DEVELOPMENT OF BLDC MOTOR-BASED ELEVATOR

SYSTEM SUITABLE FOR DC MICRO GRID

ABSTRACT

Recently, several measures are being taken to conserve energy without

degradation in performance. To achieve notable energy savings in elevator
systems, in this paper we develop and experimentally test and Operation of an
elevator can be classified into four quadrant operations. Four quadrant operation
of the proposed elevator system has also been indicated with the simulation
results. To demonstrate the successful working of the proposal, a prototype
elevator system has been designed and developed in the laboratory.

Experiments have been conducted for the upward and downward

movement of the elevator cabin with and without load. Brushless Direct Current
(BLDC) motors have secured a very significant space in the modern drives
industry primarily due to the added benefits of a dc input system along with a
brushless drive.

Various advantages such as, high torque/current ratio, high power density
and higher efficiency make these motors very suitable for replacing
conventional motors in many systems. cite such advantages of a BLDC motor
and also present a new simulation model that can be used for analysis and
design of BLDC motors.

This prototype model consists of (i) mechanical components, such as

worm gear, pulley and EC, etc., (ii) set of sensors for detecting floor position
and rotor position of the motor, (iii) user command buttons, (iv) LED indicators
and (v) BLDC motor along with power and control circuits.
 CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

An elevator is a vertical transportation vehicle used mainly for the transit

of people and goods in high-raised buildings. Easy and efficient transportation
within a building is of utmost importance, since the present day cities are
considered to grow vertically. Generally an elevator uses a three phase
induction motor to carry out the hoisting operation. However, considerable
research has been carried out to replace the conventional motor to attain
improved efficiency, reliability and speed. Brushless Direct Current (BLDC)
motors have secured a very significant space in the modern drives industry
primarily due to the added benefits of a dc input system along with a brushless
drive. Various advantages such as, high torque/current ratio, high power density
and higher efficiency make these motors very suitable for replacing
conventional motors in many systems.
An elevator system deals with numerous signals and some of those are
floor position signal, load sensor signal, door open signal, alarm, floor
commands etc. Thus the controller designed for the elevator system needs to
efficiently organize these signals for operating the system as per the user
command. Ekanayake et al. have emphasized this aspect and suggested how a
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) controller can be beneficial for
operating elevator systems. Yuhang et al. have implemented a six layer
automatic elevator controller using an FPGA, highlighting the need and
advantages. Joost et al. have shown the advantages of an FPGA based
multiprocessor system in industrial applications. Wu et al. have developed a
direct – drive servo valve using an FPGA in the current controller and mentions
why FPGA is superior over other controllers.
 Thus, owing to flexibility, durability and at-site re-configurability, FPGA
controllers are gaining increased importance for many industrial applications.
So, in this work, an FPGA controller has been designed and developed for the
proposed elevator control. Easy and efficient transportation within a building is
of utmost importance, since the present day cities are considered to grow
vertically. Generally an elevator uses a three phase induction motor to carry out
the hoisting operation. However, considerable research has been carried out to
replace the conventional motor to attain improved efficiency, reliability and
speed.
Jung et al. have developed a nine phase permanent magnet motor drive
system for an ultra-high speed elevator system and the feasibility of the drive
system was tested in the world’s tallest elevator test tower. Such a design is
very useful to meet the need for high speed elevator operation which cannot be
suitably satisfied by conventional three phase electric drive systems. Other
drives like linear switched reluctance motors have also been studied for the
purpose of implementation in elevator systems. A linear motor design capable
of generating a magnetic field decoupled from the thrust generating magnetic
field of the linear motor is presented where the decoupled field can be used to
actuate a brake mechanism, forming the basis of an elevator safety system.
Mutoh et al. have presented a controller suitable for elevators which increases
the efficiency and performance of an elevator system.
Osama et al. have implemented and analyzed the performance of an
elevator with three-phase induction motor drive and made a comparison with
the traditional dual stator winding line-supplied elevator motors. Brushless
Direct Current (BLDC) motors have secured a very significant space in the
modern drives industry primarily due to the added benefits of a dc input system
along with a brushless drive. Various advantages such as, high torque/current
ratio, high power density and higher efficiency make these motors very suitable
for replacing conventional motors in many systems.
 Jeon et al. cite such advantages of a BLDC motor and also present a new
simulation model that can be used for analysis and design of BLDC motors [6].
Many studies have also been carried out to obtain higher efficiency and better
control for BLDC motors. Further, owing to the ease of control and scope for
regenerative braking, considerable amount of research has been carried out to
incorporate BLDC motors in Electric Vehicles
In the last decade, considerable developments have taken place in the
design and operation of dc microgrids for effective utilization of renewable
energy sources. Less power conversion stages, simple control, absence of
reactive power, no harmonics, and easy to connect energy storage devices,
namely, battery, plug-in electric vehicles and super capacitors are the main
reasons for preferring dc microgrids with renewable energy sources. In fact,
Strunz et al. have proposed a dc microgrid system for harnessing wind and solar
energy that occur at the top of high-raised buildings. Anand et al. address this
very issue and suggest a dc system with different optimum levels for high
efficiency and reliability with low system cost.
In a similar study, Li et al. suggest that a dc voltage of 60 V can be
selected as standard for dc home microgrids considering various factors of
efficiency, risk and equipment suitability. Commercial elevator systems
employing 3-phase induction motor (IM) drive is operated from 400 V ac
supply with v/f control. This requires a dc source of more than 500 V for
operating the IM based elevator system. Hence if such IM based system is to be
adopted with dc microgrid, then an additional power converter needs to be
employed as compared to BLDC machine system. This is an added attractive
feature of BLDC drive with dc microgrid application besides the advantages
mentioned above. So, an attempt is made in this paper to study the operation of
the BLDC motor based elevator system operated from the dc grid.
 An elevator system deals with numerous signals and some of those are
floor position signal, load sensor signal, door open signal, alarm, floor
commands etc. Thus the controller designed for the elevator system needs to
efficiently organize these signals for operating the system as per the user
command. Thus, owing to flexibility, durability and at-site re-configurability,
FPGA controllers are gaining increased importance for many industrial
applications.
So, in this work, an FPGA controller has been designed and developed
for the proposed elevator control. For demonstrating the successful working of
the proposed system, firstly, the entire system has been modeled using a
Mechatronic MATLAB / Simulink toolbox and observed the functionality of the
system for various operating conditions through simulation. Then, the entire
elevator system, namely, elevator cabin (EC), counterweight (CW), BLDC
motor coupled with pulley, magnetic position sensors, power and FPGA based
control circuits have been designed and fabricated in the laboratory. Starting
from the description of the system, simulation and experimental investigations
of a prototype elevator system with BLDC motor and FPGA controller are
presented in the succeeding sections.
Significant development has been achieved in optimization of elevator
controllers in terms of energy efficiency and reducing average waiting as well
as transit time. This involves implementation of artificial intelligence and fuzzy
logic in controllers to optimize the service parameters. This paper deals with
speed manipulation of the elevator based on load to achieve energy savings
considering its traffic intensity. We propose a trade-off between speed and the
load torque such that their product is constant. This paper includes experimental
verification of the proposed idea using a miniature elevator model.
1.1 EXISTING SYSTEM:

It is known that the Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors have

smooth speed control, high power density and fewer complexities in power
converter and controller when operated with dc supply as compared to other
electrical motors. Hence, this paper enunciates the scope of using BLDC motors
for elevator systems suitable for operating with dc micro grid. Four quadrant
operation of the proposed elevator system has also been indicated with the
simulation results.
 CHAPTER-II

LITERATURE SURVEY

LITERATURE SURVEY-I:

TITLE : Development of BLDC motor elevator system suitable for

DC microgrid.

AUTHOR : Dwijasish Das, N. Kumaresan, V. Nayanar, K. Navin Sam

and N. Ammasi Gounden
DESCRIPTION :

In recent days, utilization of renewable energy sources has

been emphasized in high-raised buildings, where dc microgrid is established. It
is known that the Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors have smooth speed
control, high power density and less complexity in power converter and
controller when operated with dc supply as compared to other electrical motors.
Hence, this paper enunciates the scope of using BLDC motors for elevator
systems suitable for operating with dc microgrid. For analyzing the proposed
BLDC motor based elevator system, a MATLAB Mechatronic simulation
model has been developed by inserting various electrical and mechanical
components. Four quadrant operation of the proposed elevator system has also
been indicated with the simulation results. To demonstrate the successful
working of the proposal, a prototype elevator system has been designed and
developed in the laboratory. The overall closed-loop controller has been
implemented using a Xilinx Spartan-3E Field Programmable Gate Array
(FPGA). Experiments have been conducted for the upward and downward
movement of the elevator cabin with and without load and the findings are
given in the paper. Regenerative braking is also possible for the proposed
system by employing a suitable gear mechanism in place of worm gear.
LITERATURE SURVEY-II:

TITLE : Performance Evaluation of Energy Efficient Intelligent

Elevator Controllers.
AUTHOR : Muhammad Z Hasan, Rainer Fink, Muthuvel Raj

Suyambu, Manoj Kumar Baskaran Daryl James, Jesus

Gamboa.
DESCRIPTION :

Recently, several measures are being taken to conserve

energy without degradation in performance. To achieve notable energy savings
in elevator systems, in this paper we develop and experimentally test an
algorithm. Operation of an elevator can be classified into two modes: running
mode and stand-by mode. We design an elevator system capable of energy-
saving by manipulating its speed in running mode. Speed is varied based on the
difference of load carried and the counter weight. A miniature elevator model is
used to carry out the experiments and to collect energy data. The algorithm is
tested on different traffic patterns: 1) pre-determined pattern, and 2) random
pattern. Voltage and current samples are collected from the miniature elevator
model, the final energy data of variable speed system are calculated and
compared with energy data of constant speed system.
This proposed method results in a 3.715% energy savings for pre-
determined traffic pattern and 8.7612% energy savings for random traffic
patterns. Significant development has been achieved in optimization of elevator
controllers in terms of energy efficiency and reducing average waiting as well
as transit time. This involves implementation of artificial intelligence and fuzzy
logic in controllers to optimize the service parameters. This paper deals with
speed manipulation of the elevator based on load to achieve energy savings
considering its traffic intensity.
LITERATURE SURVEY-III:

TITLE : Instrumentation and Control of a High Power BLDC Motor

for Small Vehicle Applications
AUTHOR : Alexander Rowe, Gourab Sen Gupta, Serge Demidenko

DESCRIPTION :

Brushless DC (BLDC) motors are becoming an increasingly

popular motor of choice for low powered vehicles such as mopeds, power
assisted bicycles, mobility scooters, and in this reported application, motorized
mountain boards. With rapid developments in technology, high energy density
batteries such as Lithium-ion Polymer batteries are becoming more affordable
and highly suitable for such vehicles due to the superior charge rate and light
weight of the lithium chemistry batteries. This combined with the high power,
light weight, and low cost BLDC motor results in the BLDC motor being a very
favorable solution over an internal combustion engine for low power vehicles
with power requirements of up to 7kW. A BLDC motor controller was
developed specifically for the motorized mountain board application. The motor
controller is a sensored BLDC motor controller which takes inputs from Hall
Effect sensors to determine the rotor position. Many other sensors are used to
monitor the variables that are critical to the operation of the motor controller
such as the motor phase current, battery voltage, motor temperature, and
transistor temperature. The reported system is further enhanced by several
additional features such as output for an LCD screen, regenerative braking,
timing advance, cruise control, and soft start functions. These topics are
discussed briefly in this paper.
 CHAPTER-III

3.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM:

A sensor-less control strategy of a high speed 315 kW brushless DC
(BLDC) motor based on a speed–independent flux linkage function is proposed
in this paper. It addresses the two key challenges on the sensor-less control of
high speed BLDC motor: proposing a speed–independent flux linkage function
to ensure reliable operation in the low–speed range, and presenting correction
strategy to provide accurate commutation points in the high–speed range. First,
the sensor-less detection circuit model of a 315kW BLDC motor is discussed.
The analysis shows that the speed–independent flux linkage function is really
suitable for BLDC motor sensor-less control strategy in the low–speed range.

3.2 BLDC MOTOR CONTROL:

BLDC motor control BLDC motor rotation is initiated by sequentially
energizing the three phase winding of the stator with the appropriate polarity.
This is achieved by controlling the sequence of conduction of the IGBTs in the
inverter, based on the instantaneous position of the rotor. Table I shows the
conduction of the IGBTs in the inverter for operating the BLDC motor in
forward and reverse directions. It can be noticed from this table that, two
switches conduct at any instant with one on the top leg and the other from the
bottom leg.

3.3 FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION OF AN ELEVATOR:

The elevator system proposed in this paper operates in four quadrants
depending upon the (I) relative weight of the EC and CW and (ii) direction of
movement of EC. It is to be noticed that in quadrants I and IV, the EC is with
passenger while in quadrants II and III it is empty.
 Upward motion of the EC corresponds to the forward rotation of the
BLDC machine and reverse rotation is for downward motion of EC. In the first
quadrant, the net EC weight is assumed to be more as compared to the CW and
EC needs to move upward. Hence, the BLDC machine operates as a motor
(forward motoring) with torque and rotational speed in the same direction.
Similarly, the BLDC machine operates as a motor (reverse motoring) in the
third quadrant as the net EC weight is less as compared to the CW and EC
moves downward. In the second quadrant, the net EC weight is assumed to be
lighter than the CW and EC needs to move upward.
So, the BLDC machine acts as a brake (forward braking) with torque and
rotational speed in the opposite direction along with the worm gear. The
primary objective of worm gear in elevator system is to work as a natural brake
such that the EC does not move due to the difference in net EC weight and CW
with gravity. Thus, the presence of worm gear forbids any reverse mechanical
power flow. If suitable gear arrangement is employed in place of worm gear
then the BLDC machine can act as a generator (i.e., regenerative braking) in II
quadrant.
 Fig 3.3: Four quadrant operation of an elevator system

3.4 RFID OPERATING PRINCIPLE:

RFID represent the way to identify objects using radio waves. The device
that used for capture and transfer information is a RFID reader. It is able to read
data from a transponder. RFID reader will transmit the energy field that wakes
up the tag and power up the chip to enable the transmission of the data.
The tag also known as the transponder holds the data when the tag is
interrogated by the reader. The most common tags today consist of an
Integrated Circuit (IC) with limited memory which depends on the application.
Basically, this project only required passive RFID tag to operate. Passive RFID
tag does not need battery instead this tag obtain their operational power from
harvesting the electromagnetic energy emitted from their reader.
 The tag temporary store the small amount of energy emitted from heir
reader, convert it to DC power to power up their microchip and generate their
response.

3.5 MICROCONTROLLER:
Microcontroller is a compact stand alone computer which can optimized
for control application. It contains processor core, memory and programmable
input/output peripherals. Microcontroller can integrates additional elements
which are read write memory for data storage purpose and the read only
memory for program storage. This PIC16F877A model has been selected
because the number of pins and ports which are appropriate for this project.

3.6 MOTOR DRIVER CIRCUIT:

A gate driver IC is used between the microcontroller and the gates of the
MOSFETS for three reasons:
• To step up the 3.2V logic signal from the microcontroller to a 12V signal
for the low side transistors in order to saturate the MOSFET
• To provide a charge pump circuit for driving the gate of the high side
transistors to 12V above the voltage on the source pin in order to saturate
the MOSFETS
• To provide shoot-through protection with programmable dead time for
the three phase H-bridge Gate resistors between the output from the gate
driver IC and MOSFET gate are used to slow the switching times of the
transistors. This is to reduce the rate of change of current (di/dt) through
the motor windings.
The self-inductance of the windings causes an induced voltage across the
winding that is proportional to the rate of change of current when the transistors
are switched on and off. This induced voltage can cause the transistors to
experience a voltage that exceeds the Vdss rating, causing them to blow.
 These gate resistors are arranged in a way to reduce ringing issues with the
paralleled transistors.

3.7 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR:

Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as
electronically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors), or synchronous DC
motors, are synchronous motors powered by DC electricity via an inverter or
switching power supply which produces an AC electric current to drive each
phase of the motor via a closed loop controller. The controller provides pulses
of current to the motor windings that control the speed and torque of the motor.
The construction of a brushless motor system is typically similar to a
permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), but can also be a switched
reluctance motor, or an induction (asynchronous) motor. The advantages of a
brushless motor over brushed motors are high power to weight ratio, high speed,
and electronic control. Brushless motors find applications in such places as
computer peripherals (disk drives, printers), hand-held power tools, and vehicles
ranging from model aircraft to automobiles.
Brushed DC motors are ubiquitous, representing a mature technology
invented in the 19th century. Brushless DC motors are a relatively recent
advance, made possible by the development of solid state electronics in the
1960s with further improvements in the 1980s thanks to better permanent
magnet materials.
An electric motor develops torque by alternating the polarity of rotating
magnets attached to the rotor, the turning part of the machine, and stationary
magnets on the stator which surrounds the rotor.[3] One or both sets of magnets
are electromagnets, made of a coil of wire wound around an iron core. DC
electric current run through the wire winding creates the magnetic field,
providing the power which runs the motor.
 However, each time the rotor rotates by 180° (a half-turn), the position of
the north and south poles on the rotor are reversed. If the magnetic field of the
poles remained the same, this would cause a reversal of the torque on the rotor
each half-turn, and so the average torque would be zero and the rotor wouldn't
turn.[4][5] Therefore, in a DC motor, in order to create torque in one direction,
the direction of electric current through the windings must be reversed with
every 180° turn of the rotor (or turned off during the time that it is in the wrong
direction). This reverses the direction of the magnetic field as the rotor turns, so
the torque on the rotor is always in the same direction.

3.8 COMMUTATOR
In brushed motors, invented in the 19th century, this is done with a rotary
switch on the motor's shaft called a commutator.[3][5][4] It consists of a
rotating cylinder divided into multiple metal contact segments on the rotor. The
segments are connected to wire electromagnet windings on the rotor. Two or
more stationary contacts called "brushes", made of a soft conductor like
graphite press against the commutator, making sliding electrical contact with
successive segments as the rotor turns, providing electric current to the
windings. Each time the rotor rotates by 180° the commutator reverses the
direction of the electric current applied to a given winding, so the magnetic field
creates a torque in one direction.

3.8.1 DISADVANTAGES OF COMMUTATOR:

The commutator has many engineering disadvantages that has led to the
decline in use of brushed motors in the last 100 years. The friction of the
brushes sliding along the rotating commutator segments causes power losses
that can be significant in a low power motor.
 The soft brush material wears down due to friction, creating dust, and
eventually the brushes must be replaced. This makes commutated motors
unsuitable for low particulate or sealed applications like hard disk motors.
The resistance of the sliding brush contact causes a voltage drop in the
motor circuit called "brush drop" which consumes energy. This can amount to a
few volts, so in a low voltage motor this can be a significant power loss.
The repeated abrupt switching of the current through the inductance of
the windings causes sparks at the commutator contacts. These are a fire hazard
in explosive atmospheres, and create electronic noise, which can cause
electromagnetic interference in nearby microelectronic circuits.
During the last hundred years high power DC brushed motors, once the
mainstay of industry, were replaced by alternating current (AC) synchronous
motors. Today brushed motors are only used in low power applications where
only DC current is available, but the above drawbacks limit their use even in
these applications. Brushless motors were invented to solve these problems.

3.8.2 BRUSHLESS SOLUTION

The development of semiconductor electronics in the 1970s allowed the
commutator and brushes to be eliminated in DC motors. In brushless DC
motors, an electronic servo system replaces the mechanical commutator
contacts. An electronic sensor detects the angle of the rotor, and controls
semiconductor switches such as transistors which switch current through the
windings, either reversing the direction of the current, or in some motors turning
it off, at the correct time each 180° shaft rotation so the electromagnets create a
torque in one direction. The elimination of the sliding contact allows brushless
motors to have less friction and longer life; their working life is only limited by
the lifetime of their bearings.
 Brushed DC motors develop a maximum torque when stationary, linearly
decreasing as velocity increases. Some limitations of brushed motors can be
overcome by brushless motors; they include higher efficiency and a lower
susceptibility to mechanical wear. These benefits come at the cost of potentially
less rugged, more complex, and more expensive control electronics.
A typical brushless motor has permanent magnets which rotate around a
fixed armature, eliminating problems associated with connecting current to the
moving armature. An electronic controller replaces the brush/commutator
assembly of the brushed DC motor, which continually switches the phase to the
windings to keep the motor turning. The controller performs similar timed
power distribution by using a solid-state circuit rather than the
brush/commutator system.
Brushless motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors,
including high torque to weight ratio, more torque per watt (increased
efficiency), increased reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no brush and
commutator erosion), elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator, and
overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on
the rotor, they are not subjected to centrifugal forces, and because the windings
are supported by the housing, they can be cooled by conduction, requiring no
airflow inside the motor for cooling.
This in turn means that the motor's internals can be entirely enclosed and
protected from dirt or other foreign matter. Brushless motor commutation can
be implemented in software using a microcontroller or microprocessor
computer, or may alternatively be implemented in analogue hardware, or in
digital firmware using an FPGA. Commutation with electronics instead of
brushes allows for greater flexibility and capabilities not available with brushed
DC motors, including speed limiting, "micro stepped" operation for slow and/or
fine motion control, and a holding torque when stationary.
 Controller software can be customized to the specific motor being used in
the application, resulting in greater commutation efficiency. The maximum
power that can be applied to a brushless motor is limited almost exclusively by
heat;[citation needed] too much heat weakens the magnets and will damage the
winding's insulation.
When converting electricity into mechanical power, brushless motors are
more efficient than brushed motors. This improvement is largely due to the
frequency at which the electricity is switched determined by the position sensor
feedback. Additional gains are due to the absence of brushes, which reduces
mechanical energy loss due to friction. The enhanced efficiency is greatest in
the no-load and low-load region of the motor's performance curve.[citation
needed] Under high mechanical loads, brushless motors and high-quality
brushed motors are comparable in efficiency.[citation needed][disputed –
discuss]
Environments and requirements in which manufacturers use brushless-
type DC motors include maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and operation
where sparking is hazardous (i.e. explosive environments) or could affect
electronically sensitive equipment.
The construction of a brushless motor may resemble that of a stepper
motor. Unlike a stepper, a brushless motor is usually intended to produce
continuous rotation. Stepper motors generally do not include a shaft position
sensor for internal feedback of the rotor position. Instead a stepper controller
will rely on a sensor to detect the position of the driven device. They are
frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position while still
producing torque. A well designed brushless motor system can also be held at
zero rpm and finite torque.
3.8.3 VARIATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION:
Brushless motors can be constructed in several different physical
configurations: In the 'conventional' (also known as in runner) configuration, the
permanent magnets are part of the rotor. Three stator windings surround the
rotor. In the out runner (or external-rotor) configuration, the radial-relationship
between the coils and magnets is reversed; the stator coils form the centre (core)
of the motor, while the permanent magnets spin within an overhanging rotor
which surrounds the core. The flat or axial flux type, used where there are space
or shape limitations, uses stator and rotor plates, mounted face to face. Out
runners typically have more poles, set up in triplets to maintain the three groups
of windings, and have a higher torque at low RPMs.[citation needed] In all
brushless motors, the coils are stationary.[citation needed]
There are two common electrical winding configurations; the delta
configuration connects three windings to each other (series circuits) in a
triangle-like circuit, and power is applied at each of the connections. The Wye
(Y-shaped) configuration, sometimes called a star winding, connects all of the
windings to a central point (parallel circuits) and power is applied to the
remaining end of each winding.
A motor with windings in delta configuration gives low torque at low
speed, but can give higher top speed. Wye configuration gives high torque at
low speed, but not as high top speed. Although efficiency is greatly affected by
the motor's construction, the Wye winding is normally more efficient. In delta-
connected windings, half voltage is applied across the windings adjacent to the
driven lead (compared to the winding directly between the driven leads),
increasing resistive losses. In addition, windings can allow high-frequency
parasitic electrical currents to circulate entirely within the motor.[citation
needed] A Wye-connected winding does not contain a closed loop in which
parasitic currents can flow, preventing such losses.
3.9 MICROGRID:
Microgrid is a localized group of electricity sources and loads that
normally operates connected to and synchronous with the traditional centralized
electrical grid (macrogrid), but can also disconnect to "island mode" — and
function autonomously as physical and/or economic conditions dictate.[1]
In this way, a microgrid can effectively integrate various sources of
distributed generation (DG), especially Renewable Energy Sources (RES), and
can supply emergency power, changing between island and connected modes.
Hawaii is itself a microgrid and always unintentionally islanding because it is
indeed an island. Control and protection are challenges to microgrids.

3.9.1 TYPES OF MICROGRIDS:

A typical scheme of microgrid with renewable energy resources in grid-
connected mode. The focus of campus microgrids is aggregating existing on-
site generation with multiple loads that located in tight geography in which
owner easily manage them.
3.9.2 REMOTE “OFF-GRID” MICROGRIDS
These microgrids never connect to the Macrogrid and instead operate in
an island mode at all times because of economical issue or geography position.
Typically, an "off-grid" microgrid is built in areas that are far distant from any
transmission and distribution infrastructure and, therefore, have no connection
to the utility grid.

3.9.3 MILITARY BASE MICROGRIDS

These microgrids are being actively deployed with focus on both physical
and cyber security for military facilities in order to assure reliable power
without relying on the Macrogrid.
3.9.4 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL (C&I) MICROGRIDS
These types of microgrids are maturing quickly in North America and
Asia Pacific; however, the lack of well –known standards for these types of
microgrids limits them globally. Main reasons for the installation of an
industrial microgrid are power supply security and its reliability. There are
many manufacturing processes in which an interruption of the power supply
may cause high revenue losses and long start-up time.

3.9.5 BASIC COMPONENTS IN MICROGRIDS

The Solar Settlement, a sustainable housing community project in
Freiburg, Germany. It presents various types of generation source that feed
electricity to user. These sources are divided into two major groups – thermal
energy sources (ex. Diesel generators) and renewable generation sources (e.g.
wind turbines, solar).

3.9.6 CONSUMPTION
It simply refers to elements that consume electricity which range from single
devices to lighting, heating system of buildings, commercial centers, etc. In the
case of controllable loads, the electricity consumption can be modified in
demand of the network.

3.9.7 ENERGY STORAGE

In microgrid, energy storage is able to perform multiple functions, such
as ensuring power quality, including frequency and voltage regulation,
smoothing the output of renewable energy sources, providing backup power for
the system and playing crucial role in cost optimization. It includes all of
electrical, pressure, gravitational, flywheel, and heat storage technologies.

3.9.8 POINT OF COMMON COUPLING (PCC)

It is the point in the electric circuit where a microgrid is connected to a main
grid.[9] Microgrids that do not have a PCC are called isolated microgrids which
are usually presented in the case of remote sites (e.g., remote communities or
remote industrial sites) where an interconnection with the main grid is not
feasible due to either technical and/or economic constraints.

3.9.9 MICROGRID CONTROL

3.9.9.1 HIERARCHICAL CONTROL

In regards to the architecture of microgrid control, or any control
problem, there are two different approaches that can be identified: centralized
and decentralized. A fully centralized control relies on a large amount of
information transmittence between involving units and then the decision is
made at a single point. Hence, it will present a big problem in implementation
since interconnected power systems usually cover extended geographic
locations and involves an enormous number of units. The fully centralized
control is currently considered infeasible.
On the other hand, in a fully decentralized control, each unit is controlled
by its local controller without knowing the situation of others.[17] The fully
decentralized control is also irrelevant in this context due to strong coupling
between the operations of various units in the system. A compromise between
those two extreme control schemes can be achieved by means of a hierarchical
control scheme consisting of three control levels: primary, secondary, and
tertiary.[10]
3.9.9.2 PRIMARY CONTROL
The primary control is designed to satisfy the following requirements:
• To stabilize the voltage and frequency.
• To offer plug and play capability for DERs and properly share the active and
reactive power among them, preferably, without any communication links.
• To mitigate circulating currents that can cause over-current phenomenon in the
power electronic devices

The primary control provides the setpoints for a lower controller which
are the voltage and current control loops of DERs. These inner control loops are
commonly referred to as zero-level control.[18]

3.9.9.3 SECONDARY CONTROL

Secondary control has typically seconds to minutes sampling time (i.e.
slower than the previous one) which justifies the decoupled dynamics of the
primary and the secondary control loops and facilitates their individual designs.
Setpoint of primary control is given by secondary control in which as a
centralized controller, it restores the microgrid voltage and frequency and
compensates for the deviations caused by the primary control. The secondary
control can also be designed to satisfy the power quality requirements, e.g.,
voltage balancing at critical buses.
3.9.9.4 TERTIARY CONTROL
Tertiary control is the last (and the slowest) control level which consider
economical concerns in the optimal operation of the microgrid (sampling time is
from minutes to hours), and manages the power flow between microgrid and
main grid. This level often involves the prediction of weather, grid tariff, and
loads in the next hours or day to design a generator dispatch plan that achieves
economic savings. In case of emergency like blackouts, Tertiary control could
be utilized to manage a group of interconnected microgrids to form what is
called "microgrid clustering" that could act as a virtual power plant and keep
supplying at least the critical loads. During this situation the central controller
should select one of the microgrid to be the slack (i.e. master) and the rest as PV
and load buses according to a predefined algorithm and the existing conditions
of the system (i.e. Demand and generation), in this case, the control should be
real time or at least high sampling rate.

4.1 THREE PHASE INVERTER

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to

alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and
frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control
circuits. An inverter is essentially the opposite of a rectifier.

Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of
applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large
electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power.
Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as
solar panels or batteries.
The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named
because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse,
and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct

current is produced by such sources as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and
commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may
flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric
charge flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current
(AC). A term formerly used for direct current was Galvanic current.

Fig: 3.9: Waveform of rectification

4.1.1 TYPES OF DIRECT CURRENT.

Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use

of a current-switching arrangement called a rectifier, which contains electronic
elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow
current to flow only in one direction. Direct current may be made into
alternating current with an inverter or a motor-generator set.
 The first commercial electric power transmission (developed by Thomas
Edison in the late nineteenth century) used direct current. Because of significant
historical advantages of alternating current over direct current in transforming
and transmission, electric power distribution was nearly all alternating current
until a few years ago. In the mid 1950s, HVDC transmission was developed,
which is now replacing the older high voltage alternating current systems. For
applications requiring direct current, such as third rail power systems,
alternating current is distributed to a substation, which utilizes a rectifier to
convert the power to direct current. See War of Currents.

Direct current is used to charge batteries, and in nearly all electronic

systems as the power supply. Very large quantities of direct-current power are
used in production of aluminum and other electrochemical processes. Direct
current is used for some railway propulsion, especially in urban areas. High
voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote
generation sites or to interconnect alternating current power grids.

Within electrical engineering, the term DC is used to refer to power

systems that use only one polarity of voltage or current, and to refer to the
constant, zero-frequency, or slowly varying local mean value of a voltage or
current.

For example, the voltage across a DC voltage source is constant as is the

current through a DC current source. The DC solution of an electric circuit is
the solution where all voltages and currents are constant. It can be shown that
any stationary voltage or current waveform can be decomposed into a sum of a
DC component and a zero-mean time-varying component; the DC component is
defined to be the expected value, or the average value of the voltage or current
over all time.
 Although DC stands for "direct current", DC often refers to "constant
polarity". Under this definition, DC voltages can vary in time, as seen in the raw
output of a rectifier or the fluctuating voice signal on a telephone line.

Some forms of DC (such as that produced by a voltage regulator) have

almost no variations in voltage, but may still have variations in output power
and current. In alternating current (AC, also ac) the movement of electric charge
periodically reverses direction. In direct current (DC), the flow of electric
charge is only in one direction.

AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and

residences. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. In
certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square
waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of
alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is often the recovery
of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.

4.1.2 OPERATION:

This circuit is DC to AC inverter, where the circuit work based on

the stable multi-vibrator does. On this circuit using CD4047 IC as the heart of
multi-vibrator is not stable, because this type of IC to provide a complementary
output stage, contrary to the other (pins 10 and 11, as shown), and 50% of the
cycle to meet the obligation to produce pulse inverter.

Circuit is called a simple DC to AC inverter, as there is no output

signal is not sinusoidal, and there were lots of harmonic signals on the output.
To suppress this signal we have to use a filter such as capacitor C. Because of
this simplicity is only suitable circuits for lighting needs. To build a sinusoidal
inverter DC to AC. At the circuit this multivibrator is used to make power is too
high, then we have to use the MOSFET IRFZ44. IRFZ44 provide high current
to drive step-up transformer, so power is available in addition to the high
voltage transformer.

This is a circuit diagram of an inverter circuit. Circuit is very

simple diagram, at this circuit using CD4047 IC that functions to generate a
wave 50Hz. This circuit uses 12V input (12V battery) to out 220V 50HZ. For
safety please note for the installation of cooling on the components transistors,
it serves to remove excess heat transistor. In one simple inverter circuit, DC
power is connected to a transformer through a center tap of the primary
winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow
back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the
primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current
in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in
the secondary circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two

stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the
movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet
pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the
electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch
continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical
inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube
automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers
and tattoo guns.

As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and

various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into
inverter circuit designs.
4.1.3 OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an
output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off
and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform
of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are
represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that
has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental
component. The other sine waves, called harmonics that are included in the
series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the
Fourier analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total
harmonic distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic
voltages divided by the fundamental voltage:

The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the
characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine
wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well
with a square wave voltage

4.1.4 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

Here is the circuit diagram of a simple 100 watt inverter using IC CD4047
and MOSFET IRF540. The circuit is simple low cost and can be even
assembled on a veroboard.
 CD 4047 is a low power CMOS astable/monostable multivibrator IC.
Here it is wired as an astable multivibrator producing two pulse trains of 0.01s
which are 180 degree out of phase at the pins 10 and 11 of the IC. Pin 10 is
connected to the gate of Q1 and pin 11 is connected to the gate of Q2. Resistors
R3 and R4 prevents the loading of the IC by the respective MOSFETs.

When pin 10 is high Q1 conducts and current flows through the upper
half of the transformer primary which accounts for the positive half of the
output AC voltage. When pin 11 is high Q2 conducts and current flows
through the lower half of the transformer primary in opposite direction and it
accounts for the negative half of the output AC

The CD4047B is capable of operating in either the monostable or astable

mode. It requires an external capacitor(between pins 1 and 3) and an external
resistor (between pins 2 and 3) to determine the output pulse width in the
monostable mode, and the output frequency in the astable mode.

Astable operation is enabled by a high level on the astable input or low

level on the astable input. The output frequency (at 50% duty cycle) at Q and Q
outputs is determined by the timing components. A frequency twice that of Q is
available at the Oscillator Output; a 50% duty cycle is not guaranteed.
Monostable operation is obtained when the device is triggered by LOW-
to-HIGH transition at trigger input or HIGH-to-LOW transition at
− trigger input. The device can be retriggered by applying a simultaneous
LOW-to-HIGH transition to both the trigger and retrigger inputs. A high
level on Reset input resets the outputs Q to LOW, Q to HIGH.

4.1.4.1 FEATURES
  Wide supply voltage range: 3.0V to 15V
 High noise immunity: 0.45 VDD (typ.)
 Low power TTL compatibility

3.9.4.2 SPECIAL FEATURES

 Low power consumption: special CMOS oscillator configuration
 Monostable (one-shot) or astable (free-running) operation
 True and complemented buffered outputs
 Only one external R and C required

3.9.5 PIN DIAGRAM OF IC CD4047:

Fig: 3.9.5: PIN DIAGRAM OF IC CD4047

3.10 CAPACITOR

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component

consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When
there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric
field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical
force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct

current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for
smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios
to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large

areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates",
referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between
the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric
field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and
leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Fig: 3.10: Pin of Capacitor.

3.10.1 CENTER TAPPED TRANSFORMER

A common topology for DC-AC power converter circuits uses a pair of

transistors to switch DC current through the center-tapped winding of a step-up
transformer.

Fig: 3.10.1 CENTER TAPPED TRANSFORMER

In electronics, a center tap is a connection made to a point half way along

a winding of a transformer or inductor, or along the element of a resistor or a
potentiometer. Taps are sometimes used on inductors for the coupling of
signals, and may not necessarily be at the half- way point, but rather, closer to
one end. A common application of this is in the Hartley oscillator.
 Inductors with taps also permit the transformation of the amplitude of
alternating current (AC) voltages for the purpose of power conversion, in which
case, they are referred to as autotransformers, since there is only one winding.
An example of an autotransformer is an automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer
tapping provides one or more connections along the device's element, along
with the usual connections at each of the two ends of the element, and the slider
connection

3.10.2 COMMON APPLICATIONS OF CENTER-TAPPED

TRANSFORMERS

In a rectifier, a center-tapped transformer and two diodes can form a full-

wave rectifier that allows both half-cycles of the AC waveform to contribute to
the direct current, making it smoother than a half-wave rectifier. This form of
circuit saves on rectifier diodes compared to a diode bridge, but has poorer
utilization of the transformer windings. Center-tapped two-diode rectifiers were
a common feature of power supplies in vacuum tube equipment.

Modern semiconductor diodes are low-cost and compact so usually a 4-

diode bridge is used (up to a few hundred watts total output) which produces
the same quality of DC as the center-tapped configuration with a more compact
and cheaper power transformer. Center-tapped configurations may still be used
in high-current applications, such as large automotive battery chargers, where
the extra transformer cost is offset by less costly rectifiers.

 In an audio power amplifier center-tapped transformers are used to drive

push-pull output formers must tolerate a small amount of direct current
that may pass through the winding
 Hundreds of millions of pocket-size transistor radios used this form of
amplifier since the

required transformers were very small and the design saved the extra cost
and bulk of an

 output coupling capacitor that would be required for an output-

transformerless design.

However, since low-distortion high-power transformers are costly and

heavy, most 1consumer audio products now use a transformerless output
stage.

The technique is nearly as old as electronic amplification and is

well-documented, for

example, in "The Radiotron Designer's Handbook, Third Edition" of

1940.

 In analog telecommunications systems center-tapped transformers can be

used to provide

a DC path around an AC coupled amplifier for signalling purposes.

 In electronic amplifiers, a center-tapped transformer is used as a phase

splitter in coupling

different stages of an amplifier.

 Power distribution, see 3 wire single phase.

 A center-tapped rectifier is preferred to the full bridge rectifier when the

output DC
 current is high and the output voltage is low.

3.10.3: MOSFET(METAL OXITE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT

TRANSISTOR)

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-

FET, or MOS FET) is a type of transistor used for amplifying or switching
electronic signals. Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source
(S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals, the body (or substrate) of the
MOSFET is often connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal
device like other field-effect transistors. Because these two terminals are
normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three
terminals appear in electrical diagrams.

Fig 3.10.3: MOSFET(METAL OXITE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD

EFFECT TRANSISTOR)
The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and
analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much
more common. In enhancement mode MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the
oxide induces a conducting channel between the source and drain contacts via
the field effect. The term "enhancement mode" refers to the increase of
conductivity with increase in oxide field that adds carriers to the channel, also
referred to as the inversion layer. The channel can contain electrons (called an
nMOSFET or nMOS), or holes (called a pMOSFET or pMOS), opposite in type
to the substrate, so nMOS is made with a p-type substrate, and pMOS with an n-
type substrate (see article on semiconductor devices).
In the less common depletion mode MOSFET, detailed later on, the
channel consists of carriers in a surface impurity layer of opposite type to the
substrate, and conductivity is decreased by application of a field that depletes
carriers from this surface layer. The "metal" in the name MOSFET is now often
a misnomer because the previously metal gate material is now often a layer of
polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the gate material until
the mid-1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to form
self-aligned gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to
increase the speed of operation of transistors without metal gates. Likewise, the
"oxide" in the name can be a misnomer, as different dielectric materials are used
with the aim of obtaining strong channels with smaller applied voltages. An
insulated-gate field-effect transistor or IGFET is a related term almost
synonymous with MOSFET. The term may be more inclusive, since many
"MOSFETs" use a gate that is not metal, and a gate insulator that is not oxide.
Another synonym is MISFET for metal–insulator–semiconductor FET. The
basic principle of the field-effect transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar
Lilienfeld in 1925.
 Fig: 3.10.4: nMOSFET

Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip

manufacturers, most notably IBM and Intel, recently started using a chemical
compound of silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels.
Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better electrical properties than
silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good semiconductor-to-insulator
interfaces, thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues on creating
insulators with acceptable electrical characteristics on other semiconductor
material. In order to overcome the increase in power consumption due to gate
current leakage, a high-κ dielectric is used instead of silicon dioxide for the gate
insulator, while polysilicon is replaced by metal gates (see Intel announcement).
The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer,
traditionally of silicon dioxide and later of silicon oxynitride. Some companies
have started to introduce a high-κ dielectric + metal gate combination in the 45
nanometer node.
When a voltage is applied between the gate and body terminals, the
electric field generated penetrates through the oxide and creates an "inversion
layer" or "channel" at the semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion
channel is of the same type, p-type or n-type, as the source and drain, thus it
provides a channel through which current can pass. Varying the voltage
between the gate and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and thereby
controls the current flow between drain and source.

3.10.5 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is
generally a line for the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right
angles and then bending back at right angles into the same direction as the
channel. Sometimes three line segments are used for enhancement mode and a
solid line for depletion mode. (see Depletion and enhancement modes) Another
line is drawn parallel to the channel for the gate. The "bulk" or "body"
connection, if shown, is shown connected to the back of the channel with an
arrow indicating PMOS or NMOS. Arrows always point from P to N, so an
NMOS (N-channel in P-well or P-substrate) has the arrow pointing in (from the
bulk to the channel).

Fig: 3.10.5(a): CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

 If the bulk is connected to the source (as is generally the case with
discrete devices) it is sometimes angled to meet up with the source leaving the
transistor. If the bulk is not shown (as is often the case in IC design as they are
generally common bulk) an inversion symbol is sometimes used to indicate
PMOS, alternatively an arrow on the source may be used in the same way as for
bipolar transistors (out for nMOS, in for pMOS). Comparison of enhancement-
mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with JFET symbols.
The orientation of the symbols, (most significantly the position of source
relative to drain) is such that more positive voltages appear higher on the page
than less positive voltages, implying current flowing "down" the page: In
schematics where G, S, D are not labeled, the detailed features of the symbol
indicate which terminal is source and which is drain. For enhancement-mode
and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols (in columns two and five), the source
terminal is the one connected to the triangle. Additionally, in this diagram, the
gate is shown as an "L" shape, whose input leg is closer to S than D, also
indicating which is which. However, these symbols are often drawn with a "T"
shaped gate (as elsewhere on this page), so it is the triangle which must be
relied upon to indicate the source terminal.
For the symbols in which the bulk, or body, terminal is shown, it is here
shown internally connected to the source (i.e., the black triangles in the
diagrams in columns 2 and 5). This is a typical configuration, but by no means
the only important configuration. In general, the MOSFET is a four-terminal
device, and in integrated circuits many of the MOSFETs share a body
connection, not necessarily connected to the source terminals of all the
transistors.
Metal–oxide–semiconductor structure:
The traditional metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained
by growing a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) on top of a silicon substrate and
depositing a layer of metal or polycrystalline silicon (the latter is commonly
used). As the silicon dioxide is a dielectric material, its structure is equivalent to
a planar capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced by a semiconductor.
When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of
charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with the
density of acceptors, p the density of holes; p = NA in neutral bulk), a positive
voltage, , from gate to body creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively
charged holes away from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving
exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor ions (see
doping (semiconductor)).
If is high enough, a high concentration of negative charge carriers forms
in an inversion layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the
semiconductor and the insulator. Unlike the MOSFET, where the inversion
layer electrons are supplied rapidly from the source/drain electrodes, in the
MOS capacitor they are produced much more slowly by thermal generation
through carrier generation and recombination centers in the depletion region.

Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons

in the inversion layer is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is
called the threshold voltage. When the voltage between transistor gate and
source (VGS) exceeds the threshold voltage (Vth), it is known as overdrive
voltage. This structure with p-type body is the basis of the n-type MOSFET,
which requires the addition of an n-type sourceand drain regions.
MOSFET structure and channel formation
An applied gate voltage bends bands, depleting holes from surface (left).
The charge inducing the bending is balanced by a layer of negative acceptor-ion
charge (right). Bottom panel: A larger applied voltage further depletes holes but
conduction band lowers enough in energy to populate a conducting channel. A
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is based on the
modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body
electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated from all
other device regions by a gate dielectric layer which in the case of a MOSFET
is an oxide, such as silicon dioxide.
If dielectrics other than an oxide such as silicon dioxide (often referred to
as oxide) are employed the device may be referred to as a metal–insulator–
semiconductor FET (MISFET). Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET
includes two additional terminals (source and drain), each connected to
individual highly doped regions that are separated by the body region. These
regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of
opposite type to the body region. The source and drain (unlike the body) are
highly doped as signified by a "+" sign after the type of doping.

Fig: 3.10.5(b): Metal –Oxide-Semiconductor structure on P-type

Silicon

If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain
are "n+" regions and the body is a "p" region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or
pMOS FET, then the source and drain are "p+" regions and the body is a "n"
region. The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers
(electrons for n-channel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel;
similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers leave the channel.

Fig: 3.10.15(c): nMOS MOSFET

‘
The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the
position of the Fermi level relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges. As
described above, and shown in the figure, with sufficient gate voltage, the
valence band edge is driven far from the Fermi level, and holes from the body
are driven away from the gate. At larger gate bias still, near the semiconductor
surface the conduction band edge is brought close to the Fermi level, populating
the surface with electrons in an inversion layer or n-channel at the interface
between the p region and the oxide.
This conducting channel extends between the source and the drain, and
current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between the two
electrodes. Increasing the voltage on the gate leads to a higher electron density
in the inversion layer and therefore increases the current flow between the
source and drain.
 For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly
populated, and only a very small subthreshold leakage current can flow between
the source and the drain. When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-
gate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region, analogous
to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and voltages.
When a voltage less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage for p-
channel) is applied between gate and source, the channel disappears and only a
very small subthreshold current can flow between the source and the drain. The
device may comprise a Silicon On Insulator (SOI) device in which a buried
oxide (BOX) is formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the channel region
between the gate dielectric and a BOX region is very thin, the very thin channel
region is referred to as an ultrathin channel (UTC) region with the source and
drain regions formed on either side thereof in and/or above the thin
semiconductor layer. Alternatively, the device may comprise a semiconductor
on insulator (SEMOI) device in which semiconductors other than silicon are
employed. Many alternative semiconductor materials may be employed.
When the source and drain regions are formed above the channel in
whole or in part, they are referred to as raised source/drain (RSD) regions. The
operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending
on the voltages at the terminals. In the following discussion, a simplified
algebraic model is used. Modern MOSFET characteristics are more complex
than the algebraic model presented here.
3.10.6 MODES OF OPERATION:
The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes,
depending on the voltages at the terminals. In the following discussion, a
simplified algebraic model is used.[5] Modern MOSFET characteristics are
more complex than the algebraic model presented here. For an enhancement-
mode, n-channel MOSFET, the three operational modes are: Cutoff,
subthreshold, or weak-inversion mode When VGS < Vth: where is gate-to-
source bias and is the threshold voltage of the device. According to the basic
threshold model, the transistor is turned off, and there is no conduction between
drain and source. A more accurate model considers the effect of thermal energy
on the Fermi–Dirac distribution of electron energies which allow some of the
more energetic electrons at the source to enter the channel and flow to the drain.
This results in a subthreshold current that is an exponential function of gate–
source voltage. While the current between drain and source should ideally be
zero when the transistor is being used as a turned-off switch, there is a weak-
inversion current, sometimes called subthreshold leakage. In weak inversion
where the source is tied to bulk, the current varies exponentially with as
givenapproximately by:

Where

= then the thermal voltage =

with = capacitance of the depletion layer and = capacitance of the oxide layer.
This equation is generally used, but is only an adequate approximation for the
source.

The switch is turned on, and a channel has been created, which allows
current to flow between the drain and source. Since the drain voltage is higher
than the source voltage, the electrons spread out, and conduction is not through
a narrow channel but through a broader, two- or three-dimensional current
distribution extending away from the interface and deeper in the substrate. The
onset of this region is also known as pinch-off to indicate the lack of channel
region near the drain. Although the channel does not extend the full length of
the device, the electric field between the drain and the channel is very high, and
conduction continues. The drain current is now weakly dependent upon drain
voltage and controlled primarily by the gate–source voltage, and modeled
approximately as:
As the channel length becomes very short, these equations become quite
inaccurate. New physical effects arise. For example, carrier transport in the
active mode may become limited by velocity saturation. When velocity
saturation dominates, the saturation drain current is more nearly linear than
quadratic in VGS. At even shorter lengths, carriers transport with near zero
scattering, known as quasi-ballistic transport. In the ballistic regime, the carriers
travel at an injection velocity that may exceed the saturation velocity and
approaches the Fermi velocity at high inversion charge density. In addition,
drain-induced barrier lowering increases off-state (cutoff) current and requires
an increase in threshold voltage to compensate, which in turn reduces the
saturation current
 CHAPTER-IV
EXPERIMENAL RESULTS
In general, the simulation results and the experimental results show that
the energy savings is possible in elevator operation under variable speed
algorithm. The amount of energy savings obtained in simulation is slightly
different from the amount of energy savings obtained in the experiment with the
model. One reason for the difference of results of simulation and the experiment
may be the use of different type of energy form. In simulation, we considered
the mechanical energy of the elevator system whereas in the actual experiment
we measured the electrical energy.
Also, the experimental model is for a three floor building whereas the
simulation model also three floor building. Experiments have been conducted
for various operating conditions on the prototype model in the laboratory with
60 V dc source. It has been observed that the dc input current to the inverter
supplying BLDC motor decreases as the load on the cabin weight increases for
downward motion and vice -versa for upward motion. Further, the experimental
results obtained on the prototype system agree closely with the values obtained
using MPLAB model of the proposed system. In addition, the actual height of
the elevator shaft and the actual weight carried were scaled down in the model
with a ratio. All these factors may have led to some differences between
simulation and the experiment. However, the percentage of electrical energy
savings measured in the experiment is more than the percentage of mechanical
energy savings obtained in simulation.
 CHAPTER-V
ADVANTAGES:
• High speed range.
• Better performance.
APPLICATIONS:
• High speed applications.
 CHAPTER-VI
CONCLUSION:
The closed–loop control strategy can be achieved at very low speed, the
start–up curve is very simple, and the hardware and software are low cost and
easy adjustment. In general, the simulation results and the experimental results
show that the energy savings is possible in elevator operation under variable
speed algorithm. The amount of energy savings obtained in simulation is
slightly different from the amount of energy savings obtained in the experiment
with the model. One reason for the difference of results of simulation and the
experiment may be the use of different type of energy form. In simulation, we
considered the mechanical energy of the elevator system whereas in the actual
experiment we measured the electrical energy. Also, the experimental model is
for a Three floor building whereas the simulation model also three floor
building.
 CHAPTER-VII

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Bask aran Dary James, Jesus Gamboa. Performance Evaluation of Energy
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