DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A SOLAR DRYER WITH

OPTIMIZED CHIMNEY HEIGHT AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

BY

KASIM HUSSAIN AHMAD

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA
NIGERIA

SEPTEMBER, 2015

i
DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A SOLAR DRYER WITH
OPTIMIZED CHIMNEY HEIGHT AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

BY

Kasim Hussain AHMAD (B.Eng, ABU)

M.Sc/ENG/1899/2011-2012

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES,

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF A
MASTER DEGREE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA
NIGERIA

SEPTEMBER, 2015

ii
 DECLARATION

I declare that this dissertation titled “Development and Performance Evaluation of a Solar Dryer
with Optimized Chimney Height and Thermal Properties” has been carried out by me in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering. The information derived from the literature has been
duly acknowledged in the text and a list of references provided. No part of this dissertation was
previously presented for another degree at this or any other Institution.

Kasim Hussain AHMAD

Name of Student Signature Date

iii
 CERTIFICATION

This dissertation entitled “DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A

SOLAR DRYER WITH OPTIMIZED CHIMNEY HEIGHT AND THERMAL PROPERTIES”

by Kasim Hussain, AHMAD meets the regulations governing the award of Master Degree in

Mechanical Engineering of Ahmadu Bello University, and is approved for its contribution to

knowledge and literary presentation.

__________________________ ___________________
Dr. F. O. Anafi Date

Chairman, Supervisory Committee

__________________________ ____________________
Dr. D. M. Kulla Date
Member, Supervisory Committee

_________________________ _____________________

Dr. M. Dauda Date

Head of Department

____________________________ _____________________
Prof. Kabir Bala Date
Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies.

iv
 DEDICATION

With immense gratitude to God, I dedicate this dissertation to my family members and the
community of solar energy researchers.

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I must start by thanking Allah the Almighty, for granting me good health, strength,
focus and tenacity to remain steadfast in the pursuit of this degree. I owe a very big debt of
gratitude to my parents and remain eternally grateful and prayerful to them.

To my supervisors, Dr. F.O Anafi and Dr. D.M Kulla, I appreciate your support and the time you
gave to read my work and your contributions that made this research meaningful. I say thank you
very much.

My warm gratitude also goes to the entire lecturers of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering for their candid support and to some of them, who took their personal time to read
and suggest some corrections to be made. Also to the management and entire staffs of
National Space Research and Development Agency. To this end, I remain exceptionally thankful
to you all.

My heartfelt gratitude also goes to the entire friends and course mates of mine, whom I always
struggle with, in the pursuit of my studies. At this juncture, Special mention should be made to
my beloved wife to be, Hafsat Isma’eel Khalid. Also to my friends and colleagues, Abubakar
Aliu, Ahmed Ibrahim, Engr Kaisan Usman, Engr Ali Danladi, Hamisu Dandajeh, Musa
Abubakar, Maryam Abdulkareem, Abubakar Ciroma, Owolabi Babatope, Mariya Akilu, Awwal
Nasiru Danamana, Muyideen Balogun, Ahmad Abbas, Moh’d Shuaibu, Muhammed Baba
Abdullahi, Sayyadi Sanda, Iorpenda Msuega Jnr among others. Also special thank goes to the
management team of Barhama Café.

I also register my appreciation to the entire members of my family.

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 ABSTRACT

Three identical solar dryers with an optimum chimney height and varied thermal properties were
developed, tested under the same conditions and their relative performance evaluation was
carried out. Dryer-A has plastic chimney, Dryer-B has blackened steel chimney and Dryer-C has
blackened steel chimney covered with transparent glazing. Comparatively, dryer C exhibits the
lowest collector exit temperatures but with the highest chimney temperatures at all instances
compared to dryer A and B also obey similar pattern. The moisture loss in dryer C is also
slightly faster than that of dryers A and B which were faster than the direct open sun drying.
Drying rates of 1.84 g/min, 1.91 g/min, 1.96 g/min and 1.69 g/min, total drying period of 18 hrs,
17 hrs, 16 hrs and 22 hrs, drying efficiencies of 26.8 %, 27.8 %, 28.6 % and 24.8 % for dryer A,
B, C and direct open sun drying respectively were achieved to an equilibrium moisture content of
8 % for drying tomato. A drying period of 18 %, 23 % and 27 % was saved for dryer A, B and C
respectively compared to the direct open sun drying. Also, drying rates of 1.21g/min, 1.21g/min,
1.41 g/min and 1.17 g/min, drying periods of 14 hrs, 14 hrs, 12 hrs and 15 hrs, and drying
efficiencies of 21.1 %, 21.1 %, 22.2 %, and 19.9 % were obtained for dryer A, B, C and the
direct open sun drying respectively to an equilibrium moisture content of 16 % for the red
pepper. Engineering Equation Solver (EES) was used to evaluate the chimney densities, air flow
velocities and the buoyant pressure head in the systems. Maximum buoyant pressure head was
evaluated (0.4019, 0.4019 and 0.4442 N/m2) and chimney air flow velocity (0.2047, 0.2047 and
0.2158 m/s) for the dryers (A, B and C) at average chimney temperatures (48, 48 and 50 o C
respectively). The costs of manufacture are ₦14380, ₦14730 and ₦16330 for dryer A, B and C
respectively.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page…………………………………………………………………………..…………..i

Declaration……………………………………………………………………………....…….ii

Certification……………………………………………………………………………..…….iii

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………..…………iv

Acknowledgment…………………………………………………………………...………….v

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..……………vi.

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………vii

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………..xi

List of Tables………………………………………………………………..………………….xiii

List of Plates………………………………………………………………………….…………xv

List of Appendices………………………………………………………………….………….xvi

Nomenclatures………………………………………………………………..……………….xvii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………….……1

1.1 Background………………………………………………………………………………..1

1.2 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………………..……..3

1.3 The Present Research…………………………………………………………..…………4

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I.4 Aim and Objectives……………………………………………………………..………..4

1.5 Significance of the Research………………………………………………….………….5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………….6

2.1 Use of Solar Dryers………………………………………………………………………6

2.2 Classification of Drying Systems………………………………………………………..6

2.2.1 High temperature dryers………………………………………………………………..6

2.2.2 Low temperature dryers………………………………………………………………..7

2.3 Principles of Solar Drying………………………………………………………………7

2.3.1 Open sun drying (OSD)………………………………………………………..……….8

2.3.2 Direct solar drying (DSD)……………………………………………………...……….8

2.3.3 Indirect solar drying (ISD)……………………………………………………..………10

2.3.4 Hybrid solar drying (HBD)……………………………………………………...……..11

2.4 Types of Solar Dryers.………………………………………………………...………...11

2.5 Water Activity…………………………………………………………………...….........14

2.6 Equilibrium Moisture Content……………………………………………...…………..14

2.7 Review of Related Works………………………………………………………………..15

2.8 Theoretical Background…………………………………………………………………20

2.8.1 Transmission…………………………………………………………………….……….21

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2.8.2 Absorption………………………………………………………………………..……21

2.8.3 Reflection…………………………………………………………………………..….22

2.8.4 Energy balance equation……………………………………………………………....22

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIAL AND METHODS……………………………….....23

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….23

3.2 Description of the solar dryer………………………………………………………….23

3.3 Design Theories…………………………………………………………………………24

3.3.1 Chimney design………………………………………………………………………..27

3.4 Materials…………………………………………………………………………………30

3.4.1 Material selection………………………………………………………………………30

3.4.2 Solar energy data ………………………………………………………………………33

3.5 Design Calculations ………………………………………………………………….....33

3.6 Solar Dryer Construction……………………………………………………………….37

3.7 Cost of the Solar Dryers………………………………………………………………….38

3.8 Testing of the Solar Dryers……………………………………………………………..39

3.8.1 Aim of the experiments…………………………………………………………..…….39

3.8.2 Procedure………………………………………………………………………….……39

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3.9 Modelling…………………………………………………………………………….…..41

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………………….42

4.1 Results………………………………………………………………………………… ….42

4.1.1 Chimney design results ………………………………………………………………….42

4.1.2 Readings taken from solar dryers………………………………………………………43

4.1.3 Results for drying of fresh Tomato…………………………………………………….43

4.1.4 Results for drying of Red Pepper………………………………………………………46

4.1.5 Results of EES modelling…………………………………………….………………..49

4.2 Discussion of Results……………………………………………………………………51

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………………...55

5.1 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….55

5.2 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………56

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….57

APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………..61

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Working Principle of Open Sun Drying ……………………………………..…… 8

Figure 2.2: Working Principle of Direct Solar Drying ……………………………………..…..9

Figure 2.3: Working Principle of Indirect Solar Drying System ………………………….…..10

Figure 2.4: Working Principle of a Hybrid Solar Drying System………………………………11

Figure 3.1: Sectional View of the Solar Collector ………………………………………….….23

Figure 3.2: A Sketch of the Proposed Solar Dryer ………………………………………….…24

Figure3.3: Schematic Description of the Solar Chimneys……………………………………...32

Figure 3.5: Experimental Setup of the Solar Dryers …………………………………………….40

Figure 4.1: Adiabatic Lapse Diagram …………………………………………………………...43

Figure 4.2: Variation of Average Collector Exit and Ambient Temperatures with Time…….…44

Figure 4.3: Variation of Average Chimney and Ambient Temperatures with Time ……………44

Figure 4.4: Drying Period against Moisture Loss ……………………………………………….45

Figure 4.5: Average Drying Rates for Tomato ………………………………………………….45

Figure 4.6: Average Drying Efficiency for Tomato …………………………………………….46

Figure 4.7: Variation of Average Collector Exit Temperatures with Time ……………………..47

Figure 4.8: Variation of Average Chimney Temperatures with Time ……………………...…...47

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Figure 4.9: Drying Period against Moisture Loss ………………………………………………48

Figure 4.10: Average Drying Rates for Drying of Red Pepper …………………………...…….48

Figure 4.11: Drying Efficiency for Red Pepper …………………………………………………49

Figure 4.12: Variation of the differential pressure head with time (tomato drying) …………..50

Figure 4.13: Variation of the chimney air flow velocity with time (tomato drying) …………...50

Figure 4.14: Variation of the differential pressure head with time (red pepper) ………………51

Figure 4.15: Variation of the chimney air flow with time (red pepper) ……………………….51

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Typical Solar Energy Dryer Designs …………………………..………………….13

Table 3.1: Design Calculations ………………………………………………….……………36

Table 3.3: Cost Analysis for the Solar Dryers ………………………………………………….38

Table A1: Chimney Temperature Lapse at Different Height …………………………………..61

Table A2: Reading from Dryers A, B and C for Drying of Tomato ………………………….61

Table A3: Moisture Loss from Dryer A, B, C and Open Sun Drying (OSD)…………………...62

Table A4: Reading from Dryers A, B and C for Drying of Tomato ……………………………62

Table A5: Moisture Loss from Dryer A, B, C and Open Sun Drying (OSD) …………………..63

Table A6: Reading from Dryers A, B and C for Drying of Tomato …………………………….63

Table A7: Moisture Loss from Dryer A, B, C and Open Sun Drying (OSD) ……………..……64

Table A8: Drying Rates and Efficiency for Drying Of Tomato …………………………….….64

Table A9: Reading from Dryers A, B and C for Drying of Red Pepper………………….…….65

Table A10: Moisture Loss from Dryer A, B, C and Open Sun Drying (OSD) ………….….….65

Table A11: Reading from Dryers A, B and C for Drying of Red Pepper ………………………66

Table A12: Moisture Loss from Dryer A, B, C and Open Sun Drying (OSD) …………………66

Table A13: Drying Rates and Efficiency for Drying of Red Pepper ……………………………67

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Table A14: Chimney Performance for Drying of Tomato ……………………………………67

Table A15: Chimney Performance for Drying of Red Pepper ………………………………..68

xv
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Display the Various Chimneys ……………………………………………………….70

Plate 2: Assembled Dryers before Fixing the Glazing…………………………………………70

Plate 3: Plan View Before Installing The Chimneys……………………………………………71

Plate 4: Display of the Drying Chamber……………………………………………………….71

Plate 5: Experimental Setup……………………………………………………………………..72

Plate 6: Experimental Setup Dispalying the Thermocouples……………………………………72

Plate 7: Experimental Setup…………………………………………………………………….73

Plate 8: Sample of Dried Product (Red Pepper)………………………………………………..73

Plate 9: Solarimeter……………………………………………………………………………...74

Plate 10: Thermocouples……………………………………………………………………….74

Plate 11: Hand Held Anemomter………………………………………………………………75

Plate 12: Weight Balance……………………………………………………………………….75

Plate 13: Aero Vane Anemometer……………………………………………………………..76

xvi
 LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Experimental Results…………………………………………………….……..61

APPENDIX B: Sample Calculation for Mass Loss, Moisture Loss, Drying Rates and Drying
Efficiencies ……………………………………………………………….……………………68

Appendix C: Plates Showing Construction Processes and Experimental Set Up ……….……..69

Appendix D: Instruments used for Measurements ………………………………………………73

Appendix E: EES Codes for Evaluation of Air Flow Velocity and Buoyant Pressure Head in the
Solar Chimney Dryers …………………………………………………………………….……77

Appendix F: Engineering Drawings ……………………………………………………………78

xvii
 NOMENCLATURES

Ac Area of the collector, m2

B Breadth of the collector, m

Cpa Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, kJ/kgK

g Acceleration due to gravity, ms-2

H Height of the chimney, m

Ic Solar insolation incident on the collector, Wm-2

Iτ Transmitted radiation, Wm-2

IT Global radiation, Wm-2

Ir Reflected radiation, Wm-2

Ib Beam radiation on a tilted surface, Wm-2

K Thermal conductivity, W/moC

L Length of the collector, m

Lt Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg

Ma Mass flow rate, kg/s

md Mass of the dry product, kg

mw Mass of water removed, kg

n Number of day

Qu Useful energy collected, W

Qg Useful energy for drying gained by the air, W

Qcond Rate of conduction losses from the absorber, W

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Qconv Rate of convective losses from the absorber, W

QR Rate of long wave re-radiation from the absorber, W

Qr Rate of reflection losses from the absorber,W

Qloss Rate of heat loss from the collector absorber to the surrounding, W

r Reflectivity

S Radiation absorbed per unit area of absorber

t Time in seconds, s

Ta Ambient temperature,0C

Tce Collector exit temperatures, 0C

Tad Temperatures above the drying trays, 0C

Tch Temperatures in the chimneys, 0C

UL Overall heat transfer coefficient of the collector, W/m2 K

v Velocity, ms-1

Va Volume of air, m3

x Thickness, m

Xw Moisture content (wet basis), %

Xd Moisture content (dry basis), %

α Absorptivity

τ Transmissivity

βa Volume coefficient of expansion of air

τc Effective solar transmittance of the collector cover,

xix
αc Solar absorptance of the collector absorber plate surface,

αw Water activity

ηc Instantaneous efficiency, %

ηd Drying efficiency, %

β Optimum slope of a flat plate collector, 0

δ Angle of solar declination, 0

Ǿ latitude of the test location,0

ρa Density of the ambient air , kg/m3

ρch Density of air in the chimney, kg/m3

∆Pb Buoyant pressure head, Nm-2

Mass rate of change of the product, kgs-1

Rate of thermal energy storage at the collector, Ws-1

Ratio of equilibrium vapour pressure to saturation pressure

xx