e, + a sin e,) (10.16)
tao 9 1 + tao"'/ C11

) For the right bank, the crank angle of the first cylinder is - (~ - 8 1) = 81 - 1 ~ tan 8, tan "Y = CL
~ = 8 1 - 90°. The axial shaking couple C11 for the right bank is
) CR - CL tan a, (10.21)
tan ..., == CL + CR tao a,
) 1
C11 = MRw ( - 3a cos (9 1 - 90) + a sin (0 1 - 90))

) = MRw1 ( - 3a sin 81 - a cos 8 1) (10.17) Substitution of the values of CL and C 11 from Eqs. 10.16 and 10.17 gives

) -1
)
tan..., = -=3
..., = 198.43° (third quadrant) (10.22)
)
) As the crankshaft turns in the clockwise sense, the resultant axial shaking couple
C acts in an axial plane which leads the axial plane of the first crank by a constant
) angle -y = 198.43°, or leads the fourth crank by 18.43°. Figure 10.21 shows the
) resultant unbalanced axial couple C in its correct position with respect to cranks
' 1 and 4. As shown, the engine is completely balanced by the introduction or a
~
) '
'-----'
) balancing couple C., the equilibrant of C, in the Conn of two counterweights such
that
C, = F,l = - VlO MRw 1a
> flGURE 10.20

)
)
528 BAIANCE OF MACHINERY V ENGINES 529
.,, Sbaldag Forces
From Eqs. 10. 9 :I,

IF,""" M

IF,= -
,. .JS 20 1) I (cos 2cf>) - (sin 29 1) I (sin 24>)]

Right Bank
c
FIGURE 10.21 4> = cos o· + cos 240" + cos 120·
= 1 - 0.5 - 0.5
=O
Figure 10.22 shows the arrangement of a V-6 engine with the angle 13
be tween banks of cylinders of 90°. V-6 engines with p of 60° are also produced.
l c lll 4> = sin O" + sin 240° + sin 120°
An analysis of the balance of the engine shown in Fig. 10.22 follows with = 0 - 0.866 + 0 .866
the development of the equations for the primary and secondary shaking forces
=O
and shaking couples .
I cos 24> = cos 0° + cos 480" + cos 240"
RIGHT BANK LEFT BANK =1- 0.5 - 0.5
Cylinders 1, 3, 5 Cylinders 2, 4, 6
=O
(No. 1 reference cylinder) (No. 2 reference cylinder)
o· I sin 24> = sin O" + sin 480" + sin 240°
q,. = o· 4>i =
4>) = 240° cj>4 = 240" = 0 + 0.866 - 0.866
<l>s = 120° cl>6 = 120· =0

Left Bank
I cos 4> = 0
I sin 4> = 0
I cos 2<1> = 0
I sin 24> = 0
Therefore, the primary and secondary shaking forces are balanced for both banks .

Shaking Couples
From Eqs. 10. 11 and 10.12,

C, = MRw2 [(cos 81} I (a cos cl>) - (sin 81) I (a sin cl>)]

MR 1w1
C, = -L-((cos 28 1) I (a cos 24>) - (sin 28 1) I (a sin 2cj>)J
FIGURE 10.22
J
)
) V ENGINES 531
530 BALANCE OF MACl-DNERY
1 1
) MR w a
Right Bank (6 1 reference angle): C, ~ --L-[ - 1.S cos (28 1 + 180"} + 0.866 sin (26 1 + 180°)}
)
I (a cos 4>) =- 0(1) - a(0.5} - 24(0.5) "" -1.Sa MR 1 w1a
) • - -_- ( - 1.5 ( - cos 20 1} i 0.866 ( - sin 20 1}1
1
'I (a sin 4>) - 0(0) - a(0.866} + 2a(0.866) - +0.866a
)
I (a cos 24>) = 0(1) - a(0.5) - 24(0.5) -Ua· Therefore,
) I (a sin 2<1>) = 0(0) + a(0.866) - 24(0.5) -0.866a
MR 1w1a
) C, = --L-[1.5 cos 28 1 - 0.866 sin 20i)

) Left Bank (<f>i reference angle):

As can be seen from the analysis above, the primary and secondary sbaking
) I (acos<j>) = -1.5a forces are balanced for each bank. However, the primary and secondary couples
) I (a sin cf>) = +0.866a arc badly out of balance for both banks, and there is no way of easily correcting
this as was done for the V-8 engine.
) ! (a cos 2<!>) = -1.Sa In addition to the question of the balance of the inertia forces and couples
) I (a sin 24>} = -0.866a o f the V-6 engine, it is interesting to consider the development of th11t engine
and the problems encountered with the output torque variation due to crank
) Right Bank configuration.
A V-6 engine was developed in 1962 by Buick with a three-throw crankshaft
) Therefore, spaced 120° apart as shown in Fig. 10.22. This design with a firing order of 1-6-
) 5-4-3-2 gives uneven intervals of crankshaft rotation of 150°- 90°-150°-90°- 150°-
C, = MRw1[(cos 91){ -1.Sa) - (sin 61)(0.866a)] 90" between cylinder firings which results in a high flu ctuating output torque.
) = MRw2a[( -1.5 cos 6 1) - (0.866 sin 81)1
This engine was discontinued in 1967.
As a result of the fuel crisis in 1973-1974, the Buick V-6 engine was re in-
) troduced in 1975 as a means of improving fuel economy. The smoothness of the
and
) engine was improved by splitting each crank pin by an included angle of 30°. The
MR 1w1 throw was advanced 15° for the cylinders of one bank and retarded 15° for the
} C, = --[(cos 29 1)( - 1.Sa) - {sin 29 1)(-0.866a)] cylinders of the other bank. This produced equal intervals of 120° timing between
L .
cylinders.• The result was a smoother-running engine than was possible with the
) 1 1
= MRLw a [( -1 .5 cos 29 1) + (0.866 sin 26 1)) earlier crankshaft design.
)
) Left Bank (where !)i = 01 + 90°)
)
C, = MRw1a( - 1.5 cos 91 - 0.866 sin 91 )
> = MRw2a[ -1.5 cos (0 1 + 90°) - 0.866 sin (9 1 + 90"}]
)
= MRw a( - 1.5 (-sin 91)
1 - 0.866 (cos 6 1))
)
Therefore, FlGURE 10.2.J
)
) C, = MRw1a[l.5 sin 9 1 - 0 .866 cos 9 1)
'D. M. Manner aod R. A. Miller, "Buick's New Even Firing 90" Y·6 Engine," SAE Paper 770821.
) MR 1w2a
C, = --L-[ - 1.5 cos 261 + 0.866 sin 26J Ocuuit, Ml, September 1977.

>
>
1
 ).

532 BALANCE OF MACHINERY BALANCE OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGES

in the horizontal plane. Opposed engines of four and six cylinders are commonly
533
,t
~ •t
used in automotive and light-aircraft applications. An eight-cylinder opposed

,
engine is aJso available for aircraft use. Figures 10.24 and 10.25 show the cylinder
[! ~2
I
4
arrangement for the four-cylinder and six-cylinder opposed engines.
JG ~1
cp 10.10 BALANCE OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGES
A simple method for force balancing four-bar linkages can be developed from •,
the theory of dynamically equivalent masses given in Chapter 9. In general , the
shaking moment will not be balanced by this method.

-[·
4 3

~.....
/t~
+\
~~
Consider the four-bar linkage OiABO. shown in Fig. 10.26. Links 2 and 4
move in pure rotation and may be balanced by adding appropriate counter- '•
'+/
\ , weights. The only remaining unbalance is due to coupler link mass MJ· It will be

FlGURE 10.24
1.3
assumed that the m ass center of coupler link 3 lies along the link centerline
AB. This assumption can always be satisfied by adding mass to the opposite side
of the centerline to bring the mass center onto the centerline. The coupler link
,,•
mass M 3 is now divided into point masses M,. and M 8 located at pivots A and 8 .
Reca.11 from Chapter 9 that, for dynamically equivalent systems, these masses
10.9 OPPOSED ENGINES must satisfy three requirements:
•)
As shown in Fig. 10.23 , the opposed engine consists of two banks of cylinders,
or two in-line engines on opposite sides of the crankshaft in a common horizontal
plane. The opposed engine is a special case of the V engine in which J3 = 180" ·
1. Equivalent total mass
,
and the determination of balance or unbalance may be made as in V engines. )
The resultant shaking force S and the resultant unbalanced axial moment C lie l. Equivalent mass center
,,
t

~ I
3. Equivalent moment of inertia
60 Qs
Q3 •
4(!
•
2[! ~ a
t Q1 ~

~ •
•
•)

)
•
FIGURE 10.25 FIGURE 10.26
,•
=~~ ..:
•
)
)
 }
) ..
)
534 BALANCE OF MAOllNERY BALANCE OF FOUR ·BAR UNKAOl'S 535
)
Having selected the locations for both M,.. and M 1 , it is clear that these three , Example 10.4. It is required to balance the shaking forces in tbe mechanism of Example
) equations caMot be simultaneously satisfied. By satisfying only the first two of .· · 9.1 which b shown again here as Fig. 10.27. Determine the locations and amounts of the
these equations, a link is obtained which is an inertia force equivalent to the : weights to be added.
) original link, although it is not an inertia torque equivalent. The linkage may
Solution . The input link 0 1 A is balanced as given. lbe output link 0 ,8 is balanced by
) thus be balanced for shaking forces, but not for shaking moment. Solving the adding weight to link 4 opposite g,. One possibility is to add 8 lb at 5.27 in . The weight
first two equations above simultaneously for M,.. and M, gives of link 3, W,. is separated into WA at point A and w. at point B, as follows:
)
_ _l11_M 1 4
) M,.. - l (10.23) W,. =- • - WJ = in. 4 lb
I,.. + 11 l,. + 11 4 in. + 4 in.
)
= 2 lb
) M, -- _l,.._MJ (10.24)
I,.. + I, W, = - 1" - W, : 4
in. 4 lb
) 1,. + l• 4 in. + 4 in.
Balancing of the shaking forces is completed by adding counterweights to = 2lb
) balance M,. on link 2 and M, on link 4. The net acceleration of the combined
mass center of the three moving links has been reduced to zero. The mechanism These weights arc next counterbalanced by adding weights on the opposite sides of pivots
)
is now perfectly balanced with respect to the shaking forces in aJI positions of 0 1 and o.. The locations for these countcrwieghts have been chosen to be A ' and B' both
) the linkage. Note that, since mass has been added to the system, the driving located 2 in. from their respective ground pivots 0 1 and O.. The counterweights to be
torque and the internal joint forces must be recalculated . added , W,.cw ind W,cw. are determined as follows:
) It should be mentioned that Eqs. 10.23 and 10.24 arc similar to those used
to divide the mass of the engine connecting rod shown in Fig. 9.27. 1bis gave (O,A)W,. = (O,A ' )W,.or
)
an approximate kinetically equivalent system with part of the connecting rod mass 0 A
) concentrated at the wrist pin center and part at the crank pin center. WACfl = o;:::r;
1
w,.
}
= 32 10
'."· 2 lb
.
) Wa• •Bib
) o,s· • 2 In. = 3 lb
w3 - 10 lb 048 • S In.
W3 • 4 lb AB • 8 in. (O,B)W, = (O,B' )W1or
) Ag1 • 4 In.
W4 • S lb O,B
) 02A - 3 In. 0414 • 5.27 In. w.cw = O'Jf w.
) = Sin. 2lb
2 in.
)
= 8 lb
)
The position of these counterweights arc shown on Fig. 10.27.
)
) Problems
) 10.1. The rigid rotor of Fig. 10.28 shown with three masses is to be balanced by the
addition of a fourth mass. Determine the required weight and angular position of the
) balancing mass , which is to be located at'• = 10 in. Show answers on a scale drawing of
WA' • 3 lb the rotor.
} 0 2A' • 2 In.
10.l. For the rigid rotor of Fig. 10.29, determine the bearing reactions at A and B for a
) FIGURE 10.27 rotor speed of 2000 rpm. ·

)
)
 I

)
}

536 BA.LAN~ OF MAClDNERY

BALANCE OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGES 537 •,
•,
10.4. For the rigid rotor of Fig. 10.31 shown with two masses, determine the weights WA
"1 • 11 In.
and w. ha planes A-A and B-B, respectively, which put the rotor in dynamic balance for
1}•6in.

,,
a rotor speed of SOO rpm. Determine also the angular positions of the balancing weights.
, 3 • 9 In.

B
I
I
I
I

2
I
I
I
•
)

, I
.
I
I
0
•
FIGURE J0.28 W1•45N I 150
1-- mm
. 150 I 100 -I
•
,'
W2 • 90 N mm--+-mm
A 8
25mm r1 • lSOmm
50 50 75
· mmTmmjmm ' l • 100 mm
. . I . 'A• 150 mm
I.
Al
I
,.
·
I.
.
I
I

0
rs • 150 mm
flGURE 10.31 ,•
10.5. Weights W 1 and WJ of the rotor in Fig. 10.32 rotate in the tJ'lUJsvcrsc planes shown. )
Determine the weights W, and w.
in planes 3 and 4, respectively, which give dynamic
}
rotating balance. Show the correct angular positions of W, and W•.
r 1 - 50 mm
'll • 50 mm }
r:i - 75 mm 3
FIGURE 10..29
r- )

10.3. Determine the beating reactions of the rigid rotor of Fig. 10.30 for a rotor spe_e d
of 1200 rpm. Determine the man or masses which should be adde~ to the rotor at a radius
of 2 in. in order that the bearing reactions be due only to the weight of the rotor. Show_
1
I
,
}

results using one mass and two masses. •)

}
W1 • 8 lb
}
w, - 20 lb
ri • 5 in. )
'l - 7' In.
'l • 4 in. )
r4 • 4 in.
FIGURE 10.32 }
}
r 1 - 2 In.
' l - I In. 10.6. The crankshaft of Fig. 10.33 has four equal cranks at 90" and spaced 100 mm apart. }
l"J - 3 In. Each crank is cquivaleot to 18 N at a radial distance or 50 mm. Calculate the bearing
Wa•15 lb
reactions due to the inertia forces if the shaft is run at 3000 rpm . Balance this system with )
FIGURE 10.30
)
--"T- · -
)
 I

) 538 BALANCE OF MACl-DNERY BALANCE OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGES 539

) 2

)
)
)
)

)
FIGURE 10.33
)
) two weights WA and w. in the planes of W, and W,. respectively, and at a radial distance
of 50 mm. Determine WA and w•. and show their positions. FIGURE 10.JS
> 10.7. The shaking force produced by a given unbalance in a rotor i11creases wirh the
rotative speed of the rotor. An unbalance of 1 oz at an eccentricity of t in. (Wr = 1 oz .
) in.) may be small at a low speed and large at a high speed. Calculate the ine.r tia force of 10.U. For the Scotch yoke mechanism of Fig. 10.35, sketch the supporring [rame (lin k
1 oz at I in. for speeds in 1000-rpm increments to 10,000 rpm, and plot a cutve of inertia 1) of the mechanism as a free body and show vectors of forces and couples imposed on
) force versus speed . the fnme by the moving parts of the mech11nism in approximately the phase ~hown. Link
) 10.8. A jct engine rotor weighs 6700 N. Determine the amount that the cen ter of gravity 2 is driven at constant angular velocity by torque applied at 0 1• Designate the shaking
of the rotor mass may be eccentric from the axis of rotation to produce an inertia force forte and the shaking couple.
) equal to the weight of the rotor at speeds of 1000, 5000, and 10,000 rpm. 10.13. Io Fig. 10.36, the weight of the reciprocating weight is 28 .6 Nat D and 14.3 Nat
10.9 •. The degree o_f unbalance permitted in rotors is often specified by limiting the
'C. Determine the resultant unbalanced force due to the reciprocating masses for the phase
) shown; Rw2 ... 305 m/s2•
ccntnpctal acccleranon of the center of gravity of the rotor to g/4. Determine the eccen-
) tricity which produces this amount of acceleration at 5000 rpm, and give the permissible
amount of unbalance in N · m (Wr) for a 4500 N rotor. •
Lengths
) 10.10. The rotor with the steel gears shown in Fig. 10.34 was dynamically balanced in a 02A • 02B • 50 mm
balancing machine by the addition of the clay masses shown on the periphery of the gcan. AD• 350mm
) However, the balancing is to be achieved by drilling boles in the webs of the gears at the
BC • 200 mm
diameters shown . Determine the size and location of the holes for dynamic balance .
~ 3
10.ll. !n the _Scotch yoke mechanism shown in Fig. 10.35, the yoke (link 4) is in simple
) hannomc motion when the crank of length R rotates at constant angular velocity Wi· Write 6
a ma thematical expression (o r shaking force due to the reciproca ring mass M of the yolce.
)
)
l in.
) FIGURE 10.36

)
10.14. In the three-cylinder radial engine shown in Fig. 10.37, all of the connci:ting rods
) are attached to a common crank. The reciprocating mass of e ach cylinder is M., and the
equivalent mass of each connecting rod at the crank: pin is MA . M, and M. are equal. The
) mass center of the crank: is at 0, but there is no counterweight to balance the masses M.
at the crank pin. Calculate inertia forces, and, using force polygons, determine the resultant
) shaking force S on the engine for the phase shown when the crank speed is such that
M.Rw2 = 1()00 lb; RI L = l. Show S as a vector on the drawing of the mechanism.
)
4 6 10.15. Using the data of Problem 10.14 and Eq. 9 .62, calculate the shaking couple pro-
in. In.
I FlGURE 10.34
duced by the reciprocating weights of the thre~-cylindcr engine o f Fig. 10.37 when 8, c
30" and R = 3 in.
}
)
I
 l
540 BALANCE OF MACHINERY
BALANCE OF FOUR· BAR UNKAGES 541 •
•
,•,
a
,,•
/ ,
\ ·-- •
FIGURE 10.37
FlGURE 10.39
, }

10.16. Draw a sketch of the engine block of the three-cylinder radial eogine of Fig. 10.37,
and show vectors of forces imposed on the block by the reciprocating inertia forces of the
equations for Sand a,. in terms of 9,. Determine Sand a11 fore, = 30", MRw' = 8900 N
RIL - !. and 11 ""' 100 mm. · '
,,•
slider-crank mechanisms.
10.17. Figure 10.38 shows the four-i:ylindcr mechanism of Fig. 10.14 in the engine block
and shows the shaking force S at the centerline of the four cylinders. M, is the ma55 of
the complete engine including the block, and the center of gravity is located c distance
10.lJ. Work Problem 10.18 for a two-cylinder engine with cranks at 180° instead of 90".
10.lfl: For the three-cylinder cn~nc of Fig. 10.40 with cranks as shown, determine the
cqua_lion of the unbaJ~ced sbak:10~ force S of recip~ting masses in terms of e • Dc-
t~e also the equation for the d&Stance a. of the line of action o( S from the plane
1
of
,
from the line of action of S. The engine is supported by motor mounts having spring cylinder 1: Plot curves of S versus 91 and "• versus 81 for a complete engine cycle using •
constants k . Due to the reciprocating shaking force, the engine vibrates . For the displace-
ments x and 4> shown, write the equations of motion I F, = M,A • M, (d 1xld1 1) aod
the foUoWUJg data: Reciprocating weight, 3.22 lb; aank speed 3000 rpm· stroke 4 in ·
RIL - I; distance between cylinders, 4 in. ' ' ' ·• •
I T = Ia. = I (d'4>1dt 2) .
•
•
•
,•
,
•
FIGURE 10.31 "'" + .,,
,
)

•
10.18. By the analytical method, determine the equations of unbalance of reciprocating
masses for the two-cylinder engine of Fig. 10.39 in which the cranks arc at 90". Determine FlGURE 10.40 •
•
-rr.-
:
,
)
1
)
542 BALANCE OF FOUR·BAR LINKAGES 543
) BALANCE OF MACHINERY

} 10.21. The equations of unbalance of reciprocating masses for the conventional four· fon:e F shaking force S, and the distance a. from the plane of cylinder 1 to the line of
cylinder engine are developed in Example 10.1. The straight eight-cylinder engine in Fig. actio n ~f S. Evaluate S and a11 for 81 = 90", assuming MRw' and the distance between
) 10.41 consists of two four-cylinder engines in tandem with their crank throw planes at 90". sets of cylinders arc unity; RIL ~ l. For what angle or angles 8, , if any, will the resultant
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant shaking force or couple for the primary force be zero?
) phase shown (8, - 0) .
)
)
)
)
)
)
}
)
)
All cylinders spaced a apart
) FIGURE 10.41
)
) 10.22. For the two-cylinder 90" V engine shown in Fig. 10.42, derive the following equa·
lions of unbalance as a function of 81: resultant primary force F,, resultant secon'dary foroc
) F,. resultant shaking force S, direction of shaking force, and the distance a 11 from the plane FIGURE 10.43
of the first cylinder to the line of action of S. Using the equations, determine S and a.
) fore, = 60°. MRw1 "' 1, RIL = t. a D 100 mm.
B
)

)
)
)
)
(
) w2 • 500 noc!/s
10 In.
) (254 mm)
2
0 2A - 3 in. (76.2 mm) 0 464 • 4 in.
(102 mm) 12 • 00011b · s II
) W1 • 5 lb (22.25 Nl l0.00136 ~ - m )
2
2 0211 • 1 In. (25.4 mm)
AB • 12 in. (305 mm) w3 • 10 lb (44.50 Nl 13 : 0 .020 lb . s . It
) FIGURE 10.42 Ag3 = 4 in. (102 mm) (0.0272 kg · m l
2
W, • 15 lb (66.75 Nl
) 0 48 • 6 in. (1 52 mm) 1, - 0.0 10 lb · s 2 · It
(0 .0136 ka . m2l
10.13. For the four-cylinder opposed engine of Fig. 10.43, derive the followina equations
) {in lentu of 6,) of unhalnnce due to rcc:lprocallng maHe1: prlmtuy force F,, 1econdary MGURE 10.44

t
)
 ,
)
544 BAI.AN~ OF MACHtNERY
c •
)
Chapter Eleven
•)
B
Introduction )

to Synthesis '
,,
)

~
)
0 20 c • 5 In. (1 27 mml Ocie • 2 in. (50.8 mm)

'
0 2A • 2 in. (50.8 mm) W2 • 10 lb (44.50 N)
AB• 7 in. (1 78 mm) W3 • 2 lb (8.90 Nl
0 48 • 4 in. 0 0 2 mm) w4 • l lb 14.45 NI )
AP • 4 in. (102 mml
P13 • l In. . (25.4 mm)
)
FIGURE 10.45 In the study of mechanisms so far, the proportions of a linkage have been given
and the problem bas been to analyze the motion produced by the linkage. It is
quite a different matter, however, to start with a required motion and to try to
>
10.24. For the six-cylinder opposed engine of Fig. 10.25, derive the equations for the proportion a mechanism to give this motion. nus procedure is known as the )
shaking forces and the shaking couples in terms of M , R , w, a, and Las a function of e,. synthesis of ~chanisms. As has been mentioned earlier, designing a cam from )
10.25. For the V-6 engine of Fig. 10.22, determine the effect on the inertia forces and the required displacement diagram is the only problem in synthesis that can be
inertia couples of "splitting" the crank pins.
10.26. Determine the locatio ns and amo unts of the weights to be added to balance the
solved every time. In the application of synthesis to the design of a mechanism,
the problem divides itself into three parts: (a) the type of mechanism to be used, •
shaking forces in the fo ur-bar linkage of Fig. 10.44. (b) the number of links and connections needed to produce the required motion ,
•
10.27. Determine the locations and amo unts of the weights to be added to balance the
shaking forces in the four-bar linkage of Fig. 10.45.
and (c) the proportions or lengths of the links necessary. These divisions arc
often respectively referred to as type, number, and dime11.sional synthesis.
The designer generally relics on intuition and experience as a guide to type
and nwnber synthesis. Very little supporting theory is available in these areas.
,•
)
For this reason, the designer should be familiar with the capabilities and typical
applications of a variety of mechanisms, including gears, belts and pulleys, chain
drives, cams, and linkages.
t
In contrast to type and number synthesis, a great deal of theoretical back-
ground exists for dimensional synthesis of mechanisms. This chapter is primarily
devoted to introducing some of this theory, particularly as it applies to the di·
,•
mensional synthesis of linkages.
In the application of synthesis, one factor that must be continually kept in
mind is that of the accuracy required of the mechanism. Sometimes, it is possible
to design a linkage that will theoretically generate a given motion. Often, how-
,
)

ever, the designer must be satisfied with an approximation to the given motion. >
The difference between the motion that is desired and the motion that is actually )
)
545
,..
----,--··-·
,. ··
.::.;'.f
>
)
'
) 546 ItITROOUCTION TO SYNIBESIS CLASSJFtCATION OF KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS PROBLEMS 547
) produced is known as structural error. In addition, there arc errors due to man-
) ufacture. The error resulting from tolerances io the lengths of the links and bearing
clearances is referred to as mechanical error. Methods of calculating mechanical l
\ error are given by Hartenberg and Denavit 1 and by Gnrrett and Hall.1
In the enrly development of synthe~is, grnphicul methods played a prcdom-
) inru1t role. This may have stemmed from the fact that some of the early methods P•lh of tract r point
) were undoubtedly trial-and-error methods, which later developed into more ra-
tional procedure~. With the continued development of synthesis, a number of
) analytical methods have been introduced. lo this chapter, a variety of graphical
and analytical methods arc presented to illustrate the principles involved, the
) difficulties encountered, and the application of the methods.
)
1Ll CLASSIFICATION OF KINEMATIC
) SYNTHESIS PROBLEMS
), Experience gained over a number of years has shown that problems in kinematic
synthesis can generally be placed in one of three categories , namely, function
)
generation, path generation, and body guidance.
Function generation most often involves coordinating the angular orienta-
> tions of two links within a mechanism. A disk cam with an oscillating follower '
) is one mechanism commonly used for function generation. The angular orien-
tation of the follower is specified as a function of the rotation angle of the cam. FIGURE 11.2 FIGURE 11.3
)
The synthesis problem, as discussed in Chapter 3, is to find the shape of the cam
} surface given the follower displacements.
Another mechanism commonly used for function generation is the four-bar mechanism used for angular-to-linear function generation is the valve train in an
) linkage , as shown in Fig. 11.1. Herc, the synthesis problem is to find the di- internal-combustion engine . Figure 11.2 shows a valve being directly actuated by
) mensions of the linkage required to produce a specified functional relationship an overhead cam. The linear motion of the valve .t must be an accurately defined
between the input angle 8 and the output angle 1)1. Function generation problems function of the cam rotation angle a.
} may involve translational as well as rotational inputs and outputs. For example, In path generation , a mechanism is required to guide a point (caUed the
slider-crank linkages and cam and reciprocating follower mechanisms arc used tracer point) along a specified path. The path of one such tracer point is show n
) for linear-to-angular or angular-to-linear function generation. An example of a in Fig. 11 .3. An example of a typical application of path generation is fou nd in
) the knitting motion of an industrial loom. Figure 11 .4 shows a latch needle hook
about to pick up a strand of woven fabric and pull it into place. A plan view of
) the required teardrop-shaped path and the mechanism subsequently designed to
produce this path is shown in Fig. 11.5 .
) Quite often in path generation, the motion of the point along its path must
) be coordinated with the motion of the input link . In other words, at specified
values of the input angle <I>, the tracer point in Fig. 11.3 is required to be at
) specified locations along its path. This type of problem is called path generation
) with prescribed input timing.
In body guidance. both the position or II point wirhin II moving h11d y 1111d
FIGURE 11.1
) the angular oiientation of the body arc specified. Cam and follower mechanisms,
simple gears, belts and pulleys, and similar devices are not capable of general
) 'R. S . Hartenbcrg and J. Den11vit, K"uuntDtic Synthesis of Linlc4gu, McGraw-Hill, New York. 1964. body guidance, since points on the links of these mechanisms move either on a
) 'R. E. Garren and A . S . Hall, "Effect ofTolennce and Clcarantt in Linkage Design ," 1}0111. ASME, circular arc or along a straight line. For this same reason, the links connected to
Journal of Ettginuring for Industry , '1(1), February 1969. the ground of a four-bar linkage (links a and c in Fig. 11.6) cannot be used for
I
)

>
 }
SPAL;.. ., CCURACY POINTS FOR FUNcnON GENERATION 549
••
)

,,•
t
•
Up

,•
)

•)
ftGURE 11.6
)

FIGURE 11.4 An Industrial loom.

body guidance. The coupler Jink (link bin Fig. 11 .6) , however, docs move with
general rigid-body motion. Hence, the four-bar linkage is the simplest device
capable of general body guidance. An example of a typical body guidance problem , )

,,
is showo in Fig. 11.6. Here, a carton is being automatically loaded from a conveyor
onto a cart. During motion, the carton is securely held to the coupler link so )
L Path ol Ince< point
(shown euaer•ted for clarity) that both carton and coupler link undergo the same rotations and translations.
--- --- As previously mentioned, a large majority of kinematic synthesis problems
can be classified as either function generation, body guidance, or path generation .
However, the reader should not be deceived into thinking that aJJ problems fall
Tnocer
point P Latch
needle
naturally into one of these categories. An example of a problem that cannot
easily be placed in one of the standard categories bas been presented by Chuang
•
hook
and Waldron.3 •
The reader should also be aware that it is sometimes necessary to specify
higher-order motion properties in mechanism synthesis. For example, the de- •
signer may wish to synthesize a function-generating four-bar linkage in which the
angular position, velocity, and acceleration of the output link are specified in
•
)
terms of the position , velocity, and acceleration of the input link.
)
11.2 SPACING OF ACCURACY POINTS
FOR FUNCTION GENERATION •
In dcaigning a mechanism to generate a particular function, it is usually impossible
to accur1tcly produce the function at more than a few points. These points arc
•
)
known as occurncy points, or precisiori pol11ts, and must be so located as to
)

'J. C. Oluan1 and K. J . Waldron, "Synthaia wilh Mixed Motion and Path Generation Position )
FIGURE 11.5 Path geaeradng mechanism med
In the loom of Fig. 11.4.
Speciticat:ioaa," Tran.i . ASME, Journal of Mrchanlmu, TtaNml.11/011 and Automation In Dnlg11,
105(4). December 1983.
,
)

)
}
J
)
) 550 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTIIESIS SPACING OF ACCURACY POINTS FOR FUNCTION Ol!NllRATION 551
) M - - - - -- - -lnlerval • 2 h - - - - - - - . i

)
)
lnletllll - 2Ja ~
) ------+/\
-.-~----
fl
) 01---''--._~--,-~>--~----J---+----z
c3 a +A
) I
I
I
) FIGURE 11.7 I
-4-..+---------""~·~-------4--+---<~Z
) a-A a1 a3 a+ A
minimize the error generated between these points. As previously mentioned, "'
,
FIGURE 11.9
) the error produced is a structural error which may be expressed as follows:

t = f(x) - g(x) of Fig. 11.7 in such a manner that t 1 is approximately equal to t 1 • Figure 11.8
shows this arrangement, and Fig. 11 .9 illustrates the method of locating the t hrce
) where
accuracy points with Chcbyshev spacing. A semicircle is drawn on the x-uis with
f(:x) desi red function
) a radius h. and center at point a. Half of a regular polygon is then inscribed in
g(x) function actually produced the semicircle so that two of its sides are perpendicular to the x-axis. Lines drawn
) In Fig. 11. 7 is shown a plot of the variation in structural error as a function is perpendicularly to the x-axis from the vertices of the half-polygon determine the
generated over an interval 2h with the center of the interval at x = a. The error accuracy points ai. a1 , and a3• Figure 11. 10 shows the construction for four ac-
)
is zero at points ai. a1 , and a3 , which are the accuracy points mentioned above. curacy points. It can be seen that for three accuracy points, the polygon is a
) From this figure, it can be seen that the maximum error t 1 produced by the hexagon and for four accuracy points, it is an octagon. In other words, the number
mechanism in going from point a1 to point a1 is considerably smaller than the of sides of the polygon is twice the number of accuracy points desired.
) maximum error t 2 produced in going from a 2 to a3 • Total structural error will be In general, the Chcbyshev points may be calculated from the following
) approximately minimized when these two errors arc made equal. By using a equation:
theory developed by Chebyshev,4 it is possible to locate the points a" ai. and a1
)
)
a1 = a - h cos [ -rr(j n- I)] j = 1, 2, .. . , n (11.l)
i - + - - -- - lnternl •2h-- -__,..i

)
i--------lnterval • 2/\-------~
)
)
)
)
)
)
flGURE 11.8
) ~._.__ _ _ __..._ _ _...__ _ ___.~ _ _ _ _.._._ _ _ ¥
a-A a1 a as "' a+ It
) 'R. S. Hactenberg and J. Denavil, Kinematic Syfllhuls of Unkc1es , Mc<Jraw· Hill, New Yortt, 1964. FlGURE 11.10
)

,'..
 ,,
t

552
where
INTROD\,JC110N TO SYNTiiESIS ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF A FUNCTION GENERATOR

In developing Freudenstein's method, the first step is to determine the

553 ,,
n = number of accuracy points to be determined
a1 = Chebyshev points
a = center point of the interval
relation between 4> and ljl using lhe minimum number of side ratios. This relation
can be derived considering Fig. 11.12, where a line parallel to link OA has been
dra~ from point B and a line parallel to link AB bas been drawn from point O
,,
Ii ' half the width of the interval
to give the parallelogram OABD. The links form• closed loop, and the sum of
the x-components of lengths a, b, c must equal length d. In equation form, ,,
11.3 ANALYI1CAL DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR
UNKAGE AS A FUNCilON GENERATOR
It is often necessary to design a linkage to generate a given function, for example,
a cos( n - cl>) + b cos a + c cos ljl = d

By applying the Jaw of cosines to triangle DOC,

(11.2)
,
y = log.r. Figure 11 .11 shows a four-bar linkage arranged to generate the function
y = f(x) over a limited range. As link OA moves between the limits 4> 1 and cl>.
with the input .r, link BC gives the value of y = f(x) between the limits ljl1 and
t2 = b1 + tP - 2bd cos a (11.J) •
ljift. It can be seen that in the linkage, there are three independent aide ratios
Also from triangle DBC,
)
•
that define the proportions of the linkage. Also to be considered is the range
(and scale factors) of cl> and ljs and the initial angles cj> 1 and 1)1 1• In all, there are
seven variables that must be considered in designing the linkage to generate y =
f(;c). The magnitude of the task of synthesizing this function is immediately
el = a 1 + c2 - 2ac cos(cj> - ljl)

Solving Eqs. 11.3 and 11.4 for b cos a gives

(11.4)
,, )

apparent.
A method has been developed by Freudenstein' by which a four-bar linkage
can be designed to generate a function which is accurate at a finite number of
b cos a = bl + tP - a2 - c2
2d
+ 2ac cos(cji - ljl)
(11.Sj ,,
points called precision poinu. ·1:1e function is generated in an approximate sense
between these points. In other words, the ideal function and the function actually
generated will agree only at the precision points. Between these points, the actual
function will differ from the ideal by an amount depending upon the distance
By substituting Eq. 11.5 into Eq. 11.2 and letting cos(1T - cj>) = -cos cj> ,

a2 - b 2 + c2 + <fl + 2ad cos cl> - 2cd cos lji = 2ac cos(4> - lji) (ll.6)
,,
between the points and upon the nature of the ideal function. Referring again
to fig. 11 .11 , the function would therefore only be exact at lji 1 and "'" and at a By dividing by 2ac, )
specific number of points in between.
)
a2 - b1 + c2 + tP d d
2ac
+ -c cos cl> - - cos
a
lit = cos( 4> - lji) (11.7) )

By letting •
,•
d
Rz = -
a (11.8) •)
1
=a -- -b-+-c:1- -
+ tP
2
R, - )
flGURf: JI.I I 2ac
Eq. 11.7 becomes
>
)
'F. Frcudcn11cin, "Approximalc Synthesis of Four-Bar Uokaacs," 'l>on.r. ASME, Jo11nial of Enif·
ntetin!f fur Industry, 17(6). 195.5, p . 8.53. R1 cos <I> - R 2 cos+ + R, = cos{cl> - lji) (11.9) >
>
. rs >
..
J

)
554 lNTRODUCrION TO SYNTilESIS ANAl.Y11 CAL DESIGN OF A FUNC110N OENERJ\TOll 555
)
From these side ratios , the lengths of the links cnn be determined from Eqs.
) 11.8. Jn determining the lengths of linb a and c, a negative sign must be inter·
preled in a vector sense when dra wing the linkngc .
)
) Example 11 .1. Let ii be required lo propoction a four-bar linkage to generate y ~
.x' ' • wbcre .x varies between 1.0 and 4.0. Use Chcbyshev spacing, and let <I>. "' 30°, t.4> =
) 90°, iii. = 90°, and d ili = 90". Assumed = 1.000 in.
) nGURE 11.U x, = 1.0 y, = 1.0
)
x, = 4.0 Yt = 8.0
where Ri. R 2, and R 3 are three independent side ratios. Equation 11.9 gives the
)
simplest relation possible between cf> and IJ!.
The accuracy points are determined from the Chebyshev spacing, as shown in Fig.
) By use of Eq. 11.9, the method will now be extended to cover the design 11.13, and are calculated as follows:
of a linkage to generate a function which is exact at three points. For greater
) accuracy, four- and five-point appronmations have been developed. However, x, 2.5 - 1.5 cos 30" = 1.201 y, = 1.317
thes~ systems are much more complicated and will not be included here .
) x, ~ 2.50 y, - 3.96
The pairs of angles (cj>, lji) that correspond to the precision points are sub-
) stituted into Eq . 11.9, which gives three simultaneous equations. The side ratios x, 2.5 + 1.5 cos 30" = 3.799 y, = 7.40
can then be determined from the solution of these equations. If the linkage is to
) pass through (cf>1, "1 1), (cf>i, "12) , and (cf>3, lfi3), then cj>, + x, - x, Acj> = 30 + l.20l - l .O x 90 = 36.03°
<!>. .x, - x, 4.0 - 1.0
)
R1 cos cf>1 - R 2 cos '1i1 + RJ = cos(cf>1 - '1i1)
cj> 1 + .x, - x, A<!> = 36.03 + 2 ·50 - l .2 0 x 90 = 75.03°
) x, - x, 3
R1 cos cf>i - R1 cos IJt2 + RJ = cos( cf>i - IJii) (11.10)
)
cl>, + ~Act> ~ 36.03 + ·
3 799 2

)
R 1 cos 4>3 - R 2 cos IJ!3 + R 3 = cos( 4>3 - "1 3) cj>,
x, - x, ; l. 0 x 90 = 114.0"

In solving the simultaneous equations 11.10, let

) lji, iii. + y, - y, Alji = 90 + l.3l7 - l.O x 90 = 94.08"
Yt - y, 8.0 - 1.0
) cos 4>1 - cos cf>i = W1
3 96 32
cos 4>1 - cos cf>J = iii. + l1...:...1'.! ti.iii - 94.08 + · - t. x 90 = 128.0'l"
) W2 Yt - y, 7

) cos "11 - cos IJl2 = w, 7

iii.+ l!...=.1! ti.iii= 94.08 + .40 - 1.3Z x 90 = 172.25°
cos "11 - cos "'J = w, Yt - y, 7
)
cos cj>, - cos 4>· - 0 .8087 - 0.2583 = 0.5504
cos(cj> 1 "1 1) - cos(.f>2 - "11) = 111 1
) w, - cos cj>, - cos cj>, - 0 .8087 + 0.4067 - 1.2154
cos(cf> 1 "11) - cos(c!>J - lji,} = w6
) w, cos"'' - cos "'1 = - 0 .0713 + 0.6159 = 0 .5446
Then,
) w, = cos"'' - cos oji, ,.. -0.0713 + 0 .9909 - 0 .9196
) W3W6 - W4W' cos(<!>, - oji,) - cos(~ - ili1) - 0.5292 - 0 .6019 "' -O.on7
R1 "' -=--=---'--"
)
W1W3 - W1W4
cos(cj> 1 - ili1) - cos(cl>, - iji,) = 0.5292 - 0 .5262 = 0.003
w,w, - w,w, - (0.545)(0.CXl3) - (0.920)(-0.073}
) R2 =W1W6
- --- W2W,
-- (ll.ll)
w,w, - 111,111. - (1 .215)(0.545) - (0.550)(0.920)
w2w1 - W1Wc
) where i = 1, 2 , or 3 0 .440
)

>
 ,,'
556 lNTilO~UcnON TO SYNrnESIS CURVE MATCHING APPLIED TO A FOUR-BAR FUNcnON GENERATOR

11.4 CURVE MATCHING APPLIED TO THE

DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR LINKAGE
557 )
,,
AS A FUNCI10N GENERATOR
Another method of synthesis using displacement equations has been developed •
.... ....
........
30;' .......
based on the work of Raven. 6 Consider the four-bar linkage as shown in Fig.
11.15, and let it be required to have 94 vary as a function of 92 • A vector equation
in terms of complex numbers can be written for the linkage as follows:
•,
o'--~~~~%.-%~.~~---'~---'%~.~~~~---:z~3~~~~%
I~ 25 4~
•
FIGURE 11.13

W 1 W, - (0.550)(0.003) - (1.215)( -0.073)

W1W> _
(11.U)
,•
•,
The lengths of the links can be made nondimensional by letting
R, = w,w, - w,w, - (l .215)(0.545) - (0.550)(0.920)

R,
R,
=
=
0.578
cos(<j>, - ljl 1) + R, cos lji 1 - R, cos 4>1
R l -- !l
'•
R) -- ~
'•
R4 -- ~
'• ,,
0.5292
0. 132
+ (0.578)( -0.0713) - (0.440)(0.8087) Equation 11.12 may therefore be written

(11.13)
,
,
Frum Eqs. 11.8 with d = 1.000 in.,
By writing Eq. 11.13 in tenns of real and imaginary parts, )
d 1.000 30 .
a = - = - - = 1.7 in.
R, 0.578
)
c = ~ = l.OOO = 2.273 in. By separating the real and imaginary parts and solving for R 3 cos 93 and R 3 )
R, 0.440
sine,,
b = (t 11

= [1.730
+ c' + d 1
1
- 2acR,)'n
+ 2.273 + 1.00' - 2(1.730)(2.273)(0.132)}111
1 R 3 cos OJ = 1 + R 4 cos O, - R 2 cos 92 (real) (11.14) •
>·
R 3 sin 93 -= R, sin 94 - R 2 sin 92 (imaginary)
= 2.850 in .

A sketch of the linkage OABC is shown io Fig. 11.14. B ,)

•
>
)
,, ,, )
l .20)/ 02
1.0.J............ .... JilG URE 11.15 )
)
'F. H. Raven, ""Position, Velocity, and Ac:ccleration Analysis mod Kinemalic Synthesis or Plane and
Spaoc Mechuisma by a Generalized Procedure C:.lled !he Melhod of lndepcndcnl Position Eq110· )
FIGURJ.o.: 11.l4 lions," L.C. Card No. 58- 58, Uninuily Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Ml, 1958.
)

~--· ·--
...
~ -~ .
•
J
)
) 558 INTRODUcnON TO SYNTHESlS CURVE MATOJlNO APPUBD TO A FOUR-BAR FUNcnON GENERATOR 559
The unknown angle 03 can be eliminated from Eqs. 11.14 by squaring the real Rl•l ·O R2•0·70 R4•2·0
)
and imaginary parts and adding the two parts: l«l · 00oooMO.....,....,....;soT;
.oo;.:r-,.......""'2;:;.:o:,..
·OO:,.i,.,..,'';..,on
·OO,......rr2-r-40T"·.,.oo.,..,..,..,.300.,...
·00rr-T"T"360.,.., ·re, 00
)
) lOO ·OO 3 00· 00

) By expanding the term cos(0 4 - 01 ) and rearranging, Eq. 11 .15 can be written
as
) 240 00 2 4 0-00

) 1 + RJ - RJ + Rl 2R1 cos 02 + 2R4 (R2 cos 02 - 1) cos 04

+ 2R2 R. sin 61 sin o. (ll.16)
) .. 110 00 180 00

By so lving Eq . 11.16 for 04 ,

)
120 00 - 120 00
)
)
6000 60 00
) where
)
(ll.17)
) Thero 2

) HGUltE 11.17 Reprinted with pennmion from R. S. Brown and H .

H. M1bie, "Appllaition of Oarn M1tddng to Designing Four-Bar
) Mechanlmu," Journal of Mtclzanlsms, 5 1 1970, p. 567.

) From the complexity of Eq. 11 .17, it is obvious that some means other than
JOOOO 300-00
) direct substitution must be employed to proportion the linkage to generate 04 as
a desired function of 62 • A method7 that has been successful is to plot a series of
) 240·00
curves of constant R 3 for 64 versus 02 with R 2 and R4 given values. Such curves
240·00
are known as displaament curves. To select a linkage to generate a given function,
) the desired relation of 64 versus 62 is first plotted on transparent paper, and this
)
•0 curve is then superimposed on the displacement curves. The displaceme nt curve
j 180·00 1410·00
.... which best fits the desired curve gives the approximate proportions of the linkage .
) Figure 11.16 shows an example of displacement curves plotted by computer with
R 1 = 1.0, R2 = 0 .7, and R 4 = 2 .0.
) 120 00
The variation in the width of the lines in Fig. 11 .16 indicates values of
) transmission angles according to the legend given in Fig. 11 .17 where only o ne
displacement curve (R1 = 1.6) is shown from Fig. 11.16.
) 60·00
To have a workable system, it is of course necessary to have plots of dis·
) placement curves for many combinations of R 2 , Rh and R 4 • This system of syn·
thesis is known as curve matching , and examples of this method arc given by
) 60·00 120·00 180-00 240·00 JOO· OO Brown and Mabie.
Thero 2
) flGURE 11.16 Reprinted witb pennis.sloo from R. S. Brown and H.
ff. Mable, "Application of Cane Matthlag to Designlnc Foar-B• 'R. S. Brown •nd H . H. M•bie, " Application of Curve Ma1ching 10 Designing Four-Bar Mechanisms,"
) Mechanisms," Journot of Mecltanlsms, S, 1970, p. 566. Journal of Multani.Jrru, 5, pp. '63-575, 1970.
)
)
)
 '
,•
560 INTRODUCllON TO SYNTIIBSIS

11.5 GRAPHICAL DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR

LINKAGE AS A FUNCTION GENERATOR
GRAPHICAL DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR LINKAGE FOR BODY GUIDANCE 561
,•
There are many graphical methods of synthesis that have been developed. One
',
method is presented here and others arc giveo io an excellent work by Professor
A . S. Hall of Purdue University.
The method to be discussed is ooe by which the proportions of a four-bar
linkage can be found to give a required input-to-output motion at three positions.
,
Figure 11.18 shows the layout where link 2 of known length passes through •
positions A., Ai. and A 3 and drives link 4 (or a pointer attached to it) through
the angular positions R" Bz, and Bl. The distance 0 2 0 4 is also known, and it is
req uired to find the lengths of links 3 and 4.
,•
,•
The easiest way to handle the problem is to invert the mechanism so that
link 4 is fixed instead of link 1. As the mechanism passes through its cycle , it is
evident that point 0 2 will trace a circle about point o. and that point A will trace
a circle about point B . Locating the center of the latter circle determines the
position of point B aod therefore the lengths of links 3 and 4.
•
Figure 11 .19 shows the graphical construction for determining point B . Link
4 is considered fixed, and link 1 rotates counterclockwise about point O, through
angles a' and W which are equal but opposite in direction to a and j3. Point 01
moves through two positions Oi and Oi while point A moves to Ai and Aj (the
,•
,
rotated po~itions of A 2 and A 3). Point Ai is the intersection of the arc of radius FIGURE 11.19
0 1A swung about point Oi and the arc of radius O,.A3 swung about 0 4• Point
Aj can similarly be determined using the arc of radius OiA about point Ol and
the arc of radius 0 4A 3 about 0 4• With points Ai. Ai. and Aj available, the
perpendicular bisectors of A 1Ai and AiAi can be drawn. Their intersection gives
11.6 GRAPIUCAL DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR
LINKAGE FOR BODY GUIDANCE
,,•
point B. It has already been mentioned that linkages can be synthesized to generate only
It should be mentioned that although a geometrical solution is possible,
there is no way of telling before a layout is made whether the solution will give
a practical mechanism. It must be examined for dead points, reversals, and
a smaU number of theoretically exact positions; these are the so-called precision
positions. In general, the more precision positions a designer specifies, the more
difficult the solution becomes. A four·bar linkage can be synthesized to satisfy
,•
mechanical advantage. If the solution is impractical, the length or position of
!i uk 2 or the length of link 1 must be changed and another trial made.
a theoretical maximum of five precision positions of body guidance, but this )
,
,,
number is seldom attainable in practice. Four-precision-position synthesis pro-
This method can also be applied to a three-dimensional linkage. cedures are widely used in computer-aided mechanism design software,•.9 .10. 11 but
these methods arc often impractical for hand calculation or graphical layout.
Three-precision-position synthesis procedures, on the other hand, arc read-

__ -f 'A. J. Rubel and R. E. Kaufman, "KINSYN III: A New Human-&pnecred System for Interactive
,
At --
.i--- \\ Computer-Aided Design of Planar Llokages ," Trans. ASME, Joumal of Enginuring for Industry,
99(2), May im.
•
~-.-'-""'--.Aa \ 'A. 0 : Erdman Uld J. E. Gll$taf50n, "LINCAGES: Linkage Interactive Computer Analysis and

I
4\
I
Graphlcally Enhaaccd Synthesis Package," ASME Design Engineering Technical Conference, Paper
No. 77-DET-S, September 1977. •
I I
1/ "O. Sivcrtseo and A . Myklebust. "MECSYN: An lnter1dive Computer Graphics System for Mech-
•
,•
lnism Synlheail by Algebraic Means," ASME Design Engineering Technical Conference, Paper No.
80-0ET-68, September, 1980.
01
"J. C . Oiuang, R. T. Strong, and K. J. Waldron, "Implementation of Solution Rectification Tecb-
FlGURE ll.18 oiques ill ms Interactive Linkage Synthesis Proirarn, 7'411U. ASME, JouTTUl/ of Muhankol Duign,

,•
M

July 1981.
..
;t1 •
 )

)
} 562 INTRODUCTION TO SYNllffiSIS
GRAPl-nCAL DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR LINKAGE FOR BODY GUIDANCE 563
)
es.sary for the reader to recall how to graphically find the center of a circle defined
) by three points, such as points Ai. A 2 , and A 1 in Fig. 11.20. The following
procedure is suggested:
)
) 1. Draw any two of the three line segments A 1A 2 , AJA,, or A 1A 1 • (Fig. 11.20
shows the procedure using segments A.,4 2 and A 2A,.)
) 2. Find the perpendicular bisector of each line segment.
3. The intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the two segments locates
)
the center of the circle labeled 0,. in the figure .
)
ln retrospect, there is actually no need to draw in the line segments in
) step 1. These simply serve as a visual aid in finding the perpendicular bisectors.
Once the reader is comfortable with the procedure , this step may be omitted.
) Returning to the synthesis problem, consider the three positions of a rigid
t 7- planar body containing the points A and B, as shown in Fig. 11 .21. The three
nGURE Jl.20 positions of point A are labeled A., A 2, and A 3 , and these define a circle centered
) at the point labeled 0,.. It is evident that a rigid link pinned to the body at point
) A and pinned to ground at point 0,. will guide point A through its three positions.
ily handled both graphically and analytically. They are sufficient to solve a wide Similarly , the three positions of point B labeled B 1> B2 , and 8 3 define a circle
) class of industrial problems, and they give the designer a strong insight into the centered at 0 8 . A rigid link pinned to the body at point Band pinned to ground
s~~thesis process. _As with function generation, the three discrete precision po- at point 0 8 will guide point B through its three positions. This construction has
) formed the four-bar linkage O,.-A-B-01 which guides the body through the
s1t1~~s may sometimes serve as an approximation to a continuous sequence of
) positions. three specified positions. Figure 11.22 shows the linkage in these three positions.
Before discussing the graphical three-position synthesis technique, it is nee- It is important to realize that any point in the body may be selected as a
) moving pivot location. Generally speaking, only two guiding links can be used
in any one mechanism. The addition of a third guiding link results in a structure
) that can be assembled at the precision positions but cannot move between them.
)·
)
)
)
)
) y
1
)

,
)

)
) 7-
FIGURE 11.21 FIGURE 11.ll
)
)
)
 ,,,
564 lNTROoucnON TO SYNTHESIS Afj _ DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR LINKAGE FOR BODY GUIDANCE 565 ,,.
11.7 ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR point .. 11straining links. The graphical and analytical body guidance syn·
LINKAGE FOR BODY GUIDANCE thesis I ··cs will now be illustrated by way of a numerical example.
111e graphical synthesis procedure described in the previous section is reasonably
accurate in most cases and provides valuable insight into the synthesis process.
At times, however, the accuracy of graphical methods is insufficient. This often
Examp·
Dece5Sat')
obtained"
r:i designing pressure-scaling or thermal-scaling <'
' - the clearance surrounding the door to Jess tl
-,, uventional hinge. Ooc possible solution is tc
;, ;, ~o metimes
·:. h could be
_,-bar linkage
'.-
occurs when it is necessary to graphically find tl:c: intersection of two lines that
are nearly parallel. In addition, graphical methods may become tedious when a
that guides
after which
• 1 in and out with little rotation until it cle:u
.: r.1lly open to one side. Figure 11.23 sl
.Jing structure,
.; itions or such a •
large number of trials are needed to find an accept.. hie solution mechanism. For door underi .- · ; pc of motion . Use both graphical a • techniques to find •
these reasons, it is desirable to have an analytical solu ti;>n that can be programmed
on a computer or hand calculator. Although several · u J. :ion methods are pos·
a four-bu I.
the&e three i'
·: 11 moving pivots at points A and E =s the body thro·ugh
•
sible, the approach taken here will be to analytically find ;. , ,-,int equidistant from
the three locations of the moving pivot point.
Solution. The -·~ solution is shown in Fig. 1! _ -_ . ~ fixed pivot locations arc •
Consider again the three locations of the point A labeled Ah A 2 , and A 3 in
measured to be 0 , 1 ·- O.Z2, 1.S), 0 6 (0.29, 1.5).
•
•,
The coordinates of the points needed in the analytical solution are given as foUows:
Fig. 11.20. The distance between point A 1 at xi. y 1 and point O,.. at x, y is given
by A,(2, 1) B1(3, 1)

(11.18) .Ai(2, 2) B,(3, 2)

IAPAI
AJ(l.5, 3) BJ(l.5, 4)
•
Likewise, the distances IA 20.tl and are given by Substituting the coordinates of points .A,, A,. and A, in synthesis equations 11 .23 and
11.24 gives •
IA20AI = ((x1 - x)1 + (yz - y)2p11 (11.19)
2y(2 - 1) + (I)' - (2) 2 + 2x(2 - 2) + (2)1 - (2)2 = O •
IAJOAI = [(x3 - x) 2
+ (y3 - y) 2 112
) (11.20)
•
For OA to be the center of the circle passing through points A" A 2, and Alt these y •
distances must be equal. This requirement is satisfied by making jA,OAI =
•
IA20AI and IA20AI = IAJOAI• or, upon expansion, 5
•
[(xz _ x)z _ (y2 _ y)2]112 = [(x3 _ x)2 + (y, _ y)2)112
(ll.21)

(ll.22)
B3
11-5 ,4)
•
Squaring both sides of these two equations and simplifying gives the following
A3
•
two equations in the unknowns x and y : 3 (1 .5,3) >
(ll.23)
2
A212.2l B213.2l
y----o>----. •
>
(U .24)
>
These two equations can be 5olved simultaneously to find the coordinates
X, y of the point 0" representing the intersectiOOS Of the two midnormaJ lines.
This intersection then becomes the location of the fixed pivot guiding point A
•
>
through its three positions. The length of the guiding link can be determined
from any of the three equations 11.18, 11.19, or 11.20. Other moving pivot points
such as point 8 may be used in a similar fashion to find additional fixed pivot nGURE 11.23
I 2 3 4 5
,
)

i{j~ --
,
)

•
I
')
) 566 INTRODUCTION TO SYNrnESIS
ANALYTICAL SYNTitESIS USING COMPLEX NUMBERS 567
) 7

)
)

,
)

)
Midn0<mal to both

,
) A!A2 •nd 1Jl1J2

> FIGURE 11.15

)
2. For this reason, ir is not a workable solution . The problem is that positions 1 and 3 lie
) on one branch of the mechanism . and po sition 2 lies on the other branch of the mechanism.
and This problem, known as branch d~fut, is discussed in greater detail in section 11. 10. To
) obtain a workable solution , one must try selecting different moving pivot locations o r try
) 2y(3 - 2) + (2)' - (3)' + 2.t(l..5 - 2) + (2}' - (1.5)' =0 altering the required positions of the door .

) or, upon simplification ,

11.8 ANALYnCAL SYNTHESIS
) y ~ 1.5 USING COMPLEX NUMBERS
) and The algebraic method of linkage synthesis described in the previous section is
easily developed because it follows directly from the graphical procedure. Un-
) y = 0 .5x + 1.625 fortunately, however, it is difficult to generalize this approach to allow fo r the
specification of other free-choice parameters. Also, it assumes that the location
)
Simul!aneous solution of ~hese e.quations gives x =
-0.25 and y = 1.5, which are the of points in the moving body are known in the fixed frame of reference when in
) coordinates of the fix~d pivot pom~ O~. This process is repeated using the points B 11 Bi. fact their location must usually be determined beforehand in a separate calcu-
and B, ~o find ~he point Bo. Substituting the coordinates of the points B., B 2 , and B in lation.-The complex-number approach overcomes both of these disadvantages.
) synthes1S equations 11.23 and 11.24 gives > Figure 11 .26 shows a body undergoing general planar motion. Attached to
and moving with the body is the moving coordinate system labeled o, u , u. The
> 2y(2 - 1) + (I)' - (2)' + 2x(3 - 3) + (3)' - (3)' =O fixed, or reference, coordinate system is labeled 0, x, y . The position and ori-
) and
entation of the moving coordinate system arc known with respect to the fixed
coordinate system, that is, rt!' and a are known . Now consider point A attached
) to the moving body. In the previous section , it was assumed that the location of
+ (2)'

,
2y(4 - 2) - (4)' + 2.t(l.5 - 3) + ( 3)' - (1.5)' - 0
) this point was known in the fixed 0 , x, y-coordinate system. In practice, however ,
Solving rhcse two equations gives x - 0 .25 and y - 1.5 as rhe coordinates of the point the location of this point is usually known in the moving o, u, u-coordinate system.
o•. The graphical and analytical results arc .seen to agree . In other words, pt!' is known, and the problem is to find qt" (or equivalentl y
111e resul_t'.ng mechanism is shown attached to the door in the initial position in Fig. x .. , y.. ). In complex polar form , the unknown vector is given by
)
11.25. Thc _posittons of t~e mechanism links in the second and third position are shown
as dashed l~ncs representing the centerlines of the links. Although the mechanism can be qt!' = re'-' + pt<a• Ill
> assembled m each of rhe three positions, it is nor able 10 move between positions 1 and
) re'-9 + pe"'e't' (11.25)

>
)

568 Il'ITROOUcnON TO SYNTHESIS
..
0
FIGURE 11..26
By separating this into real and imaginary parts, the coordinates of point
A in the fixed reference system may be expressed as
XA = T COS + p COS(a + 13)
0
= r cos e + p (cos a cos 13 - sin a sin f3) (ll.26)
YA = r sin 9 + p sio(a + 13)
= r sin 6 + p(cos a sin p - sin a cos 13)
Note in Eq. 11.25 that multiplying the vector pelm by el' has the effect of
rotating it by an amount 13 in a right-hand seru: ; (ccw) about the z-axis. The case
of rotating vectors in the plane is one of the principal advantages of the complex-
number approach.
The synthesis methods presented in the two previous sections were based
on what is often called the dyadic approach, where each constraining link of a
mechanism is determined separately. The terin dyad refers to a two-link chain
composed of the guided body and the constraining link. The following complex-
number synthesis formulation is also based oq this method.
Consider the moving body shown in the 1st and jth positions in Fig. 11.27.
Attnched to the body is the moving o, u, 11-coordinate system whose position re"
1111d oricntalion a have been specified in the two positions 1 and j with respect
tu the fixc1I 0, x, y-coonlinatc system . Point A is the location or the moving
rcvolute joint ; its position in the o, u, u-coordinate system is given by pe'", which
is a constant. Point O,. is the location of the fixed revolute joint. The constraining
link (the link f.rom 0 .-. to A) is defined by a constant-length vector sttJ pointing
from OA to A . Note that the angular d isplacement 131 is shown negative because
'
ANALYilCAL SYNnfESIS USING COMPLEX NUMBERS 569
1
0
nGURE 11.27
this is a cl6ckwise rotation. The synthesis equation is obtained by summing lhc
vectors forming a closed loop as follows:
(11.27)
Grouping tenns and rearranging this resuJt leads to
(11.28)
In the body guidance problem, r., r1, a., and a1 will be specified. The
remaining variables, p , -y, s, Pi. and p1, will be unknown. If three rigid-body
positions have been specified, Eq. 11.28 will be written twice , na mely, for j =
2 and j = 3, as follows:
(11.29)
(11.30)
This pair o( vector equations is equivalent to four scalar equations containing six
unknowns (p, ..,, s, l31o 132 , and pJ) . It should therefore be possible to select any
two unknowns and solve for the remaining four. Although this was not stated
explicitly, in the graphical and analytical methods presented in the previous two
sections, these free choices were always taken to be p and-y. The complex-number
approach allows any two of the six unknowns to be selected as free-choice pa-
rameters. It is possible, for example, lo select the angular displacements Pl and
)
)
) DESION OF A rATil GENERATOR USING COGNATES 571
570 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS
)
~1 and thus to coordinate the input rotatioas with the motion of the body. Another
) useful combination of free-choice parameters is sand~ •. This combination com-
pletely determines the vector J~' and therefore detcnnines the location of the
) fixed revolute joint.
) Solution of the above equations (Eqs. 11.29 and 11.30) can be carried out
analytically or numerically. Numerical techniques can easily be extended to four-
) or five-position synthesis, whereas the corresponding analytical solutions become
quite involved. 12 ·
)
) 11.9 DESIGN OF A FOUR-BAR LINKAGE AS A
PATH GENERATOR USING COGNATES
)
Three-position synthesis of a path-generating four-bar linkage is an easy matter
) when coordination of the motion along the path with the rotation of the input
) link is not required. This becomes a less restrictive case of the body guidance
problem discussed in the previous sections. The positions of a point with.in the
) body are specified, but the orientations of the body are not specified. The designer
can therefore arbitrarily select body orientations at the three prescribed positions
) and proceed as if synthesizing a body guidance mechanism. Different body ori-
entations can be used to produce different solution mechanisms.
)
The problem of three-precision-position path generation is somewhat more
) difficult when the position of the tracer point must be coordinated with the lilGURE U.21
rotations of the input link. One method for solving this problem involves a
) remarkable and useful concept known as the Roberts-Chebyshev cognate link-
ages. These cognate linkages are different in appearance, but they have closely 3. Complete the parallelogram PCi0cC1 , locating the third fixed pivot point
)
related geometrical properties. Perhaps the best known of these properties is o~ .
) given in the following statement of the Roberts-Chebysbev11 theorem: Thru 4. As a check on this construction, pivot point Oc can be located in another
different planar four-bar linkages will generate identical coupler point (tracer point) way. Points OA011 and Oc should form a triangle similar to traingle ABP,
) with angle a at OA, angle (3 at 0 8 , and angle y at Oc.
curves. Thus, for any four-bar linkage, there are two related cognate linkages
) that will trace the same path. These cognates can be constructed as shown in Fig.
11.28. The original linkage 0 rA-B-011 is shown in solid lines. The coupler It is to be noted that, while the path of point P is identical in all three of these
) link, containing tracer point P, is a triangle defined by the angles a, p, and 'Y· mechanisms, the rotations of the coupler links will be different.
) The two cognate linkages 0 .rA 1-C1-0c and 0 11-Bi-Ci-Oc are shown in dashed Now, a key observation is made. Note from th_e parallelograms th~! t~e
lines. Tracer point Pis common to all three linkages, and the three coupler links cognate links OAA 1 nnd 0 11 8 2 undergo the same rotations as the coupler hnk m
) form similar triangles. the original mechanism. Links OAA 1 and 0 1 8 2 are, however, gruunde<l _lmk.s
.The cognate linkages may be constructed using the following procedure; which could serve as input links for the first and second.cognates, r~sp~ct1vely .
) This suggests the following procedure for path generation synthesis with pre-
) 1. From the original linkage, complete the parallelograms OAAPA 1 and 0 8 BPB1• scribed timing:
2. Construct the coupler triangles of the cognate linkages noting carefully the
) positions of the angles. Angle 'Y will always be at points C1 and C2 • The
cognate with the fixed pivot OA will have the angle p at point P and, t. Transform the path generation problem into a body guidance problem by
) similarly, the cognate with fixed pivot 0 11 will have angle a at point P. assigning the required input link rotations to the moving body.
2. Solve this new body guidance problem either graphically, using the method
)
of section 11.6, or analytically, using the methods of section 11. 7 or section
) "G. N. Sandor and A. G. Erdman, Advanad Mi:chanlsm Deign: AnalysiJ and Synthuis, Prcntice-
Hall, Englewood Oilfs , NJ, 1984. 11.8. .
''R. S. Hartenbcrg and J. Denavit, KinrmatiL: Synthrsis of LinkageJ, McGraw·Hill, New York, 1964. 3. Construct the two cognate linkages. Both of these satisfy the original path
)
>
)
 ,

572 INTRODUCflON TO SYNTHESIS

gener~tion with prescribed input-timing problem. The coordinated input
link will be O,.A 1 fo r the first cognate and 0 8 8 2 for the second cognate.
It should be pointed out that cognate linkages arc also useful in solving
path generation problems when input link timing is not required. ~uppose , for
example, a mechanism has been synthesized which produces the desired ~ath but
o ther pro blems, such as poor transmission angle or unacceptable dynamic char-
acteristics, make the solution unacceptable. The cognate mechanism may produce
an acceptable solutio n, si.o ce the cognate linkages will trace the same path but
will have different kinematic and dynamic characteristics.
11.10 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN MECHANISM SYNfHESIS
(MECHANISM DEFECTS)
PRACilCAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MECHANlSM SYNilffiS!S 573
designer may find it satisfies only a portion of the precision positions. To un-
derstand this phenomenon, consider the four-bar linkage OrA-B- Oa shown in
~~d line~ in Fig. 11.29. It is evident that, without moving the input link OAA ,
it IS po~1ble to assemble !h~ mechanism in another configuration, namely,
OA-A-B -o•.These two d1stmct configurations are called the branches of the
mechanism. Once the mechanism is assembled in one branch it cannot move
in!o the other branch, except by physically taking it apart and ;eassembling it in
th.is other branch. Unfortunately, the synthesis techniques cannot differentiate
between the two branches. For this reason , the mechanism must be checked after
synthesis to see if all the precision positions lie in one branch. If not, the mech-
anism suffers from branch defect and is unsuitable.
Consider, for example, the three body positions shown in Fig. 11.30. Se-
lecting the moving pivots at A and Band using the previously described synthesis
techniques gives the ground pivots O,. and o•. The extreme positions of link

The synthesis methods discussed in this chapter will always result in mechanisms
that can reach the specified precision positions. Knowing this, many designers
have proceeded to build prototype mechanisms only to find that the mechanism
they synthesized is unable to satisfy the kinematic design r~uire~ents. This
happens because several important factors have not been considered 10 the syn-
thesis process. Specifically, three types of problems, or "de~ects, " occur which
can render a mechanism kinematically unsuitable for the des1gn task. These are
known as branch defect, order defect, and Grashot defect. Each of these will be
discussed below in some detail.
Branch defect is perhaps the most perplexing problem to those who are
unaware of it. Upon building a prototype of the synthesized mechanism, the
OaB ?1 each br:anch are shown in Fig. 11.30. These are easily determined by
graphically finding the mechanism positions where links O,.A and AB are colli-
n~. ~rom this , it can be seen that positions 1and2 lie in one branch and position
3 hes m ~e ot~er bran~h. The mechanism therefore cannot move through all
three positions 10 a continuous motion cycle.
. A simple analytical test also exists for determining whether or not a mech-
anism suffers from branch defect. Letµ. be the angle from link OaB to link AB
measured clockwise about point B. This angle is shown in Fig. 11.30 with sub-
saipts l, 2, .and~ to indicate the position of the mechanism being considered.
The mech8.niSm will be free from branch defect if, in all precision positions, either

A
\
\ A
\
\
\
\
\
3·'
\ /
\ /
\
\ /
,,"'. .
\ /
\
b"
,,"'
B'
FIGURE 11.l'J nGURE 11.30
I

) 574 INTRODUCTION TO SYNlllESIS PRACl1CAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MEOIANISM SYNTHESIS 575

) nematic considerations; they depend only on the geometry of the mechan ism . A
) number of additional problems may also render a mechanism unsuitable for the
design task. Among these arc excessive forces, stresses or deflections, imbalance,
) and vibration . These and other important topics are treated in Chapters 8, 9 ,
and 10.
)
) Problems
) ll.l. Using Frcudcnstein's method , determine the proportions of a four-~ar linkage 10
generate y .. tan x when x varies between O" and 45°. Use Chebyshev spaang. Let 4'. ~
) 45°, Act> = 90°, ljl, .. 90", and llljl ""90°. ~kc a slcctcb of the linkage letting the ground
) FIGURE 11.31 link d be 1.00 in.
11.2. Using Freudenstein's method, determine the proportions of a four-bar linkage to
) generate y -= log,. x when x varies between 1 and 10. Use Chebyshev spacing. Let 4'. ~
0 < µ. < ir o r , in all posi tions, ir < µ. < 2ir. In the present example, µ. 1 and µ.i 45•, Acl> = ro", iii. - 135", and Aili "' 90". Make a sketch of the linkage letting the ground
) are between zero and 11' , but µ. 3 is between 11' and 211' . Position 3 is thus seen to link d be SO mm and check for dead points.
be in a different branch than positions 1 and 2. ll.3. Using the methods of complex variables, derive Eq. 11.6 of Freudenstein's method.
) The second type of defect to be considered is known as order defect. This ll.4. The crank-shaper mechanism shown in Fig. 11.32 can be used as a function generator
) type of defect only occurs in path generation and body guidance and only occurs to give e, as a function of 62• Using complex variables, prove that the relation between
when more than three precision positions have been specified. Consider, for 8, and 91 is given by cos 8, + R2 sin(82 - 8,) -= 0, where R2 "" r1I OzO,.
) example, the four positions of a point along its path, as shown in Fig. 11.31. The
) designer would like these points to be traversed in the order 1-2-3-4, as woul<l
be the case for a mechanism generating the path shown in dashed lines. Unfor-
) tunately, the synthesized mechanism may instead generate the figure-8 path shown
as a solid line in Fig. 11.31. In this case, the positions cannot be generated in
) the order 1- 2-3-4 (try moving along the path to see this), and the mechanism
) is said to suffer from order defect. The reader may verify that, regardless of the
path, three positions can always be generated in the order 1-2-3. To accomplish
) this, however, it may be necessary to reverse the direction the path is being
traversed or, in other words, to reverse the direction of input link rotation.
) The last type of defect to be considered, and perhaps the most easily under-
) stood, is the so-called Grashof defect. Recall £rom Chapter 2, section 2.2, that
Grashofs law predicts the relative rotatability of links within a four-bar linkage.
) Quite often, it is necessary to drive a linkage fro m a continuously rotating input
source, such as an electric motor. In such a case, the input link of the mechanism
)
would be required to rotate fully or, in the notation of section 2.2, a type 1
) Grashot linkage would be required . If the synthesized mechanism is not of the
correct Grashot type, the mechanism is said to suffer from Grashot defect. A
) more rigorous discussion of branch, order , and Grashot defects is given by Wald-
ron and Stcvenscn. 14
)
The three types of defects discussed in this section result from purely ki-
>
) MK . J. Waldron and E. N. Stcvcnscn, Jr., "Elimination of Branch, Grasbof. and Order DcfeciJ in
Path-Angle Generation and Function Ocncrarion Synthesis," lton.r. ASME, Joul7UJI of MttlttutlaJI FIGURE 11.32
) Design, 101(3), July 1979.

,
)

)
 ,,
,

576 INTRODUCTION TO SYNrHESIS

U.S. Using the relation givea in Problem 11.4 for the crank-shaper mechanism of Fig.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MECHANISM SYNlllESIS
577
,,
0 0.102 ~
11 .32, plot e, versus 82 for coastant values of R 2 of I, 1, and 2 . Let ti and 8, both vary . . 0.J 0
from - 90" lo 270".
U.6. In a four-bar linkage, the length of link 2 is 38.0 mm and it is to rotate clockwise
from its initial position (position 1) of 30" above the horizontal to 60" (position 2) and to
90" (position 3). As link 2 rotates ftom position 1 to position 2, link 4 rotate& 13°. As link
·4

•. ··:>-.
~

,•
2 goes fr om position 2 to position 3, link 4 rotates 20". Uthe length of link 1 (Op,) is
51.0 mm, determine graphically the lengths of links 3 and 4. Check the operation of the •
•'
linkage by drawing it in position 2 and 3.
11.7. Io a four-bar linkage, the length of link 2 is U in., and it is to rotate clockwise from
its initial position (position I) of fJJ" above the horizontal to 90" (position 2) and to 120"
(position 3). As link 2 rotates from positioa 1 to position 2, link 4 rotates 10". As link 2
goes from position 2 to position 3, link 4 rotates 15°. Uthe length of link 1 (020,) is 2
in .. determine graphically the length of links 3 and 4. Check the opci:1tion of the linkage
•
t
FIGURE 11.34

•,
by drawing it in positions 2 and 3.
11.8. The maximum load the tower crane of Fig. 11.33 can Lift without being toppled
over is proportional to the moment arm the load acts through. 1bis is given by I cos 8.
which are driven from the same &haft The d . d . . .
Since I is a constant vaJue, the crane operator only requ.ircs a readout of cos e on the link rotations are listed below and •• . also hoesire . p~s1on path points and the input
ioslroment panel to make decisions about lifting a known load. The present C:rane design , • ...e s wn in Fig. 11.35.
•
•
has a flexible cable transmitting the rotation angle 8 lo a gauge in the cab. This gauge,
POINT INPUT ANGLE
shown in Fig. 11.34, is marked off to read cos 8 from Oto lin0.1 increments. Unfortunately, (S, S) O"
this nonlinear i;cale is sometimes bard to read . Synthesize a function-generating four-bar
linkage that will give an approximately linear output scale for cos 8 with e as the input.
Use a range of 90° for the input and 120° for the output.
(8, 6)
(12, S) 12~
{JJ"
,•
•,
11.9. la practice, the motion of the latch needle hook described in the knitting machine
eumple o( section 11. l must also be coordinated with the motion of the input link. This
is because the motion of the hook must be in correct phase with other machine motions
~;!:a~~thod of cognates to syntheSize a path·generating linkage satisfying these re-

y •
•>
I

7 •
6 .
(8,61
•
5
4
(5, 5)
• (12, 5)
• •
>
120° 60°

•
'i:-o·
3
2
NOie; fixed plvo« 11 shown only to &ive •
•n&fa - 111 position 11 .,bltraiy

•
FlGURE 11.33 FlGURE ll.35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 x
•
•
---:-;r--
,
)

•
)
)
) PRACflCAL CONSIDERATIONS JN MEOlANlSM SYNl"HESIS 579
578 INrnODUcnON TO SYNTHESIS
)
11.10." A weather radar antenna has been designed to fit within the wing cavity of a
) single-engine aircraft. The antenna must scan from side to side, with the radar waves
") passing through a radar-transparent material that also serves as the leading edge of the
wing. Unfortunately, the roctal wing ribs required for structural 1upport 1everely limit the
antenna's field of view, as shown by the scan aogle in Fig. 11.36. Presently, the maximum
l
)

'
)
\ \ \

\_ Sca~•.nal•--,1 ;'
I ;1'

}
\ R><!u w..,., transparent
m~teri 1I
'
> "\
11 \ I 11

~ 1:I I '\~
<.; -
/ ::
.:::::,'! 11
) II 11
11 11
Wina ribs

) 11 ---.,11I
-----------
Ii--
II 11 ftGURE U.37
II
II
) II
) "FIGURE 11.36 y
)
) scan is approximately 60°. A new design bas been proposed that would improve the field
50

of view by translating the antenna to the right as it scans to the left, and vice versa.
)
Synthesize a mechanism to guide the antenna through the three positions shoWn in Fig.
) 11.37 using (a) graphical methods; (b) analytical methods. Using the complex number 40
notation of section 11.8 and of Fig. 11.27, the position of the antenna is given by
) ...---0 81(29 0 , 35.5)

r,~· 5t'C""\ o-~~~----;~~---

) =

a 1 = -45°, a 1 = O", and a 1 = 45•

30 (3.~~32.91 U7.:.~3.l)
) B2<42.2,24 .9l
) The wing ribs are located at x = 8 and x = - 8, the leading edge of the wing is at y = 6,

~
20
and the trailing edge of the wing is at y = -14. Use the following moving pivot points, (21.5. 21.8)
) 83(46.4 , l 5 . 7)
expressed in the uv-coordinate system:
)
Point A : p~ = J .06 e'C'D'I 10
> Point B: p~ = 2.05 e'l 11 l"l
)
L-~~--'10'--~~-2~0~~~~30~~~---:
4~0 ~~~~50
~-%
) '~is problem wu adapted from the paper by A. Myklebust, C. F. Reinholtz, W. H. Franca, ud
M. J. Keil, ··oesign of a Radar Guidance Mechanism Using MECSYN-ANIMEC," ASMB paper FIGURE 11.38
) No. 84-DET·139, 1984.

)
)
 ,

580 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTIJESJS PRAcnCAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MECHANISM SYl'ITIIBSJS 581

,
••

'1 problem 11.12 while also having equal 15" input link rotations between positions I and 2 ••
and between positioos 2 and 3.
~-14. Synthesize a f~~r-bar linkage to generate the tbree rigid-body positions shown in
•
~
Fig. 11.39. AJ an addihonal requirement, try to find a solution linkage whose fixed pivots
ue within the shaded region .
ll.15. Find the two cognale linkages to the linkage shown in Fig. 11 .40. •
11.16. Show that the linkage synthesized in Example 11.2 (page 565) is subject to branch
defect. •
'
I

•t
•,
,
FIGURE 11.39 •
•t
U .U. Synthesize a four-bar linkage to move the rod AB in Fig. 11.38 through the positions
1, 2, and 3. Use endpoints A and B as moving pivot points.
,,
11.U. Syothesize a four-bar linkage to approximately generate the path y = .x"', where
.x varies from Oto 1. The precision positions should be at .x = 0.07, .x ~ 0.50, and .x =
0.93.
U.13. Syntbesize a four-bar linkage to generate the same precision points specified in
-
,
~
~"'

p
>
t
~

>
t
)

•~
•
FlGURE U .40
•>
-~· ·-
~ .~-. )

•
J

) MOBILITY 583
) displayed by a siogle-view drawing. Although it is possible to graphically design
) Chapter Twelve and analyze some spatial mechanisms using a set of projected views, this process
is tedious and the result\ are often inaccurate. For this reason, most of the mntcrinl
~ in this chupter is based on annlytical vector and n111trix formulntions rnthC'r thnn
graphical layouts.
)
Spatial Mechanisms
)
)
and Robotics 12.2 MOBILITY
In developing Grubler's equation of mobility in Chapter 2, each link of a mech-
) anism was assumed to be constrained to planar motion and thus to have three
degrees of freedom (two translations and one rotation). In space, e11ch link will
} have six degrees of freedom (three translations and three rotations) . Therefore,
connecting two spatial links with a joint having one degree of freedom, such a s
)
a revolute joint, has the effect of removing five degrees of freedom. Similarly ,
,_ connecting two links with a two-degree-of-freedom joint has the effect of re -
moving four degrees of freedom, and so forth . One link of a spatial mechanism
) will have all six degrees of freedom removed because it is fucd to ground. The
total mobility of a system of n interconnected spatial links is therefore given by
)
the following equation, often known as the Kutzbach equation:
)
ll.1 INTRODUCilON M = 6(n - 1) - 5/1 - 4/2 - 3/3 - 2/. - /, (12. 1)
}
Until recently, there has been little interest in the design and analysis of spatial ~here
) mechanisms and robotic manipulators. Operations too difficult to auto111ate with M ~ mobility, or number of degrees of freedom
plaoar mechanisms were relegated to humaos, often without regard to the boring n = total number of links, including the ground
) or dangerous nature of the work. With the extraordinary advances in computers
/ 1 number of one-degree-of-freedom joints
) and electronics, many of the obstacles that once hindered the design and use of
spatial devices have been removed. There is a growing awareness that more / 2 number of two-degree-of-freedom joints
) complex manufacturing operations can and must be automated if increased pro- / 3 number of three-degree-of-freedom joints
ductivity and improved product quality are to be realized. Machine dcsignc~ arc = number of four-degree-of-freedom joints
) / 4
recognizing that spatial mechanisms and robots arc no longer novel devices of
) strictly theoretical interest; they are now viable alternatives which must be eval-
fs = number of five-degree·of-freedom joi nts
uated in the design process. In planar mechanisms, only four types of joints, or pairs, arc commonly
) The material in this chapter is an introduction to the subjects of spatial used: (1) the rcvolute joint, (2) the prismatic joint, (3) the rolling contact joint ,
) mechanisms and robotics. The intent is to describe some of the devices that are and (4) the cam, or gear, joint. In the case of revolute, prismatic, and rolling
available and the tasks these devices arc able to perform, and to provide the contact joints, each has one degree of freedom, while the cam , or gear, joint has
) basic tools needed for design and analysis. With this knowledge, the designer two degrees of freedom . Many other joint types nrc possible in spatiul medrn -
should be able to decide if a spatial mechanism or a robotic manipulator is nisms. The most common of these include the screw, or helical, joint (one degree
} appropriate for the particular task at hand. It should be cautioned, however, that of freedom) , the cylindric joint (two degrees of freedom), the spheric, o r ball-
the need to use spatial devices will be the exception rather than the rule. As with and-socket , joint (three degrees of freedom), and the spatial cam joi nt (five
> nny other component of a machine, the use of these devices must be justified in degrees of heedom). These joints nnd the relative motion they permit urc illus·
) terms of cost and performance. trated in Fig. 12.1.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the links of a planar mechanism are constrained The Kutzbach equation should be thought of as an aid in prediciing the
) to move in a single plane or in parallel planes. As a result, their motion can mobility of a device rather than a rule defining the mobility. Many useful mech-
) always be displayed graphically in the plane of the paper. Spatial mechanisms anisms arc known for which this equation will not work. As an example , the
move in three-dimensional space. Consequently, their motion cannot be fully Kutzbach equation will be applied to the planar four-bar linkage shown in Fig.
)
582
>
)
 ,
•
S84 SPATIAL MEOiANISMS AND ROBOTICS

Schematic
B
MOBILITY 585 •
-
)
De pea
Joint Pby5ical repre5eotaCioo of ~
type ronn Plane Spice freedom
>
Rc:volutc
(R) %$ ((i-1 •
•
2
I
•
Cylindric
(q ~ •t
Prismatic
(P)
1
•J
3
•
)
Spheric
(S) a
1 FIGURE 11.2
(l>)

•
Screw,
or []] •
helical
(H) 12.2b, where the revolute joint at point B has been eliminated from the four-bar
linkage: •
5 •
Spatial
(sliding along the
c;ommon tangent plane
M = 6(4 - l) - (5)3 = 3
•
cam and rotation about This result is correct. The three degrees of freedom could, for example, be the •
the contact point) three angles 8i. 82, and 61. Now, observe that links 2 and 3 are constrained to
move only in the plane of the paper. Connecting them with a planar revolute •
FlGURE 11.1
joint removes only two additional degrees of freedom (two relative translations
in the plane). The joint at B also restricts the three motions out of the plane,
•
)
but this is a redundant constraint and should not be considered in calculating the
12.2a as if it were a spatial device. There arc four links and four revolute joints,
tqtal mobility of the device. ~
anti ~o the mobility is predicted to be

M ~ 6(4 - J) - 5(4) - - 2
This result is obviously incorrect. The problem is that the revolute jo~nls ~ have
the same orientation. As a result, they are not all able to rcm~ve vc ~gr~
of freedom . To sec this, apply the Kutzbach equation to the device shown m Fig.
The preceding example gives insight into one situation where the Kutzbach
equation may fail to correctly predict mobility, namely, when two or more joint
ues within a mechanism are paraJlel. Other special cases arc known lo occur
when joint axes intersect or arc perpendicular. Unfortunately, there is no set of
,•
rules which can be used to predict all the special situations !hat a rise. By defi- )
nition, a spherical mechanism results when all the joint axes intersect at a point.
Hooke's coupling (the universal joint) is one example of a spherical mechanism. •
)
)
)
J
)
) 586 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS DESC RIBING SPATIAL MOTIONS 587
)
) - c

)
)
)
) RSSR
}
RCCC
t
:0- M

)
RSSR Mechanism.
) FIGURE U .3

'
)_ All links in a spherical mechanism arc constrained to move on the surface of a
sphere (or on concentric spheres). Since this is a two-dimensional surface, Grub·
)
lcr's equation may be applied directly to spherical mechanisms.
) Another device that apparently violates the Kutzbach equation is the re·
volute-spheric-spheric-revolutc (RSSR) mechanism shown in Fig. 12.3. Appli-
)- cation of Eq. 12.l gives RSSR-SC

) FlGURE U.5

) M = 6(4 - 1) - 5(2) - 3(2) = 2

) Example 12.1. Determine the mobility of the RSSC linkage shown in Fig. 12.4. Ap·
This result is correct but misleading. One degree of freedom is the idle rotation plying the Kutzbach equation (Eq. 12.1) gives
) of the coupler SS link about its own axis. Specifying the position of one RS link
wiU determine the position of the other RS link. Io other words, this device bas
M = 6(4 - 1) - 5(1) - 4(1) - 3(2) =3
}
one degree of freedom as a function generator. The RSSR mechanism is perhaps Although the SS link again coot~ins an idle degree of freedom, two degrees of freedom
) the most commonly used spatial mechanism. remain between the input and output links. In its general form, this will not be a usefu l
) mechanism.

) Figure 12.5 shows several of the better-known and mo re commonly studied

spatial linkages.
)
) 12.3 DESCRIBING SPATIAL MOTIONS
) One of the most difficult problems encountered in extending planar kinematics
to three dimensions is describing the angular displacements of rigid bodies. Rigid-
> body displacements, both planar and spatial, can always be expressed as the sum
of two basic components: the angular displacement of the body plus the linear
>. displacement of a reference point within the body. Describing the linear dis-
>. I· placement of a point within a body is an easy matter. In the plane, it will be

,
expressed as a two-component vector; and in space, it will be expressed as a
) RSSC Unb1e. three-component vector. Planar angular displacements of a body art also rela-
FIGURE U .4 tively easy to accomplish using matrix or complex-number operators. Spa tial

>
)
 ,

588 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS

•t
DESCRIBING SPATIAL MOTIONS 589
angular displacements, however, present a much greater challenge. In the dis-
cussion that follows , the concept of a planar rotation matrix operator is first
This same result can be expressed io matrix form as follows: •
developed. This concept is then used to develop a general spatial rotation matrix
[vv~] a]["u] •
operator.
Consider, for example, the two positions of the planar body shown in Fig. ., '"'
[cos a
sin a -sin
cos a v 11 (U.7)
•
12.6. The vectors p1 and""• locating the body in the first position are given. Also
given arc the linear di splacement d 12 of point p and the rotation a of the body
or, in shorthand form, •
about 1he z·axis. The problem is to find the vector Cb locating the displaced •
positio n of point q . The following vector relationships are easily deduced:

q, = P1 + v, (12.2) wher~ R is the plane rotation matri.1 transfonning the vector from the first ori-
•
I
entabon to the second. This sa me transformation {rotation about the z-axis by
(U.3) an amount a) can also be expressed in three-dimensional form as follo ws:
•t
(
c~s a
~](~~]
(U.4) -sin a
Stn a cos a ~
(U.8)
Unfortunately, the vector v1 is not known directly. It can, however, be expressed 0 0 1 v,, t
in tenns of v1 and a by using complex numbers as foUows:
~
or, in shorthand form,

,
(U.S)
)
where the operator e'• rotates v 1 by an amount a in a right·hand (ccw) sense. l'z = [R.,,]v1
Expanding this result into real and imaginary parts by using the identity e'• =
cos a + i sin a gives Equa~ion 12.8 actually forms one component of a three-dimensional rigid- >
body rotation .. The 0th.e r two components are rotations about the y-axis and )
v1 = (u1.o + i v 11 )(cos a + i sin a) about ~e. x-axis . . Rotatrng the vector ""i about the y-axis by an amount f3 to a
new position Yi gives
(v1.o cos a - u11 sin a ) + i(vi. sin a + v 11 cos a) (U.6)

ui.] [ cos 13 0
'
~
iy
[v;, - sin0 13
uj.
--~ 1
0
(12.9) t

•
or
•
vj = [R,.,]v1 •
R~tating the vector V1 about the x-axis by an amount 'Y to a new position vi gives •
I
0
cos "I - s~n "/][~~] (U.10) •
sin "I COS "I V1r
•
~
or

"1GURE U .6
•
)

-:f!- ----- •
)
J
\ ..
) 590 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS DE.SCRIBING SPATIAL MOTIONS 591
) AU spatial rotations may be defined in terms of the three basic planar transfor- 90° rotation about the .r-axis). Figure 12.7b also shows a sequence of 90° (ccw)
mations of Eqs. 12.8, 12.9, and U .10. However, great care must be taken in. rotations, but this time in the order -y, 13, a (i.e ., 90° rotation about the x-axis
) defining the order io which these transformations are to occur, since rotations followed by 90" rotation about the y-axis followed by 90° rotation about the
) of a body in space are not commutative. To show this, consider a rectangular z-axis). Clearly, these two sets of rotations are not equivalent. Spatial rotations
body initially lying in the yz-plane, as depicted in Figs. 12.7a and 1;2.7b. Figure can be defined using any order of the three basic rotations. Once a particular
r 12.7a shows a sequence of 90° (ccw) rotations in the order a, 13, 'Y (i.e., 90" .
rotation about the z-axis followed by 90" rotation about the y-axis followed by
order is selected, however, it must be adhered to. In this text, rotations will be
taken in the following order: (1) a about the z-ax.is, (2) 13 about the y-axis, and
) (3) 'Y about the x-axis. A general spatial rotation of the vector v 1 to some new
) position • 2 can now be expressed in terms of the three basic rotation matrices as
y
follows :
\
(12.11)
)
) Note the order in which the rotations must be performed. Vector v1 is first
rotated by an amount a about the z-axis followed by a rotation 13 about the
)
,_ ..
I
/
/
/
-- y-axis followed by a rotation -y about the.r-axis. Combining the three basic rotation
matrices into a single spatial rotation matrix by performing the successive matrix
multiplications leads to
} I
I
I
) CaCj3 -SaC~
•2 = SaC-y + CaS~-y
[ SaSy - CaS~Cy
CaC-y + SaS~S-y (12.12)
) CaS-y + SaS~C-y
)
) where S and C represent sine and cosine, respectively. This result may also be
(a) written in condensed form as
)
y (12.13)
)
} In the preceding equations (Eqs. 12.12 and 12.13), the three scalar param-
eters a, fl, and 'Y completely determine the angular displacement from position
) 1 to position 2. Nevertheless, it is usually more convenient to work with the
3 x 3 nine-component rotation matrix when describing spatial angular displace-
) 4
'\ \., ments. Although the rotation matrix describing a given angular displacement is
) \ unique, several other choices are possible for the three independent scalar pa·
\
rameters used to determine the rotation matrix. The preceding discussion was
) based on a sequ.ence of rotations about a right-hand set of Cartesian axes. A
} 3 more useful but less obvious method is to define a single rotation about an axis
in space.
~ I It often happens that one of the links of a mechanism or manipulator rotates
/ about a known axis which is not parallel to any of the Cartesian coordinate axes.
I _.,,,.,. . /
/
It would be advantageous to be able to describe link rotations directly ia terms
) -----
(bl
~ of an a.xis direction and the angle of rotation about this axis. It can be shown
that a body undergoing a finite angular displacement has within it a line which
) FlGURE U.7 remains stationary during the rotation. In other words, given the finite angular
)
)
)
"
 ,'
)
592 SPAllA~ MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS DESCRJBING SPATIAL MOTIONS 593
displacement of a body, it will always be possible to find an axis which, at ieast •
,
1
momentarily, can be considered a fixed axis of rotation. The orientation of the ~
rotation axis will be expressed by the unit vector u having components u., u,,;
and u,. By definition, the magnitude of a unit vector must equal 1:

u! + u: + u! = 1

This shows that only two scalar components of the vector u are independent.
'•
)
The rotation a of the body about this axis is the third scalar quantity defining
the angular displacement. To express the total angular displacement in terms of t
the basic rotation matrices, it is necessary to align one of the Cartesian coordinate
axes along the vector u. A method for accomplishing this is shown in Fig. 12.8.
Begin by rotating the vector u by an amount - Jl about the y-axis. Titis is followed •
)
by a rotation "f about the x-axis. The z-axis will then be aligned with the rotated
vector u . Now, perform the desired rotation a about the z-ax.is. Following this,
the vector u is returned to its original position by rotating it - "f about the x-axis •t
and fl about the y-axis. This series of transformations can be written in matrix
form as follows :

(12.14)
F1GURE U .8 •
)
The rotation matrix [R,,.J is called the axis rotation malrix. It is used extensively
Carrying out the matrix multiplication and making the following substitutions in the analysis and syothesis of spatial mechanisms. It should be pointed out that •
sin -y = u,

cos -y sin 13 = u,
several other possibilities exist for selecting the three scalar quantities describing
spatial angular displacements. Nevertheless, it must be emphasized that the ro-
tation matrix describing a given angular displacement is uoique, even though a
,
>
variety of methods exist for selecting the three independent angular-motion pa- ~
cos "f cos 13 = u, rameters.

Example 12.2. figure 12.9 shows a three-link spatial chain with two revolute joints. •
leads to

u~va +ca u,u,ve - u,sa u,u,ve u,Se]

+
Liok 1 is the ground, and links 2 and 3 arc moving links. The following vectors are defined
in tlie initial position: •>
Vz = u,u, va + u,Sa u:ve +ca u_,u, Va - U,Sa V1 (ll.15) Ua = unit vector along the revolute joint axis at A t
[ u,u, VO - u,Sa u,u, va +
u,Se u!Ve +Ca
~ 01 +OJ+ 1k \
uJ ~ uoit vector along the revolute joint axis at B
where )
"'01 - iJ + Ok
VO = 1 - cos 8
co = cos 8
Ya - vector along link 2 rrom A to B
.. IOI + OJ + Ok
'•
se = sine VJ = vector along link 3 from B to C >
This may be written in the condensed fonn
•OJ+ OJ - lOk t
q - vector from the origin to point C
•J • lOi + OJ - •
- "• + !Ok
•
 J
)
\ 594 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL MECHANISMS 595
) y
and
)
0
) 1
0
\ c·
) Substituting e• a • 90" and "· • 0 , u, • 0, u, • 1 into Eq. 12. IS gives

)
\
[R•• ,] = [! - 1
0
0
) Oispl•cod position

~
l
\, and

-1
0 OJ[lO
0 + OJ = [ 10OJ
0+0
) 0 1 0 + 10 10

)
or, written in unit vector form,
).
) q' = Oi + lOj + lOk
) Nole that, in this example, both rotations occurred about Cartesian coordinate axes, so
flGURE 12.9 either of the two types of rotation matrices defined above could have been used .
)
) U .4 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF
SPATIAL MECHANISMS
) For a rotation a = 90° about a, and p = 180" about o1 , find the displaced position of
point C. The wide variety of spatial mechanisms makes it difficult to develop a unified
) method of analysis that applies to all cases. Most spatial mechanisms currently
believed to be of practical importance can be directly analyzed by using vector
) Solution. By deno ting the displaced positions of the nbove vectors with a prime (i.e., loop closure equations or constraint equations in conjunction with the axis ro-
":, Tj, q '), the new position of point C is given by
) tation matrix.
q" = (R•.•,)(T 1 + T;)
As an example, consider the RSSR spatial linkage shown in Fig. 12.10. The
) mechanism is described in its initial position by link vectors ri. rl, r 3, and r4 and
by the joint axes unit vectors u 2 and u 4 • Additionally, unit vectors> is directed
) where
along link 3, so that
) Ti = (R,."J]v 1
(12 .16)
) Substituting O = p = 180° and u, = 0 , u, =- 1, u, = 0 into Eq. 12.15 gives
where r3 is the magnitude of vector r>- The loop closure equation in the initial
)

JJ
- 1 0 position is
> (R,.•,J =
[
~ 1
0 (12.17)
>
>
)
)
 ,
,
596 KINEMATIC SYNlliESlS OF SPATIAL MECHANISMS 597 ••
·~
SPATIAJ,. MEOIANISMS AND ROBOTICS
expressed in tenns of its components si,, .sj,, and sj,. It is most convenient to
treat these as three independent unknowns in the analysis and then to include
the following unit magnitude equation:
•
)
b (ll.23)

Equations 12.22 and 12.23 form a set of four scalar equations in the four unknowns
'
•
••
9,, s}., s),, and sj,. This set of equations may be easily solved using numerical
techniques such as the Newton- Raphson root-finding method discussed in Chap- •
_____
K( ,,_
ter 2. Since these equations arc somewhat complicated, it is probably best to
obtain numerical approximations to the partial derivatives needed in the Newton- •,.
Raphson scheme rather than calculating them analytically.
It is also possible to develop a closed-form solution to the above equations. >
To do this, it is first necessary to express the axis rotation matrix [R1.• ] as an
explicit function of cos e and sin e as follows : >
FIGURE U .10
[R,.• ] = - [P.][P.) cos e + [P.] sin 8 + [Q.J (ll. 24)
>
After a specified rotatio n 02 of the input link (link 2) about u2. the link ~ectors •
arc displaced to some new positions ri , rj , and ''· The loop closure cquallon for
where

-u,
J
•
~[
the di splaced positio n is )
(P.J :. 0 u,
-u,
(ll.18)
-u, u, 0 )
No te that link 1 is fixed to ground and does not displace. Link vectors ri and
r~ can now be expressed in tcnns of the known starting vectors and the rotation and '
•'
angles 01 and 94 by using the axis rotation matrix:
u,u,
(ll.19)
[ Q.] = [ uJ,,
u' ui1 ·~·]
u,u,
(U.20)
u..u, u,.u, u2
• •
r! = [R,.,Jr,
•
If the initial position of the mechani~m and the input link rotation 61 are giv~n, Using this form of the rotation matrix in place of (R,,.•.] in Eq. 12.22 results in t
the vector ri can be calculated from Eq. 12.19. The positi~n of the output l!nk a set of four nonlinear equations. These can be solved by substituting sin a. = t
vector r' is only a function of the rotation angle 94 • The d1splaccd coupler link (1 - cos2 8,)tn or by using tbc tangent-half-angle substitution described in Ap-
vector ri can be expressed in terms of t~e known vector magriitude r3 and the pendix I.
•
•,
unknown orientation of the displaced unit vector sj as follows:
(ll.21)
12.5 KINEMATIC SYNfHESIS OF
SPATIAL MECHANISMS
Substi1111ing the resulls of Eqs. 12.19, 12 .20, and 12.21 into Eq. 12.18 gives
Although there are many mo re possible spatial mechanisms than planar mcch·
>
(ll.22) ani&ms, the basic tasks of kinematic synthesis (i.e., function generation, path t
This is a single vecto r equation (or, equivalently, three scalar equations) in the
unknowns e. (a scalar quantity) ands) (a unit vector). The unit vector sj may be
generati~n . and body guidance) remain the same. In addition, the dyad-based
approach to synthesis described for planar mechanisms in Chapter 11 can be
extended to include most spatial mechanisms of practical importance. In this
•
)

·-- - --- - - :~:- :·

~:-·
.. -- •
)

•
}

)"
\ 598 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS OF SPATIAL MEGIANISMS 599
,.i! y 7
) section, body guidance synthesis equations will be developed for the SS and RS ' 'I
spatial dyads. As with planar mechanisms, the function generation problem can
) be solved as an inversion of the body guidance problem. The path generation
problem can be solved as a body guidance problem by arbitrarily assuming body
) orientations associated with the tracer point.
Dyadic synthesis equations for planar linkages were derived in section 11 .7
\ by recognizing that the distance between the fixed and moving revolute joints
) must be constant. Synthesis equations for the SS spatial dyad arc derived in
exactly the same way, that is, by expressing the requirement that the SS link be
) of constant length. The SS dyad is shown in its 1st and jth position in Fig. 12.11.
\ The constant-length equation is most easily written in the following vector dot
product form :
).
j = 2, 3, ... , n (ll.25)
}.
) The positions o1 and orientations [R1) , j = 1, 2, ... , n, of the body arc given
quantities, and the synthesis problem is to find the vectors ao and • 1 defining the
) dyad in its starting position. The moving spheric joint undergoes the same ro-
tations and translations as the moving body. Its position is therefore given by z
) FIGURE 12.12
(ll.26)

) Substituting this expression for a1 into Eq . 12.25 results in a set of n - 1 equations in the six unknown components of 11o and a 1• Therefore, a maximum of seven
positions can be satisfied using the SS dyad.
) The RS dyad shown in Fig. 12.12 must also satisfy the constant link lengt h
y
) 1 condition ofEq. 12.25. In addition, it must satisfy tbe requirement that the spheric
joint lie in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the revolute joint in all positions
) of the mechanism. This requirement can be expressed by the following equation:
)
) Uo • ( a1 - Bo) = 0 j = l , 2, . .. , n (U.27)

) The expression for a1 from Eq. 12.26 is substituted into Eqs. 12.25 and 12.27.
) This leads to a set of 2n - 1 design equations io the eight unknown components
of ·ao. & i. and 11o (Uo is a unit vector containing only two independent scalar
> unknowns). The maximum number of positions that can be satisfied using the
RS dyad is four. This will result in a system of seven equations in eight un knowns ,
~ with one unknown to be selected arbitrarily.

•
)
All other spatial dyads may be synthesized by mathematically expressing
the physical constraints imposed by the links. For a complete description of these
other dy11ds, the reader is referred to the text by Suh and Radcliffe .•
)
z
) 'C. H. Suh and C . W. Radcliffe, KWriuuia and Mtdlanisnu Dtsign, W"tley, New York, 1978.
FIGURE U.11
)
)
)
)
 I

<!_)!) SPATIAL MECHANJSMS AND ROBOTICS ,•

U.6 INIRODUCTION TO ROBOTIC
l'dANIPULATORS
The word robot is taken from the Czechoslovakian word meaning serf, or worker.
In English, the word has come to mean a machine which can be programmed to
r
..... ,
)

}
perform a variety of task's. Some robots are able to make decisions during op·
cration; these ;uc commonly called intelligent robots. A clear distinction should

•'
be made between devices such as cams and linkages, which are designed to
perform a single, repetitive task, aod robots, which can be programmed to per~
form many different tasks. Because of this basic difference, operations that use
robots are sometimes referred to as fltxib/e automation, and operations that use •
devices such as cains and linkages are referred to as fUtd automation . A manip-
ulator acts as an arm and often, although not always, resembles a human arm .
Industrial robotic manipulators are often classified by the number and types·
,
t

of joints they contain and by the total resulting number of degrees of freedom
they possess. Most industrial manipulators contain only revolute (turning) and . '
1111111mmmt1nciac -11111 •
prismatic (sliding) joints.
Perhaps the simplest robot geometry is found in the Cartesian or xyz-
cr.111ni;iacua~a
naa~n~au~Hu
aam:Jnnaueu ._ . -
mm •J
manipulator, such as the one shown in Fig. 12.13. Here, the first two joints are
prismatic joints which locate the hand in the xy-reference frame . The third joint nGURE U.14 (Courtesy or Seiko lmtnimeats, lnc.)
•
is also a prismatic joint which moves the hand in the z-direction (i.e., normal to
the xy-plane). The fourth joint is a revolute joint whose axis is parallel to the
z-axis. This robot is quite useful for flat-surface assembly operations, such as
placing chips on a circuit board.
...
,•
Another rommon manipulator geometry is based on cylindrical coordinates.
The variables of this coordinate system are h (height), 9 (rotation), and r (reach). •I U~~!t· ,I >
A typical industrial robot using this geometry is shown in Fig. 12.14. The fourth t

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
,•
>
t
HG URE 12.13 (Courtesy or Seiko lrutrumenla, Inc.)
flGURE U .15 (Co11rte17 or Cybotech Corponlion.) •
)

,
)
 I
)
\ 602 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS KINEMATICS OF ROBOTIC MANIPULATORS 603
)
7

)
)
r
)
Yp

'
\
~
)
) 0 •p

) flGURE ll.17

)
FIGURE 12.16 (Courtesy or Cincinnati Milacron.)
) with mobility equal to 1. Obviously, the types of tasks th is "robot" can perform
are quite limited. In the most general planar manipulator, the operator should
) joint of this manipulator is once again a revolutejoint which allows rotation about be able to freely specify both the position x,,y, and the orientation 9 1 of the end
a vertical (z) axis. effector. In the single-link planar manipulator of Fig. 12.17, only one of these
) Other industrial robotic manipulators are shown in Fig. 12.15 and Fig. 12.16. parameters may be selected independently.
} The geometries of these devices are more complex, and as a result, ·they are able Now, consider the two-link planar manipulator of Fig. 12.18. This device
to perform tasks requiring more general types of motion. has two independent input parameters, 6 1 and 62, and therefore has two degrees
)
) ll.7 KINEMATICS OF ROBOTIC 7
MANIPULATORS
)
While the broad field of robotics draws upon many disciplines, perhaps none is
> of more fundamental importance than kinematics. In the design of robotic ma-
nipulators, it is up to the kinematician to determine the number and types of
)
joints and the link dimensions required to produce a given motion. The engineer
} involved in the selection and implementation of robotic manipulators must have 7p - - - - - - - - -- - - -
a clear unders1a11diog of the motions a given manipulator is able to produce.
~ Some robotic manipulators are designed to perform only simple planar tasks, 2
while others may perform complex spatial tasks. The first key to understanding
) the motion a given manipulator can produce is an appreciation of the concept of
) mobility.
Consider a single link rotating about a fixed pivot, as shown in Fig. 12.17.
I Rigidly attached to the end of this link is a so-called end effector, or hand, which
) may be a tool or a gripping device. The location of the end effector is given by
the coordinates Xp,y, of its center point P. Specifying the angle 91 completely
) determines the location of every point in this link, including point P. This simple
device has one degree of freedom and may be considered a robotic manipulator flGURE ll.18
)
)
}
 '
•
604 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS 605 •
•
KINEMATICS OF ROBOTIC MANIPULATORS
of &eedom. In this case, the operator has independent control over two of the In most cases, only single-degree-of-freedom (/1) joints are used in robots. It is
three end effector parameters Xp,yp , 0 2•
Clearly, the three-link planar manipulator of Fig. 12.19 is the simplest device
possi?le to use joints with a greater number of degrees of freedom, but these
are difficult to actuate. Thus, by considering only one-degree-of-freedom joints •-
)
capable of producing general planar motion. By proper selection of the three the mobility equation becomes '
parameters 91, 92, and el; the end effector can theoretically be made to assume
any planar position and orientation. There are, however, several practical kine- M = 6 = 6(n - 1) - Sf1 (ll.29) •
matic consi.;,,:, .,.;;.)ns which greatly complicate this issue.
•
The actual working area of a planar manipulator is limited by the length of
its links and the range of motion of its joints. For example, in the manipulator
shown in Fig. 12.19, points cannot be reached which are a greater distance than
or
•
t
the sum of the link lengths away from the fixed pivot. It must also be recognized
that the relative joint angles eh 02, and el are typically controlled by electric,
hydraulic, or pneumatic actuators acting between successive links. Often, these •>
devices canno t produce a full 360° of rotation. This further limits the actual work Several inter~ting solutions to Eq. 12.29 exist. The first of these is the case where
area of the manipulator. This suggests that in some instances more than three
joints (i.e., more than three degrees of freedom) may be desirable in a planar
n = 2 _(two ~mks) and / 1 = 0 (zero joints). One link will be the ground, and the
other hnk w~I float freely without attachment to ground. This may at first seem •
manipulator. These additional degrees of freedom are sometimes referred to as
the dexterity of the manipulator. Dexterity may also allow the manipulator to
maneuver around obstacles within the work area.
~bsurd; bu~, m fact, a spacecraft or helicopter is exactly this type of a robot. It
as not po~tble to consti:i~ a robot with M = 6 and n = 3, 4, 5, or 6 because
the ~esultmg nu~ber of J~mts will not be~ integer. The simplest robot having
,•
The preceding discussion was directed toward planar manipulators contain-
ing only revolute joints. Many of these same concepts also apply to spatial ma-
l.f - 6 ~nd all lin~s physically connected will contain seven links (one fixed and
six movmg) and suc one-degree-of-freedom joints. •
nipulators and to manipulators containing other joint types. To move with general It.~ not possible to use only prismatic joints in constructing a general planar
•
spatial motion, a manipulator must possess a minimum of six degrees of freedoni.
Possible robot configurations can be determined using the Kutzbach mobility
equation (Eq .. 12.1) with M = 6:
or spatial_ r?b~t. In the planar robot shown in Fig. 12.20, note that at least one
~evolute JOlDt IS necessary to provide the rotational degree of freedom. A min-
unum of three revolule joints are necessary in the general spatial robot. Also
,•
M = 6 = 6(n - 1) - 5f1 - 4fl - 3/l - 2/. - f s (ll.28)
•
•t'
1p
,
~

~i
.
.' I
~~
,.
·'
•>
~J!·
"
,, )
!
:i . t
"
•
·1 0 ~
..,. .. )
FIGURE U.19 "
•
FIGURE U .20
•
,
•I
;i )
- ~- ......,...... -- ·- -
I
) _
l 606 SPATIAL MECRANISMS AND ROBOTICS KINEMATICS OF ROBOTIC MANIPULATORS 607
) y
note in Fig. 12.20 that if the axis of the two sliding joints were made parallel,
) the man"ipulator would possess only two degrees of freedom _ This can be seen
by observing that in such a case point 0 would move along a straight line rather
) than in two-dimensionaJ space_ Jn the manipulator of Fig. 12.20, the axes of the
Yp ---------
two prismatic joints can only become parallel if they are so assembled_ Figure
\· 12. 21, however, shows a manipulatorthat operates with three degrees of freedom
) except when 62 = 0° or 18Q°. At these angles, one degtee of freedom is lost due
to the instantaneous geometry, and the manipulator is said to be in a singular
) position. It would be impossible to independently specify both the angular velocity
of the end effector and they-direction velocity of point P. This problem is easy
)
to avoid when working with simple planar manipulators. Manipulators capable
) of general spatial motion, however, must possess a minimum of six degtees of
freedom, and the control of instantaneous losses of mobility becomes much more
~ complex.
To control the motion of a robotic manipulator, the designer must be able
)
' to determine the position, velocity, and acceleration of the end effector given .,.
) the position, velocity, and acceleration of each joint actuator. This is sometimes
referred to as the forward kinematics problem _ Many industrial robotic manip- FIGURE 12.22
) ulators are configured in a single, open-loop chain. In this case, the position of
the end effector is found by adding the link vectors from ground to the end
) where
effector. For example, the location of point Pin the planar manipulator of Fig.
) 12.22 is given by "12 = 62 - (ir - e,)
) (U.30) "'' = e, - (ir - "61)
}
. and where /h 12 , and I, arc the link lengths. The orientation of tbe end effector
) y
is simply lj/3 , which is the angle that link 3 forms with the horizontal. The velocity
and acceleration equations are found by differentiating Eq. 12.30 with respect
) to time, as follows :
)
)
) (U.31)
) .." Obviously, when sliding joints are present, the variable link lengths will also
} t' become functions of time. The forward kinematics problem for spatial manipu-
'I
•.t. lators is also accomplished by serial addition of the vectors from ground out to
) the end effector. lo fact, this procedure has already been demonstra ted in Ex-
ample 12.2 using a three-link spatial chain.
I In the forward kinematics problem just discussed, tbe joint variables are
) known, and the motion of the end effector is to be determined. A second and
much more difficult problem is to find the values of the joint variables and their
> derivatives given the required motion (position, velocity, acceleration) of the end
I FIGURE 12.21 effector. This is often called the backward, or inverst, kinematics problem. Con-

I
)
)
 ,
I

608 SPATIAL MBCHANISMS AND ROBOTICS

•
)

,•
KlNEMATICS OF ROBOTIC MANIPULATORS
sider, for ~xample, the planar three-link manipulator of Fig. 12.22. The position 609
and orientation of the end effector arc given by lei• and lji3 , respectively. With R
3
R
these values specified, the inverse kinematics problem is to find the unknown A B

,'
joint variables 91 and lji 2 which will produce this position. This is not a trivial 5
problem, even for the simple case presented here. In fact, careful study shows
this to be exactly the same problem as the kinematic analysis of a planar four- c R
4
bar linkage. Since the position of point P is known , for the p urpose of analysis
this may be considered to be a second ground pivot. Specifying the angle lji1 is
tantamount to specifying the input angle of the four-bar linkage. The solution
procedure for the four-bar linkage is presented using the law of cosines io Chapter
•t
2 , section 2.1. An alternate solution based on complex number methods is pre- ncURE u .25
sented in Appendix 1. •
U.7. A very useful property of .ro_aatioo matrices (both planar and spatiaJ) is that the
•
Problems
12.1. Calculate the mobility of the devices shown in Fig. 12.5 using the Kutzbach mobility
arc o~ogona_l, meaning_the matrix mverse is equal to the matrix transpose. For the Ian a~
rotation matrix defined m Eq. 12.7, show that (R]- • .,, (RJr. p •
~.a.} Figure 12.~ show~ the initial position (solid lines) and the final position (dashed •
,•
equatioo.
U.2. Calculate the mobility of the device shown in Fig. 12.23 . What would be the mobility es of a tbree-lin.k spatial chain. The following data are given for the initial position:
if link 4 were fixed to ground? I J k
U .3. Calculate the mobility of the device shown in Fig. 12.24. •• = 1 0 0
•2 = 0 0 1
•
p
p .. 0 5 5
q =0 7 5 ,,
)

•
•>
/
/~
I
,
nGURE 12.23 FIGURE U .24
/
/
/

q'
I
I
I
I2
I
,•
U .4. Calculate the mobility of the device shown in Fig. 12.2S where the subdevice ABCD
is a planar foilr-bar linkage. /u1 - •2 .
I
I •
U .S. Jn practice, it is impossible to ensure that all the revolute joint axes in a pl~ar
four-bar linkage are perfectly puallel. As a result, "planar" four bars are actually spatial
I
•
devices, and the Kutzbach mobility equation wiU predict them to be structures. ls the
mobility equation incorrect in this case, or are there other factors that must be considered
when dealing with "pl1nar" devices?
',t
U.6. Explain what will happen to the RCCC mechanism shown in Fig. 12 .5 if aU the
joint axes become parallel. •
FIGURE ll.26
•
)

- - ~-
J
:;.} ·
•
I
y
l 610 SPATIAL MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS KINEMATICS OF ROBOTIC MANIPULATORS 611
) Tue prismatic joint undergoes a displacement d = 5 uniu, and the revolute joint undergoes
) a displacement a .. - 90". Using the relationships '1

) p' ~ p + (d)u,
) q ' - (R. .•,J(q - p) + p '

) find q', the displaced position of point q.

) 12.!>. For the three-link chain analyzed in Example 12.2, show that the link5 return to '•
their original position when a = 360" and ll - 360".
) 12.10. For the four-li nk spatial chain shown in Fig. 12.27, find the displaced position of
point q given the joint displacements a = 90", ~ = 45°, and 'Y = 180". Jhe following
l vector quantities arc given in the initial position:
) k
). a,= 0 0
U1 = 0 0 1
) U1 = 1 0 0
). u=3 0 3
) p =8 5 3
FIGURE 12.28
q =8 7 3
) ll.11. For the RSSR mechanism shown in Fig. 12.28, calculate the output displacement
e, for an input displacement 6i - 10". The following values define the mechanism in its
) initial position:
) J k

) ... = 10 0 0
1'1 0
= 2 0
) I', =10 10 0
) ... = 0 12 0
U1 - 0 0 1
)
a,= 0 .700 0 0.707
)
l
)
)
)
)
)
)
) FIGURE 12.17

)
)
)
 ')

APPENDIX ONE 613 ,

~

Appendix One
· Multiplying Eq. Al.2 and Eq. Al.3 together gives

rl • rf + ri + rJ + r,r,(t:"• + e - ••)
•t
- r,r,(~ ~ .: '°') - r,r,(e'"i r••

e+ e
+ e - '"1 e8•) (Al .4)
•
Position Analysis
Or, upon expansion wing <:" "' cos I 1in
•
of the Four-Bar Linkage
ti "" rf + ri + d + 2r1r, cos e,
•
- 2r,r, cos e, - 2r,r, cos 9, cos e, - 2r,r, sin e. sin e, (Al.5)
•
Using Vectors in ·complex Given a value of e, and the four link lengths r,, rh r,. and r., it i1 possible to solve this
equation for the unknown value of e,. However, the solution is not straightforward because •
Polar Form this is a transcendental equation containing both sine, and cos 8,.1 One possible method
of solution is to make the substitution sin e, = (1 - cos' 9,)111• An easier method of
solution, however , involves the use of the following trigonometric identities:
,•
cos e, --~
(1 + ,1,
(Al.6)
,•
. e 21
>
510 • - (1 + 1')

A planar four -bar linkage is shown in Fig. Al.1. The requirement that the links of lhe
where •
>
mechanism must form a closed loop is expressed by the following vect~r equation:

(Al.1)
•
Substituting these identities into Eq. Al.S , multiplying through by (1 + t 2). and grouping •
Solving for r,e"> gives tenns gives

+ Bt + C
•
(Al.2)

Taking the ~mplex conjugale of each tenn o f Eq. Al.2 gives the following valid loop-
At1 = 0 (Al.7)
•
closure equation:
where ••
A = ti - rf - ri - ri + 2r,r, cos 9, •
(Al.3) + 2r,r,
= 4r,r, sin e,
- 2r,r, cos e,
•
B

r. + 2r,r, cos e,
•
c = ri - rf - ri -
•
•
)
)
1
Aa cxprasion is lnrucendental if it caanot be represented by an equivalent expression conl1inlag
1 finite number of tenns involving only the blSic operations or 1ddition, sublraction, multiplicacion, •
FlGURE Al.1
and divisioa. For example, coa 8 cannot be exactly repreaented u I finile aeries containing only the.e
four basic: opcntions.
•
)

--:;:-~-- -·· J
: :--:;.
~~--~---~-~----~-~ v--~--------~-~~

8 ;l
=I n ~ ,....
"'
C'I
,,.
~0 0~ ... .
J:J
c
c
0.. <
g
.
Q- .,,.,,>
s· e. I m
-n ..o
oq c:
n CZ!
I+
;:;·
n
'Z
0
..o·
0
...... J:J
c ><
n
:r ....
~
~~ 0
'Z
I
r:rO
... c
~ g, ).
.,. ...
::i m
(') n
:r :::- ~-
0
-3
s.-
n 2:
0
- .. '<
0
=: .. < n
0..
~_g
OQ
.. ..
c
!' g.
.....O'
:s t::
§'.
~ 0
~. ~
n ~
ii:
i0
0..
~:
;:;·
ll
<
!.!!.
c
ll
- -...>
0

:r>
0
c ~
n

_, ' ·~- --· .• ~ J ... _....:.o. i.:. :. ... 1. . .1....-•

~~-~.a~rwiW~r~a•W~4Wi
TABLE OF INVOLUTE FUNcnONS
Degrees 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

0 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000001
I 0.000002 0.000002 0.000003 0.000004 0.000005 0.000006 0.000007 0.000009 0.000010 0.00001.?
2 0.000014 0.000016 0.000019 0.000022 0.000025 0.000028 0.000031 0.000035 0.000039 0.000043
3 0.000048 0.000053 0.000058 0.000064 0.000070 0.000076 0.000083 0.000090 0.000097 0.000105
4 0.000114 0.000111 0.000132 0.000141 0.000151 0.000162 0.000173 0.000184 0.000197 0.000209
5 0.000221 0.000236 0.000250 0.000265 0.000280 0.000296 0.000312 0.000329 0.000347 0.000366
6 0.000384 0.000404 o .~24 0.000445 0.000467 0.000489 0.00051 2 0.000536 0.000560 0.000586
7 0.000612 0.000638 0.000666 0.000694 0.000723 0.000753 0.000783 0.000815 0.000847 0.000880
8 0.000914 0.000949 0.000985 0.001022 0.001059 0.001098 0.0011 37 0.0011 78 0.001219 0.001262
9 0.001305 0.001349 0.001394 0.001440 0.001488 0.001536 0.001586 0.001636 0.001688 0.001740
JO 0.001794 0.001849 0.001905 0.001962 0.002020 0.002079 0.002140 0.002202 0.002265 0.002329
II 0.002394 0.00246 1 o.002m 0.002598 0.002668 0.002739 0.002812 0.002894 0.002962 0.003039
12 0.00311 7 0.003197 0.003277 0.003360 0.003443 0.003529 0.00361 5 0.003712 0.003792 0.003883
13 0.003975 0.004069 0.004164 0.004261 0.004359 0.004459 0.004561 U.004664 0.004768 0.004874
14 0.004982 0.005091 0.005202 0.005315 0.005429 0.005545 0.005662 0.005782 0.005903 0.006025
IS 0.006150 0.006276 0.006404 0.006534 0.006665 0.006799 0.006934 0.007071 0.007209 0.007350
16 0.007493 0.007637 0.007784 0.007932 0.008082 0.008234 0.0083 ~8 0.008544 0.008702 0.008863
17 0.009025 0.009189 0.009355 0.009523 0.009694 0.009866 0.01004 1 0.010217 0.010396 0.010577
18 0.010760 0.010946 0.011133 0.011323 O.oJ 1515 0.011709 0.011906 0.012105 0.012306 O.OJ:?S09
19 0.01271 5 0.012923 0.013134 0.013346 0.013562 0.013779 0.013999 0.014222 0.014447
0.016836
0.014674
0.017089
! ~
20 0.014904 0.015137 0.015372 0.015609 0.015850 0.016092 0.016337 0.016585 I~
21 0.017345 0.017603 0.017865 0.01 8129 0.018395 0.018665 0.018937 0.01921 2 0.019490 0.019770 !~
22 0.020054 0.020340 0.020630 0.020921 0.021216 0.021514 0.02181 5 0.0221 19 0.022426 0.022736 ! ~
0.024660 0.025326 0.025664 0.016005 I ;'.l
23 0.023049 0.023365 0.023684 0.024006 0.024332 0.024992
24- 0.026350 0.02669 7 0.027048 0.027402 0.027760 0.028121 0.028485 0.028852 0.029213 0.029598 I ~
I ~·
25 0.029975 0.030357 0.030741 0.031130 0.031521 0.031917 0.032315 0.032718 0.0331 24 0.033534
26 0.033947 0 .0343~ 0.034785 0.035209 0.035637 0.036069 0.036505 0.036945 0.037388 0.037835
I ~
27 0 .0382~ 7 0.038696 0.039201 0.039664 0.040131 0.040602 0.041076 0.041 556 0.042039 0.042526
I ~
....
~
I.II
28 0.04301 7 0 .043~13 0.044012 0.044516 0.045024 0.045537 0.046054 0.046575 0.0471 00
0.052597
0.047630
' O
29 0.048164 0.048702 0.049245 0.049792 0.050344 0.050901 0.051 462 0.052027 0.0531 72
30 0.0537 51 0.054 3~ 6 0.054924 0.055519 • 0.056116 0.056720 0.057267 0.057940 0.058558 0.059181
 TABLE OF INVOLtITE FUNCTIONS (Continued)

~ c.o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 ,....
O'I
O'I

3; 0.059809 O.~I 0.061079 0.061721 0.062369 0.063022 0.063680 0.064343 0.0650 12 0.065685
3: 0.066364 0.06704S 0.067738 0.068432 0.069133 0.069838 0.070549 0.071266 0.071988 0.072716 ..,,?;
:n 0.07)449 0.076439 0.077200 !Tl

34 0.081097
0.089341
0.0741 SS
0.08197-i
0.090201
0.074932
0.082697
0.091066
0.07S683
0.083S06
0.091938
0.084321
0.092816
0.08Sl42
0.093701
0.077968
0.08S970
0.094592
0.078741
0.086804
0.095490
0.079520
0.087644
0.080305
0.0Ss.t90
0.097)()6
ax
35 0.096395
36 0.09!214 0.099149 0.100080 0.101019 0.101964 0.102916 0.103875 0.104841 0.105814 0.10679S ~
0
37 0.IOTI82 0.108777 0.109779 0.110788 0.111805 0.112828 0.113860 0.114899 0.115945 0.116999
38 0.118060 0.119130 0.120207 0.121291 0.122384 0.123484 0.124592 0.12S709 0.126833 0.12796S
39 0.129106 0.130254 0.131411 0.132576 0.133749 0.134931 0.136122 0.137320 0.138528 0.139743
40 0.140968 o.1.i2201 0.1434"3 0.144694 0.145954 0.147222 0.148500 0.149787 0.151082 0.152387
.: t 0.153702 O.IS5025 O.l!i635S O.l!i7700 0.159052 0.160414 0.161785 0.163165 0.164556 0.165956
42 0.167366 0.168786 0.170216 0.171656 0.173106 0.174566 0.176037 0.177518 0.179009 0.ISO!il I
43 0.182023 0.183546 O.ISSOSO 0.186615 0.188180 0.189746 0.191324 0.192912 0.19451 I 0.1%112
44 0.19TI44 0.199377 0.201022 0.201678 0.104346 0.206026 0.207717 0.209420 o.mm O.Zl2S63
45 0.214602 0.216353 0.218117 0119893 0.221682 0.2n483 0.225296 0.227123 0.228962 0.230814
46 0.232678 O.l.'45!i7 0.23~8 0.238352 0.240270 0.242202 0.244147 0.246105 0.248077 0 .1~
47 0.252064 0.2S4078 0.256106 0.438149 0.260206 0.262277 0.264363 0.266463 0.268578 0.270709
48 0.272855 0.27501 5 0.277191 0.279381 0.281588 0.283810 0.286047 0.288300 0.290570 0.2928!i!i
49 0.295157 0.297474 0.299809 0.302160 0.304527 0.306912 0.309313 0.311731 0.314166 0.) 16'>19
~ OJl9088 0.321577 0.3240S2 0.326605 0.329146 0.331706 0.334284 0.336879 0.339493 0.342127
51 0.344779 '0 .3474~1 0.3501-ll OJ52850 0.355579 0.358328 0.361096 0.363885 0.366693 0.369522
S2 OJ72371 0.375241 0.378130 OJ81041 0.383974 0.386927 0.389903 0.392899 0.395917 0.39S9S8
53 0.402021 0.40.SIOS 0.408213 0.411343 0.414495 0.417671 0.420870 0.424094 0.427340 0.430610
54 0 .43390~ 0.437222 0.440566 o .~3933 0.447326 0.450744 0.454187 0.45765~ 0 . 4611~ 0.464670
SS 0.468217 0..171790 0.475390 0.479017 0.482670 0.486351 0.490060 0.493797 0.497562 •).5013SS
56 0.505177 O.S09027 o.m90ll 0516817 0.520755 0.524724 0.528724 0.532753 0 . 53681~ 0.540Q05
57 0.545027 0.5491!12 o.553;6S 0.557586 0.561836 0.566120 0.570436 o .~7471i9 0.579173 ll.5Sl591
58 0.588043 o .~92530 0.597053 0.601609 0.606203 0 .610832 0.615498 0.620200 0.624940 0.C>ZQ717
59 0.634.nS 0.6393~7 0.644279 0.M9210 0.654181 0.659190 0.664240 0.669331 0.!'>74462 0.67%35
60 0.6&4853 0.690109 0.695409 0.7007!il 0.706137 0.71 JS67 0.717041 0.722561 0.721112(! 0.733736

.
~~~t~=~-=-~ ~T.t ..

9
::r Cl'
0"'t.t~o ::I' Ft.
"' i-1
~=q3~n,,,.
g. ~ s:;· ... - 1:11 >
,..._ S' n::r "O
"O i:r
() ;;i 'O
.. "O
an~3a .. n
~Q';;l~~Er&.
I!! ::! o· " .. !t M'
:il-i::s[a-os
§:f;Sosaa
0 I!. c. ::s ::s ~ e!.
~ ~- 3 8' g, ~ i;:
. "'~ri:l""O'
S. :::i. n 8. c:e:
D> >e ~ 5· n ~
~~!!.s-~~
"2. E~. n E.· ~
~~~~g~
=~ ~. ~
- =· =i-1::s"1:l
-· _..
OO°"::t "'
c: ::s - - 'T!,g
7 · ::r"o-...
a-~n o::a;i ..
!'--1»:1~a
.! - · 9 c --i
~~a·
~ o;·
:>~-
az =
OO:r9~1'1n
!'-" =::!
>8Er3c.e:
a-&.&.· e: n ~
:I. &i . ~ n a_
~fJ=-;?.· e:-~
Q. a. 8 n :I a ~
~
!!O::s::t~3
"a - -· -·g
:: . • ~- ::s 3 ~
'g_:;riil ~~~ ~
0
::i
;;;· ,,,.. Cll '<
c - n -·
~
~·
"'~ ~ ().t:> !!.
c: - -
~
:I 0 0 •
0.. °" c: - · - · :I
..., - "' < -
.. "' - · c. !!. :r
~9~"""
CAVI ;:J , :;, -
=-· ~ .., .. ,. ~
~=Q'2-o~ ~

• I
I
I
'
)
) 618 APPENDIX TIIREE APPENDIX llfREE 619
)
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
) • Meobanlaa Destgn - Ditplao•ent Anlll7ata (Fortran 77 'l'tnt1oa) • c- Design Program (Fortran 77 Ttraion)
• - Oeu llewton-llepheon root t'1.nd1ng ••tbod to deteniine unknown • - D1ak oaa vitb radial roller rollover.
• angles or link• l & II or a tour bar linkage. • - Cycloidal r1ae - Dv•ll - Cyololdal return.
) • - Mabie and lleinbolts, •th J:d. • - Hable and Rtinbolts, 11th !d,
• - Vr1tten b7: St••• Vaapler (11/25/85) • - Program reviud bf: Stna Wampler (11125/85)
) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
C Declare •ll yariabl• t7pea C Deolare all uriable t7pea
) REAL D02RD, TllETl2, 1111Tl3, 'l11ETAll,PUllC1,FUllC2 1 Jn 1 112, R3, RI! R!lL BASI, L, S, f, 1, T
REAL DF1DT3,DF1DTll,Dl'2DT3,DF2DT• , Dn.,Dn.T3,DEI.Tll R!lL PI, NOPI
)- C Set up deg. to rad. conYersion l'aotor IITl!GE'RTBETA,OORISK,DGDVll.,DGillC
DG2RD • 3.H159/180.0 c Set up deg. to rad. oonTersion taotor
) C Oet aeohania• inl'oraation l'ro• tbe uaer tvOPI • 2 .0•3 .1 ll159
VRITE(•,•) 1 2HTBR ANCDLlR DlSPt.lCDfENT OF Lilll 2 (DBJRBBS).• c Get oa.t infoniation rro• tbt user
R!AD(•,•,ERRa•oo,r::ND:•Oo)TBETl2 WRITE(•,t)•E>ITE'R BASE CIRCl..E RADIOS'
) 111ETA2 a TRBTl2 • 00211D RBAD(•,•,l!RRallOO,l!nla-OO)BASE
VRITE( 1 ,•)•QDESS ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT OF Lillt 3 (D~REES).' WRITE( t, •) • l!llTER TOTAL FOi.LOVER OISPL.&CefEllT'
) RElO(•,•,EltR•ll00 1 Dft>allOO)Tll!TA3 READ(•,•,ERRc'IOO,llHD•llOO)L
1ftBTl3 • Tll!Tl3 ' 002110 WRITE(•,•). EXTER RISE ANGLE (IN omR~).
) VRITBC•, •) •aor:ss AllGOLlll OISPt.ACDtDIT OF LINt • (OEDRBES) • • READ(•,•, !RR•llOO, !lfDallOO)DORISI
Rl!AD( 1 ,•,BllR•llOO,l!HOcllOO)'l11!TAll WRITE(•,•)• DITER CAM ANGLE AT EllD 01' DVU.L (IN OfDftE!S)'
) THBTU • TBBTU • OC2RD RE.lD(•,•,EBRa-00,EHl>•llOO)DGDlln.
VRITE(•,•)•ENTER LEllG111 OF LilltS 1,2,3 lJftl °'
SBPlRATEZ> BY• ,•.• VRITE(•,•)•!XTEJI PRINTOUT ANGLE U C. (IN DIDBEES)'
) RIUD(•,•,El!R:llOO,Dll>=•OO)R1,R2,R3,R• READ(•,•,ERRa'IOO,l!HDsllOO)DOINC
C Print Beadings c Print Headings
WRITE(•, 1 ) WRITE(•,•)
) VRIT!C•, 1 ) ' TRE:l'l3
tt!ETAll FOIC1 FHC2 DELU3 DB.Till' WRITE{•, 1)' IllPUT ~ OISPL VEI.OCITY ACCEI..' 1

) C Loop until both equations (FUIC1 & FUNC2) are approz. • 0 > IWlIOS COllU'111Rt Pal!SS ABO '
PUllC1 • 1.0 WRITE{•,')' ( 111ETA) (S) (V) (l) ••
100 IP (ABS(FUIC1) .LT. 0,001 ,ARD, &llS(FUIC2) ,LT. 0.001) DIEi > t (R) ( 11110) ( .ALPBA) '
) GO TO 500 c " " C-5 rise IHI
!'lit> IF DO 50 TBETl • O, OORISB, DGIRC
) C Evaluate loop oloaure equatioa• T s ( 1llOPI t FLOAT( tB'ETl) I 180.0)
FOllC1 • 111 +( Rll'COS( ftlft&ll))-(12•cosc 11lE'tA2))-C l3'COS(t11ftl3)) S • L'((TBETl/180,0)-( 1 ,0/n10PI) 1 SIN( T))
) FUllC2 • ( Rll'Sill( Tll !T1'))-( 12'Silf( 111ETl2))-( R3'SII( Dlll'l3)) f • (L/180.0)•(1,G-COS(T))
C Evaluate partial dtri'l'ati'l'ee l • ((T\IOPI'L)/(180.0''2))'SIN(T)
) DF1DT3 • 1!3•SI1f(tllf.."fl3) c Calculate radius (R) & ouruture (RHO) & print nerything
DF1DTll • -Rll•SIH(TBEflll) CALL FillISR (BlSB,S ,f,A,mE'U)
) J>F2DT3 " -R3 1 COS(111Efl3) 50 COllnllO!
J>F2DTll c Rll'COS(Tll£Tlll) c .... Dwtl.l ....
) C Nov 1101ve 2 equation• and 2 unknowns vith or-er'• rul• DO 60 n!BTA • DORISE, DQDWll., DGINC
Dl'L • DF1 DT3'DF2DT•-Df'1J>Tll'DF2DT3 S • L
) DD.T1' • (DF2DT)•FUllCt-Df1DT3'FOJC2)/Dll. v• o.o
Dl'LT3 : -(DP2DTll•P'UNC1-Df'tDT-1 FUNC2)/DEL l • 0,0
C Output tbe results c Calculate radius ( R) & cunature (RHO) l print everrtb1ng
) WRITE(', 1000) 111E'Tl3/D02RD, TBET.&.-/OC211D, FONC1, F'ONC2 1 CALL FINISH (BASs,s,v,A, 111ETO
> Dll.T3/00211D,l>l!LT'1002RD 60 c0Nn1111r:
} C Hake new gueaaea tor both 111ETl3 and 111ETU C •••• C-6 return ••••
TRETA3 • 111ETA3 + DD.T3 DO 70 nJE:J'A • DGDVn., 360, OOINC
) TRETl- • 1HETU + DIL711 T: PLOlTC111ETA) - 270.0
c Loop back tor another trr S • L•((1.0-(T/90 , 0))+(1.0/1\IOPI) 1 SIR(T\IOPI 1 Tl 90.0))
) QO TO 100 V • -(L/90.0)•(1,G-COS(lVOPI 1 T/90 .0))
-00 VRITIC t1) 'IllPOT DIOR ... ' A • -(TVOPI'Ll(90.0•'2))t(Sill(tvOPI 1 T/90 . 0))
) tOOO PORMITd' '• 6(PB.3,' •))) c Caloulata radius (It) & ourTatura ( RBO) & print eTtrytbing
500 STOP CALL FIRISB (BIS!, S, V, l, TRETl)
!ND 70 CONTINUE
(a)
FlGURE A3.l FORTRAN program for die clisplatt~ent analysb of a four·bar
) linkage using lterafue methods. This program la ftmcfloaaDy equivalent lo tbe BASIC FIGURE A3.l(a) and A3.l{b) FORTRAN progr1m for designing a disk am
proprn glnn In Fig. 2.8, 1edion 2. 3 of the te~ . with a radlal roller follower. This prognm Is tunctlonaUy equlnlent to tile BASIC
) prognam 1lnn In Fig. 3.32, section 3.10 of the tex1. (contlnutd nut pagt)
)

J
 ,
)

620 APPENDIX nIREE

APPENDOC TIIREE 621
,
)

400
STOP
WRITE(•,•)•tNPOT ERROR
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• tleobaniM Dealgn - Dia . Tel. & l oo. lnalJ•iB (Fort.ran TT ••n11on)
• - 011ea levton-llapbsoa root. finding aetbod to det.en.ine unknown
•
)
STOP
angles or lillks 3 I • or a tour bar linlcaae.

r•
DID I
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • - Habl• and Jteinboltz, •th rd .
• ltoutine to Caloullte radius (II) I Cunature (IBO) I pl'Ut ne1'7tb1.n& • - Written by: Stne Wampler (11125/ 11'.i)
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
SUB ROtlTillE FINISH (BlSE,S,V,l, nn:rl)
•C•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Declare all ••rlable typea
REAL BASE, S, V, l, 11, TR, AR, RBO, lLPBl, PI REAL DG2RD, TBETl2, TBE1'&3, TREl'A•,rotct , FUIC2, 111, 112, 113, RI! )
IlfTfil ER TR ETA RIAL DP1DT3, DP1DT,,DF2DT3,DF2DT•,DEL, Dl!LT3,Dl'LT'I
PI = 3.1.159 RW. 1WOPI,OHEJA2,1LPBl2 t

,
R c BlSE+S IllTBlD PlSS,MllPAS, 11, lllOIIC
VR • V'180 . 0/PI C Deg. to red. oonv1r111on raotor & max. no. or iteration pas•u )
All • A1(180.0/PI)' 1 2 DG211D • 3. 111159/ 180 . 0
RHO : (((R112 ) +(V R112))H(3.0/2. 0}) / ((R'92)+(2.0 MllP&S • 10
> •CvR'•2))-11•u> 1WOPI • 2.0 1 3. 1'159
lLPBA • ( t 80 . 0/PI)'lTO(TR/R)
VRifE( •,tOOO)l1'ET&,S, T,&,R, lllO,lLPBl
1000 FOlltAt((• '• '
JtlmJRM
',19, 6(• ' , li9.3)))
C Get eeobanls• tnro....t1on t'l'Olt tb• ueer
VRJ:tE(•,•)•ll!TEl AllGULll DlSPLlCl!llUDIT or LilltS 2,3,.- (DllJREES)..
RE&D(•,•,£RRo•OO,DID••00)11'r:rA2,1111T.A3 , 'nllT.A°'
TllETl2 • 111&?&2 ' D02RD
•,
Dro TRET13 • TBET13 1 DG2RD )
(b) nn:rH = 111ET1ll • 002m
WRITE(•,•)' EllrEll lNGOLlR ni.ocnr OF Lilll: 2 (RAD/SfX:)'
FIGURE AJ.lb RE&D(•,•,EllR••OO,DID••oo)ettBll2 )
vnTE(•,•)•DTD lllGOLlR .lCC!LEllAUOI or LINI: 2 (Rll>. 2/Sa'.:)'
READC•,•,ERRs•OO,llfD•°'00)lLPB'2 )
vnm•, •). DTEll LIXJTR OF LIKS 1,2, 3 .AllI> " SEPARATED BY ... · . '
. I E&D(•,•,E11B:,OO,G1D:•oo)R1,R2,R3,I• )
WRITE(' , ')'Dn'Ell l!IGOLH STEP SIZE FOR IllPUT LIMF.:',
> • llOTlTIOI (DIDHIS) I
RE.lD(•,•,EllRallOO,llflhr,OO)lJllIIC •)
C

)
Print Reedlnga
VIITEC 1 ,•)
WRITE(•,•). mttA2
I .lLP81' I
WllITE:C •,•) • (Dm.)
TRETA3
(Dm .)
mnn
(Dlii.)
CIUll.l3

(RAD/S)
Cff&:;lll lLPRl3 '•
(R.AD/S) (RAD/S.2)',
,
c
> ' ( llAD/ s-2) '
Let TBETA2 loop tbrouab 360 d411reu •
C
DO 350 It ~ 0,360+1110IIC1 AJIOIIC
Loop until botb equatioae (FURC1 ' P'DNC2) are approx. • 0
FUllC1 • 1 . 0
•)
tOO If ((ABS(FUllC1) .LT. 0.001 .AID. ABS(PU•C2) .LT. 0.00,)
) . OR. PASS . GE. H.lXP.lS) TREii )
GO TO 300
ElfD IF )
C Evaluate l oop olosure equation•
niNct .. 11+C11••cosc t11B'T.AO >-< 112•cosc maru»-C a3•cosc 111r:ra3 » )
FUllC2 a (R''SIR(TB!TAll))-(112•Sill(tRB'?.A2))-(R3 1 SIN('nlET.A3))
C 1.\-aluate partial derivatives
DF1DT3 • J13•Sil(TBETA3)
Dr1DT• • -Rll'SIN(1BB'Tlll) •
DP'2DT3 • -113 1 COS(1HiT.A3) >

,
DF2DT• It ·-·cos( 111Etlll)
C low aol'f'e 2 equations and 2 unknown• witb oruer•a rule )
DfL a DF1DT3'DF2DT"-Dr1DT- 1 Dr2DT3
DB.T• • (DF2DT3'FUllCt-Dr1DT3 1 f1JllC2)/D!!L
(a)
FIGURE AJ.J(a), A3.3(b), and AJ.3(c) FORTRAN prograDI for the displace· •
meat, nlodty, and acceleration analysb or a four-bu linkage. This progrlUD Is
fwlctloaaUy equivalent to lhe BASIC pro11:ram Kivea in Fig. 8.48, section 8.28 of
·--.- -
•
I
!£j;
•
 J
) .
) 622 APP.ENDIX TIIREE APPE NDIX THREE 623

) DD.1'3 • -(Dr2Dt••P'tllC1-DF1DTll•rulC2)/Dl!L D02RD • 3.1'159/180. 0

C Maki! DW gueesea for both m1Tl3 and tBITU VRITE(•,1000)1BET&2/DG2RD )
)
c
111E'fl3 • mBT13+DU. T3
mETU "' mETU+D!L t•
Count tb• nuab•r or tteratton att•pb
1 000 roRUT(• '• 'H!ClllKI!!IK t>O!S llOT ASSa.!LB lt mET&2 .•, F 6 . 1, ' ll'EC .'
H1Ullt
) PASS • Pl.SS + 1
!RD
(e)
C Loop baoll: t or ano ther t r,
) 00 TO 100 FIGURE Al.le
3 00 IF (PA.SS .LT . KllPIS) tel!lf
) c Go oaloulate tbe yeloo1t1. . and aooelerat1ona and print an.wera
CALL VPLlCC ( R2,R3, R•, TB1Tl2, 11111:TA3, TBETU , CltBU2,ALPBl2)
) ELS I! .
C Otbervia• the aeobanilla a uat not • •••ble eo print error
CALL H!CJ!RR (nl!Tl2)
l DID IF
PASS • 0
) TRET.A2 • n!ETA2 + &NCI NC • D02 RD
350 coarnNUI!
) S TOP
•oo VRITI!( • • • ) 1 I NPO T !llROR
!. STOP
DID
) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• Subrouti.D• to caloulat• YelooitJ I aooelerati oo and prf.Jlt ansvera
) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
SUBROOnH ULlCC(R2, R3,R•, TBBTA2, TBET13, mn111,ocm12,ALPBl2)
) RIW. DQ2RD, J,B,C,D, E,r, R2, R3. •ll.111ETU, 111ET13, mnn
REAL CltBlA2. Cll Bll3 t ocmU, lLPBA2, lLPRl3, lLPB1', CPllIHI, FJ'llIMI
) DG2RD • 3.1'1591180.0
1 : -113'SIR(TBET13)
B " Rll'SIR(te8t.U)
) C • 112•SIR( mETA2) •Cl4BJA2
D " RJ•COS(t1U!Tl3)
) E = -11••<cos(m11:r1•>>
F • -112•cosc mETl2) •OHmA2
) C Cal.culate anaular Yeloo1Uea
oce:;u = (P'B-E9C)/(D'B-!'1)
) OffBJlll = cn•e-r•1>1cntn-ze1)
C Calculate angular accelerations
) CPRIMI! = 112•cosc mB'Tl2) 1 C»4ml2•'2+R2 1 Slll( 'IUET&2) 9 ll.PBA2
> +R3 1 COS('!RET13)1C»4Bl13•'2-R••cos(TBET&•)'Otl!GA•••2
) FPRIHE c 112'SIN(Tft!TA2) •<»tml2 . .2-112•cos( 'I111TA2) •ALPBA2
> +R3'SIW('TRET13)•C»4Bll3''2-Rll•SIH('I11ETA-)•<11Bll'l•'2
!LPB13 c (FPRIME98-E9CPllIME}/(D98-t9l)
) !I.PHU "' (D'CPRDfg...FPRIHE9l)/(D98-!'l)
) c Print the results
VRITJ!( •, 1000)1BITl2/D02RD, '!HET13/D02RD, TBET1'1/ DG2RD,C:l41Cl3,
> <11e:JU,lLPH13.ALPBlll
) 1 000 FOJltAT(( 1 ' , 7(F7 . 2,' ')))
RE'TURll
) J!1'D
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
) • Sllbroutf..ne to prf.Jlt •Keoban1sa does 11ot us•ble • ••• •
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
) SUBROllnRI! MJ!Cl!JIR (ntETA2)
REAL mETA2,DG2RD

,
)
FlGURE A3.3b
(b)

,
J

)
 't
624 APPENDIX TIIREE APPENDIX nfREB 625
,
10 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
t
570 "'•8/32.2 • •aa• ot link •
20 •• Baa1o program tor FORCB .lHLYSIS
30 •• - Usu tbe matrix aetbod to detenain• tbe roroea on
580 I2• .011•\2 •
590
•aa• •011•t or ill•rtia or linlc 2
13.,006•12 1 •as• •oment ot inertia ot link 3
!
'O •• ..
50 ••
ob linlc or a '-bar linkac• in addition to the dri<rinl
torque applied to liGll: 2. ·Th• maa• oenter, oenter •u•
600
610
I'• ,026•12 1 •ass •omeat or inertia ot link •
1021•0 :INlllTI.l.HATRII(1)""2•&021 • aoo. or 11.nk 2 in a-dtr, >
60 11 aooeleration, •us, and •HS moment ot inertia •111t be
70 •• - gi'feo tor each link. Mabie and lleinboltz, 'tb td,
80 •• - Progra.m written by - Stne Wampler (fi/20/85)
90 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
620
630
6'0
650
lG2Y.O :UDTil.HURU(2)""2•.l02! ' aoo. or link 2 1JI J-dir.
.lG3X•-91.08:IRER?Il,M&TRIXC•)m113•.ao3x • aco. or link 3 1n x-dir,
&G3?•-9.72 :IIEITI&.HlTRil(5)sH3•.lO)t ' aoo, or 11.nk 3 1n r-dir.
ao•x•-5•.oB:IllRTI&.H&TRIX(7)st1••J0•1 • aoo. ot 11.nk ' ill x-dir.
,•
•
100 • --------------- 660 ao•t•Jl.73 : IR!llTI&,HlTRil(8)at1••10•1 • aoo, or link' 1n r-dir.
110 • Foro• oeloulation main prog raa. 670 &LPR12•0 rillBJITIA.MlTRIX(3)•I21&LPB12 ' ang , aoo. ot link 2
120 • --------- ----------- --- 680 &LPR13c2'1 :IllRTU ,MUllIX(fi)aI)•&LPBl3 ' ang. aoo. ot linlC 3
130
no
150
C.S:PRIJIT TJ.B( 17)•• Bar Linkage Force .lnalyaia - Katrll: Method•
SIZB:9:DrM fUTRIJ(9,9),IIV.M.ltRIX(9,18) t aan 90ll• •mory
GOSllB 220 1 aet up CG position mat r ix
690 &LPB&•=-129
700 JIEI'OJUI
710 •
:IN!RTIA,MlTRil(9)•1''&LPBU ' aag, aoo. or link '

--------
•t
160 GOSllB 'OO • define meobanisa 720 • Print r.aulte.
170 GOSUB 1000 • invert CO position mat r ix 730 ·-------------------------------------------------
7'0 I•O : PRIMT : PRINT TAB(22)•Ruulta•:PRIIT
~
1 80 IF DBT .FLAC·O nlliJI GOTO 210 • error in utrix inversion
750 POii LIHl'.,Jc1 TO \ ' link counter
190
200
210
GOSllB 1900 • •ultiply 001111111 aatrilc by inT•rted aatrix
GOSUB 710 ' print results
PRillT: END
760
770
IF LillI . J•' TBEll LillI.I:l !I.SE LlJll:.I=LlJl[,J+1
FOR DillECno11=1 TO 2
•
7 80 IF DIHCTI01f=1 tBIB DIJl$••z4' II.SI DIR$:o•y•
•
,,
220 ·--------------
230 ------------------------------
• Set up CC position aatrix. - - --- - - - 790 PRUT •roroe ot ltn1t•L1111t.t•on link•LJ:111t.J•tn tba •0111$:
2•0
250
260
·--------------------
FOR R0\/.:1 TO 9
FOR C11UMNc1 TO 9
' rov counter
• ool\lllll counter
800
810
820
Ial+1 ' ••tris oounter
PRUT• direction s•:USill: • 111,fllf•:RE&CT. MATRil( I )
HXT DIRECTION
•
rro. DATA PRIIT •Jtuultant roroe or 11.nk•LJ:lll.I•on 11.nk•LillI •.r• ••:

,
270 READ K.lTRII(llOW , COLUHN) • get an ei-ent belov 830
280 NEXT COLOHN ,_O PRIIT USI~• lll.llll•;Slll(RBACT.MlTRIX(I-1)•2+11EICT.MATIIX(I)*2)
2 90 lfEXT JIOW 8';0 PIINT
300 R!TORll 860 NEIT LIJK . J
310 DITA -1, O, 1 , 0 1 0, O, O, D, O: • <••• Ibis is tbe •atrix witbout 870 PKIIT •?be required 1.nput torque applied to 11.nk 2 a•;
320 DlTl 0, - 1, O, 1, 0 1 0 1 O, O, O: • tbe CC position . Thia 880 HIIT USI~ • lll.lflf•;RE&CT,MlTl!U(I+1)
330
3•0
D.Atl 0 1 O, O, O, O, O,
D&Tl O, 0,-1, O, 1, O,
O, O, 1 : '
O, O, 0 : '
-trix is tranero~ed to tbe 890 IE1VRI
1000 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
•
array nued MlTIII uaing the
350 DlTi o, O, 0,-1, o, 1, o, o, O: I FOR/IEXT loops abou. Tbe CU 1010 •• M&TRU INVERSIOR AlfD MITRIX HULtIPLIC&tIOI SUBROUtIHS
360 DlTi o, o, o, 0, o, o, o, o, 0: I position!! · are inHrted· 1020 •• - 1be eubroutine will 1.nTert tb• aatrix atored 1n tbe
370 DATl 0 1 0 1 O, 0,-1, O, 1, O, 0: • into the matrix later in tbe 1030 •• array MlTRIX and retum the 1Jlyer111oa 1n the arr&J IRV .HATl!II . t

,•
380 DATA O, O, O, O, 0,-1, O, 1, O: 1 progre.lll. 1 o•o u tba Yariable SIZE avet equal th• n..t>er ot r ova contained in
390 DATA O, o, O, O, O, o, O, o, 0 1050 • • the array Hl?RIX, 1be tollowi.ng Bl.SIC atat•ent •uat be
1060 •• executed withi.n the calling progra11 before tbia inversion
•oo •-------------------------------------------------------
•10 1 DetJ..n• m•obania• - Edit tbie aeotion to change •eobanie•. 1070 •• subroutine 1a called:
1120 ·------------------------- ----- ------------------- - - - - - - 1080 •• DIH MATllil(SIZE,SIZE) ,Ilf .HATRIX(SIZE,2 1 SIZE) . . . . . Dell0'7
•30 R211• 0
''O R21Ys0
: M&TRII( 3,2)c-R211 1 pos . ot link 2 CO t o J o int 1 in x-dir
: HATRIX(3,1) s R21Y 1 poa. ot link 2 CO to joint 1 in y-dir
1090 •• - tbe •ultipUoation s~l"'OQti.na will •ultiplJ tb• . . trices
1100 •• In .HATllIX and IIEllTU.MATRIX aad retum the ruult. in
>
•so R221•2., :MATRII(3,\)aR221 • poa. ot link 2 CG to joint 2 in x-dir 1110 •• RUCT.HATRIX . Tb• yariabl• SUB •uat equal the nWlber ot rowe
>
\60 R22Y•1.81 : KATRII(3,3l•·R22I 1 poa. ot link 2 CG to joi nt 2 in y-dir 1120 •• oonteined ia the &r"J MATRIX.
•TO 11321•- 3.68 :KATIUX(6,\)a-R321 1 poa. ot link 3 CG to Joint 2 in x-dir 1130 •• - Adepted rrom: P. M. Volt• and C. P. loellin&, BASIC
•eo R32Js1 , 56 :HATRIX(6 1 3)aR32t • poa . ot link 3 co to Joint 2 in y-dir 11'0 •• Dlginearing and SoieaUrio Progra.a tor the t
•90 R331:3.68 :HATRII(6,6)aR331 ' poa , or link 3 CO to Joint 3 in x-dir 1150 •• IBM-PC, Jobart J. Brady Company, 1983
500 1133?••1.56 :HATRII(6,5)a-R33I 1 po• . or link 3 CO to joint 3 in y-dir
510 R~3X•-2.21 :HATRIX(9,6)a-R•3I' poa. ot link ' CO to Joint 3 in x-dir
t160 •• - Kabi• and Reinbolts, •tb Eld,
1170 •• - Progru redaed bJ - Steve Wupler (fi/20/85) •
520 11'3!•-2 . 27 :HATRil(9,5)aR,3t 1 poa. or link • CC to joint 3 in y-dir
530 11••1 •• 116 :HlTRII(9,8)sR••x • poa. or link• co to Joint • in x-dir
S•O ll-•tc5,25 :KlTRII(9, 7)c-R,,Y, poa. ot link• CO to Joint' in y-dir
1180 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
1190
1200
'---------------------- --------------------------------
• Matri.J: in•enlion ••in program
•
>
550 H2s10/32 . 2 1 • • • • ot link 2 1210 · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - ----------
5 60 H3=•132 . 2 • aass or link 3 1220 l<Xll.=2•SIZ E:IROWaSIZ I ' aet para111t1r tor 1nTal'lle t

,•
(a) (b)

RGURE A3.4(a), A3.4(b), A3.4(c) and A3.4(d) BASIC program ror force anal· FIGURE A3.4b
ysis of the four-bar linkace uslnc tbe matrix metbod, as described lo section 9.7.
The numerical value,, within the program are from Example Problem 9.3. This
--- - --- ---"-?-- ------1 -•·---.. - L ---- ~ - ... 6 . _ • . • • £... .• . • .• • , • •

--.~-

~f ,
)

~
J
)
APPENDIX THREE 627
) 626 APPENDIX THREE
1790 INV.HlTIIl(X,J)•JllV.HlTnl(I,J)-IH•IWV.MlTRIX(I~,J)
) 1230 OOSUB 13110 •ale•
' •atrlx upper triangular 1800 REIT J
12110 IF DET.n..&G=O m!lf PRINT •&ror - lilTRII x.s SIIOUL&R":OOTO 1330 1810 NEXT I
) 1250 OOSUB 1710 •ale•
' •atrix lover triangular 1820 HIT IJ
1260 PRINT:PRINT TIB(31)•Inverted Hatrix•1PRINT 1 830 FOii I• 1 ro lllOW
) 1270 FOii 1"1 TO lllOW 18110 DIV•IllV .MlTRIX(I,I)
1280 FOR J=IROW+1 TO ICOl. 11150 FOii J•1 TO Icat.
1290 PRillT OSlltG • 111.lfl•;INV.IUTRIX(X J)- 1860 IIY .MlTKll(I,J)•UIT .HATRil(I ,J)/tlIV
\ 1300 NEXT J ' '
1870 HIT J
1310 PRINT
) 1320 NEXT I
1880 IEIT I
1~·~~ ,
1330 R!TORN 1900 · - - - - -- - -- --------------- -------------- -----
5 13110 ·------------------------ 191 O • Matrix aultiplication •nbroutine
1350 1 Convert XNV.Ml'l'RII to upper triangle. 1920 ·- ---------.--- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --- ------ ----- -------- - -
) 1360 · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l· 1930 PRIRT:PRINT •Calculating t o rcM and link 2 input t o rq ue • • •"
1370 PRINT:PRINT TIB(18)"L1nk Cmter oro;:;;tt;-fil;l.:;-e:;;t-K;t;~ 1 pniT 19110 IROW:SIZB:ICCLsSIZE •set. up counter-s
) 1 380 FOR I=1 TO IROV 1 9'50 FOR !•1 TO IROV ' ooun t rows
1390 FOR J:1 TO IROV 1960 RElCT.HlTRIX(I) sO ' zero matrix eleaent
PIOO INV .HATRIX(I,J) =HITRil(I ,J) .f
) 1970 FOii 1::1 'IO ICOL ' count ool , a
1•10 IF IicJ tHEN nrv.MATRIICI,J+IROW)•1 1980 IDD.TOsIMV.KlTRIX(I,ICOL+t)•IHIJITil.KlTRII( I)
11120 PRIIT USIRG • fff.fff•;IRV.MA'l'llII(I J) •
) 1•30 REIT J ' '
1990 RElCT.MlTRil(X)sR!lCT.KATRil(I)+lDD.TO
2000 llEIT I:
1 ·11110 PRUIT
) 11150 REIT I
2010 IElT I
2020 RETURR
11160 PRINT: PRINT •Calculating Inverae or Matrix ••• • (d)
) 1'170 DET .n.&a .. 1
11180 FOR h1 TO IROll-1 FIGURE A3.4d
) 1 li90 IF INV .HATRII(I,I) .. o mEN GOSOB 1590 ' check tor 0 det.
1500 IF DET .n.AG:O tulll lllTOJll'I ' error eo exit
) 1510 FOR JsI+1 TO IllOV
1520 JMzillV.H&TRXX(J,t)/lllV.HATRIX(I,I)
) 1530 FOR h1 TO ICOL
15110 XHV.HATRIX(J,[)~INV.HlTRII(J,l)-IH•IllV.HATRIX(I a::)
1550 NEIT K: '
} 1560 REIT J
1570 NEIT I
) 1580 RF.1URN
15 90 · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
) 1600 1 Qieck tor zero deteniiDant.
1610 ' ------------------------------
) 11520 FOR J:I+1 TO IJIOll • cbeck itb column
1630 IF INV .MlTRil(J,I) .,o TllER COTO 1680
) 16110 FOR K:•1 TO ICOL
1650 INV.HlTRIX(l 1 [):INV.HATRIX(X [)+tllV.HlTRIX(J [)
) 16150 NEXT a:: ' '
1670 RETDRI
) 1680 NEl'.T J
1690 DET.n.AOsO
1700 RETURN
171 0 ·-------------------------·----- --------------------
1720 • Convert INV.HlTRII to lower trUn&).e.
) 1730 ·------------------------------
17110 FOR IJs1 TO IllOV-1
) 1750 U•IROW-IJ+t
1760 FOR 1•1 TO Il-1
) 1770 1!1.XNV .HATllIX(I,11:) /UV .H&Tnl(Ia::,11:)
17 80 FOR J-1+1 TO ICOL
)
) FIGURE A3.4c

,
j
 )

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 629 '-

!
Chapter Four
4.3
4.5
R, • 3.739 in. , 1,
'• = 0.240 in.
• 0.153 in.
,'
Answers
4.7
4.11
4.13
Cl .. 1s·. p - 141"
a .. 0.094 in .
R 1 • 1.125 in . , R.,
= 1.019 in ., a = 0 .125 in. , t = 0.196 in ., R, -= 2.813 in.,
R., = 2.549 in ., b = 0 .156 in.
,,•
to Selected Problems l,, 4.15 14l", m, = 2.626; 20°. m, = 1.981; 25", m, = 1.662
. 4.17
. 4.19
P• • 0 .738 in.
N 1 . . 20, N, "" 60, P, - 8; or N, = 25 , N, .., 75, P, =- 10; or N, = 30, •t
\.

4.25
4.29
N 2 -= 90, P, = 12
k, = 5.728, k2 = 1.656
B = 0.0362 in.
,
i 4.31
4.33
(a) R; "" 1.809 in. , Rj = 3.016 in .; (b) cl>' = 15.61°; (c} B .. 0.0135 in .
ct>' = 24.02°, C' = 4.115 in.
)

•
,,•
' .
4.35 1419, B = 0 .0028 in .; 20°, B -= 0 .0038 in.; 25°, B = 0.0048 in .

Metric
4.Jm ~· • 94.97 mm, 1. = 3.885 mm
'• = 6.102 mm

,•
Chapter Ont 4.Sm
J.1 (a) "'1 = 2 .86 rad / min; (b) e.... = 30". o... "' 9 .6° 4.llm o = 4.445 mm
J.7 w, = 32.5 rad/s 4.l3m m, = 1.63
1.ll Fig. 1.25, M = O; Fig. 1.26, M = 2; Fig. 1.27, M = -2; Fig. 1.28, M = 2; 4.l9m B "" 0 .9244 mm
Fig. 1.29, M = 1; Fig. 1.30, M = 3; Fig. 1.31, M = 1; Fig. 1.32, M = 1 4.31m (a) R; = 45.244 mm, Rj = 75.406 mm; (b) <I> ' = 20.83"; (c) 0 .4845 mm
•
4.33m
4.3Sm
ljl' -= 24.82", C' = 104.05 mm
146°, B = 0 .0705 mm; 20", B = 0 .0963 mm; 25", B = 0.1225 mm •
Chopttr Two
•
2.3 o,o. < 51.2 nun
V.,.. = 31.42 m / min @ 8, = 90° ,•
,
2.11 Chapter Five
2.23 a = 198.46", p = 161.54", TIME RATIO -= 1.23 5.3 R = 1.857 in . , I = 0 .1703 in.
2.31 The linkage does not assemble for values of BJ from 70" to 290~ 5.5 e = 0 .1497 in.

,,•
2.33 9.(.tO,B) = -150", e,(zOiA} -= - 39.39" 5.7 t -= 0 .2645 in .
2.37 ........ "" 70.if. rpm@ e = o·, w,_ = 141.4 rpm@ e c 90" 5.11 R., "' 1.2107 in., R., = 1.4314 in . • h, = 0.3694 in., m, = 1.303
5.13 e, - 0.0500 in. , t, = -0.0500 in., <I>' - 111'
S.15 e, = 0.0396 in. , e, ~ 0.0923 in.
Chapttr Thrtt
5.19 m, -= 1.558, m, "' 1.584
3 .23 jl, - p,L,121.,, p, ~ p,L ,IL,
J.25 (11) fl,p ,l .,12L, ; (b) p, - p,L,12L,
~
5.ZJ RECESS/ APPROACH .. 2.328 >
3.27
3.29
J.43
(a)!}, - 11fl 1 L,14L,; (b) !}, - 4LJl,lwL1
(a} p, = 2p,L/'1TL,; (b} p1 = 2p,L,1-irL,
P-• -= 0.431 in.
5.15
5.27
5.29
5.31
'"• • 1.546 (SEMI RECESS} , 111, • 1.369 (FULL RECESS)
e• • 0.0084 in . , R0 - 1.2036 in . , t, • 0 .1599 in .
e• .. 0.0247 in . (no undercut), t, "" 0.4285 in., '• = 0.4646 in.
e • -0.0151 in .
,,
)

3.Sl a = -8.29°
5.33 cl>. =- 25.42", C' = 1.6257 in., (e, + t,} = 1.06 6C

:-. ~·
•
'•
........
)

)
) 630 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS ANSWERS TO SELECfED PROBLEMS 631
)
S.35 C' - 4.5607 in ., R., .. 2 .3940 in ., R., ~ 2.8340 in . , h, .. 0 .7506 ln. , 6.25 (a) Hob: P.., =- 7.07, :. would require a special hob; (b) Fellow~ culler:
) m, - 1.38 P, - 5 :. OK standard cutter
5.37 t, = ei = 0.0433 in., e 1 = 0.3020 in . 6.29 D, "' 6 .928 in . , D, = 10.0722 in . ; N, ., 45; iii, = 26.67°; I = 56 67°
) 5.39 Let N, - 35, N, • 44, let e, • -0.0100 in. , t 1 - - 0.0370 In., 6 .37 N, - 4, N, - 72; D, - 2 .541 ln., D, - 11 .459 in .
D., - 3 .674 in .. D.1 - 4.520 in .. la, • 0.2127 in., na, • 2 .30 6 .39 N, - 3, N 1 - 60; D 1 - 2.451 in. , l> 1 •• 9.549 in .
\ 6.41 L = 2.000 in.; D, "" l.749 in.
) Metric 6.43 D, = 1.621 in . , D 1 = 3.879 in.; L =_l.854 in . ; p, = 0.371 in.
S.Jm R = 45 .500 mm , r = 4.1711 mm
)
5.Sm t = 1.0649 mm Metric
) S.7m t = 6 .3453 mm 6.3m r1 = 30", I = 120"
S. 11.m cl> ' = 28.85°, t 1 = 3.645 mm, ei = 1.974 mm, R., = 47.926 mm, R<tz ~ 79.255 6 .Smf 1 = 37.frl", fi = 52.13°; aG = 3.4613 mm, a,. = 4.9987 mm ; b.; = 5.8439
) mm , h, = 12.781 mm, m, = 1.22 mm, b,. = 4.3065 mm; (F < 21.71 mm) :. let F = 21.5 mm
) S. 13rn t 1 = 1.547 mm, t i = -1.547 mm, cl>' = 20" 6.7m r , = 17.76°, ri = 27.2<t0 ; ae = 4.1977 mm, a, = 5.9623 mm; bo = 6.9673
S.lSm t, = 1.0699 mm, e, = 2.4911 mm mm, b,. -= 5.2027 mm ; (F < 39.969 mm) : . let F = 39.5 mm
) S.19m m, = 1.56, m, = 1.58 (STANDARD GEARS) 6.llm c = 0 .5018 mm
S.2lm B = 0. 13980 mm 6.13m iii = 21.04°; N, = 28, N, = 98; (F > 25 . 158 mm) :. let F = 25 .2 mm

'
)
)
S.23m RECESS/ APPROACH = 2 .326
S.2Sm m, = 1.55 (SEMI RECESS), m, = l.37 (FULL RECESS)
S.27m e• = -0.928 mm, t, = 3 .525 mm, R, = 29.589 mm
6.lSm
6.17m
(a) Hob: AC = 8.0l mm; (b) Fellows culler: t.C ~ 0
N 1 = 15, N 1 = 27, N, = 30; lji = 25 .83° (F > 24.88 mm) :. let F = 25 mm ;
D., = 55.995 mm, D., = 95.991 mm, D., = 105.99 mm; AC11 = 10.01 mm
S.29m t• = -1.380 mm (no undercut), t1 = 10.601 mm, '• = 12.412 mm 6.l9m N, = 32, N, = 40, N, = 80; ili 1 = -Iii = 29.99°, ljti = 60.01 °; D , = 101.6 mm ,
) D 1 .. 127.0 mm, D, .. 440.12 mm; Cu = 283 .56 mm
S.31m t = 0 . 193 mm
6.23m Use ho b A; N, = 27, N, = 54; ojl = 32 .47°; F = 8 .169 mm; D 01 = 51.01 mm ,
) S.33m cj>, = 25 .39", C' = 39.006 mm, (t 1 + eJ = 1.07 !£
D., = 99.01 mm
S.3Sm C' =55 .585 mm, R.,
= 29. 129 mm, R<tz = 34.372 mm, h, = 8 .916 inm, 6.19m D, = 173.2 mm, Di "' 258.6 m m; N 1 = 45; '1i1 = 29 .53°; I = 59.53°
} m, = 1.31
6.37m N, - 2, Ni .. 35; D, - 64.2 mm, Di - 291.3 mm
S.39m Let N 1 = 35, Ni = 44, let e, = -1.000 mm, :. ti = 1.204 mm; D., = 90.712
) 6.39m N, = 2, Ni = 40; D, = 81.66 mm, Di = 222 .34 mm
mm, D., = 117.62 mm, h, = 5.73 mm, m, = 1.70
) 6.41m L = 55.956 mm ; D, = 46.207 mm
6.43m D, = 39.70 mm, D 1 = 139.10 mm; L "' 63 .494 mm;p, = 10.582 mm
)
Chapter Six
) 6.3 r , = 30°, I - 120" · Chapter Seven
) 6.5 r, "' 37.g]", ri = 52.13°; De = 0 .1364 in., a,. = 0. 1969 in.; be c 0.2303 in.,
7.1 w, = 1 .5 rpm, V 10 = 25 .53 ft / min downward
b,. = 0 . 1697 in.; (F < 0 .95 in.):. let F .. 0.875 in.
) 7.3 (a) w 1 / w1 "" 0.803; (b) Gear 6 is left hand, Gear 1 turns cw wh e n viewed
6.7 r, ., 17.77°, ri - 27.23°; De "'0. 1653 in., a,= 0 .2347 in . ; be • 0 .2743 in. ,
toward motor
b, = 0.2049 in; (F < 1.74 in.) :. let F = 150 in.
) 7.5 (a) Hob left hand; (b) w,/w1 = 0.700
6.11 t = 0.02091 in.
7.7 x = 0 .0855 in . to the right, y = 0 . 11 11 in . to the right
) 6.13 ojl .. 21.05°; N, - 28, N 1 = 98; (F > 1.006 in.) :. let F = 1.125 in.
7.9 (a) Spindle speeds of 183.6 rpm and 30.51 rpm; (b) N, = 16, N, -~ 40
6.15 (a ) Hob: t.C = 0.340 in . (b) Fellows cutter: t.C = O
) 7.11 (a) w. , = 128.6 rpm ccw; (b ) w11 • 90 rpm cw
6.17 N, = 15, N1 = 27, Ni = 30;"' = 20 .36"; (F > 1.298 in.) : . let F - 1.3125 in.
) D., = 2 .200 in . , D., = 3.800 in., D., "" 4.200 in.; t.c .. "" 0.400 in. 7.13 (LI " c 140 rpm
7. 15 w 0 - 905.5 rpm
6.19 N, = 32, N1 = 40, Ni = 80; "'' ,. ojl1 -= 27.26°, ojl1 = 62 .74"; D, = 4 .000 in .,
) Di "' 5.000 in .. D, = 19.41 in. ; Cu = 12.200 in . 7.17 (11 1 /w. = 1; w 11w. c: 0 .5

6.23 Use hob B; N, = 32, Ni = 64; iJi ::: 25.84•; F = 0.414 in.; D. "" 1.878 in., 7,19 WA fW . =
I
Cl)

D., = 3.300 in. ' 7 .21 w,1 = 474 rpm

>
)
j
 f.
I
•
6J2
7 .23
ANSWERS TO SELECICD

w,Jw. = 55. 57
P~OBLEMS

I
i
8.43
8 .49
v. = S.O in/ s
w4 = 15.9 rad/s ccw
ANSWERS TO SELECICD PROBLEMS 633
'.
•-
7.25 w,. = 1498 rpm I· 8.51 Vo .. 24.5 in/s

'
7 .27 w" = 156.0 rpm
7 .29 w,. = 1667 rpm
8.53 V, = 0.45 in., w. = 0.061 rad/s cw
A,, .. 4.20 x HI' mml s', P = 309.3..
•·)
7 .31 "'• - 269.4 rpm t· 8.57

7 .33 we n 292.9 rpm •I' )

I .
7.35
7.37

7.39
n ... = 6 .97 planets , n = 2 , 3, or 6 equally spaced planets
n.u = 7 .01 planets for gear l, 2, and 3; n ... • 7 .8 planets for gears 5, 6, and
7 ; :. 2 equally spaced co mpound planets can be used
(a ) N , = 114, N, = 19, N, = 76; D 1 = 285 mm ; (b) tluee equally spaced
i.:
I .
Chapter Nine
9.1
9.3
9.S
w - 713.4 rad/ s
s. == (w1p/ 6)(R. - - R,)[R.(2k + 1) + R,(k + 2))
F = 117,800 lb, M 2 3360 lb · in
)

•
!.
7.41
p lanets cannot be used
(a) N, = 102, N 1 = 17, N 1 = 68; D, = 12.75 in.; (b) three equally spaced
i:
r
9 .7 F., = 167.5 N, F., = 179.9 N , F•• • 83.88 N •
planets canno t be used 9.9 F,. = 135 lb, F; 1 = 656 lb •
7 .47
7.49
p°' = + 10 hp
p'" = -60 hp
J
l
,,(,
9.11 F., = 7.38 N
9.13 F,. = 204 lb, F• = 103 lb , Fe = 103 lb, F"I = 204 lb, F., = 108 lb, Ts = 612
lb· in
9.15 F,. = 820 N, F, .. 820 N, Fe = 295 N, Fa = 1000 N, F., = 820 N,
,,
)

F•• = 295 N
Chapttr Eight
8 .1
8 .3
V
n
w~ =
= 1.57 x 10' in/ s, A = 2 .47 x 10' in/s'
= 3357.5 rpm, V = 75.39 ft/ s "" 4523 ft/min
9.17 n = 338 rpm
9.19 Q = 394 lb
9.21 · F = 18280 N
,
)

8.S 2 .11 rad/ s cw 9.23 An "' 0, A., = 5660 m/s1, A .. = 7130 m/s1, a 1 = 46,067 rad/s 1 ccw, )
V = 5796 mm/ s, A = 116,489 mm/s1

,
8.7 o.. = 39,719 rad/ s' ccw, F., = 0, F., .. 20546 N , F., = 64,669 N
i 1• = 274 .5 m i s, V, = 268 mis
)
8 .9 9.25 F,. = 588 lb , F. = 405 lb, F11 = 588 lb, Ts = 1147 lb · in
8.11 (a) w, = 0, a , = 1.12 rad/s' ccw 9.27 Ts = 3334 N · m cw
8 .13 (a) Ve = 8.55 x 10' mm/s, A c = 1.96 x 10' mm/s1 9.29 T 1 "' 32600 lb · in cw
{b) w, = 152.8 rad/ s a:w, "'• = 111.6 rad/ s cw 9.31 T, = 284 N · m ccw
)
8.15 V • ~ 73.19 mm ls, "'• - 0.244 rad/s cw · 9.33 (b) I -= 0 .0007 kg · m 1
A, = 69.07 mm/s, a. = 0.222 rad/s1 cw
9.35 Not k inetically equivalent •
8 .17
8.19
a , =- 38,970 rad/ s1 ccw
(a) A = 51.24 mmls 1 ; (c) A = 115 mm/ s'
9.37 (a) AA - 8954 mis'. A . - 6614 m/s1 ; (b) M • ... 0 .2267 kg, I, "' 0 .152 m,
M, - 0.6805 kg, I; ~ 0 .0507 m ; (c) M,. • 0 .6802 kg, M, .. 0.2270 kg;
•
)
8.21 V = 79.63 in/s, A = 1131.80 in/s 1 (d) F•• = 8225 N, F, 1 = 1501 N , F,., "' 6091 N ; {t) Fl' = 1250 N ,
8.23 (a ) V = 846.2 mm/s, w c 4. 17 rad/s ccw, A "' 13, 185 nun/s1, a - 62.6 rad/s1 F11 "' 9800 N, Ts = 193.8 N · m cw )
cw; (b) V = 846.2 mm/ s, w = 4.17 rad/s cw , A - 16,200 mm/s1, a = 77.8 9.41 T = 1700 lb · in a;w

8.25
radls1 cw
V = 215 mm/s , A "" 560 mmls\~ = 0.727 rad/s ccw, a = 0.240 rad/s1 ccw
9.43 at 8 =er. T = - 281 N · m; at 8 = 240", T = -75 N · m; at 8 == 4804,
T = - 147 N · m; at 9 = 720", T = -281 N · m
•
8.27 w = 4.68 rad/s cw, a = 27.36 rad/s ccw 9.45 w.., at 450°, w.... at 90" •
8.29
8.31
V = 131.73 in / s, A = 844,370 in/s1
Va -= 47.3 mis, A 0 "' 7 71.3 mis, "'• .. 4 .46 rad/1 cw, a 1 - 264.9 rad/$1 cw
9.47 A = 266 N. · m
9.49 (a) T .. .. 509 ft · lb; ( b ) H , .. 29.1; (c) I = 20.3 slug · ft1
•
8 .33 V - 179 in/s, A - 5386 inl s' 9 .51 Fu "" 305 N
>
8 .37 l' .,, ~ 21 mm / s, A 0 1 - 565 nun/51 9.53 T, - 422 lb · in ccw )
8.39

8.41
v. ~ 3.1 in/s, Ve .. 1.9 in ls , V 0 ~ 5.0 in/ s, A• - 5 .1 in/s1 , Ac~ 3.7 iols',
A n - 1.3 in/51
V n 66.5 mm/s , w - 2.66 rad/ s cw, A • 3580 mm /s', a - 19.5 rad/ s1 ccw
9.55 n_ = 236 rpm
9.57 w .. 1.37 rad /s ~ ,•
)
~--

... J
•
'
)
634 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS
)
9.59 F = 1055 lb
)
9.61 (a) 24%; (b) 6.6%
) 9.63 1 - T'Wrt4-rrlt

)
Chapur Ten
)
10.1 (Wr), a 82 lb · in, r, -= 10 in., W, a 8.2 lb Index
) 10.S (Wr), ~ 93.3 lb · in, W, = 23.3 lb@ 210", W) = 49.3 lb@ 52.4"
) 10.7 F == (( Wr)w'Jlg = 1.78 lb at 1000 rpm, F = 178 lb at 10,000 rpm
10 .9 r = 8.934 x 10-• m, (Wr) = 0.0402 N · m
) J0 .13 F...., = 548.7 N
) JO. JS T ~' = J692 lb · in
10.19 S a 2225 N , a~,,.. - 296.4 mm to left of cylinder 1
) 10.21 S = 0, C = - 4MR'a!L(Zw) 2
)
10.23 S = - 2, a. c + 1; when 6, = 45" or 225°, the resultant primary force equals
zero
\ 10.27 Add 6.856 ~ b at p~int A ' where O,A ' = l in and add 11 .144 lb at point B '
where O,B = 1 in. Lengths OiA ' and O,B' arc on extensions of links 2 and
) 4, respectively, in the negative direction.
)
Absolute motion, 9, 297 Addendum 111glc, 212
) Chapter E/eYen Accelention: Addendum circle, 13S
absolute, 297 AddeodW11 elemeot, 210
11.1 a = 1.123 in , b = 1.975 in, c = UiOO in Analytical cam design, 90, 96, 106
) angular, 296
Angle of opproach, 136
11.6 a = 38 mm, b = 55 mm, c = 55 mm, d = 51 mm Coriolis, 301, 333
Angle of recess, 136
} linear, 294
Angular bevel gear, 209
normal, 295
relative, 297 Angular momentum, 471
) Chapter Twe/ye tangential, 29S Angular velocity ratio, 10, 24S
Acceleration aaalylis: Annular gcor, 162
) U.l RSSR (2), RCCC (1), RSSR-SC (1), RSCR (I) cam and follower, 338 Aic of actioo, 136
12.3 M = 1 complex mechanism, 369 Automotive cam, 71
) crank 1bapcr, 336, 362 Axial pitch, 233
12.5 must consider clearance in joints Axial sectioo, bevel sear, 207
four-bar linb.1e, 301, 344, 349, 364
) U.8 q ' = 71 + SJ + 5k 1ean, 340
U .11 6, = 2 .520" or 147.347" (two branches) rollin& elemenu, 340 Back 1ngJe, bevel cear, l l 1
) roton, 291 Back cooe, bevel gear, 208
1lider-aank au:cbanism, 36, 3S7 Back cone elermnt ( disWlcc). 211
) Acceleration determinadon : Backlash, 13S, I S6
:.. by calcul1tlon1, 36, 297, JlO Balance or machinery, 503
by complex numbers, Jn, 3S8, 3152, 3156 crankshaft, 506, 509
) by sr•phlcal d1lferentl11lon, 349 dynamic, S JO
by oumcrical dllfereatiation, 349 eight-cylinder engine, S23
) by polyps, 331, 338, 339, 343 equalioos of, S16
by unit vectors, 298, 301, 306, 344 four-bar link•&•. S33
) A"°leralion lma10, 331, 343 four-cylinder enclne, S 18
Accuncy polnll, S49 five -cylinder enaJne, 520
) Addendum: Inertia force, SOJ
bevel sear, 210 moment, SOS, S 17
) helical JC&r, 228 opposed engine. 532
recess-action gear, 185 primary forces, Sl6
) 1pur1ear, 13S, l47, l82, l83 propeller, S 11

) 635
)
)
 ,
)
636 INDEX INDEX 637
•
Balaoce of lll,IChinety (Contin11td) spiral, 21S trapezoidal follower motioa, 89 Crank-shaper mechanism, 39
•
•
reciprocating mass, S 13 spiral anJle, 214, 21S undercuttiPa, 97, 110 kinematic analysis, 336, 362
rotor, S04 spiral cuttiJia, 218 Carteaian manipulator, 600 Crossed helical aears, 220, 229
secondary forua, S 16 tooth thickness, 214 Center diitance: Crown 1ear, 209
au-cylinder engine, SlS, S23 transverse section, 209
static, SIO
three-cylinder en&izie, S 16
wi.dercuttin&, 210, 214
velocity ratio, 207
helical ICU, 226
spur gear, IS6
Curve matching, SS1
Currilillear translation, S, 293 •·
V-eo&ioe, S2S
Balance wbeel escapement, 53
whole depth, 213
womog depth, 21 3
Ceatrifug.J force, 396
Cbala, 7 .
Cusps on cams, 74, 90, 92
Cuttiagpitch circle, 142, 144, 1S6, 173
Cullins pitch line, 173
•
BalanciDg machine, S 11
Ball and disk integrator. S 5
Zerol, 214
Body guidance ayothesis, 547, S61, 564, S91
coostrained, 8
kinematic, 8 Cutting pressure angle, 173
or •
B•ll- and-socket joint. 5 8 3
Base circle, 131. 13S
Branch defect, S61, 512
British standard metric modulaa, 149
Chamber wheels, 43
Root'• blower, 43
Wankel enpae. 43
Cycle motion, 7
Cycloidal gear, 128, 163
C)'cloldal motion, 82, 84, BS
•
Base pitch, 135, 139
Base radius. 1pur aear , 131, I JS
Deanna force, 405
Cams, 3 , 71
analytic al dcsiin. 90. 96. I06
Chebyshcv 1pacln1. SSO
Circle d iagram. 326
Cyllnder cam. 78
Cylinder wonn, 232 •
or
Beg.inning coot.act, I 36, 137 automotive, 7 I
Circular pitch:
helical aear. 221 , 2 2S
Cylindric joint, 583
Cylindric manipulator, 600 •
Bell crank, 7
Bendix-Weiu univeraaljoint , 47
Bevel gears, 206
base circle, 7 3
contour. 111
spur aear, 135
Clearance, 147 Dead points, 21 •
addendum, 210
addendum angle, 212
CUSpl, 7 4, 90, 92
cycloid.I follower motion, 82, 84, BS
cylinder, 78
Coefficient ohpeed fluctuation , 459
Cognate linkaaes. S70
Common normal, 9
Dedeodum:
bevel sear, 210
spur gear, 135, 147, 182, 183
•
addendum element, 210
angular. 209
disk, 73
disk cam desisn computer program, 104
Complex mechanisms, kinematic analysis, 369
Complex numbers:
Dedendum angle, 212
Dedendum circle, 135
•
uial r;ection, 207
back angle, 211
displacemeot curves, 79
dwell, 76
111e in fo~ analysis, 429
lllfl In tioematic analysis, 354
Dcdendum element, 212
Defects, 567, S72 •
back cone, 208
back cooe element (distance), 211
eccootric, 3 7. 82
eighth-power polynomial rouower motion, 84,
complex mechanisms, 369
crank-sbpcr mechanism, 362
Desrees of freedom, 11 , S83. 602
Depth of cut, 183, 213 •
Conifle;t. 215
ConiOex cutting, 217
87
force analysis, 468
four-bar linkage, 364
plane rotation matrix, 589
Dexterity, 604
Diametral pitch: •
crown , 209 graphical desip, 73, 76, 78, 79 slider-crank mechanism, 357 bevel gear, 213
•
,•
dedendum, 210 harmonic followe r motioo, 82, 84, 86 Compound aear, 248 belie.I aear, 221 , 2 25
dcdendum angle, 212 invene, 79 Computer programs. BASIC, 31, 105, 367, apur gear, 143
depth of cut, 213 jerk, 84 624 Differential:
diamellal pitch, 207, 213 kiaematic analysis, 317 Computing elements, 54 automobile, 260
differential, 260, 261 length of foUower face, 7 4, 91 Conillcx bcvd aear. 21S bevel aear. 260, 261
equivalent 90" ratio, 214 minimum radiua, 74, 90, 92 Conillex cuttiq, 217 spur par, 262
equ.ivalent spur sear, 209
face advance, 212
minimum radius of pileh surface, 96, 110
modified constant velocity follower motioa,
Coqjupte par, 128
Connectin1 rod, I, 3S
Dimemioa•l syatbesis, S4S
Dist cam, 73 •
face aogle, 212
face width, 212
80
numerical deslsn methods, 90
Constant velocity uni versa! jointa, 46
Beodix-Welsa, 47
computer desian. I 04
Displacement a.oalysia; •
Gleason 1traight-tootb system, 210
hypoid, 219
offset follower. 76
oscillatio1 nat-faced follower, 76
Rzeppa, 47
Tracta, 48
four-bar linkage. 20
slider- crank mechanism, JS •
in~nial. 214
localized tooth contact, 215
oscUlatina roller follower, 77
parabolic follower motioo, 80
Tri-pot, 49 Displacement QUVes, earns, 79
•
,
Coostralned chain, 8 Double crank, 2S
long and short addendum sys~m . 210 pitch surface, 15, 78, 96, 97, 107, 109
metric symbols, 212 positive n:turo. 78
Coaatrained motion, 28 8
Contact, spur aear:
Double hcliclll aear, 227
Double rocker, 2S
>
miter, 209 pressure anaJe, 73,n. 16, 98, 103 beslanlna of, 137 Drai link mechanism. 39
octoid teeth, 210 production metboda, 11 a end of, 136, 137 Dwell of cam follower, 76
outside diameter, 212 radial n.t-W:ed foUower, 3, 73, 90 Contact ratio, 135, 138,226 Dyad, 568
pitch angle, 208 radial roller follower, 74, 96 Coat<KU cams, S4, 111 Dynamically equivalent masses, 440, 442 >
pitch cone, 207 radius of c:wntun, 74, 90, 92
pitch cone element (distance), 207
pitch diameter, 207
radius of QUV&ture of pitch aurf1ee, 96, 110
specified coDlour, 71
Coatour JC&ll, 114
Coriolis acceleration, 301 , 333
Couotaweisht, 434, 443
Dynamic balance, 510

Eccentric, 37
•
pitch surface, 206
pre.ssure anale, 213
specified motion of follower, 71
1plioca, 89
Crank, l, 35 as cam, 82 >
Crank rocker, 125 Eilhth-power pOlynomial motioa, 84, 87
root ancle, 212
shall angle, 207
stroke, 73
third derivative of follow« displacemeot, 84
Cra.nbhaft:
balance, S06, S09
End of cont•ct, aear. 136, 137
End thrust, 227
>
spherical Involute, 208 three-dl.memional, 11.5 torque, 439 EaerlY, ol flywheol. 457 }
}
)
J
•
,
)
) 638 INDEX t INDEX 639
) Enaioe, piston: 1bakin1. 449
II spiral bevel, 21S, 218 metric symbols, 225
balance, S 13 mini.mum pinion teeth, 223
) block, 449
eigbt-c;ylindcr, 523
italic, 39S
surface or contact, 462, 468
Force analysis:
i standard, apur, 148
worm, 231
Zerol bevel, 214
p0rmal circular pitch, 221, 22S
normal diamctral pitch, 221
) five-cylinder, 520 cam and follower, 468 f Gear tra.lm, 245 normal plane, 220
force analysis, 434 by oomplex numbcn, 429 angulu velocity rado, 245 normal SJRSS~ angle, 220, 222
four-cylinder, 518 l'rom dyuunic characteristics, 42$ 1 applicatiom a planetary tralna, 258 outside diameter, 228
~

l
ho11epowcr, 4S6 eopoe, 449 a.uembly of plautary tra1na. 262 parallel , 220, 226
oppo11ed, SJ 2 four-bar linkage, 404, 413, 418, 421, 425 bevel aear dltrcreotlal, 260, 261 pitch diameter, 225
) six-cylinder, SIS, S23 sears, 462 . circulating power In planetary aear J}'1teml, plane of rotation, 220
three-cylinder, S 16 helical gears, 223, 462 267 pressure angle, 220, 223
) torque diagram, 4S8 by IMP, 418 compound aear, 248 shaft angle, 229
V-6, S28 by matrix methods, 41 J epicyclic (cyclic), 248 transvenal bob, 224
) V-8, S2S planetary sears, 462 formula method, 251 transverse dlamctral pitch, 221, 224
Epicyclic (cyclic) gear train, 248 by polygons, 410 harmonic drive aearins, 273 velocity ratio, 226, 229
) application, 2S 8 rotor blades, 3 96 Idler aear, 246 Helical joint, 583
assembly, 262 single-cylinder engine, 434 ordinary, 248 Helie.I motion, 6
force analysis, 462 slider CTank, 4 34
\1 planetary, 248 Helix angle:
) kinematic analysis, 329 by superposition, 404, 407, 410 planet aear, 248 helical aear, 221
planet gear, 248 by unit vecton, 405 apur sear differeotlal, 262 worm gearing, 233
) sun gear, 248 by -.irtual wort, 421 aun sear, 248 Herringbone sear, 227
Equivalent linkage (link), 320, 342, 570 Forward ltinematia problem, 606 tabuladon method, 2SS Higher pair, 1
) EquiYalcnt masses, 440 P oullna, lotcmal sear, 162 train value, 248 Hob gear cutting, 142, 220, 2 22
Equivalent spur gear, bevel gear, 209 Four-bar linkage, 20 Geneva wheel, SI Hob offset, 173, 117, 223
t Escapements, SJ
Extended center distance system, 17 3
analy1is by complex numbers, 364 German standard metric module•, ISO Hooke's coupling, 44
body guidance, 547, S61, 564, 567 Gleuoo atrai&ht bevel aear ayatem, 210 Hourglass worm, 232
) cosnates, 570 tooth proportions, 213 . Hypoid aears. 219
Face advance, 226 dead points, 20 Graphical cam detlpi, 73, 76, 78, 79
) Face angle, 212 defecU, 572 Graphical dilfereotiation, 349 Idler scar, 246
Face width: fon:e analysis, 404, 413, 418, 421, 42.5 Grasbolf's Law, 24, 572 Images, kinematic, 316, 331
bevel gear, 212 fi.t.adioa 1eneratio11, 546, 552. SS1, 560, 597 IMP:
) helical gear, 226 instantaneous centers, 321
Grubler mobility equation, 13
Gyroscope: displacement analysis, 3 2
apur gear, l 3S kinematic analysis, 301, 344, 349, 364 foroe, 470 force analysis, 418
} Fellows gear ahaping, 144 path generation. S47, .570, 597 pcccessloo, 4 7 1 velocity and acceleration analysb , 370
Fillet, acar, 135, 1<47 synthesis, S4S •pin, 471 Inertia force, 3 99
) Firinc order, piston engines, S2S velocities by &Japhical dilfereotiatioo, 349 torque, 471 balance of, 503
Fixed automation, 600 Free-body diagrams: determination of, 402
) Fluible automation, 600 engine block, 449 rotor blades, 396

)
Flywheel, 4S6
coefficient ol speed fluctuation, 4S9
flywheel, 4S7
four. bar linkaac. 410
; Hand, helical 1ear, 226, 230
Harmonic moUon, 38, 82, 84, 86
locrtia torque, 399
Instantaneous center, 3 21
determination ol maximum and minimum
) 1peeda, 4S7
planetary seen, 462
tlogle.c;yli.nder en&inc, 43!5 :f Helical gean, 220
addendum, 228
Kennedy's theorem, 324
locations or. 325
cnera. 457 Preudenstein's method, SS2 center distance, 226 notation, 323
moment or inertia , 460, 461. 462, 47S Friction ancle, 234 circular pitch , 221, 22S number of, 32S
) size, 456 Full-depth tooth, 147 ·j contact ratio, 226 rolling elements, 329
types, 461, 462 Function aeaeratioo synthesis, !546, .549, S52, crossed, 220, 229 of velocity, 327
) Follower motion, types of: SS1,S60 diamotral pitch, 221, 22S Integrator, SS
cycloldal, 82, 84, SS double, 227 Interchangeable ge~. 148
) eighth-power polynomial, 84, 87 Gas focce, engines, 435 end thrust, 22 7 loterference point, 140
hannooic, 82, 84, 86 Ou pressure diagram, engines, 4SS face advance, 226 lotermittent searing, 5 2
) modified constant velocity, 80 Gean: race width, 226 lntennittent motion mechanisms :
parabolic, 80 bevel, 206 Fellows gear shaper cuuio1, 224 csc1pc111ents, S 3
) trapezoidal, 89 contour, 114 forces , 223 Geneva wheel, S l
Force: force analysis, 462 band, 226, 230 iatennittent searing, 52
} centrifil&AI, 396 helical, 220 helix anak, 221 ratcbet mechanism, 52
determinalioo, 402 hypoid, 219 berrinaboae aear, 227 Internal bevel cear, 214
) IYl"OSCOplc, 470 metric, 143 bob cutting, 220, 222 latenial spur aear, 162
inertia, 395. 399 nonstandard, spur, IS I, 171 bob offset, 223 lavene cam, 79
)

>
)
}
 640 INDEX INDEX 641
•,
lnvcuion, 8 ·
of Wdor- crank mechanism, l7
Involute function, 134
paotoa;raph, 42
Peaucellier ltral&ht-llno, 42
quick retuni, 38, 39, 40
roWn1. 318, 329
rotadoo,6
1implo bannooic, 82, 84, 86
helical sear, 225
1pu.r 1ear, 13 l, I 0
worm aear, 233
••
Involute gear, 128
Involute iotcrl'erence, HO, 171
Involute pressure aoale, 131
Involulomelry, I 3 I
ratchet, n
Root'• blower, 43
Rz.eppa universal joint, 47
Scotch yoke, 38
slider crank, 1, JS
·
lpberical, 7
traoslatioa,s
tranmalaaioa of, 9
MotJoa 1caeratioo, u•
Body culdaou 1yatbesla
Mwticyliodcr eoaine, balance of, S 13
Pitch line, 13 S
cuttins, ISi
1taodard, JS I
Pitch point, I 37
Pitch radiUJ, I 35
,•
,
Jerk, cam, 84, 89 straight line, 41 Pitch surface:
Joint.s, 11, S83 toggle, 40 Noocin;ular gear, S4 bevel sear. 206
Tracla universal joint, 48 Noastaodatd spur gear: cam, 1S, 18, 96, 97, 107, 109 )
Koonedy's theorem of three centers, 321 Tri-pot un.ivoraal joint, 49 cut by hob, 151, 171 spur sear, JJS
Kinematic analysis by compla ownben, JSS
KiDematic chain, 8
Kinetically equivalent masses, 440
Kuubach mobility equation, S83
universal joint, 44
Watt straight line, 41
Whitworth quick return, 39
Mellie gears, J 43
Mellie modules:
cul by pinioo cutter, 187
Normal circular pitch, 221, 225
Normal diamctral pitch, 221
Normal plane, 220
Normal pressure ana)c, 220, 222
Pivot point, 328
Plano motion, 5
Plane of rotation, 220
Plane rotation matrix, S88
Planetary sear trains, 248
>
,
Lanchesler balancer, S20 British standard, 149 Number synthesis, S4S applications, 258
)
Lead,233
Lead a.nglc, 23 3
Leogtb, cam follower face , 74, 91
Len&tb of action, 136, 1J7
Line of action, 9, I JS, 138
Germ.a.a standard, I SO
Metric symbols:
bevel gears, 212
helical ae~ 22S
1pur gears, JSI
Octoid teeth, 210
Offset cam follower. 76
Olfaet slider-crank mechanism, 40
Oldham coupling, 4 I
assembly, 262
force analysis, 462
velocity analysis, 329
Plaoel gear, 248
Polnon:
)
,
Linear motion of particle, 293
Line o f IIa.nsrnissioo, 9
worm sears. 234
Minimum pin.ion teeth, !SJ, 154, 223
Operatins pitch circle, I 57, 176
Operatins pressure anaJe, 158, 175, 183
acceleration, 331, 338, 339, 343
anaular momentum, 471 •
Link, 7
Linkage 1ynlhesis, stt Syothesia
Localized tooth contact, 21 S
Long and short addendum system:
Minimum radiUJ:
cam, 74, 90, 92
cam pitch surface, 96, 110
Miter gears, 209
Opposed onpa, S32
Orcliouy sear tn.i.o, 248
Oacillalins Oat-faced cam follower, 76
0.dUatiq roller ca.rn foUowcr, 77
force, 410
velocity, 311, 314, 317, 320, 331, 338,
339
Position analysis:
,•
bevel gear, 210
spw gear, 183
Lower pair, 9
Mobility:
of manipulators, 602
of planar mechanisms, 11
of spatial mechanisms, S83
Oscillalioa,6
Output torque:
di1gam, ·4SS, 4S8, 4S9
cope, 450
four· bar linka1e, 20, 612
slider-crank, JS
Positive return cam, 78
Power output, piston en&ioes, 4S6
,
)

,,
Machine, definition of, S Modified constaot velocity motion, 80 equatlom, 452 Precession, 4 72
Manipulalor, 600 Moment balance, SOS, 517 &ndiom, 454 Preci1ioo poinls, S49, S52 )
forward kinematics, 606 Moment of inertia: Outside diameter: Pressure angle:
inverse kinematics, 607 experimental, 47S bevel aear, 212 bevel gear, 213
mobility, 602 units of, 460 helical sear. 228

,
cam, 73,75,76,98,103
singular position, 606 Motion, S Outside radius, nonstandard sear, 182 helical sear, 220, 223
Muter cam, 118 absolute, 29 7 spur gear, 136, J46
Mallia method of force analysis, 413 analysis from dynamic characteristics, 425 Pailins clements, 7 Primary balance, S 16
Mechanical erro r, S46 ansuJar, 296 Pantosra?h, 42 of forces, S 16
Mechanism, S
Bendix-Weiss universal joint, 47
chamber wheels, 43
conswit vclocily wlivcrul joinu, 46
curvilinear translation, S
cycle of, 7
cycloidal, 82, 8.C, 85
Parabolic motion, 80
ParaDcl helical sears, 220, 226
Path seneratioo 1y11lhesl1, S47, S70
of moments, SOS, S 17
Prismatic joints, II , S 8 3
Production or cams, I 18
•
)
eiahth-power polyoom!al, 84, 87 Pcauccllier atnqbt.(jne mechanilm, 42 Propeller:
cu.alt shaper, 39 harmonic, 82, 84, 86 Period or motion, 7 balance of, 51 I
dra1 link, 39 helical, 6 Pbaao of motion, 7 gyroscopic fo~e. 4 70 )
eccenlric , 37 modified ccnstuit velocity, 80 Pinion, 134 Inertia force, 398
escapcmenls, SJ modified parabolic, 80 Pin.ion cutter offset, 189 twlstins of blade, 398 )
four-bar linbge, 20 osciUatioo, 6 Piatoo, 2, JS Pure rollins, 10, 318, 340
Geneva wheel, Sl parabolic, 80 eqi.ne, 2, 434, 442 )
Hooke's couplins, 44 period or, 7 Pitcla ancJe, 208 Quick-return mechanisms, 38
!Jicermittent cearina, S2 phase of, 7 Pitcla circle, 131 , 135 crank 1baper, 39 )
lntermillent motion , SI, S2, 53 plane, S Pitch cone, 207 dras link, 39
lnvcn 1<>111 of alidcr crank, 3 7 roclprocatioo, S Pitch cone element (distance), 207 olJael allder crank , 40
offset a(jdcr crult, 40 rectilinear tran11AU00, S Pitcb diameter: time ratio, 39
)
Oldham coupling, 41 relative, 9, 296 bevel sear. 207 Whitworth, 39
)
)

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)
)
- 642 INDEX INDEX 643
lUck, 13S Slidin1 pair, 7 involute, 128 COgJtaleS, .570
JUdlal Rat-faced cam follower, 3, 73, 90 Spacing of accuracy points, 11nthuls, H9 involute function, 134 complex numbers, SS7 , 567
) JUdlal roller cam follower, 74, 96 Spalla! linkages., 582, 587 Involute interference, 140, 17 l curve matchina. 557
bdlus of curvature, cams, 74, 90, 92, 96, 110 Spatial mechanism, 582, S81 involute pressure angle, 1ll defects, .572
~ JUtchet mechanism, S2 analysis, 59.5 lnvoturometry, 131 dyad, 568, 597
Raven's method, 5S7 RCCC mechanism, .587 length of action, l J6, I J7 freudenstein's method, 552
) Rece.ss-adion gears, 185 RSCR mechanism, 587 line al action, 13.5, l J8 runc1ion gcnera1ion. H6, SH . .557 . .560, .597
Reciprocation, 5 RSSR mechanl1m, .586 lon1 and 1hnrt addendum l)'ltem, 183 OnuhofT defrc1. 512
) Rectllioear tramlacion , ~ RSSR- SC mochnnlsm , 587 metric aean, 146 o rdtr deltct, ~ 72
Relative motion, 8, 296 synthesis, 597 minimum teeth for pinlon, I 53, I 54 path gtneration, S46, 510, 597
acceleration, 296 Spatial motion, 7, .587 ooast.andMd, ISi, 171, 187 precision points, 549, .552
) coincident particles, 3 33 Specified contour of cam, 71 operating pitch circle, 176 Raven's method, 5H
particles in c ommo n link, 313, 330 Specified motion of cam follower, 71 operating pressure angle, 175, 183 spacing of accuracy polnu , 550
) path, 297 Spherical involute, 208 outside radiu •, I 59 1patial mechanisms, 597
velocity, 296 Spherical motion, 7 pinion, IJ4 1lrUctural and mechankal cnor , .546
) ~versible worm gear drive, 234 Spheric joiot, 583 pitch circle, I 31, l J5 tracer poiJJt., 547, 510
~volute joint, 7, 583 Spiral aD&)e, 214, 21.5 pitch diameter, 131, 143 type, oumbcr, aod dimensional, 545
) Robotic manipulator, 582, 600 Spiral bevel gear, 21.5, 218 pitch line, 13 S
Rolling element: Splines In cam design, 90 pitch point, 135 Theorem of three centen, Kennedy ' s theo rem,
) instantaneous center, 3 21 Spur gears, 128 pitch radius, I JS 321
velocity analysis, 340 addendum, 135, 147, 182, IBJ pitch surface, 135 Third deri vative of ca.m follower di!placement,

,
} Root angle, 212
Root's blower, 43
Rotation, 6
Rotation matrix:
axis, 593
addendum circle, J JS
an&)e of approach, 136
an&)e of recess, 136
annular, 162
arc of action, 136
pressure angle, 136, 146
raclr., l JS
recess- action gears, 185
shaper cutters, tables, 148
standard, 148 .
84
Three-dimeosiooal cam, 115
'Three-dimensional motion, 7, .582
Time ratio of quiet-return mechanism, 39
Toggle mechanism, 40
) plane, 589 backlash, 135, I 56 standard pitch circle, 156 Tooth cune, !JS
spatial, S91 , 59J base circle, 131, I 3.5 standard pitch lice, 173 Tooth face, I JS
) Rotor balance, 504 bue pitch, 13.5, 139 stub tooth, 147 Tooth flank, IJS
Rotor blade: base radius, l J 1, 135 tooth curve, 1J S Tooth forces, 462
) inertia force, 396 besinnin1 or contact, 136, 137 tooth face, I 3 5 Tooth proportions, 147
stress, J97 center distance change, I 59, 177 tooth flank, I JS Tooth thicbieu:
) Rzeppa universal joint, 47 circular pitch, 13.5
clearaoce, 147, 151
tooth forces, 462
tooth proportions, 147, 174
bevel aear, 214
spur ~ar. 122, 147, 174
Scotch yoke, J8 coqju1ate, 128 tooth thickness, 122, l 4 7 Torque:
) Screw joiot, 583 contact ratio, 136, 138 undercuttioa, 140 average, 455
Secondary balance: cutting pitch circle, 142, 144, 156, 113 velocity ratio, I JI crankshaft, J34
J offorces, S 16
of moment$, 505, 517
cuttin1 pitch line, 173 whole depth, 147 diapvns, 4SS
cutting prusure angle, JS2, JS9, 173 wort:illg depth, 147 engine, 434, 450
) Shaft angle: qcloidal, 128, 163 Standard 1ear. 148 fuactions, 454
bevel gear, 207 dedeodum, 135, 147, 182, 183 Standard pitch circle, IS 6 IYfOSCOpic, 471
) helical gear, cr0$sed, 229 dedendum circle, I JS St•ndard pitch line, I 5 I inertia, 339
Shaft torque, 405 depth of cut, 183 Static balance, S 10 toad, 4SS
) Shakiag: diametral pitch, 14J Static force, 395 output, 4S I
couple, 449. S 13 differential, 26 I Straight-line mechanisms, 41 sha.kiDg, 450
) force, 449, 513 end of contact, 136, 137 Pcaucellier, 42 Tracts universal joint, 48
Simple harmooic mo tion, 82, 84, 86 extended center distance system, 17 3 Watt, 41 Train value, 248
) Singular position or manipulator, 606 face width, 135 Streu, rotor blades, 397, 398 Transfer point, J28
Single-cylinder engine: Fellows aear shaping, 144 Structural and mechanical error, 546 Translation, 5
balance of, 513 fillet, 135, 147 Stub tooth, 147 curvilinear, S
) force analysis, 4J5 force analysis, 462 Suo gear, 248 rectilinear, 5
shaking of, 449 fouling, 162 Supeq>OSition, 404, 407, 410 Transmission angle, 21
) Slider-crank mechanism, I , JS full-depth tooth, I 47 Syothe1i1, S 1, 54.5 T,.,,smission o( motion, 9
accderation, 39, 357 bob acar cutting. 142 accvr.cy points, 549, 552 Tran1ven1e diametral pitch, 221 , 224
) displncement, JS hob offset, 17 3, 117 body auidance, 547 • .561. 564, 561, .597 Tr1UUvene sec!ioo, bevel aeu. 209
force analysis, 435 lnterchangesble, 148 branch defect, 567, 572 Trapezoidal cam motion, 89
) Inversions or. 37 lntufereoce point, 140 cams, 71 Tri-pot oons!Ant velocity joint, 49
velocity, J6, 357 Internal, 162 • Chebyshev spacing, 550 Tumlng pair, 7
)
)
)

>
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)

,
~-: t . ·.;:.-
J )
I (

644 INDEX '(

•
,,•
Type, number , and dimensional 1ynthcais, 545 cam UJd follow«, 10 (
helical pars, croucd, 229
Undercuttlna: bcUcal pars, parallol, 226
bevel aoar, 210, 214 linbgc., 11
(
cam, 97, 110 ordinary 1car tuin, 246
1pur aur. 140 planetary soar uain, 248
(
Unit vectors, 298 spur scars, 131

,,•
Universal joinl.S, 44 wonn gearing, 233 (
constant velocity type, 46
Hooke type, 44
Velocity of sliding, 10
V-eogiog, balance c:J, SZS
Virtual work, 42 I
c
Vector mathematic• , velocily and acceleration (
aoalysis, 298
Velocity:
lblolute, 297
epdar, 296
Wankel engine, 43
Watt straight-line mechanism, 41
Whitworth quiclt-retum mechanism,
39
•c )
Uutantaneous center of, 321
linear, 294, 296
relative, 297
Velocity analysis :
velocity analysis, 328
Whole deplh:
bevel sear, 2J3
spur gear, 147 4• ,• )
cam aod follower , 317
crank 1bapcr, 336, 362
row-bar lin.kase. 301, 334, 349, 364
gears, 318, 341
Workin& depth:
bevel gear, 213
spur p:ar, 147
Wann gearing, 231 •• •
••
planetary sears, 129 axial pitch, 233
roUina clemenl.S, 340 cylinder worm, 232
)
11idcr crank, 36, H7 friction angle, 234
Whitworth mechanism, 328 belix apgle, 233 )

•.. ,•,
Velocity determination: hourglass wonn, 232
by e&lc ulatioru, 36, 294., 3S4 lead, 233
by complex numbers, 354 lead anclc, 233
by graphical differentiation, 34? metric symbols, 234
by imtantaneous centers, 321 or
pitch diameter wonn, 233
by polY&OO coastructioo, 311, 314, 317, 320, pitch diameter or worm sear,
331 . Jl8, 339, 30 233
by unit vectors, 298, 307, 344
Velocity ima1c, 314, 331, 343
Velocity ratio:
bcv~I gears, 207
reversible drive, 234
wlocity ratio, 233

Zero! bevel gear, 214

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