ANALYSIS OF DISC BRAKE USING Al-

Ni-Cr COMPOSITE MATERIAL

 ABSTRACT

• In this work, an effort has been designed to raise the reliability of engine
fuel efficiency using Al- Cr –Ni composites with other alternatively
materials for the disc brake guides. Aluminium matrix composites have
found the most suitable inside automotive, aerospace and aircraft
industries and contain the greatest promise for future year’s growth.

• This paper analysis the valve mechanical properties of the Al- Ni-Cr
composite material by using composite model plate and evaluate the
mechanical properties.

• In this paper the existing disc brake steel is replaced with composite disc
brake.
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

The need of efficient use of energy & materials is being felt strongly because of
diminishing resources in the present times. There has been an important role of
materials in the development of civilizations. In the transportation sector when
earlier large bulky automobiles are compared with today’s light weight,
technologically superior vehicles. Man has been using iron, copper & their
alloys for thousands of years, but surprisingly until the last century he was
oblivious of the bauxite ore (which has aluminum) is the second most abundant
ore in earth crust. It became an economic competitor to steel & cast iron in
engineering applications because of its excellent combination of properties like
lightweight, high specific strength, stiffness & good corrosion resistance, higher
ductility tc. However, the poor mechanical and tribological properties of
aluminum (yield strength: 30 Mpa, tensile strength: 70 Mpa).

Limits its wider range of usage. Realizing the potential as well as

availability of Aluminum, considerable efforts are being made to explore the
possibilities of improving the mechanical strength and wear resistance so as to
meet the requirements of various applications. More aluminum is being
consumed now a days than all other non ferrous metals/ alloys including
Copper. The transformation of the automobiles requiring more fuel, frequent
maintenance to the energy efficient automobiles requiring lesser maintenance
and which is also environment friendly has resulted from better engineering &
materials. With the turn of century material technology in automobiles
undertook a shift towards all aluminum cars. In order to improve the mechanical
strength & modulus of aluminum, it is alloyed with various alloying elements
such as Cu, Zn, Mg, Si, Mn etc. Amongst the various Aluminum alloys AlZn-
Mg alloys are found to show tremendous improvement in mechanical strength
and finds its application in aerospace and automobile structural components. Al
Mg cast alloys show excellent corrosion resistance, good machinability and
attractive appearance when anodized. In internal combustion engines, Al-Si
alloys are used extensively because of their properties like low coefficient of
thermal expansion, bearing properties, good corrosion resistance in association
with the strength In automotive industries, to achieve reduced fuel consumption
as well as green house gas emission is a current issue of utmost importance. To
reduce automobile weight and improve fuel efficiency, the auto industry has
dramatically increased the use of aluminum in light vehicles in recent years.
Aluminium alloy based metal matrix composites (MMCs) with ceramic
particulate reinforcement have shown great promise for such applications.

These materials having a lower density and higher thermal conductivity

as compared to the conventionally used gray cast irons are expected to result in
weight reduction of up to 50 – 60 % in brake systems. Moreover, these
advanced materials have the potential to perform better under severe service
conditions like higher speed, higher load etc. which are increasingly being
encountered in modern automobiles. Since brake disc or rotor is a crucial
component from safety point of view, materials used for brake systems should
have stable and reliable frictional and wear properties under varying conditions
of load, velocity, temperature and environment, and high durability. There are
several factors to be considered when selecting a brake disc material. The most
important consideration is the ability of the brake disc material to withstand
high friction and less abrasive wear. Another requirement is to withstand the
high temperature that evolved due to friction. Weight, manufacturing process
ability and cost are also important factors those are need to be considered during
the design phase. In material selection stage, the recyclability of cast iron is
advantageous but the evolution of CO2 during re-melting has to be taken in
consideration. The brake disc must have enough thermal storage capacity to
prevent distortion or cracking from thermal stress until the heat can be
dissipated. This is not particularly important in a single stop but it is crucial in
the case of repeated stops from high speed.

BRAKE SYSTEMS

PARTS OF DISC BRAKE

Disc calipers

There are two types of disc calipers where further classified as floating and
fixed caliper shows a type of floating caliper. This type of brake uses only a
single piston to squeeze the brake pad against the rotor (BOSCH, 1992). The
reactive force shifts the caliper housing and presses opposite side of braking pad
against rotor. Referring to Figure the brake fluid pushes the piston when the
brake is applied to the left of the piston and immediately pushes the inner pads
and presses it against the rotor disc, the sliding caliper housing reacts by shifting
towards right pushing the left pad against the disc. Floating Caliper Design
(Source: BOSCH Automobile Handbook, 1992) Other type of disc calipers is a
fixed caliper shows a type of fixed caliper. In these types of brakes, the caliper
body is fixed and uses two or more pistons on each side of the rotor. The pistons
are located in each half section of the fixed caliper.

Brake pads

Brake pads consist of steel carrier which the pad are bonded to the steel carrier.
According to (Gerschler, 1980), organically bonded pads consist of metallic,
ceramic or organic friction materials in a bonded mass such as rubber or
synthetic resin. The bonded friction materials can withstand temperatures up to
750°c, with short term peaks-up to 950'~ where the friction coefficient is
between 0.25 and 0.5. There is an advantage of brake pads, where most of them
are poor to thermal conductivity which protects the hydraulic actuating elements
from overheating.
 Fig. Brake pads

BRAKE DISC / DISC BRAKE ROTOR

The heat generated on the surfaces of disc brake rotor when brake applied.
Materials of disc brake rotor usually are made from cast iron, spheroidal-
graphite cast iron or cast steel. It is chosen as a rotor material due to low cost of
material and performs high thermal resistance.

Fig. Disc brake

This type of material normally suit to normal passenger vehicle but not for high
performance car. Once brake pads contacts to rotating rotor, there will be huge
amount of heat generated to stop or slow down the vehicle. The rotor
temperature can exceed 350° for normal cars and 1500° for race cars
(Halderman, 1992).

COMPOSITE MATERIAL

A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials

that results in better properties than those of the individual components used
alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties. The two constituents are reinforcement and
a matrix. The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength
and stiffness, combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials,
allowing for a weight reduction in the finished part.

The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases,
the reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The
reinforcement is usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate composites have
dimensions that are approximately equal in all directions. They may be
spherical, platelets, or any other regular or irregular geometry. Particulate
composites tend to be much weaker and less stiff than continuous fiber
composites, but they are usually much less expensive.

Particulate reinforced composites usually contain less reinforcement (up

to 40 to 50 volume percent) due to processing difficulties and brittleness. A
fiber has a length that is much greater than its diameter. The length-to-diameter
(l/d) ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly. Continuous fibers
have long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have short aspect ratios.
Continuous fiber composites normally have a preferred orientation, while
discontinuous fibers generally have a random orientation. Examples of
continuous reinforcements include unidirectional, woven cloth, and helical
winding. while examples of discontinuous reinforcements are chopped fibers
and random mat. Continuous-fiber composites are often made into laminates by
stacking single Sheets of continuous fibers in different orientations to obtain the
desired strength and stiffness properties with fiber volumes as high as 60 to 70
percent. Fibers produce high-strength composites because of their small
diameter; they contain far fewer defects (normally surface defects) compared to
the material produced in bulk.

Introduction of composites

 Composite is a combination of two or more chemically distinct and

insoluble phases.
 Constituent materials or phases must have significantly different
properties for it to combine them: thus metals and plastics are not
considered as composites although they have a lot of fillers and
impurities
 The properties and performance of composites are far superior to those of
the constituents
 Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases (reinforcement)
embedded in a continuous phase (matrix)

Examples: –

 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized
composite)

Some examples of composite materials:

 ply wood is a laminar composite of layers of wood veneer,

  Fiber glass is a fiber-reinforced composite containing stiff, strong glass
fibers in a softer polymer matrix and concrete is a particulate composite
containing coarse sand or gravel in a cement matrix (reduced 50%).

CLASSIFICATION

BASED ON THE TYPE OF MATRIX MATERIAL

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
 Carbon/Carbon Composites (C/Cs)

BASED ON THE GEOMETRY OF REINFORCEMENT

 Particulate reinforced Composites

 Whisker/Flakes reinforced composites
 Fiber reinforced composites

HYBRID:

A composite laminate comprising of laminae of two or more composite material

systems or a combination of two or more different fibers such as C and glass or
C and aramid into a structure

I) POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

(PMCs) Are prominent class of composites compared to other composite

materials in commercial applications

Fiber Materials: Boron, Graphite, Carbon

Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are the
main commercial fibers
Matrix Materials:

Thermoplastic, Epoxy and Thermo-set materials.

 Thermoplastics offer the advantages of good mechanical and tribological

properties.
 Epoxy resin remains the most important matrix polymer.

2. METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCS)

 MMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of non

metallic reinforcements incorporated into the metallic matrix.
 MMCs are widely used in engineering applications where the operating
temperature lies in between 250 ºC to 750 ºC.

Matrix materials:

Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Magnesium and Super alloys.

Reinforcement materials:

Silicon carbide, Boron, Molybdenum and Alumina

3. CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCS)

CMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of metallic/non-

metallic reinforcements incorporated into the ceramic matrix CMCs are widely
used in engineering applications where the operating temperature lies in
between 800ºC to 1650ºC

4. CARBON/CARBON COMPOSITES (C/CS)

C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme
temperature ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn
fabric, 3-D woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.
Applications

C/C composites meet applications ranging from rockets to aerospace because of

their ability to maintain and even increase their structural properties at extreme
temperatures.

Advantages

 Extremely high temperature resistance (1930°C – 2760°C).

 Strength actually increases at higher temperatures (up to 1930°C).
 High strength and stiffness.
 Good resistance to thermal shock.

Uses of composites

The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as
well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design
flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The
downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive.

Merits of composite materials composites

Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or aluminium

 High specific strength and

 High specific stiffness Long fatigue life
 High creep resistance Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low density
 Low thermal conductivity
  Better wear resistance Improved corrosion resistance
 Better temperature dependent behavior

Advantages of Composite Materials

 Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature and

above, while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather toughness
 Low thermal expansion coefficient
 Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures compared to that of
conventional alloys Increase in friction resistance Increase in fatigue
strength, especially at higher temperatures,
 Improvement of thermal shock resistance
 Improvement of corrosion resistance
 Increase in Young’s modulus
 Reduction of thermal elongation.

APPLICATIONS

Space craft: Antenna structures, solar reflectors, Satellite structures, Radar,

Rocket engines, etc.

Aircraft: Jet engines, Turbine blades, Turbine shafts, Compressor blades,

Airfoil surfaces, Wing box structures, Fan blades, Flywheels, Engine bay
doors, Rotor shafts in helicopters, Helicopter transmission structures, etc.

Miscellaneous: Bearing materials, Pressure vessels, Abrasive materials,

Electrical machinery, Truss members, Cutting tools, Electrical brushes, etc.

Automobile: Engines, bodies, Piston, cylinder, connecting rod, crankshafts,

bearing materials, etc.
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Piotr GRZEŚ

The aim of this paper was to investigate the temperature fields of the solid disc
brake during short, emergency braking. In this paper transient thermal analysis
of disc brakes in single brake application was performed. To obtain the
numerical simulation parabolic heat conduction equation for two dimensional
model was used. The results show that both evolution of rotating speed of disc
and contact pressure with specific material properties intensely Er. N. B.
Shinde1 IJECS Volume 4 Issue 2 February, 2015 Page No.10554-10558 Page
10555 effect disc brake temperature fields in the domain of time.

Abd Rahim Abu-Bakar, Huajiang Ouyang

This paper studies the contact pressure distribution of a solid disc brake as a
result of structural modifications. Before modifications are simulated, four
different models of different degrees of complexity for contact analysis are
investigated. It is shown that the contact pressure distributions obtained from
these four models are quite different. This suggests that one should be careful in
modeling disc brakes in order to obtain correct contact pressure distributions.
This work could help design engineers to obtain a more uniform pressure
distribution and subsequently satisfy customers’ needs by making pad life
longer.

M. Nouby, D. Mathivanan, K. Srinivasan

proposes an approach to investigate the influencing factors of the brake pad on

the disc brake squeal by integrating finite element simulations with statistical
regression techniques. Complex eigenvalue analysis (CEA) has been widely
used to predict unstable frequencies in brake systems models. The finite element
model is correlated with experimental modal test. The ‘input-output’
relationship between the brake squeal and the brake pad geometry is constructed
for possible prediction of the squeal using various geometrical configurations of
the disc brake. Influences of the various factors namely; Young’s modulus of
back plate, back plate thickness, chamfer, distance between two slots, slot width
and angle of slot are investigated using design of experiments (DOE) technique.
A mathematical prediction model has been developed based on the most
influencing factors and the validation simulation experiments proved its
adequacy.

P. Liu a, H. Zheng a, C. Cai a, Y.Y. Wang a, C. Lu a,K.H. Ang b, G.R. Liu

An attempt is made to investigate the effects of system parameters, such as the
hydraulic pressure, the rotational velocity of the disc, the friction coefficient of
the contact interactions between the pads and the disc, the stiffness of the disc,
and the stiffness of the back plates of the pads, on the disc squeal. The
simulation results show that significant pad bending vibration may be
responsible for the disc brake squeal. The squeal can be reduced by decreasing
the friction coefficient, increasing the stiffness of the disc, using damping
material on the back plates of the pads.

Rajendra Pohane, R. G. Choudhari

FEM model is preparerd for contact analysis. A three dimensional finite element
model of the brake pad and the disc is developed to calculate static structural
analysis, and transient state analysis. The comparison is made between the solid
and ventilated disc keeping the same material properties and constraints and
using general purpose finite element analysis. This paper discusses how general
purpose finite element analysis software can be used to analyze the equivalent
(von-mises) stresses& the thermal stresses at disc to pad interface.
H Mazidi, S.Jalalifar, J. Chakhoo

In this study, the heat conduction problems of the disc brake components (Pad
and Rotor) are modeled mathematically and is solved numerically using finite
difference method. In the discretization of time dependent equations the implicit
method is taken into account. In the derivation of heat equations, parameters
such as the duration of braking, vehical velocity, Geometries and the
dimensions of the brake components, Materials of the disc brake rotor and the
PAD and contact pressure distribution have been taken into account.

V.M.M.Thilak, R.Krishnaraj, Dr.M.Sakthivel, K.Kanthavel, Deepan

Marudachalam M.G, R.Palani

In this work, an attempt has been made to investigate the suitable hybrid
composite material which is lighter than cast iron and has good Young’s
modulus, Yield strength and density properties. Aluminum base metal matrix
composite and High Strength Glass Fiber composites have a promising friction
and wear behavior as a Disk brake rotor. The transient thermo elastic analysis of
Disc brakes in repeated brake applications has been performed and the results
were compared. The suitable material for the braking operation is S2 glass fiber
and all the values obtained from the analysis are less than their allowable
values.

Prashant Chavan, Amol Apte

Gives simplified yet almost equally accurate modeling and analysis method for
thermo-mechanical analysis using brake fade test simulation as an example.
This methodology is based on use of ABAQUS Axisymmetric analysis
technique modified to represent effect of discrete bolting, bolt preloads, and
contacts within various components of the assembly
Q Cao1, M I Friswell, H Ouyang, J E Mottershead1 and S James

This paper presents a numerical method for the calculation of the unstable
frequencies of a car disc brake and the analysis procedure. The stationary
components of the disc brake are modelled using finite elements and the disc as
a thin plate. This approach facilitates the modelling of the disc brake squeal as a
moving load problem. Some uncertain system parameters of the stationary
components and the disc are tuned to fit experimental results. A linear,
complex-valued, asymmetric eigenvalue formulation is derived for disc brake
squeal. Predicted unstable frequencies are compared with experimentally
established squeal frequencies of a realistic car disc brake.

S. P. Jung, T. W. Park, J. H. Lee, W. H. Kim, and W. S Chung

A simple finite element model of a disc and two pads was created, and TEI
phenomenon was implemented by rotating the disc with a constant rotational
speed of 1400 rpm. The intermediate processor using the staggered approach
was used to connect results of two other analysis domains: mechanical and
thermal analysis. By exchanging calculation results such as temperature
distribution, contact power and nodal position at every time step, solutions of
fully coupled thermo-mechanical system could be obtained. Contact pressure
distribution of the pad surface was varied according to the rotational direction of
the disc. DTV and temperature of the disc were calculated and tendency was
verified by earlier studies.
 Chapter-3
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
 Chapter-3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 DISC BRAKE SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS

Disc brake systems generate braking force by clamping brake pads onto a rotor
that is mounted to the hub. A schematic view of the brake system is shown in
Fig. 2. The high mechanical advantage of hydraulic and mechanical disc brakes
allows a small lever input force at the handlebar to be converted into a large
clamp force at the wheel. This large clamp force pinches the rotor with friction
material pads and generates brake power. The higher the coefficient of friction
for the pad, the more brake power will be generated. Coefficient of friction can
vary depending on the type of material used for the brake rotor. Typically
service brakes are concerned with dynamic coefficient of friction, or the
coefficient of friction measured while the vehicle is moving.

All modern disk brakes systems rely on brake pads pressing on both sides of a
brake rotor to increase the rolling resistance and slow the car down. The amount
of frictional force is found by multiply the force pushing the pad into the rotor
by the coefficient of friction of the pad. So, the force slowing the brake disc or
rotor is The braking system is a vital safety component of ground-based
transportation systems; hence the structural materials used in brakes should
have posses some combination of properties such as good compressive strength,
higher friction coefficient, wear resistant, light weight, good thermal capacity
and economically viable

3.2 MATERIALS

Traditional material for automotive brake rotor is the cast iron. The specific
gravity or density of cast iron is higher which consumes much fuel due to high
inertia. Following section will describe the potential candidate materials those
can be used for brake rotor application.
Cast Iron

Metallic iron containing more than 2% dissolved carbon within its matrix (as
opposed to steel which contains less than 2%) but less than 4.5% is referred to
as gray cast iron because of its characteristic color. Considering its cost, relative
ease of manufacture and thermal stability, this cast iron (particularly, gray cast
iron), is actually a more specialized material for brake applications particularly
the material of choice for almost all automotive brake discs. To work correctly,
the parts must be produced at the foundry with tightly monitored chemistry and
cooling cycles to control the shape, distribution and form of the precipitation of
the excess carbon.
Titanium alloys

Titanium alloys and their composites have the potential to reduce weight of the
brake rotor disc component which is about 37% less than a conventional cast
iron with the same dimensions and offering good high temperature strength and
better resistance to corrosion.
Stainless steels

Stainless steels are used in automobile applications because they are resistant to
corrosion easily fabricated and offer good mechanical properties. The following
examples may serve to indicate the considerations made in selecting a suitable
grade of stainless steel for disc brake automobile applications.
Aluminium-Metal Matrix Composite (AMC)

Aluminium alloy based metal matrix composites (MMCs) with ceramic

particulate reinforcement have shown great promise for brake rotor applications.
These materials having a lower density and higher thermal conductivity as
compared to the conventionally used gray cast irons are expected to result in
weight reduction of up to 50-60% in brake systems. The repeated braking of the
AMC brake rotor lowered the friction coefficient µ and caused significant wear
of the brake pad. The friction properties of the AMC brake disc are thus
remarkable poorer than those of conventional brake disc.

After increasing hard particles content the result showed that the repeated
braking operations did not lower the friction coefficient. Wilson et. al. Studied
the abrasive wear resistance of the AA6061 with 20 vol % SiCp reinforced
composite in short sliding distance testing (about 20m). Adding 20 vol. % SiC
particulate greatly enhanced the wear resistance, raised room-temperature
strength and stiffness, and improved high-temperature strength.

Three major problems exist with this aluminum-composite rotor. First,

because of the density difference between aluminum and SiC, segregation or
inhomogeneous distribution of SiC particles during solidification cannot be
avoided. Also, adding SiC particles in an aluminum matrix dramatically reduces
the ductility of the material, resulting in low product liability. The third problem
is a lack of a solid lubricant, such as graphite. The lack of graphite in the system
results in low braking efficiency, adhesive wear, and galling. In a cast iron
rotor, graphite is always present in the iron. As the break wears, the graphite is
freed from the iron matrix to be used as a solid lubricant on the wear surface.
An aluminum, SiC, and graphite composite brake rotor was developed and
reported as having better wear resistance than a cast iron rotor. This material
contains 10 vol % SiC particulate and 5 vol % nickel-coated graphite particulate
reinforcement in an aluminum-silicon alloy matrix. These types of rotors were
produced by casting. Although incorporating graphite particulate improved the
wear resistance, it also caused serious manufacturing difficulties. The wear
resistance and frictional performance of Al-Cu alloys reinforced with SiC
particles are superior to those of cast iron brake rotors. In addition, the lower
density of aluminium MMCs gives them an economic advantage over cast iron
with respect to efficient use of fuel and fabrication expenses

MATERIAL PROPERTIES (SS)

MATERIAL PROPERTIES STAINLESS STEEL

young’s Modulus 193 GPa

Density 7750 Kg/m3

Poisson’s Ratio 0.31

Ultimate Tensile Strength 580 MPa

Bulk Modulus 151 GPa

Shear Modulus 81 GPa

Compressive Strength 250 Mpa

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Brakes is such a crucial system in stopping the vehicle on all moving stages
including braking during high speed, sharp cornering, traffic jam and downhill.
All of those braking moments give a different value of temperature distribution
and thermal stress this project concerns of the temperature distribution and
constraint of the disc brake rotor. Most of the passenger cars today have disc
brake rotors that are made of grey cast iron (Mackin, 2002). Grey cast iron is
chosen for its relatively high thermal conductivity, high thermal diffusivity and
low cost (Mackin, 2002). In this project, the author will investigate on the
thermal issues of normal passenger vehicle disc brake rotor, High temperature
during braking will caused to:

 Brake fade
 Premature wear
 Brake fluid vaporization
 Bearing failure
 Thermal cracks

Thermally-excited vibration Due to the application of brakes on the car disk

brake rotor, heat generation takes place due to friction and this thermal flux has
to be conducted and dispersed across the disk rotor cross section. The condition
of braking is very much severe and thus the thermal analysis has to be carried
out. The thermal loading as well as structure is axis-symmetric. Hence axis-
symmetric analysis can be performed, but in this study we performed 3-D
analysis, which is an exact representation for this thermal analysis.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are

1. Aluminium alloy

2. Nickel

3. chromium

1. ALUMINIUM

Aluminium is a light metal ( = 2.7 g/cc); is easily machinable has wide variety
of surface finishes; good electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective
to heat and light.

 Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed,

hammered, extruded and forged into many shapes. Aluminium can be
riveted, welded, brazed, or resin bonded.
 Corrosion resistant - no protective coating needed, however it is often
anodized to improve surface finish, appearance.
 Al and its alloys - high strength-to-weight ratio (high specific strength)
owing to low density.
 Such materials are widely used in aerospace and automotive applications
where weight savings are needed for better fuel efficiency and
performance.
 Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al alloys and find wide applications in
the aerospace industry.

History, properties and alloys

The history of the light metal industry, as that of many other industries in this
century, is one of notable and ever accelerating expansion and development.
There are few people today who are not familiar with at least some modern
application of aluminium and its alloys. The part it plays in our everyday life is
such that it is difficult to realise that a century ago the metal was still a
comparative. The excellent corrosion resistance of pure aluminium is largely
due to its affinity for oxygen; this results in the production of a very thin but
tenacious oxide film which covers the surface as soon as a freshly cut piece of
the metal is exposed to the atmosphere. This oxide coating is of great
significance in the production of practically every type of surface finish for the
metal. It is, of course, the basis of what is probably the most corrosion-resistant
finish of all, namely, that group of finishes which involves the technique of
anodic oxidation in its varied forms.
Development of aluminium alloys

The chief alloying constituents added to aluminium are copper, magnesium,

silicon, manganese, nickel and zinc. All of these are used to increase the
strength of pure aluminium. Two classes of alloys may be considered. The first
are the 'cast alloys' which are cast directly into their desired forms by one of
three methods (i.e., sand-casting, gravity die casting or pressure die casting),
while the second class, the 'wrought alloys', are cast in ingots or billets and hot
and cold worked mechanically into extrusions, forgings, sheet, foil, tube and
wire. The main classes of alloys are the 2000 series (Al-Cu alloys), which are
high-strength materials used mainly in the aircraft industry, the 3000 series (Al-
Mn alloys) used mainly in the canning industry, the 5000 series (Al-Mg alloys)
which are used unprotected for structural and architectural applications, the
6000 series (Al-Mg-Si alloys) which are the most common extrusion alloys and
are used particularly in the building industry, and the 7000 series (Al-Zn-Mg
alloys) which are again high strength alloys for aircraft and military vehicle
applications. The alloy used in any particular application will depend on factors
such as the mechanical and physical properties required, the material cost and
the service environment involved. If a finishing treatment is to be applied, then
the suitability of the alloy for producing the particular finish desired will be an
additional factor to be taken into account. The great benefit of aluminium is that
such a wide variety of alloys with differing mechanical and protection
properties is available, and these, together with the exceptional rang e of
finishes which can be used, make aluminium a very versatile material
Aluminium alloy selection and applications

This monograph contains an outstanding introductory description of the

properties of wrought and cast aluminium alloys and the enormous variety of
their applications. From transportation and packing to construction,
infrastructure and aerospace, the versatility of aluminium as a practical material
is amply documented. The text is richly illustrated with numerous applications
which demonstrate the enormous flexibility and the wide range of applications
for aluminium alloys. This publication will be invaluable to engineers, designers
and students unfamiliar with the variety of aluminium alloys and to those faced
with an alloy selection decision. It outlines many of the issues to consider in
selecting an alloy for a specific application and environment. Starting with a
description of the aluminium alloy designation system, the text describes the
major alloy series, outlines their primary chemical constituents, mechanical
properties and major characteristics, and provides numerous examples of
specific alloys in use. In summary, this monograph provides a lot of clarity to
the process of selecting alloys for various applications.
Effect of aluminium

Aluminium and aluminium alloy are gaining huge industrial significance

because of their outstanding combination of mechanical, physical and
tribological properties over the base alloys. These properties include high
specific strength. High wear and seizure resistance, high stiffness, Better high
temperature strength, controlled thermal expansion coefficient and improved
damping capacity.
Corrosion of aluminium

Whilst aluminium and its alloys generally have good corrosion resistance,
localised forms of corrosion can occur, and it is important to understand the
factors contributing to these of corrosion. Corrosion may be defined as the
reaction between a metal and its immediate environment, which can be natural
or chemical in origin. The most recognisable form of corrosion is, perhaps, the
rusting of iron. All metals react with natural environments but the extent to
which this happens can vary; for noble metals like gold the amount is
insignificant whereas for iron it is considerable. Aluminium is no exception but,
fortunately, it has the propensity of self passivation and for many applications
corrosion is not a problem.
Properties of al-alloy

(i) Heat treatable and age hardenable.

(ii) High strength efficiency due to high strength to weight ratio

(iii) Good weldability

(iv) Good corrosion resistance

(v) Good thermal conductivity

Applications of al- alloy

Alloy 6063 is perhaps the most widely used because of its extrudability, it is not
only the first choice for many architectural and structural members, but it has
been the choice for the Audi automotive space frame members. A good example
of its structural use was the aluminum bridge. (Gilbert Kaufman, 2000). The
alloy has versatile application as given below
  Pressure vessels
 Pipelines
 Cryogenic tanks
 Door beams, seat tracks, racks, rails
 Electrical cable towers
 Petroleum and Chemical Industry Components (The excellent
combination of high strength combined with superior corrosion resistance
plus weldability makes a number of aluminum alloys ideal for chemical
industry applications, even some involving very corrosive fluids)

MATERIAL PROPERITIES OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY

Properties value

Elastic Modulus 69000 N/mm2

Poisson's Ratio 0.33

Thermal Expansions Co-efficient 2.4x10-5 /K

Thermal Conductivity 170 w/mk

Specific Heat 1300 J/kg k

2. NICKEL

Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a

silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the
transition metals and is hard and ductile. Pure nickel shows a significant
chemical activity that can be observed when nickel is powdered to maximize the
exposed surface area on which reactions can occur, but larger pieces of the
metal are slow to react with air at ambient conditions due to the formation of a
protective oxide surface. Even then, nickel is reactive enough
with oxygen that native nickel is rarely found on Earth's surface, being mostly
confined to the interiors of larger nickel iron meteorites that were protected
from oxidation during their time in space.

On Earth, such native nickel is found in combination with iron, a

reflection of those elements' origin as major end products of supernova nucleo
synthesis. An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earth’sinner core Pure
native nickel is found in tiny amounts, usually in ultramafic rocks. The use of
nickel (as a natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as
3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in
1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook its ore for
a copper mineral. The element's name comes from a mischievous sprite of
German miner mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick), that personified the fact
that copper-nickel ores resisted refinement into copper.

PROPERTIES VALUE

Thermal conductivity 93.9 W/(m·K)

Young's modulus 279 GPa

Bulk modulus 160 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.21

Advantage of nickel alloy

 High strength maraging steels

 Ductile and wear-resistant cast irons
 Corrosion resistant, high nickel alloys
 Super alloys for gas turbines
  nickel alloys for marine applications
 Magnetic and controlled expansion alloys
 Shape memory alloys
 Nickel metal hydrides for hydrogen storage

3. CHROMIUM

Chromium is a member of the first row transition series of elements, which

consists of Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn, and belongs to group 6 of
the periodic table, along with Mo and W. The element has an atomic number of
24, an atomic mass of 52, two main oxidation states (+3 and +6) and four
naturally occurring isotopes ( 50Cr, 52Cr, 53Cr and 54Cr), of which 52Cr
represents 84% of the total mass. Chromium is a lithophile metallic element
forming several minerals, including chromite FeCr2O4 and the rare crocoite
PbCrO4, and is present as an accessory element in several others, such as spinel,
amphibole, mica, pyroxene and garnet. The trivalent ion Cr3+ has an ionic
radius of 62 pm and, like other transition elements with intermediate radii,
readily substitutes for Fe and Mg, and is partitioned into spinel and pyroxene
during the earliest stages of crystal fractionation.

As a result, Cr is enriched in ultramafic rocks (1000–3000 mg kg-1),

along with elements such as Ni. While the principal Cr ore mineral, chromite, is
generally mined from ultramafic rocks, it is also a major carrier of Cr in basaltic
magmas, along with Cr-enriched magnetite and ilmenite (Wedepohl 1978).
Olivine is generally poor in Cr, but pyroxene, amphibole and mica may be
enriched (Ure and Berrow 1982). Mielke (1979) cites Cr values for igneous
rocks as: ultramafic 1600 mg kg-1; basaltic 170 mg kg-1; granitic 4–22 mg kg-
1; and an average crustal abundance of 122 mg kg-1 (Kabata-Pendias 2001).
Chromium is a major component of steel alloys (10–26%) and used for coating
steel as chrome plating. Chromates and dichromates, containing Cr6+, are
sometimes released in industrial effluents, especially from leather tanning and
electroplating operations, and are highly poisonous and readily soluble.
However, because of their powerful oxidising properties they are rapidly
reduced and sorbed by organic residues. Chromium, once thought to be non-
essential, is now known to have at least one important. Chromium is
a chemical element with symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first
element in Group 6. It is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard and brittle metal which
takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high melting point. The name of
the element is derived from the color because many of its compounds are
intensely colored. Chromium oxide was used by the Chinese in the Qin
dynasty over 2,000 years ago to coat metal weapons found with the Terracotta
Army.

Application

 In metal ceramics
 In chrome plating
 As dyes and paints
 To produce synthetic rubies
 In alloys, e.g., stainless steel
 To manufacture molds for the firing of bricks
 As a catalyst in dyeing and tanning of leather
 In metallurgy to provide corrosion resistance and a shiny finish
 PROPERTIES VALUE

Thermal conductivity 69.1 w/mk

Thermal expansion co-efficient 6.20

Melting point 1907°C

Poisson ratio 0.31

METHODS

STIR CASTING PROCESS STUDIES

Fabrication techniques affect the microstructure, the distribution of the

reinforcing materials and interfacial bond condition between reinforcing phase
and matrix. These techniques has to ensure uniform distribution of the
reinforcing material in the matrix and formation of good bond between matrix
and reinforcing material, to obtain MMCs with optimum properties. There are
several fabrication techniques available to manufacture different MMC.
Depending on the choice of matrix and reinforcement material, the fabrication
techniques can vary considerably. According to fabrication methods can be
divided into three types. These are solid phase process, liquid phase process and
semi solid fabrication process. Among the variety of manufacturing processes
available for discontinuous metal matrix composite, stir casting is generally
accepted as a particularly promising route, because of low cost. lie in its
simplicity, flexibility and applicability to the large quantity production. This
semi solid metallurgy technique is the most economical of all available routes
for MMC Production. It allows very large sized components to be fabricated,
and is able to sustain high productivity rates. Has shown that the cost of
preparing composite materials using a casting method is about one third to one
half that of competing methods
MIXING RATIO

Aluminium – 85%

Chromium - 9%

Nickel - 6%

The composites were prepared by stir casting process. Shows schematic

diagram the original setup of the stir casting process. Resistance furnace with a
temperature range of 3000 C was used to melt the matrix material. The furnace
has a temperature controller with k type thermocouple to control and measure
the temperature. An electric motor is fixed at the top of the furnace to provide
stirring motion to the stirrer. The speed of the stirrer can be varied as the setup
has a speed controller attached to it.

Figure Schematic Diagram of Stir Casting

Melting of Alloy

In stir casting process the following procedure was adopted for the preparation
of composites. Explains the stir casting process in detail. Alloy is cut and
weighed to obtain the correct weight as per the stoichio metric calculations. The
metals are then taken in to a crucible along with the coverall. The furnace is
heated to a temperature of 800 C and is constantly maintained at that
temperature throughout the process.

Preheating of alloys

Heat treatment of the particles before dispersion into the melt aids their transfer
by causing desorption of adsorbed gases from the particle surface. Preheating
1000 C of alloy particles removing surface Impurities and in the desorption of
gases, and alters the surface composition by forming an oxide layer on the
surface. The addition of pre-heated particles in Al, Cr and Ni melt has been
found to improve the wettability property. A clean surface of provides a better
opportunity for melt particles interaction, and thus, enhances wetting.

Addition of Coverall Powder

The flux used is Coverall. It is the composition of Potassium chloride (KCl) +

Nitric acid (HNO3), its function is to avoid oxidation. Coverall powder is added
twice during the casting process. Initially, when the ingots are placed in the
crucible, later while stirring of preheated SiC particles. The recommended
amount that is to be added is 250gm for a melt of 50kg.

Addition of Degasser Powder

Degasser powder is added to the molten metal when it reaches a temperature of

800 C. The recommended amount to be added is 250gm for a melt of 50Kg.
Degasser powder reduces blow holes formed during the casting process. The
reasons for adding degasser powder are as below
 When alloy is in the molten state, it tries to absorb hydrogen from the
atmosphere.
 When the absorbed hydrogen is unable to escape from the molten metal,
it results in the formation of blow holes.
 When coverall 65 is added, it forms a thin film over the molten metal and
prevents contact of molten metal with the atmosphere.
 When degasser tablets is added to molten metal, the chlorine present in
these tablets react with hydrogen in the molten metal and form
hydrochloric acid which dissolves in the molten metal, thereby reducing
blow holes.

Pouring of Molten Metal

The material is stirred with 300 rpm for thirty minutes. The stirred metal is then
slowly poured into the die which is preheated to a temperature of 973 C. The die
is allowed to cool in air for two hours and then the specimen is removed.

Solution Treatment
During casting low cooling rate of the alloy allows for the strengthening of
phase to precipitate out of solution and grow into large incoherent phases within
the matrix. In the as cast structure, the large, incoherent nature of the phase does
little to increase the strength of the alloy. To obtain finely dispersed Al-Ni-Cr a
solution heat treatment should be conducted on the alloy.
 Chapter-4

MECHANICAL PROPERTY TEST

 Chapter-4
MECHANICAL PROPERTY TEST

PIN ON DISC WEAR TESTER

Surface engineering point of view, wear test is carried out to evaluate the
potential of using a certain surface engineering technology to reduce wear for a
specific application, and to investigate the effect of treatment conditions
(processing parameters) on the wear performance, so that optimized surface
treatment conditions can be realized. In a pin-on-disc wear tester, a pin is loaded
against a flat rotating disc specimen such that a circular wear path is described
by the machine. The machine can be used to evaluate wear and friction
properties of materials under pure sliding conditions. This test method
describes a laboratory procedure for determining the wear of materials during
sliding using a pin-on-disk apparatus. Materials are tested in pairs under
nominally non-abrasive conditions. The principal areas of experimental
attention in using this type of apparatus to measure wear are described. The
coefficient of friction may also be determined.

Summary of Test Method

For the pin-on-disk wear test, two specimens are required. One, a pin with a
radiused tip, is positioned perpendicular to the other, usually a flat circular disk.
A ball, rigidly held, is often used as the pin specimen. The test machine causes
either the disk specimen or the pin specimen to revolve about the disk center. In
either case, the sliding path is a circle on the disk surface. The plane of the disk
may be oriented. The pin specimen is pressed against the disk at a specified load
usually by means of an arm or lever and attached weights. Other loading
methods have been used, such as, hydraulic or pneumatic. Wear results are
reported as volume loss in cubic millimetres for the pin and the disk separately.
When two different materials are tested, it is recommended that each material
be tested in both the pin and disk positions. The amount of wear is determined
by measuring appropriate linear dimensions of both specimens before and after
the test, or by weighing both specimens before and after the test. If linear
measures of wear are used, the length change or shape change of the pin, and
the depth or shape change of the disk wear track (in millimetres) are determined
by any suitable metrological technique, such as electronic distance gaging or
stylus profiling. Linear measures of wear are converted to wear volume (in
cubic millimetres) by using appropriate geometric relations.

Linear measures of wear are used frequently in practice since mass loss
is often too small to measure precisely. If loss of mass is measured, the mass
loss value is converted to volume loss (in cubic millimetres) using an
appropriate value for the specimen density. Wear results are usually obtained by
conducting a test for a selected sliding distance and for selected values of load
and speed. One set of test a condition that was used in an Inter laboratory
measurement series is and as a guide. Other test conditions may be selected
depending on the purpose of the test. Wear results may in some cases be
reported as plots of wear volume versus sliding distance using different
specimens for different distances. Such plots may display non-linear
relationships between wear volume and distance over certain portions of the
total sliding distance, and linear relationships over other portions. Causes for
such differing relationships include initial “break-in” processes, transitions
between regions of different dominant wear mechanisms, etc. The extent of
such non-linear periods depends on the details of the test system, materials, and
test conditions. It is not recommended that continuous wear depth data obtained
from position-sensing gages be used because of the complicated effects of wear
debris and transfer films present in the contact gap, and interferences from
thermal expansion or contraction.
Significance and Use

The amount of wear in any system will, in general, depend upon the number of
system factors such as the applied load, machine characteristics, sliding speed,
sliding distance, the environment, and the material properties. The value of any
wear test method lies in predicting the relative ranking of material
combinations. Since the pin-on-disk test method does not attempt to duplicate
all the conditions that may be experienced in service (for example; lubrication,
load, pressure, contact geometry, removal of wear debris, and presence of
corrosive environment), there is no ensurance that the test will predict the wear
rate of a given material under conditions differing from those in the test.

APPARATUS

a typical pin-on-disk wear test system, and photographs of two differently

designed apparatuses.5 One type of typical system consists of a driven spindle
and chuck for holding the revolving disk, a lever-arm device to hold the pin, and
attachments to allow the pin specimen to be forced against the revolving disk
specimen with a controlled load. Another type of system loads a pin revolving
about the disk center against a stationary disk. In any case the wear track on the
disk is a circle, involving multiple wear passes on the same track. The system
may have a friction force measuring system, for example, a load cell, that
allows the coefficient o friction to be determined.
Motor Drive
Avariable speed motor, capable of maintaining constant speed (61 % of rated
full load motor speed) under load is required. The motor should be mounted in
such a manner that its vibration does not affect the test. Rotating speeds are
typically in the range 0.3 to 3 rad/s (60 to 600 r/min).
Revolution Counter

The machine shall be equipped with a revolution counter or its equivalent that
will record the number of disk revolutions, and preferably have the ability to
shut off the machine after a pre-selected number of revolutions.
Pin Specimen Holder and Lever Arm
In one typical system, the stationary specimen holder is attached to a lever arm
that has a pivot. Adding weights, as one option of loading, produces a test force
proportional to the mass of the weights applied. Ideally, the pivot of the arm
should be located in the plane of the wearing contact to avoid extraneous
loading forces due to the sliding friction. The pin holder and arm must be of
substantial construction to reduce vibrational motion during the test.
Wear Measuring Systems
Instruments to obtain linear measures of wear should have a sensitivity of 2.5
μm or better. Any balance used to measure the mass loss of the test specimen
shall have a sensitivity of 0.1 mg or better; in low wear situations greater
sensitivity may be needed.
TEST SPECIMENS AND SAMPLE PREPARATION
Materials

This test method may be applied to a variety of materials. The only requirement
is that specimens having the specified dimensions can be prepared and that they
will withstand the stresses imposed during the test without failure or excessive
flexure. The materials being tested shall be described by dimensions, surface
finish, material type, form, composition, microstructure, processing treatments,
and indentation hardness (if appropriate).
Test Specimens
The typical pin specimen is cylindrical or spherical in shape. Typical cylindrical
or spherical pin specimen diameters range from 2 to 10 mm. The typical disk
specimen diameters range from 30 to 100 mm and have a thickness in the range
of 2 to 10 mm.

TEST PARAMETERS

Load: Values of the force in Newtons at the wearing contact.

Speed: The relative sliding speed between the contacting surfaces in metres per
second.
Distance: The accumulated sliding distance in meters.
Temperature: The temperature of one or both specimens at locations close to
the wearing contact.
Atmosphere: The atmosphere (laboratory air, relative humidity, argon,
lubricant, etc.) surrounding the wearing contact.

PROCEDURE

 Immediately prior to testing, and prior to measuring or weighing, clean

and dry the specimens. Take care to remove all dirt and foreign matter
from the specimens. Use non chlorinated, non-film-forming cleaning
 agents and solvents. Dry materials with open grains to remove all traces
of the cleaning fluids that may be entrapped in the material. Steel
(ferromagnetic) specimens having residual magnetism should be
demagnetized. Report the methods used for cleaning.
 Measure appropriate specimen dimensions to the nearest μm or weigh
the specimens to the nearest 0.0001 g.
 Insert the disk securely in the holding device so that the disk is fixed
perpendicular (61°) to the axis of the resolution.
 Insert the pin specimen securely in its holder and, if necessary, adjust so
that the specimen is perpendicular (61°) to the disk surface when in
contact, in order to maintain the necessary contact conditions. Add the
proper mass to the system lever or bale to develop the selected force
pressing the pin against the disk. Start the motor and adjust the speed to
the desired value while holding the pin specimen out of contact with the
disk. Stop the motor.
 Set the revolution counter (or equivalent) to the desired number of
revolutions.
 Begin the test with the specimens in contact under load. The test is
stopped when the desired number of revolutions is achieved. Tests should
not be interrupted or restarted.
 Remove the specimens and clean off any loose wear debris. Note the
existence of features on or near the wear scar such as: protrusions,
displaced metal, discoloration, micro cracking, or spotting.
 Re measure the specimen dimensions to the nearest 2.5 μm or reweigh
the specimens to the nearest 0.0001 g, as appropriate.
 Repeat the test with additional specimens to obtain sufficient data for
statistically significant results.
2. KNOOP HARDNESS TEST

The Knoop hardness test is a micro hardness test - a test for mechanical
hardness used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets, where only a
small indentation may be made for testing purpose.

Introduction

Metallurgists have long used various types of indenters for testing the hardness
(defined as resistance to deformation) of metals. Attempts to apply to minerals
the Rockwell, Vickers, and other types of machines which measure hardness in
terms of deformation of the specimen by penetration of a standard-shaped point
applied by a specified machine, have met with little success because of the
tendency of minerals to fracture during the penetration of the indenter. Since the
fracture represents displacement and deformation of other material than that
immediately adjacent to the point of the indenter, greater penetration takes place
than is proper for the indenter and its associated machine. Moreover, the
displacement due to fracture cannot be measured readily, and therefore
introduces an unknown factor into the measurement. Experiments conducted at
the Research Laboratories of the Hamilton Watch Company have suggested that
of all the various machines for measuring hardness by indentation, the Knoop
micro hardness tester may be the only tool that can give valid, or at least
consistent, readings of the hardness of minerals.

KNOOP INDENTER

Knoop, Peters, and Emerson (1939) described an unusually sensitive pyramidal-

diamond indenter which is known as the micro hardness tester, or Knoop
indenter. The Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company manufactures a
machine, the Tukon tester, which utilizes this indenter. In measuring the
hardness of a specimen, a polished flat surface is first prepared. The Knoop
indenter is then brought into contact with this surface for 20 seconds (the
minimum time found adequate to assure consistent results), with a known load.
The indentation thus produced is measured with a microscope, and the hardness
number 1 is proportional to the load divided by the area of the indentation. For
relatively heavy loads-say 1 to 3 kilograms-the hardness number is essentially
independent of the load. Tate (1944) showed, however, that this is not strictly
true for loads of 100 grams or less the concluded that the applied load should
always be reported with the hardness number: that practice is followed here.

The Tukon tester is provided with several weights corresponding to loads

from 100 grams up. Our instrument is not provided with smaller loads, but
slight changes could easily be made which would accomplish the purpose if
necessary. The latest model of the Tukon testing machine embodies an
electromagnetic device for applying the load without overloading by impact
between the specimen and the diamond indenter. The Hamilton instrument was
rebuilt to afford that protection against shock after about half of the corundum
tests reported here had been completed. The error due to impact before
installation of the device is believed to be mostly the result of fractures in brittle
specimens, although there must have been some decrease of the hardness
number due to impact of the unguarded indenter in the old form of the
instrument. The K.noop indenter possesses advantages over other similar
hardness measuring tools, and these are exactly the advantages that make it
suitable for testing minerals. An extremely shallow penetration is sufficient to
produce an indentation long enough to be measured with a relative accuracy of
about t/o. The, for an indentation 100 microns (0.1 mm.) long, the penetration is
only about 3 microns. The smallness of the penetrtaion was demonstrated by
Peters and Knoop (1940) when they showed that a valid reading of the hardness
of electrolytic chromium plate can be obtained,
Regard less of the nature of the base metal upon which the chromium was
deposited, if the thickness of the plating is greater than 0.001 inch or 25
microns. The validity of extending this conclusion to cover small grains in a
polished section of a mineral assemblage is not debatedh ere, but does not seem
unreasonable for roughly equant grains which appear about 100 microns in
diameter in the plane of the section, especially if several such grains are tested
and found to give consistent results. By reducing the Ioad applied to the
indenter, the length of the indentation can always be kept small.
3. HEAT TRANSFER TEST

HEAT TRANSFER FROM A PIN FIN

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the fin effectiveness for various
pin fins with natural or forced convection, and to compare the measured and
predicted temperature distributions along the length of the fin. Heat transfer
coefficients for each of the pin fin configurations will be obtained
experimentally. Heat transfer theory provides a direct means of developing
engineering estimates of the rate of heat transfer in various practical situations.
For forced or natural convective heat transfer, empirical correlations are
developed with a theoretical basis, but with experimentally determined
parameters. Such empirical correlations can represent idealizations that are not
typically realized, even in the laboratory. It is often not appreciated that
convection correlations are seldom better than 20% accurate, and can frequently
be even worse. Thus, although the correlations can be used for engineering
estimates, more exact information is obtained by the construction and testing of
a prototype. In this experiment, the temperature distributions for four different
pin fins are measured with natural or forced convection.

APPARATUS

The apparatus consists of four different fin configurations. At the base of each
fin is a threaded section, which is used to attach the fin base to a heater. The
heater and base of the fin are surrounded by insulation to reduce heat loss. Five
to seven type K thermocouples (chromel/alumel) are embedded at the base and
along the length of each pin fin. The heater is powered from a reduced line
source by a VARIAC. Fluke multi-meters are used to measure the voltage and
current drawn by the heater. Note: the current is actually measured as a voltage
drop across a 1-Ohm resistor. A data acquisition system (DAQ) is used to
acquire the temperature data, and also for a redundant measurement of the
heater power.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

With the fin securely installed and the VARIAC set to the proper voltage, the
fin temperature measurements are monitored until a steady state condition has
been reached. Steady state temperatures are then recorded along with the
measured power. The procedure is then repeated with the fan blowing on the fin
(forced convection).

 Turn on the power supply to the electric heater. Do not change the setting
on the power supply. Use the multi-meters to obtain the voltage and
current. (The current is determined indirectly by measuring the voltage
across a 1-ohm resistor.)
 Measure the dimensions of the fin including length and diameter.
 Measure the locations of the thermocouples.
 Determine whether the fin is made of silicon carbide, aluminum, or
stainless steel.
 Measure the room air temperature.
 Use the DAQ system to monitor the temperatures along the length of the
fin. When the system has reached steady-state, record the temperatures.
Turn on the fan, monitor the temperatures and then record steady state
readings for the forced convection boundary condition. Use the handheld
anemometer to measure the air velocity.
ADVANTAGES
 ADVANTAGES

 High specific strength and

 High specific stiffness Long fatigue life
 High creep resistance
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low density
 Low thermal conductivity
 Better wear resistance
 Improved corrosion resistance
APPLICATION
 Chapter-6

APPLICATIONS

 Automobile components

 Corrosion resisting areas

 Tidal power plant components.

 Marine logistics components.

CONCLUSION
 Chapter-7
CONCLUSION

The material selection methods for the design and application of automotive

brake disc are developed. From the results obtained above, we can come to the

conclusion that

 Practical use of Al-Ni-Cr composite material produces much effective

braking compared to steel disc brakes.

 Deformation in steel is much higher than composite, which implies the

deformation resistance of the composite structure than the steel material.

 Stress accumulated on the composite is much less, which proves the wear

resistance, rigid & stable braking during high speeds.

REFERENCE
 REFERENCE

 Swapnil R. Abhang, D.P.Bhaskar, Design and Analysis of Disc Brake‖

International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT)
Volume 8 Number 4- Feb 2014
 Manjunath T V, Dr Suresh P M, Structural and Thermal Analysis of
rotor disc in Disc Brakes‖, IJIRSET ISSN No: 2319- 8753, December
2013
 B. Brown, Performance enhancement to a brake caliper design‖ Masters
of Science Thesis, Wichita State University, 2003
 Halderman J.D Automotive Brake Systems‖, Prentice Hall, Inc, NJ, USA,
1996 Kubota Masahiro, Hamabe Tsutomu,
 Nakazono Yasunori, Fukuda Masayuki, Doi Kazuhiro, Development of a
lightweight brake disc rotor: a design approach for Achieving an
optimum thermal, vibration and weight balance‖, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd,
Japan, 2000
 Grieve, D. G., Barton, D. C., Crolla, D. A., and Buckingham, J. T.,
Design of a Light weight automotive brake disc using finite element
Techniques‖, University of Leeds, November 1997
 Jancirani, J., Chandra sekaran, S. and Tamilporai, P., Design and heat
transfer Analysis of automotive disc brakes‖, ASME Summer heat
transfer Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, July 2003
 Miha Peveca,Grega Odera,Iztok Potrča,Matjaž Šramlb, Elevated
temperature low cycle fatigue of grey cast iron used for automotive brake
discs‖ 13 April 2014.