26.02.

2018 October | 2016 | Ithihas

Ithihas
Kaleidoscope of Indian civilization

In this blog you will find

Monthly Archives: October 2016
Writeups on Indian historical
themes and Biographies of
rulers and statesmen.
Institution of Marriage in Ancient India
October 26, 2016 – 3:58 am
Blogroll
It is held by many scholars that the human race must have originally lived in a state
facetsofindianhistory of promiscuity, where individual marriage did not exist, where all the men in a
Sanatana Parishad horde or tribe had indiscriminate access to all the women and where the children
Thinkerspad born of these unions belonged to the community at large. A passage in the
Mahabharatha describes in detail how such a state of things existed in Indian
society till it was prohibited by a sage named Shwetaketu who was shocked
Archives beyond measure to find his own mother going out with a stranger in the presence
February 2018
and with the full approval of his own father.
January 2018
Marriage a Divine Sacrament
October 2017
August 2017 But during Rig Vedic period the institution of marriage was strongly planted.
June 2017 According to the Rig Veda the purpose of marriage was to enable a man, by
May 2017 becoming a householder, to perform sacrifice to the gods and to procreate sons.
March 2017 Marriage (Vivaha) was one of the sacred sacraments which every individual had to
October 2016
undergo and was also the second stage, Grihasthashrama (householder) among
the four stages of life prescribed in the Ashrama dharma. The term dampati used in
June 2016
the Rig Vedic period designates the mistress as well as the master of the house
January 2016 that is both husband and wife.
November 2015
August 2015 In ancient India marriage was a medium for bringing together the two distinct
June 2015 halves of life, man and woman. Husband and wife were not two separate entities
February 2015 capable of division, but two halves constituting an entire, single organic whole. It
January 2015
was in their wholeness that perfect humanity could manifest itself. During those
times the family rather than the individual was regarded as the social and political
September 2014
unit and hence marriage was regarded as a sacrament. According to ancient
June 2014 Hindus marriage is not a temporary contract to serve the momentary physical
May 2014 demand or to enjoy good company for some time and then to lapse at the slightest
April 2014 inconvenience. It is a permanent union which stands various vicissitudes in life only
March 2014 to grow stronger and more stable. The primary function of marriage was the
December 2013 continuity of the race through the procreation of children and to ensure
November 2013 transmission of the cultural heritage. Marriage was regarded as a sacred religious
October 2013
union brought about by divine dispensation.
September 2013
Criteria for selecting a bridegroom
August 2013
May 2013 Several factors like having intelligence, good character, good health and wealth
April 2013 were taken into consideration while choosing a bridegroom. Also other aspects like
February 2013 a bridegroom being a celibate and having the support of relatives and friends were
January 2013
taken into account. Kaatyaayana says that a bridegroom who is lunatic, guilty of
grave sins, leprous, impotent, belonging to same gotra, bereft of eyesight or
July 2012
hearing, an epileptic should be avoided. Mahabharatha observes that friendship
January 2010
and marriage should take place between those alone whose wealth is similar and
July 2009 whose learning (in families) is of equal status, not between rich and poor.
June 2009
May 2009 Criteria for selecting a bride
April 2009
March 2009
Rules for the selection of the bride was far more elaborate than those for selecting
a bridegroom though in some respect they are the same like the necessity of good
February 2009
family and absence of disease. Aasvalaayana Gruhasutra says one should marry a
October 2008 girl who is endowed with intelligence, beauty, good health and possessing
September 2008 auspicious characteristics. Kamasutra recommends that the bride must be younger

https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2016/10/ 1/7
26.02.2018 October | 2016 | Ithihas

August 2008 than the bridegroom by at least three years, a virgin and of the same caste. An
July 2008 undesirable bride was one who had tawny (orange-brown or yellowish-brown
June 2008 colour) hair, excessive limb (such as a sixth finger or a deficient limb), who is
May 2008
hairless or very hairy, talkative, have a hoarse voice, very dwarfish or very tall,
belonging to the same gotra as of the bridegroom and having dimple on her cheeks
April 2008
when she laughed. Manu, Manava Gruhyasutra and Yajnavalkyasmriti say that the
March 2008
girl to be chosen must not be brother less. This was because during ancient times
February 2008 when a man had no son, he would stipulate with the person marrying his daughter
that the son born to her would be his (i.e. the girl’s father’s) son and would offer
pindas as a son to his maternal grandfather. The result would be that the son of
such a girl would not be able to offer pindas to his father (biological father) and
would not continue the line of his father (biological father). Therefore brother less
maidens were not chosen as brides.

Tallying of horoscope

Tallying of horoscopes played no part in the settlement of marriage in ancient India.

The Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras nowhere suggest or recommend that
horoscopes of the parties should be consulted before deciding their marriage. The
reason was during those days the science of astrology was in its infancy and made
it progress only during 400-900 A.D. A reference to parents of brides consulting an
astrologer for the marriage of their wards occurs perhaps for the first time in the 7th
century work Dasakumaracharita.

Custom of Dowry

In prehistoric times women were regarded as chattel and so it was the bride’s
father and not the bridegroom’s who was regarded as justified in demanding a
payment at the time of marriage. The bridegroom carried away the bride and
deprived her family of her services and hence he could not have dreamt of
demanding dowry or donation. Therefore dowry was unknown in ancient India.
Among rich and royal families gifts were used to be given to son-in-laws at the time
of marriage. They were voluntarily given out of pure affection. The dowry system is
connected with the conception of marriage as dana or gift. A religious gift in kind is
usually accompanied by a gift in cash or gold. So the gift of the bride also was
accompanied by a small gift in cash or ornament. It is only medieval times and in
Rajputana that we find the dowry system assuming alarming proportions, however
happened only in the case of royal and aristocratic families (13th -14th century
A.D.) But during the last 150 years the dowry system has assumed scandalous
proportions.

Stridhan

The word Stridhan is derived from stri, woman and dhan, property and means
literally woman’s property. Stridhan consisted of movable property like utensils,
ornaments and apparel that was given to the bride at the time of marriage.
According to Manu and Yajnavalkya, Stridhan usually consisted of gifts received
from near relations at any time and from non-relations at the time of marriage. By
1100 A.D. commentators like Vijneshwara belonging to the Mitakshara School
began to plead that all properties acquired by a woman like property acquired by
inheritance, partition, etc. should be considered as Stridhan. However women were
not allowed the right of disposal over this property and could only enjoy its income.
The Dayabhaga School of Bengal did not accept this amplification of Stridhan, but
it allowed women the right of disposal over Stridhan in the older and narrower
sense of the term.

Marriageable Age

The age of marriage for both sexes varied considerably from age to age, from
province to province and from caste to caste. A boy was to marry after he finished
his Vedic studies which varied from 12, 24, 36 and 48 years or as much time as
was necessary to master one Veda or a portion of it. Hence the earliest a boy could
marry was at the age of 20 (Twelve years of study after his Upanayana ceremony
which took place at the age of eight). Angiras says that the bride should be two,
three or five years younger to the boy which means that the girls were married not
before the age of fifteen. This was the trend during the Vedic age and continued till
about 5th century B.C. The writers of Dharmasutras who flourished from 400 B.C. –

https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2016/10/ 2/7
26.02.2018 October | 2016 | Ithihas

100 A.D. began to advise that marriage of girls should not be delayed after their
puberty.

Causes for lowering the marriageable age of girls

The institute of nunnery in Jainism and Buddhism and the instances of

several grown up maidens taking holy orders against their parents desire
and some of them later falling from their high spiritual ideal must have
strengthened the view of those who favoured marriages at about the time of
puberty. If a girl is married before her personality is fully developed there was
no danger of her joining a nunnery. We may therefore conclude that during
the period 400 B.C.-100 A.D. the marriageable age was being gradually
lowered and the tendency on the whole was to marry girls at about the time
of puberty.
From about 200 A.D. pre puberty marriages became the order of the day.
Yajnavalkya insists that girls should be married before their puberty. The
analogy of Upanayana was also utilized for lowering the marriage age for
girls. Smriti writers of the period 500-1000 A.D. began to encourage the
marriage of girls at the age of eight as it was the same age for boys to
undergo the Upanayana ceremony. Though during the Vedic period girls like
boys used to undergo the Upanayana ceremony, over the period of time it
was completely given up and marriage was prescribed as a substitute for
Upanayana for girls.
The parents of lower section of the society where the custom of bride price
was prevailing were the first to take advantage of the lowering the
marriageable age of girls for their own selfish ends. Their example was
followed by other classes.
The ramification of the caste system into hundreds of sub castes and the
prohibition of inter caste marriages among them from about eighth and ninth
century A.D. further accentuated the evil of child marriage. The selection of a
suitable bridegroom was becoming progressively more difficult and parents
did not like to take a risk of losing a good bridegroom at hand by postponing
the marriage to a later date.
Sati system which had become popular also helped in this cause. If the
father died and the mother followed him there would be at least a father-in-
law to look after the young orphans if they were already married.
Joint family system and the satisfactory economic condition in the country
favoured early marriage as the young couples were taken care off. It was
also presumed that the girl could adjust with the family members of her
husband and no chance of scandals would arise if married before puberty.

Types of Marriage

Grihyasutras, Dharmasutras and Smritis mention eight types of marriage. They

were-

Brahma – In this type of marriage, the father used to invite a man learned in
the Vedas to marry his daughter decked with garments and jewels.
Daiva – In this type of marriage, the person who organizes a sacrifice
marries his daughter to the priest who had come to officiate at the sacrifice
Arsha – In this type of marriage, the father marries his daughter after
receiving a cow and bull or a pair of it by the bridegroom
Prajapatya – In this form of marriage, the father after honouring the
bridegroom gives his daughter and addresses both of them with the words-
“may both of you perform your religious duties together”
Asura – In this type of marriage, the bridegroom willingly gives as much
wealth as he can afford to the bride and her kinsmen
Gandharva– In this type of marriage, there is the union of a girl and the boy
through mutual consent.
Rakshasa – In this type of marriage, the bride is forcibly carried from her
home by the bridegroom after her kinsmen are beaten and wounded.
Paishacha– In this type of marriage, a man by stealth seduces a girl who is
asleep, intoxicated or disordered in intellect

In the first four forms there is the gift of the girl (kanyadana) by the father or other
guardian to the groom. This is in the sense of transfer of the father’s right of
guardianship and control of the maiden to the husband. The mere listing of the
Rakshasa and Paishacha forms of marriage do not mean that it was legalized but

https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2016/10/ 3/7
26.02.2018 October | 2016 | Ithihas

meant that there are eight ways in which wives could be secured. Among all the
forms of marriage that of Brahma is the best and Paishacha is the worst. Gradually
the last one came to be universally condemned and the seventh allowed only in the
case of a Kshatriya. In general only the first four alone were approved for a
Brahman though Manu and others condemned even the third for both this and the
fifth types of marriage were looked upon as selling a daughter. The sixth was out of
question when child marriage prevailed.

Inter caste Marriages

All writers on Dharmashastra start with the proposition viz. that the four castes
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra are arranged in a descending scale of
social status and that marriage is or was permissible between a male of a higher
caste with a woman of a lower caste. But the union of a woman of a higher caste
with a male of lower caste was reprehensive and was not permitted. Marriages
between the members of the different twice born castes, (Brahmins, Kshatriyas
and Vaishyas) were quite common in the society down to the 8th century A.D. as
the cultural differences between them were not far reaching. Even orthodox Smriti
and Nibandha writers regard them as legal. Agnimitra (a Brahmin) of the Sunga
dynasty had married Malavika, a Kshatriya Princess in 150 A.D. The Kadamba
ruler, a Brahmin had given his daughter to a Gupta prince (a Vaishya). This type of
marriages, when men of high caste married with women belonging to a lower caste
was called Anuloma. Later after 9th century A.D. under the influence of growing
rigorous notion of puritanism Brahmin gave up meat eating, and instead of one
bath began to have two or three ablutions a day. They also began to undertake a
number of Vratas and instead of two Sandhya prayers added a third one. All these
factors led to their exclusiveness and the earlier practice of forming matrimonial
alliance with Kshatriyas and Vaishyas was given up.

While a marriage between members of the twice born was recognized, that
between an individual belonging to a twice born caste, especially a Brahmin
woman with that of a man belonging to Shudra caste was looked upon with
disfavor and condemned with severity. Still such marriage used to take place and
was called Pratiloma.

Marriage Rituals

There prevailed great divergence in the rites of marriages since ancient times.
Some of the common rituals associated with a marriage of twice born were as
follows.

Vadhuvara gunapariksha– Examining the suitability of a girl or boy

Varapresana– Sending persons to negotiate for the hand of the girl
Vaagdhana or Vaannishchaya– Settling the marriage
Nanadi shraddha– The honouring of pitrs (ancestors)
Mandapa Karana– Erecting a pandal where the ceremonies are performed
Gauri Hara puja – Worship of Shiva and Gauri by the bride
Tailaharidraaropana – Applying of turmeric powder to the boy and girl’s
body
Snaapana, Paridhaapana and Samnahana– Making the bride bathe, put on
new clothes and girding her with a string or rope of darbha
Madhuparka– Reception of the boy at the bride’s house where honey and
curds are partaken.
Pratisarabandha –Tying an amulet string on the bride’s hand
Parasparasamikshana – Looking at each other at a proper time by the boy
and girl when a piece of cloth held between them is removed
Kanyaadana – The gift of the bride
Mangalasutra bandana – Tying a string having golden and other beads by
the boy around the bride’s neck
Agnisthapana and Homa – Offering oblations into fire by reciting mantras
Panigrahana – Taking hold of the bride’s hand
Laajahoma – Offering of fried grain in the fire by the bride
Agniparinayana – The boy going in front takes the bride round the fire and
water jar
Saptapadi– Taking seven steps together around the fire
Murdhaabhisheka – Sprinkling holy water on the head of the boy and girl

Polygamy and Polyandry

https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2016/10/ 4/7
26.02.2018 October | 2016 | Ithihas

Though monogamy seems to have been the ideal and probably the rule, the Vedic
literature is full of reference to polygamy. Polygamy was a useful instrument for
kings and nobles in strengthening their political power by contracting numerous but
judicious matrimonial alliances. The rich probably regarded plurality of wives as a
proof of their wealth, reputation and social position. Though it was the kings and
nobles who practiced polygamy, the Sutras allowed a man to have a second wife if
his first wife did not bore him a son. With regards to polyandry we do not come
across a single passage in the Vedic literature which refers to that practice. The
only exceptional case is that of Draupadi as the wife of the five Pandavas.

Divorce/Dissolution of marriage

There is absolutely no reference to divorce in the Vedic text or in the post Vedic
literature. The theory of Dharmashastra writers is that marriage when completed by
homa and saptapadi is indissoluble. Kautilya in his Arthashastra says that there
can be no dissolution of marriage if it was celebrated in one of the first four forms,
namely Brahma, Arsha, Daiva and Prajapatya. However if the marriage was in the
Gandharva, Asura or Rakshasa form, then the tie may be dissolved by mutual
consent.

While Hindu law did not allow divorce, it allowed separation of wife and husband
under different circumstances. According to Kautilya, a woman can abandon and
marry the brother of her husband her husband becomes a lunatic, a recluse, or of a
bad character, traitor of the state or gone abroad since a long time. Similarly a
husband could abandon his wife if she acted immorally, was barren, unable to
beget a male child, ailing or spendthrift.

Remarriage

During the early Vedic period remarriage of a widow was permitted but it does not
seem to have been the rule. The Grihyasutras are silent about remarriage; so
probably by that time (600-300 B.C.) it had come to be prohibited generally among
the Brahmins and other higher castes. The only option for a widow was to marry
her husband’s brother or go in for Niyoga if her husband died sonless. But some
authorities like Parashara, Narada and Devala permit a woman to take a second
husband under certain circumstances like if he is missing or dead, had become a
recluse, impotent or tainted. But these rules soon become more or less dead
letters and the remarriage of women become rare if not altogether obsolete in
course of time. One of the earliest historical instances of remarriage was that of
Dhruvadevi, queen of Ramagupta, who after Ramagupta’s death married her
brother-in-law, Chandragupta. Among the lower castes widow remarriage was
allowed though it was held to be somewhat inferior to the marriage of a maiden.

The custom of Niyoga

As the law givers have opined that a bride is given to the family and not to the
groom only, a childless widow was allowed to have sexual relation with the brother
of her husband to beget a son. This act was known as Niyoga. To die without a son
was regarded as a great spiritual calamity and it was the sacred duty of a brother
to see that a son was raised on his sister-in-law to perpetuate his brother’s
memory and to ensure him a seat in heaven. If this was not done, there was also
the danger of the widow marrying a stranger and being lost to the family. A son by
Niyoga was always preferred to a son by adoption as the former had the blood of
the mother, if not his father at least that of a near relative. Niyoga was also allowed
if the husband was incapable of procreating children and the brother-in-law was
regarded as the most eligible person for this duty. The custom of Niyoga was fairly
common down to 300 B.C. and after that time it began to meet with considerable
opposition, because society felt that such temporary unions were undesirable.

The practice of Sati

In prehistoric times there prevailed a belief in several societies that the life and
needs of the dead in the next world are more or less similar to those in this life. It
therefore became a pious duty of surviving relations to provide a dead person all
the things that he usually needed when alive. Especially when an important
personage like a king, a nobleman or a warrior died, he would require his wives,
horses and servants in the next world and it would therefore be necessary and
desirable to kill these all and burn or bury them with him. Such a belief should have

https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2016/10/ 5/7
26.02.2018 October | 2016 | Ithihas

given rise to the custom of burying and burning the dead husband along with his
living wife.

There is no reference to Sati in the Vedic literature, Grihyasutras and Buddhist

literature. Not it is mentioned by Megasthenes and Kautilya. The earliest historical
instance of Sati is that of the wife of the Hindu general Keteus who died in 316 B.C.
while fighting against Antigonos. The custom of Sati became gradually popular
from 400 A.D. and was known to Kalidasa, Bhasa, Vatsyayana and Shudraka.
Smriti writers of that period refer to that practices, but do not consider it ideal for
the widow and allow it only as a second alternative and regard ascetic life as
preferable to it. The custom gained popularity among the fighting classes and the
conduct of a widow boldly burning herself with the remains of her husband
appeared as the most glorious example of supreme self-sacrifice. From about 700
A.D. fiery advocates began to come forward to extol the custom of Sati in
increasing number. Angiras argued that the only course which religion has
prescribed for a widow is that of Sati. Harita maintained that the wife can purify her
husband from the deadliest of sins, if she burns herself with his remains. The views
advocated by these writers gradually began to produce some effects on society.
During the period 700 -1000 A.D. Sati became more frequent in north India
especially in Kashmir. Later it was popular among the Rajputs of Rajasthan, the
Sikhs and Marathas. After 1000 A.D. Sati was practiced in Deccan and the far
south. Though it was popular among the Kshatriya women later women of Brahmin
caste and other castes also practiced it.

Reference

1. S.Altekar- The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, From Prehistoric

times to the present day, Motilal Banarasidass
2. Swami Madhavananda & R.C.Majumdar, Edited- Great Women of India,
Advaita Ashrama, Almora, 1982
3. P.V.Kane –History of Dharmashastra, Vol II, part –I, Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute, Poona, 1941
4. Usha Sharma, Edited- Marriage in Indian Society: From Tradition to
Modernity, Vol-1, Mittal Publication, New Delhi, 2005

https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2016/10/ 6/7
26.02.2018 October | 2016 | Ithihas

Advertisements

Report this ad

Report this ad

By S.Srinivas | Posted in essays | Comments (0)

Blog at WordPress.com. | .

https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2016/10/ 7/7