ASSIGNMENT-1

TOPIC – Memories – RAM, SRAM, DRAM,DDR-

I…..IV, Chipset , BIOS etc.

SUBJECT- CADD & M

Submitted by
(Kamalkant Goyal)
Student ID -13107072
 Submitted to
Dr. Arun K. Lal
Prof. – Mechanical Department
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh
(Deemed University)
Table of Contents
1 Chapter: Memories........................................................................................................ 3
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 History of GPU ................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 1970s .............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2 1980s .............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.3 1990s .............................................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.4 2000 - 2010 .................................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.5 2010 - Present .............................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 GPU Types ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Dedicated Graphics Card ......................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Integrated Graphics Card ......................................................................................................... 8
1.4 GPU v/s CPU ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Basic difference between CPU and GPU ........................................................................... 9
2 Chapter: Mouse .......................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Operation ........................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Different ways of operating the mouse cause specific things to happen in the
12
GUI: ....................................................................................................................
2.3 Types of Mice 13
2.3.1 Mechanical Mice: ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2 Optical Mice: ............................................................................................................................. 15
2.3.3 Gyroscopic Mice: ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.4 Ergonomic Mice: ...................................................................................................................... 16
3 Chapter: Keyboard .................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Keyboard Types ............................................................................................................... 17
3.2.1 Standard: ..................................................................................................................................... 17
3.2.2 Laptop Sized: ............................................................................................................................. 18
3.2.3 Flexible Keyboard: .................................................................................................................. 18
3.2.4 Handheld Keyboard: ............................................................................................................... 18
3.2.5 Thumb sized Keyboard: ......................................................................................................... 19
3.2.6 Multifunctional Keyboard: .................................................................................................... 19
4 Chapter: Other Devices- Fingerprint Sensor, Iris Scanner .............................. 20
4.1 Fingerprint Sensor ........................................................................................................... 20
4.1.1 Introduction: .............................................................................................................................. 20
4.1.2 Patterns: ....................................................................................................................................... 20
4.1.3 Types of Fingerprint Sensors: .............................................................................................. 20
4.2 Iris Scanner ....................................................................................................................... 21
4.2.1 Introduction: .............................................................................................................................. 21
4.2.2 Operating Principle: ................................................................................................................ 22
4.2.3 Advantages ................................................................................................................................. 23
4.2.4 Shortcomings ............................................................................................................................. 23
5 Chapter: References .................................................................................................. 25
1 Chapter:Memories

1.1 Introduction
In computing, memory refers to the computer hardware devices used to
store information for immediate use in a computer; it is synonymous with
the term "primary storage". Computer memory operates at a high speed,
for example random-access memory (RAM), as a distinction from storage
that provides slow-to-access program and data storage but offers higher
capacities. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred
to secondary storage, through a memory management technique called
"virtual memory". An archaic synonym for memory is store.

The term "memory", meaning "primary storage" or "main memory", is

often associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated
circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example as
primary storage but also other purposes in computers and other digital
electronic devices. There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory,
volatile and non-volatile.

VOLATILE MEMORY

Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the

stored information. Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is
either static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM retains its
contents as long as the power is connected and is easy for interfacing, but
uses six transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated for
interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing
its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit,
allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per-bit
costs. Examples of volatile memory are primary storage, which is
typically dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), and fast CPU cache
memory, which is typically static random-access memory (SRAM) that is
fast but energy-consuming, offering lower memory areal density than
DRAM.

NON-VOLATILE MEMORY

Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored

information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory
include read-only memory ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM
memory (used for storing firmware such as BIOS) flash memory (used as
secondary memory), most types of magnetic computer storage devices
(e.g. hard disk drives, floppy disks and magnetic tape), optical discs, and
early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.
ROM, Forthcoming non-volatile memory technologies include FeRAM,
CBRAM, PRAM, SONOS, RRAM, racetrack memory, NRAM, 3D
XPoint, and millipede memory.

1.2 History of GPU

1.2.1 1970s
Arcade system boards have been using specialized graphics chips since
the 1970s. In early video game hardware, the RAM for frame buffers was
expensive, so video chips composited data together as the display was
being scanned out on the monitor.
Fujitsu's MB14241 video shifter was used to accelerate the drawing of
sprite graphics for various 1970s arcade games from Taito and Midway,
such as Gun Fight (1975), Sea Wolf (1976) and Space Invaders (1978).
The Namco Galaxian arcade system in 1979 used specialized graphics
hardware supporting RGB color, multi-colored sprites and tilemap
backgrounds. The Galaxian hardware was widely used during the golden
age of arcade video games, by game companies such as Namco, Centuri,
Gremlin, Irem, Konami, Midway, Nichibutsu, Sega and Taito.

In the home market, the Atari 2600 in 1977 used a video shifter called the
Television Interface Adaptor. The Atari 8-bit computers (1979) had
ANTIC, a video processor which interpreted instructions describing a
"display list"—the way the scan lines map to specific bitmapped or
character modes and where the memory is stored (so there did not need to
be a contiguous frame buffer). 6502 machine code subroutines could be
triggered on scan lines by setting a bit on a display list instruction.
ANTIC also supported smooth vertical and horizontal scrolling
independent of the CPU.

1.2.2 1980s
The NEC µPD7220 was one of the first implementations of a graphics
display controller as a single Large Scale Integration (LSI) integrated
circuit chip, enabling the design of low-cost, high-performance video
graphics cards such as those from Number Nine Visual Technology. It
became one of the best known of what were known as graphics
processing units in the 1980s.

The Williams Electronics arcade games Robotron: 2084 , Joust, Sinistar,

and Bubbles, all released in 1982, contain custom blitter chips for
operating on 16-color bitmaps.

In 1985, the Commodore Amiga featured a custom graphics chip, with a

blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation, line draw, and area fill
functions. Also included is a coprocessor (commonly referred to as "The
Copper") with its own primitive instruction set, capable of manipulating
graphics hardware registers in sync with the video beam (e.g. for per-
scanline palette switches, sprite multiplexing, and hardware windowing),
or driving the blitter.

In 1986, Texas Instruments released the TMS34010, the first

microprocessor with on-chip graphics capabilities. It could run general-
purpose code, but it had a very graphics-oriented instruction set. In 1990-
1992, this chip would become the basis of the Texas Instruments
Graphics Architecture ("TIGA") Windows accelerator cards.

In 1987, the IBM 8514 graphics system was released as one of[vague] the
first video cards for IBM PC compatibles to implement fixed-function 2D
primitives in electronic hardware. The same year, Sharp released the
X68000, which used a custom graphics chipset that was powerful for a
home computer at the time, with a 65,536 color palette and hardware
support for sprites, scrolling and multiple playfields.eventually serving as
a development machine for Capcom's CP System arcade board. Fujitsu
later competed with the FM Towns computer, released in 1989 with
support for a full 16,777,216 color palette.

1.2.3 1990s

In 1991, S3 Graphics introduced the S3 86C911, which its designers

named after the Porsche 911 as an implication of the performance
increase it promised. The 86C911 spawned a host of imitators: by 1995,
all major PC graphics chip makers had added 2D acceleration support to
their chips. By this time, fixed-function Windows accelerators had
surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors in Windows
performance, and these coprocessors faded away from the PC market.

Throughout the 1990s, 2D GUI acceleration continued to evolve. As

manufacturing capabilities improved, so did the level of integration of
graphics chips. Additional application programming interfaces (APIs)
arrived for a variety of tasks, such as Microsoft's WinG graphics library
for Windows 3.x, and their later DirectDraw interface for hardware
acceleration of 2D games within Windows 95 and later.

In the early- and mid-1990s, real-time 3D graphics were becoming

increasingly common in arcade, computer and console games, which led
to an increasing public demand for hardware-accelerated 3D graphics.
Early examples of mass-market 3D graphics hardware can be found in
arcade system boards such as the Sega Model 1, Namco System 22, and
Sega Model 2, and the fifth-generation video game consoles such as the
Saturn, PlayStation and Nintendo 64. Arcade systems such as the Sega
Model 2 and Namco Magic Edge Hornet Simulator in 1993 were capable
of hardware T&L (transform, clipping, and lighting) years before
appearing in consumer graphics cards. Some systems used DSPs to
accelerate transformations. Fujitsu, which worked on the Sega Model 2
arcade system, began working on integrating T&L into a single LSI
solution for use in home computers in 1995; the Fujitsu Pinolite, the first
3D geometry processor for personal computers, released in 1997. The
first hardware T&L GPU on home video game consoles was the Nintendo
64's Reality Coprocessor, released in 1996. In 1997, Mitsubishi released
the 3Dpro/2MP, a fully featured GPU capable of transformation and
lighting, for workstations and Windows NT desktops; ATi utilized it for
their FireGL 4000 graphics card, released in 1997.

1.2.4 2000 - 2010

Nvidia was first to produce a chip capable of programmable shading, the
GeForce 3 (code named NV20). Each pixel could now be processed by a
short "program" that could include additional image textures as inputs,
and each geometric vertex could likewise be processed by a short
program before it was projected onto the screen. Used in the Xbox
console, it competed with the PlayStation 2 (which used a custom vector
DSP for hardware accelerated vertex processing; commonly referred to
VU0/VU1). It is interesting to note that the earliest incarnations of shader
execution engines used in Xbox were not general purpose and could not
execute arbitrary pixel code. Vertices and pixels were processed by
different units which had their own resources with pixel shaders having
much tighter constraints (being as they are executed at much higher
frequencies than with vertices). Pixel shading engines were actually more
akin to a highly customizable function block and didn't really "run" a
program. Many of these disparities between vertex and pixel shading
wouldn't be addressed until much later with the Unified Shader Model.

By October 2002, with the introduction of the ATI Radeon 9700 (also
known as R300), the world's first Direct3D 9.0 accelerator, pixel and
vertex shaders could implement looping and lengthy floating point math,
and were quickly becoming as flexible as CPUs, yet orders of magnitude
faster for image-array operations. Pixel shading is often used for bump
mapping, which adds texture, to make an object look shiny, dull, rough,
or even round or extruded.

1.2.5 2010 - Present

In 2010, Nvidia began a partnership with Audi to power their cars'
dashboards. These Tegra GPUs were powering the cars' dashboard,
offering increased functionality to cars' navigation and entertainment
systems. Advancements in GPU technology in cars has helped push self-
driving technology. AMD's Radeon HD 6000 Series cards were released
in 2010 and in 2011, AMD released their 6000M Series discrete GPUs to
be used in mobile devices. The Kepler line of graphics cards by Nvidia
came out in 2012 and were used in the 600 series, 700 series, and 800
series of graphics cards by Nvidia. A new feature in this new GPU
microarchitecture included gpu boost, a technology adjusts the clock-
speed of a video card to increase or decrease it according to its power
draw. The Kepler microarchitecture was manufactured on the 28 nm
process.

The PS4 and Xbox One were released in 2013, they both use GPUs based
on AMD's Radeon HD 7850 and 7790. Nvidia's Kepler line of GPUs was
followed by the Maxwell line, manufactured on the same process. 28 nm
chips by Nvidia were manufactured by TSMC, the Taiwan
Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, that was manufacturing using
the 28 nm process at the time. Compared to the 40 nm technology from
the past, this new manufacturing process allowed a 20 percent boost in
performance while drawing less power.

Virtual reality headsets like the Oculus Rift and the HTC Vive have very
high system requirements. Headset manufacturers have recommended
GPUs for good virtual reality experiences. At their release, they had the
GTX 970 from Nvidia and the R9 290 from AMD as the recommended
GPUs. Pascal is the newest generation of graphics cards by Nvidia
released in 2016. The GeForce 10 series of cards are under this
generation of graphics cards. They are made using the 16 nm
manufacturing process which improves upon previous microarchitectures.
The Polaris 11 and Polaris 10 GPUs from AMD are made with a 14 nm
process. Their release results in a big increase in the performance per watt
of AMD video cards.

1.3 GPU Types

1.3.1 Dedicated Graphics Card
The GPUs of the most powerful class typically interface with the
motherboard by means of an expansion slot such as PCI Express (PCIe)
or Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) and can usually be replaced or
upgraded with relative ease, assuming the motherboard is capable of
supporting the upgrade. A few graphics cards still use Peripheral
Component Interconnect (PCI) slots, but their bandwidth is so limited
that they are generally used only when a PCIe or AGP slot is not
available.

A dedicated GPU is not necessarily removable, nor does it necessarily

interface with the motherboard in a standard fashion. The term
"dedicated" refers to the fact that dedicated graphics cards have RAM
that is dedicated to the card's use, not to the fact that most dedicated
GPUs are removable. Further, this RAM is usually specially selected for
the expected serial workload of the graphics card (see GDDR). Dedicated
GPUs for portable computers are most commonly interfaced through a
non-standard and often proprietary slot due to size and weight constraints.
Such ports may still be considered PCIe or AGP in terms of their logical
host interface, even if they are not physically interchangeable with their
counterparts.

1.3.2 Integrated Graphics Card

Integrated graphics, shared graphics solutions, integrated graphics
processors (IGP) or unified memory architecture (UMA) utilize a portion
of a computer's system RAM rather than dedicated graphics memory.
IGPs can be integrated onto the motherboard as part of the chipset, or
within the same die as CPU (like AMD APU or Intel HD Graphics). On
certain motherboards AMD's IGPs can use dedicated sideport memory.
This is a separate fixed block of high performance memory that is
dedicated for use by the GPU. In early 2007, computers with integrated
graphics account for about 90% of all PC shipments. They are less costly
to implement than dedicated graphics processing, but tend to be less
capable. Historically, integrated processing was often considered unfit to
play 3D games or run graphically intensive programs but could run less
intensive programs such as Adobe Flash. Examples of such IGPs would
be offerings from SiS and VIA circa 2004. However, modern integrated
graphics processors such as AMD Accelerated Processing Unit and Intel
HD Graphics are more than capable of handling 2D graphics or low stress
3D graphics.

As a GPU is extremely memory intensive, integrated processing may find

itself competing for the already relatively slow system RAM with the
CPU, as it has minimal or no dedicated video memory. IGPs can have up
to 29.856 GB/s of memory bandwidth from system RAM, however
graphics cards can enjoy up to 264 GB/s of bandwidth between its RAM
and GPU core. This bandwidth is what is referred to as the memory bus
and can be performance limiting. Older integrated graphics chipsets
lacked hardware transform and lighting, but newer ones include it at some
point.

1.4 GPU v/s CPU

The first thing to remember is the role of each chip — the CPU is often
called the brain of the computer, and many CPU’s actually have graphics
chips integrated straight onto them. That’s because the GPU is really only
there to compliment the CPU. In fact, if your motherboard or CPU has
graphics capabilities, you don’t technically need a GPU at all — you just
might want one, especially if you’re into gaming, video editing, or photo
editing.

A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a special purpose processor,

optimized for calculations commonly (and repeatedly) required for
Computer Graphics, particularly SIMD operations.

A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a general purpose processor - it can

in principle do any computation, but not necessarily in an optimal fashion
for any given computation. One can do graphics processing on a CPU -
but it likely will not produce the result anywhere nearly as fast as a
properly programmed GPU.

1.4.1 Basic difference between CPU and GPU

 Architecture wise, CPU consists of few cores with good amount of

cache memory while GPU consists of hundreds of cores.

 CPU can handle few software thread at one time while GPU can
takecare ofthousandsofthreadsatatime.

 CPUs are much better at performing a much larger array of tasks

than GPUs.

 CPUs can reduce latency more effectively compare to GPUs for

individual tasks.

• GPU is more power efficient and cost efficient compare to CPU.

• The host code runs on CPU, CUDA code runs on GPU.

Inspite of difference between CPU and GPU, the companies are taking
advantages of both of them and developing SoC(System on Chip) which
houses both of these components/modules. Figure below shows
NVIDIA's Tegra chip which is designed for smartphones.

Unlike CPU component which was manufactured by few companies such

as Intel and AMD there are many GPU vendors. The companies such as
ARM license their CPU core architecture as well as they have fixed set of
core designs to be sold. Companies can choose readily available ARM
designs and package them along with GPU and other components or
make their own custom CPUs along with other devices. Due to
availability of many GPU vendors companies have options to choose
right GPU along with CPU for the SoC design as per their requirements.

Popular vendors for GPUs are ARM, Qualcomm, PowerVR and NVIDIA.
Following table mentions GPUs from these companies used in a
smartphones released by companies such as Samsung, Apple, LG,
Micromax and so on.

Companies are now manufacturing SoCs having both CPU and GPU
functionalities built on a single chip to exploit the benefits of both and
leverage good quality image and video on variety of display devices.
2 Chapter: Mouse

2.1 Introduction

A computer mouse is a pointing device (hand control) that detects two-

dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically
translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows a
smooth control of the graphical user interface.

Physically, a mouse consists of an object held in one's hand, with one or

more buttons. Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch
surfaces and "wheels", which enable additional control and dimensional
input.

2.2 Operation

A mouse typically controls the motion of a pointer in two dimensions in a

graphical user interface (GUI). The mouse turns movements of the hand
backward and forward, left and right into equivalent electronic signals
that in turn are used to move the pointer.

The relative movements of the mouse on the surface are applied to the
position of the pointer on the screen, which signals the point where
actions of the user take place, so hand movements are replicated by the
pointer. Clicking or hovering (stopping movement while the cursor is
within the bounds of an area) can select files, programs or actions from a
list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through small images called
"icons" and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented
by a picture of a paper notebook and clicking while the cursor hovers this
icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a window.

2.2.1 Different ways of operating the mouse cause specific things to

happen in the GUI:

Ø Click: pressing and releasing a button.

Ø (left) Single-click: clicking the main button.

Ø (left) Double-click: clicking the button two times in quick

succession counts as a different gesture than two separate single
clicks.

Ø (left) Triple-click: clicking the button three times in quick

succession.

Ø Right-click: clicking the secondary button, or clicking with two

fingers. (This brings a menu with different options depending on
the site/app)

Ø Middle-click: clicking the tertiary button.

Ø Drag and drop: pressing and holding a button, then moving the
mouse without releasing. (Using the command "drag with the right
mouse button" instead of just "drag" when one instructs a user to
drag an object while holding the right mouse button down instead
of the more commonly used left mouse button.)

Ø Combination of right-click then left-click.

Ø Combination of left-click then right-click or keyboard letter.

Ø Combination of left or right-click and the mouse wheel.

Ø Clicking while holding down a modifier key.

Ø Moving the pointer a long distance: When a practical limit of

mouse movement is reached, one lifts up the mouse, brings it to the
 opposite edge of the working area while it is held above the
surface, and then replaces it down onto the working surface. This is
often not necessary, because acceleration software detects fast
movement, and moves the pointer significantly faster in proportion
than for slow mouse motion.

Ø Multi-touch: this method is similar to a multi-touch trackpad on a

laptop with support for tap input for multiple fingers, the most
famous example being the Apple Magic Mouse.

2.3 Types of Mice

2.3.1 Mechanical Mice:

The German company Telefunken published on their early ball mouse on
October 2, 1968. Telefunken's mouse was sold as optional equipment for
their computer systems. Bill English, builder of Engelbart's original
mouse, created a ball mouse in 1972 while working for Xerox PARC.

The ball mouse replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could
rotate in any direction. It came as part of the hardware package of the
Xerox Alto computer. Perpendicular chopper wheels housed inside the
mouse's body chopped beams of light on the way to light sensors, thus
detecting in their turn the motion of the ball. This variant of the mouse
resembled an inverted trackball and became the predominant form used
with personal computers throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Xerox
PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to
type on a full-size keyboard and grabbing the mouse when required.
The ball mouse has two freely rotating rollers. These are located 90
degrees apart. One roller detects the forward–backward motion of the
mouse and other the left–right motion. Opposite the two rollers is a third
one (white, in the photo, at 45 degrees) that is spring-loaded to push the
ball against the other two rollers. Each roller is on the same shaft as an
encoder wheel that has slotted edges; the slots interrupt infrared light
beams to generate electrical pulses that represent wheel movement. Each
wheel's disc has a pair of light beams, located so that a given beam
becomes interrupted or again starts to pass light freely when the other
beam of the pair is about halfway between changes.

Simple logic circuits interpret the relative timing to indicate which

direction the wheel is rotating. This incremental rotary encoder scheme is
sometimes called quadrature encoding of the wheel rotation, as the two
optical sensors produce signals that are in approximately quadrature
phase. The mouse sends these signals to the computer system via the
mouse cable, directly as logic signals in very old mice such as the Xerox
mice, and via a data-formatting IC in modern mice. The driver software
in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse cursor along
X and Y axes on the computer screen.

The ball is mostly steel, with a precision spherical rubber surface. The
weight of the ball, given an appropriate working surface under the mouse,
provides a reliable grip so the mouse's movement is transmitted
accurately. Ball mice and wheel mice were manufactured for Xerox by
Jack Hawley, doing business as The Mouse House in Berkeley,
California, starting in 1975.
2.3.2 Optical Mice:

Optical mice rely entirely on one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

and an imaging array of photodiodes to detect movement relative to the
underlying surface, eschewing the internal moving parts a mechanical
mouse uses in addition to its optics. A laser mouse is an optical mouse
that uses coherent (laser) light.

The earliest optical mice detected movement on pre-printed mousepad

surfaces, whereas the modern LED optical mouse works on most opaque
diffuse surfaces; it is usually unable to detect movement on specular
surfaces like polished stone. Laser diodes are also used for better
resolution and precision, improving performance on opaque specular
surfaces. Battery powered, wireless optical mice flash the LED
intermittently to save power, and only glow steadily when movement is
detected.

2.3.3 Gyroscopic Mice:

Often called "air mice" since they do not require a surface to operate,
inertial mice use a tuning fork or other accelerometer (US Patent
4787051, published in 1988) to detect rotary movement for every axis
supported. The most common models (manufactured by Logitech and
Gyration) work using 2 degrees of rotational freedom and are insensitive
to spatial translation. The user requires only small wrist rotations to move
the cursor, reducing user fatigue or "gorilla arm".

Usually cordless, they often have a switch to deactivate the movement

circuitry between use, allowing the user freedom of movement without
affecting the cursor position. A patent for an inertial mouse claims that
such mice consume less power than optically based mice, and offer
increased sensitivity, reduced weight and increased ease-of-use. In
combination with a wireless keyboard an inertial mouse can offer
alternative ergonomic arrangements which do not require a flat work
surface, potentially alleviating some types of repetitive motion injuries
related to workstation posture.

2.3.4 Ergonomic Mice:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse is intended to provide optimum
comfort and avoid injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, arthritis and
other repetitive strain injuries. It is designed to fit natural hand position
and movements, to reduce discomfort.

When holding a typical mouse, ulna and radius bones on the arm are
crossed. Some designs attempt to place the palm more vertically, so the
bones take more natural parallel position. Some limit wrist movement,
encouraging to use arm instead that may be less precise but more optimal
from the health point of view. A mouse may be angled from the thumb
downward to the opposite side – this is known to reduce wrist pronation.
However such optimizations make the mouse right or left hand specific,
making more problematic to change the tired hand. Time magazine has
criticized manufacturers for offering few or no left-handed ergonomic
mice: "Oftentimes I felt like I was dealing with someone who’d never
actually met a left-handed person before."
3 Chapter: Keyboard

3.1 Introduction
In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which
uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as a mechanical lever or
electronic switch. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape,
interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device
for computers.

A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys

(buttons) and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written
symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and
holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard
keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or
simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer
commands.

Despite the development of alternative input devices, such as the mouse,

touchscreen, pen devices, character recognition and voice recognition, the
keyboard remains the most commonly used device for direct (human)
input of alphanumeric data into computers.

3.2 Keyboard Types

3.2.1 Standard:
Standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter
inch centers (0.750 inches, 19.05 mm)[citation needed], and have a key
travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop computer keyboards,
such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows
keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers
and a variety of function keys. The internationally common 102/104 key
keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some
more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y).
Also the enter key is usually shaped differently. Computer keyboards are
similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such
as the command or Windows keys. There is no standard computer
keyboard, although many manufacture imitate the keyboard of PCs.
There are actually three different PC keyboard: the original PC keyboard
with 84 keys, the AT keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced
keyboard with 101 keys. The three differ somewhat in the placement of
function keys, the control keys, the return key, and the shift key.

3.2.2 Laptop Sized:

Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter
travel distance for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a
reduced set of keys. They may not have a numerical keypad, and the
function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement
on a standard, full-sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop
keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is
opposite the trend for full-size keyboards.

3.2.3 Flexible Keyboard:

Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type
keyboards: normal from the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the
short key distance. Additionally, the flexibility allows the user to fold/roll
the keyboard for better storage and transfer. However, for typing the
keyboard must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority of flexible
keyboards in the market are made from silicone; this material makes them
water and dust proof, a very pleasant feature especially in hospitals where
keyboards are subjected to frequent washing. For connection with the
computer the keyboards use a USB cable, and operating system support
reaches as far back as Windows 2000.

3.2.4 Handheld Keyboard:

Handheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game
controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a
table surface. Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric
keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be
accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once; one acting as a function
key similar to a 'Shift' key that would allow for capital letters on a
standard keyboard. Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to
move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to
type in front or away from the computer. Some variations of handheld
ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse
movement and typing included in one handheld device.
3.2.5 Thumb sized Keyboard:
Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a
built-in keyboard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are
also useful where there is a limited workspace.

A chorded keyboard allows users to press several keys simultaneously.

For example, the GKOS keyboard has been designed for small wireless
devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller,
such as the AlphaGrip, are also used to input data and text.

A thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital

assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile
PCs such as the OQO.

Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and
several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with
smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of
laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad,
numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following
types of keys: Arithmetic operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation
keys, Num Lock and Enter key.

3.2.6 Multifunctional Keyboard:

Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the
standard keyboard. Many are programmable, configurable computer
keyboards and some control multiple PCs, workstations (incl. SUN) and
other information sources (incl. Thomson Reuters FXT/Eikon,
Bloomberg, EBS, etc.) usually in multi-screen work environments. Users
have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can
typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources.

Multifunctional keyboard with custom keys and touchscreen.

Multifunctional keyboards may feature customized keypads, fully
programmable function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or
smart card readers, trackballs, etc. New generation multifunctional
keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio
visual media and alarms, execute application inputs, configure individual
desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit
users to share access to PCs and other information sources.
4 Chapter: Other Devices- Fingerprint
Sensor, Iris Scanner
4.1 Fingerprint Sensor
4.1.1 Introduction:

Fingerprint recognition or fingerprint authentication refers to the

automated method of verifying a match between two human fingerprints.
Fingerprints are one of many forms of biometrics used to identify
individuals and verify their identity.

The analysis of fingerprints for matching purposes generally requires the

comparison of several features of the print pattern. These include
patterns, which are aggregate characteristics of ridges, and minutia points,
which are unique features found within the patterns. It is also necessary to
know the structure and properties of human skin in order to successfully
employ some of the imaging technologies.

4.1.2 Patterns:

The three basic patterns of fingerprint ridges are the arch, loop, and
whorl:

Ø arch: The ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center
forming an arc, and then exit the other side of the finger.
Ø loop: The ridges enter from one side of a finger, form a curve, and
then exit on that same side.
Ø whorl: Ridges form circularly around a central point on the finger.

Scientists have found that family members often share the same general
fingerprint patterns, leading to the belief that these patterns are inherited.

4.1.3 Types of Fingerprint Sensors:

4.1.3.1 Optical
Optical fingerprint imaging involves capturing a digital image of the print
using visible light. This type of sensor is, in essence, a specialized digital
camera. The top layer of the sensor, where the finger is placed, is known
as the touch surface. Beneath this layer is a light-emitting phosphor layer
which illuminates the surface of the finger. The light reflected from the
finger passes through the phosphor layer to an array of solid state pixels
(a charge-coupled device) which captures a visual image of the
fingerprint. A scratched or dirty touch surface can cause a bad image of
the fingerprint. A disadvantage of this type of sensor is the fact that the
imaging capabilities are affected by the quality of skin on the finger. For
instance, a dirty or marked finger is difficult to image properly. Also, it is
possible for an individual to erode the outer layer of skin on the fingertips
to the point where the fingerprint is no longer visible. It can also be easily
fooled by an image of a fingerprint if not coupled with a "live finger"
detector. However, unlike capacitive sensors, this sensor technology is
not susceptible to electrostatic discharge damage.

4.1.3.2 Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic sensors make use of the principles of medical ultrasonography
in order to create visual images of the fingerprint. Unlike optical imaging,
ultrasonic sensors use very high frequency sound waves to penetrate the
epidermal layer of skin. The sound waves are generated using
piezoelectric transducers and reflected energy is also measured using
piezoelectric materials. Since the dermal skin layer exhibits the same
characteristic pattern of the fingerprint, the reflected wave measurements
can be used to form an image of the fingerprint. This eliminates the need
for clean, undamaged epidermal skin and a clean sensing surface. LeEco
became the first company to introduce this in Smartphone.

4.1.3.3 Capacitance
Capacitance sensors use principles associated with capacitance in order to
form fingerprint images. In this method of imaging, the sensor array
pixels each act as one plate of a parallel-plate capacitor, the dermal layer
(which is electrically conductive) acts as the other plate, and the non-
conductive epidermal layer acts as a dielectric.

The iPhone 6 uses a capacitance fingerprint sensor.

4.2 Iris Scanner

4.2.1 Introduction:

Iris recognition is an automated method of biometric identification that

uses mathematical pattern-recognition techniques on video images of one
or both of the irises of an individual's eyes, whose complex patterns are
unique, stable, and can be seen from some distance.

Retinal scanning is a different, ocular-based biometric technology that

uses the unique patterns on a person's retina blood vessels and is often
confused with iris recognition. Iris recognition uses video camera
technology with subtle near infrared illumination to acquire images of the
detail-rich, intricate structures of the iris which are visible externally.
Digital templates encoded from these patterns by mathematical and
statistical algorithms allow the identification of an individual or someone
pretending to be that individual. Databases of enrolled templates are
searched by matcher engines at speeds measured in the millions of
templates per second per (single-core) CPU, and with remarkably low
false match rates.

Several hundred million persons in several countries around the world

have been enrolled in iris recognition systems for convenience purposes
such as passport-free automated border-crossings and some national ID
programs. A key advantage of iris recognition, besides its speed of
matching and its extreme resistance to false matches, is the stability of the
iris as an internal and protected, yet externally visible organ of the eye.

4.2.2 Operating Principle:

First the system has to localize the inner and outer boundaries of the iris
(pupil and limbus) in an image of an eye. Further subroutines detect and
exclude eyelids, eyelashes, and specular reflections that often occlude
parts of the iris. The set of pixels containing only the iris, normalized by a
rubber-sheet model to compensate for pupil dilation or constriction, is
then analyzed to extract a bit pattern encoding the information needed to
compare two iris images.

In the case of Daugman's algorithms, a Gabor wavelet transform is used.

The result is a set of complex numbers that carry local amplitude and
phase information about the iris pattern. In Daugman's algorithms, most
amplitude information is discarded, and the 2048 bits representing an iris
pattern consist of phase information (complex sign bits of the Gabor
wavelet projections). Discarding the amplitude information ensures that
the template remains largely unaffected by changes in illumination or
camera gain, and contributes to the long-term usability of the biometric
template.
For identification (one-to-many template matching) or verification (one-
to-one template matching), a template created by imaging an iris is
compared to stored templates in a database. If the Hamming distance is
below the decision threshold, a positive identification has effectively been
made because of the statistical extreme improbability that two different
persons could agree by chance ("collide") in so many bits, given the high
entropy of iris templates.

4.2.3 Advantages
The iris of the eye has been described as the ideal part of the human body
for biometric identification for several reasons:

It is an internal organ that is well protected against damage and wear by a

highly transparent and sensitive membrane (the cornea). This
distinguishes it from fingerprints, which can be difficult to recognize after
years of certain types of manual labor. The iris is mostly flat, and its
geometric configuration is only controlled by two complementary
muscles (the sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae) that control the
diameter of the pupil. This makes the iris shape far more predictable than,
for instance, that of the face.

The iris has a fine texture that—like fingerprints—is determined

randomly during embryonic gestation. Like the fingerprint, it is very hard
(if not impossible) to prove that the iris is unique. However, there are so
many factors that go into the formation of these textures (the iris and
fingerprint) that the chance of false matches for either is extremely low.
Even genetically identical individuals (and the left and right eyes of the
same individual) have completely independent iris textures. An iris scan
is similar to taking a photograph and can be performed from about 10 cm
to a few meters away. There is no need for the person being identified to
touch any equipment that has recently been touched by a stranger, thereby
eliminating an objection that has been raised in some cultures against
fingerprint scanners, where a finger has to touch a surface, or retinal
scanning, where the eye must be brought very close to an eyepiece (like
looking into a microscope).

4.2.4 Shortcomings
Many commercial iris scanners can be easily fooled by a high quality
image of an iris or face in place of the real thing.[citation needed] The
scanners are often tough to adjust and can become bothersome for
multiple people of different heights to use in succession. The accuracy of
scanners can be affected by changes in lighting. Iris scanners are
significantly more expensive than some other forms of biometrics, as well
as password and proximity card security systems.

Iris scanning is a relatively new technology and is incompatible with the

very substantial investment that the law enforcement and immigration
authorities of some countries have already made into fingerprint
recognition. Iris recognition is very difficult to perform at a distance
larger than a few meters and if the person to be identified is not
cooperating by holding the head still and looking into the camera.
However, several academic institutions and biometric vendors are
developing products that claim to be able to identify subjects at distances
of up to 10 meters ("Standoff Iris" or "Iris at a Distance" as well as SRI
International's "Iris on the Move" for persons walking at speeds up to 1
meter/sec).
5 Chapter: References

1. http://www.in.techspot.com/The-History-of-the-Modern-Graphics-
Processor/articleshow/48002018.cms#part-one

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_card#History

3. http://cs.utsa.edu/~qitian/seminar/Spring11/03_04_11/GPU.pdf

4. https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-difference-between-a-CPU-and-
a-GPU

5. http://www.nvidia.com/object/nvision08_gpu_v_cpu.html

6. http://www.rfwireless-world.com/Terminology/difference-
between-CPU-and-GPU.html

7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprint_recognition

8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_recognition

9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_keyboard

10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse