NSCA+Coach+2 1

NSCA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COACH VOLUME 2
ISSUE 1
STRENGTH T R A I N I N G
DEVELOPING THE POTENTIAL OF THE UNDERSERVED CLUB ATHLETE:
04 A PROJECT WITH THE DUKE CLUB HOCKEY TEAM
AUTHOR NAME, PHD, CSCS, NSCA-CPT, FNSCA, FACSM
Understanding how to properly utilize movement pattern continuums is essential knowledge for any personal trainer. Using an-
ecdotal evidence, this article shows the importance and provides examples of how to implement movement pattern continuums
into a resistance training program. Understanding how to properly utilize movement pattern continuums is essential knowledge
for any personal trainer. Using anecdotal evidence, this article shows the importance and provides examples of how to implement
movement pattern continuums into a resistance training program.
SPORTS N U T R I T I O N
AT H L E T I C D E V E L O P M E N T
NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 1

ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
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COACH ISSUE 1 VOLUME 2
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2 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

TABLE OF CONTENTS
04 WHAT IS THE CATCH? CLARIFYING WEIGHTLIFTING EXERCISES AND TERMINOLOGY

JEREMY GOUGH, MS, CSCS, RSCC, TIM DOMBROWSKI, MS, CSCS, USAW-ASPC, AND
SAMUEL GARDNER, MS, CSCS, RSCC, USAW, USATF
12 DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMOTOR ABILITIES FOR SOCCER

FARZAD JALILVAND, MS, CSCS, RSCC, USAW
18 HAMSTRING TRAINING FOR INJURY PREVENTION—PART I

JOEL BERGERON, MS, CSCS,*D, USATF-2
20 IS LIVE HIGH/TRAIN LOW THE ULTIMATE ENDURANCE TRAINING MODEL?

JAMIE NESS, MS, CSCS
26 THE IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN FOR ATHLETES

SARAH ROMOTSKY, RD, AND LESLIE BONCI, MPH, CSSD, RDN
32 MAINTAIN TRAINING WHILE TRAVELING WITH DUMBBELLS: PERSONAL INSIGHT

ALLEN HEDRICK, MA, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA
34 NECK TRAINING FOR CONTACT SPORTS—CONCUSSION PREVENTION

BRIAN JONES, PHD, CSCS, AND SEAN KRATCHMAN
38 CATCH-22—WHY FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS ARE SO IMPORTANT

RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW

WHAT IS THE CATCH? CLARIFYING WEIGHTLIFTING EXERCISES AND TERMINOLOGY
JEREMY GOUGH, MS, CSCS, RSCC, TIM DOMBROWSKI, MS, CSCS, USAW-ASPC, AND
SAMUEL GARDNER, MS, CSCS, RSCC, USAW, USATF
W
eightlifting (often referred to as Olympic weightlifting WEIGHTLIFTING
or Olympic-style weightlifting) is a highly used form The competitive movements of weightlifting are the snatch and
of training by sport performance professionals. The the clean and jerk. The snatch is a movement where the bar starts
benefits of weightlifting movements include increased balance, on the floor and, through proper technique, finishes with the
coordination, strength, speed, and rate of force production bar over the lifter’s head in either the power position (hips and
(2). Two of the most desired physical qualities in athletes are knees unlocked and slightly flexed with a ridged back) or a squat
speed and strength, because most sports require quick and position (full movement). The power position catch is commonly
explosive movements. The amount of force an athlete can apply referred to as a “power snatch.” The clean and jerk is two separate
to the ground, and how fast they can apply that force, will help movements in one attempt. The clean portion of the lift starts
determine how fast they can run, how high they can jump, or with the bar on the floor and, through proper technique, finishes
how quickly they can change direction, all of which are required (first movement) with the bar in the rack position in either the
in most sports. Powerlifting incorporates lifts that require heavy power position or at the bottom of a front squat. Upon standing
loads, but lower velocity of movements; whereas weightlifting up with the bar still in the rack position, the lifter will then jerk
uses loads performed at a much higher velocity. As a result, (second movement) the bar overhead. These two movements are
weightlifting and weightlifting variations in conjunction with very technical and therefore may require extended time to learn.
powerlifting movements may be better suited for developing A detailed review of the desired technique for the competitive
strength, power, and speed due to the utilization of a greater rate weightlifting movements and their derivatives is outside the scope
of force production (1,4,5,6). Although weightlifting movements of this article.
are commonly utilized in the field of sport performance for the
development of enhanced physical qualities, the terminology The use of the weightlifting movements and their variations are
frequently varies between coaches. A consistent use of vocabulary popular within the world of sport performance professionals at
is needed for greater application and understanding between all levels of training. The purpose behind the use of weightlifting
coaches and programs (7). The purpose of this article is to present movements for developing athletic performance is based on the
commonly used terminology from USA Weightlifting and common production of force and power while performing the lifts, and how
verbiage from sport performance coaches in numerous athletic that will transfer to the force and power that is used on the playing
settings, as well as describe the basic positions and terminology field. The use of weightlifting and their variations can be used to
for the weightlifting exercises (9,10,11,12). help improve strength for those movements, as well as transferring
power from a static or supported position to maximum power

NSCA COACH 2.1
production to complete the movement. The use of triple extension FIGURE 3. MID-THIGH POSITION FOR SNATCH
(ankles, knees, and hips) has been shown to help create maximum MOVEMENTS (BLOCKS)
rate of force production (8).
STARTING POSITIONS
Commonly used starting positions for both the snatch and clean
movements are performed from either a hang position (power
position, mid-thigh, above knee), from blocks (mid-thigh, above
knee, below knee), or from the floor. The use of blocks is used
in order to reinforce technique and proper starting positions.
Additionally, research has shown that the partial weightlifting
movements and movements from blocks can help to facilitate
a transition to full weightlifting movements (3). Figures 1 – 18
provide illustrations and descriptions of the starting positions for
the snatch and clean movements.
FIGURE 1. POWER POSITION FOR SNATCH MOVEMENTS

FIGURE 4. MID-THIGH POSITION FOR SNATCH
MOVEMENTS (HANG)
FIGURE 2. POWER POSITION FOR CLEAN MOVEMENTS
FIGURE 5. MID-THIGH POSITION FOR CLEAN

MOVEMENTS (BLOCKS)

PREPARING FOR THE NFL COMBINE — A FUNCTIONAL AND MOVEMENT-SPECIFIC
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM FOR ELITE-LEVEL PLACEKICKERS
FIGURE 6. MID-THIGH POSITION FOR CLEAN FIGURE 9. ABOVE KNEE POSITION FOR CLEAN
MOVEMENTS (HANG) MOVEMENTS (BLOCKS)
FIGURE 7. ABOVE KNEE POSITION FOR SNATCH FIGURE 10. ABOVE KNEE POSITION FOR CLEAN
MOVEMENTS (BLOCKS) MOVEMENTS (HANG)
FIGURE 11. BELOW KNEE POSITION FOR SNATCH

FIGURE 8. ABOVE KNEE POSITION FOR SNATCH MOVEMENTS (BLOCKS)
MOVEMENTS (HANG)

NSCA COACH 2.1
FIGURE 12. BELOW KNEE POSITION FOR CLEAN FIGURE 14. CLEAN MOVEMENTS FROM THE FLOOR
MOVEMENTS (BLOCKS)
FINISHING POSITIONS
The finishing positions for the snatch and the clean are going to
NOTE: The authors believe in teaching a below knee position from vary on how it is described in the training plan. The term power
the blocks only for athletes that have not developed the trunk refers to a position with the feet flat on the ground, knees bent,
stability to maintain and hold proper form to perform the below trunk erect, and weight evenly distributed on the feet. If the
knee starting position from hang. It is believed the risk of injury movement is described as simply a snatch or a clean, it refers to
is minimized by using and teaching the below knee position from catching the bar in the bottom position of the overhead squat or
blocks only. front squat.
FIGURE 13. SNATCH MOVEMENTS FROM THE FLOOR

FIGURE 15. POWER SNATCH RECEIVING POSITION

FIGURE 16. SNATCH RECEIVING POSITION CONCLUSION

Weightlifting is a valuable form of training for sport performance
professionals to help develop rate of force production in athletes.
The proper use of terminology should be included in the name of
the movement. For example, power position power clean indicates
starting in the power position and catching in the power position.
Another common example of proper terminology use is the power
clean or power snatch, which would indicate the movement
starting from the floor and being caught in the power position.
Table 1 offers several examples that could help a coach or athletic
performance staff use proper terminology.
A consistent use of terms is vital to understand training programs

and exercises between coaches and programs. This understanding
and consistency in terminology will help alleviate confusion with
both athletes and coaches alike.
FIGURE 17. POWER CLEAN RECEIVING POSITION
FIGURE 18. CLEAN RECEIVING POSITION

NSCA COACH 2.1
REFERENCES
1. Carlock, JM, Smith, SL, Hartman, MJ, Morris, RT, Ciroslan, DA, ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Pierce, KC, and Newton, RU. The relationship between vertical Jeremy Gough is the current Director of Sport Performance at
jump power estimates and weightlifting ability: A field test Kennesaw State University for Olympic Sports, where he oversees
approach. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research all aspects of training for 15 teams competing at the National
18(3): 534-539, 2004. Collegiate Athletic Assocation (NCAA) Division I level in the Atlantic
Sun Conference. Previously, Gough has worked in the field of sport
2. Cissik, JM. Teaching the Olympic-style lifts to college
performance with the United States Olympic Committee (USOC)
students. Strength and Conditioning Journal 21(3): 9-14, 1999.
and Valdosta State University. He is an active Member of the
3. DeWeese, B, Serrano, A, Scruggs, S, and Burton, J. The mid- National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), is certified
thigh pull: Proper application and progressions of a weightlifting as a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) and is
movement derivative. Strength and Conditioning Journal 35(6): a Registered Strength and Conditioning Coach (RSCC).
54-58, 2013.
4. Haff, GG. Current research: Training for strength, power, and Tim Dombrowski is currently the Assistant Sport Performance
speed. Strength and Conditioning Journal 34(2): 76-78, 2012. Coach at Kennesaw State University for Olympic Sports. His
primary responsibilities include creating and implementing
5. Hoffman, JR, Cooper, J, Wendell, M, and Kang, J. Comparison
programs for the women’s basketball, women’s lacrosse, men’s
of Olympic vs. traditional power lifting training programs in
tennis, and women’s golf teams, as well as being the internship
football players. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning
coordinator for the Kennesaw State University Olympic Sport
Research 18(1): 129-135, 2004.
Performance Internship Program. Dombrowski also has experience
6. Hori, N, and Stone, MH. Weightlifting exercises enhance working at Ann Arbor Huron High School, the University of
athletic performance that requires high-load speed strength. Michigan, and Bethany College. Dombrowski is certified through
Strength and Conditioning Journal 27(4): 50-55, 2005. the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) as a
7. Newton, H. Weightlifting? Weight Lifting? Olympic Lifting? Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) and United
Olympic Weightlifting? Strength and Conditioning Journal 21(3): States of America Weightlifting (USAW) as an Advanced Certified
15-16, 1999. Sports Performance Coach.
8. Tricoli, V, Lamas, L, Carnevale, R, and Ugrinowitsch, C. Samuel Gardner has been a strength and conditioning coach with
Short-term effects on lower-body functional power development: the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), the Golden State
Weightlifting vs. vertical jump training programs. The Journal of Warriors National Basketball Association (NBA) organization, and
Strength and Conditioning Research 19(2): 433-437, 2005. most recently with United States Special Forces working with the
9. USAW Weightlifting and Sports Performance Coaching Course 1st Marine Special Operations Battalion. He is an active member of
Manual. N.p.: USA Weightlifting; 2013. the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and
serves on the Editorial Review Panel for NSCA Coach, is a Board
10. USA Weightlifting Coaching Accreditation Course Club Coach
Member of the NSCA Special Interest Group (SIG) for Weightlifting,
Manual. N.p.: USA Weightlifting; 1991.
is a Registered Strength and Conditioning Coach (RSCC), and
11. USA Weightlifting Level 1 Sports Performance Coaching Course Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®).
Manual (Revised ed.). N.p.: USA Weightlifting; 2010.
12. USA Weightlifting Coaching Accreditation Course Sports
Performance Coach Manual. N.p.: USA Weightlifting; 2001.

TABLE 1. TERMINOLOGY FOR STARTING AND FINISHING POSITIONS

EXERCISE NAME STARTING POSITIONS FINISHING POSITIONS
POWER POSITION POWER SNATCH Power Position Power Position
POWER POSITION SNATCH Power Position Bottom of Overhead Squat
POWER POSITION POWER CLEAN Power Position Power Position
POWER POSITION CLEAN Power Position Bottom of Front Squat
MID-THIGH POWER SNATCH (BLOCKS) Bar at mid-point of thigh from blocks Power Position
MID-THIGH POWER SNATCH (HANG) RDL bar to mid-point of thigh Power Position
MID-THIGH POWER CLEAN (BLOCKS) Bar at mid-point of thigh from blocks Power Position
MID-THIGH POWER CLEAN (HANG) RDL bar to mid-point of thigh Power Position
MID-THIGH SNATCH (BLOCKS) Bar at mid-point of thigh from blocks Bottom of Overhead Squat
MID-THIGH SNATCH (HANG) RDL bar to mid-point of thigh Bottom of Overhead Squat
MID-THIGH CLEAN (BLOCKS) Bar at mid-point of thigh from blocks Bottom of Front Squat
MID-THIGH CLEAN (HANG) RDL bar to mid-point of thigh Bottom of Front Squat
ABOVE KNEE POWER SNATCH (BLOCKS) Bar just above knee from blocks Power Position
ABOVE KNEE POWER SNATCH (HANG) RDL bar to just above knee Power Position
ABOVE KNEE POWER CLEAN (BLOCKS) Bar just above knee from blocks Power Position
ABOVE KNEE POWER CLEAN (HANG) RDL bar to just above knee Power Position
ABOVE KNEE SNATCH (BLOCKS) Bar just above knee from blocks Bottom of Overhead Squat
ABOVE KNEE SNATCH (HANG) RDL bar to just above knee Bottom of Overhead Squat
ABOVE KNEE CLEAN (BLOCKS) Bar just above knee from blocks Bottom of Front Squat
ABOVE KNEE CLEAN (HANG) RDL bar to just above knee Bottom of Front Squat
BELOW KNEE POWER SNATCH (BLOCKS) Bar just below knee from blocks Power Position
BELOW KNEE POWER CLEAN (BLOCKS) Bar just below knee from blocks Power Position
BELOW KNEE SNATCH (BLOCKS) Bar just below knee from blocks Bottom of Overhead Squat
BELOW KNEE CLEAN (BLOCKS) Bar just below knee from blocks Bottom of Front Squat
POWER SNATCH From floor Power Position
POWER CLEAN From floor Power Position
SNATCH From floor Bottom of Overhead Squat
CLEAN From floor Bottom of Front Squat

NSCA COACH 2.1

DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMOTOR ABILITIES FOR SOCCER
FARZAD JALILVAND, MS, CSCS, RSCC, USAW
S
port specificity has become a term where the word methods of training dictate training effects. As Mel Siff explained
specificity is often misunderstood by professionals in the concept of dynamic correspondence, he stressed that sport-
athletics. Training methods that are based on simulation can specific movements are goal oriented and the expression of
deviate from sound training principles and distort the true nature strength is specific to those movements (28). In other words,
of goal-oriented training, in regard to sport. The objective of this training methods need to be biomechanically and physiologically
article is to provide insight on the interactions between strength, specific to the demands of the sport. To enhance motor qualities,
power, speed, and agility for soccer players, examine the scientific Siff outlined the following criteria to achieve a positive training
evidence on improving athletic performance, and provide basic effect (28):
programming guidelines that adhere to current research and
• Amplitude and direction of movement (the direction of force
anecdotal experiences.
relative to the performed movement)
DEVELOPING BIOMOTOR ABILITIES USING THE • Accentuated region of force application (positions in the
PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMIC CORRESPONDENCE movement where forces are the highest)
For all sports, a comprehensive needs analysis is necessary to • Dynamics of the effort (whether a concentric max effort or
ensure that the goals of the training program are met and that eccentric slow effort is desired for each lift)
the training is specific to that sport. With the growing body of
• Rate and time of maximum force production (being able to
non-empirical information, it is easy to deviate from established
apply maximum force in less time)
training principles and to start adopting the idiom “reinventing
the wheel.” Basic principles, such as the SAID principle (Specific • Regime of muscular work (task-specific strength in regards to
Adaptation to Imposed Demand), lay the foundation of any the sport)
training program and need to be critically evaluated before Siff identified three main target goals when applying dynamic
developing a training program. correspondence to training: 1) to understand motor tasks/abilities
involved in the sport, 2) to train those motor tasks with proper
In order to develop adaptations into a positive transfer of training exercise selection, and 3) to apply biomechanical and metabolic
effect, the principle of dynamic correspondence needs to be specificity to elicit desired training effects (28).
applied. Training athletes is not simply lifting weights. There is
an inherent relationship between biomechanical, physiological,
and psychological factors when training athletes. Therefore,

NSCA COACH 2.1
DEVELOPING STRENGTH FOR SOCCER within that timeframe. Therefore, the goal of training should be
When triangulating sport performance to its most common to move the curve up and to the left so that high forces can be
denominator, strength and power development takes focus achieved rapidly (1,26).
in team sports. The outcome of strength training is not only
improvement in physiological parameters, but also improvements METHODS TO DEVELOP POWER
in skill acquisition through motor control (15,26,28). Most athletes Using the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) via plyometric-specific
in team sports execute movements such as sprinting, change of movements is an excellent way to improve power production
direction, and jumping (10,29,31). These are all task-oriented skills (2,23,33). Plyometric training uses the SSC to perform high-
that depend on neuromuscular efficiency that is largely dictated speed movements with the goal of improving concentric
by strength (28). power production. Plyometric training can be divided into two
response times: 1) short response movements (< 250 ms) such
The squat is a staple in most training programs simply due to as depth jumps and 2) long response movements (> 250 ms)
the potential transfer to sprinting and jumping (14,20,22,34). such as countermovement jumps (26). Both methods should be
The simple reason for using a loaded squat is that the athlete incorporated with the target goal of developing strength and
overloads hip extension with the goal of greater muscle reactive ability through the SSC (26,29).
recruitment. When the athlete needs to overcome inertia through
continuous force production, motor task specificity, and the Olympic-style weightlifting produces high power outputs as
activation of high threshold motor units, it can be stimulated compared to other strength training exercises (12). In addition, a
through the loaded action (15,28,36). positive relationship exists between Olympic-style weightlifting
and sprint performance, which is why these exercises can be
METHODS TO DEVELOP STRENGTH very useful in many sports (14). The complexity of this type of
A general guideline for developing strength is to lift a load equal training requires skill acquisition (i.e., improved intramuscular and
to or greater than 85% of a one repetition maximum (1RM) (4). intermuscular coordination, improved muscle recruitment, and
This recommendation is not absolute and may vary for each synchronization through performing the lifts) (28,36). However,
athlete; therefore, it should only serve as a guideline that can be there is a problem with Olympic-style weightlifting in regards to
adjusted accordingly. Three items that need to be considered the prescription of loads and the effort given to complete the lift.
when training for strength are: 1) select exercises based on motor Put simply, the effort (applied force) needs to be velocity specific
tasks related to the sport, 2) increase muscle recruitment and if maximal neural adaptations are desired (5,9). So, if these skills
firing rate, and 3) improve muscular strength of movements used have not been acquired, the execution and the benefits of such
in sport tasks (i.e., sprinting, jumping, and changing of direction). lifts will be negatively affected.
DEVELOPING POWER FOR SOCCER Depending on the season and training goal, the general guidelines
The ability to achieve maximum velocity rapidly can be the for developing power ranges from 0 – 90% of 1RM with a
difference between scoring a goal and conceding one (11). repetition range of 1 – 5RM (8,9,16). This recommendation is not
High power output also relates to sprinting and jumping, and absolute and may vary for each athlete; therefore, it should only
therefore, is an important factor for athletic performance in soccer serve as a guideline that can be adjusted accordingly. There are
(14,18,29,32). There is a positive relationship between strength and two main goals when developing power that need to be addressed
power that suggests that power training requires an emphasis on so that safety and effectiveness are maintained. These two
both force and velocity (18). While slow movements that require goals are: 1) exerting maximal effort regardless of the load and
high force output should increase power, the training status of the 2) maintaining technique since quality overrules quantity when
athlete must be considered. For instance, commonly performed performing technical lifts or tasks.
slow speed movements such as heavy squats and deadlifts,
performed with high force production, have a positive effect on DEVELOPING SPEED AND AGILITY
power in athletes with relatively low levels of strength; however, Speed and agility are essentially two distinct qualities and should
a negative relationship exists for trained athletes as they require be trained separately depending on the level of the athlete (19).
ballistic accelerative efforts to improve power (9,13,33). The main factor that limits high power output in regards to
repeated efforts of sprinting is fatigue (3,21,27). Therefore, training
In soccer, two main components that affect athletic performance soccer-specific speed should use a comprehensive approach that
are the rate of force development (RFD) and impulses. Simply places an emphasis on anaerobic conditioning, resistance training,
stated, how fast can high forces be generated and in what and running mechanics.
direction are the forces being generated. According to the force-
time curve, powerful motor tasks, such as sprints or change of In order to train agility, one must understand the underlying
direction, require quick contraction times that are usually executed mechanisms of motor control and mechanical specificity in
within 100 – 200 ms (26). Because the contraction time for terms of direction of movement and the expression of strength
powerful activities is generally less than 300 ms, maximal strength throughout the specific task. The root effective movement is
production through heavy strength training cannot be executed based on repeating the desired task with correct technique, which

can result in programmed skill acquisition (26,28). Therefore, 4. Baechle, TR, Earle, RW, and Wathen, D. Resistance training. In:
when training for improved agility, the quality of movement takes Baechle, TR, and Earle, RW (Eds.), NSCA’s Essentials of Strength
precedence over the quantity. Training and Conditioning. (3rd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics: 381-412, 2008.
METHODS TO DEVELOP SPEED AND AGILITY 5. Behm DG, and Sale, DG. Intended rather than actual
Research examined the effect of a combination of resistance movement velocity determines velocity-specific training response.
training, metabolic specificity, and technique for overall Journal of Applied Physiology 74(1): 359-368, 1993.
improvement (17,26,35). Young, James, and Montgomery outlined
a schematic for improving agility beyond resistance training, 6. Bompa, TO, and Haff, GG. Periodization: Theory and
metabolic specificity, and technique by incorporating perceptual Methodology of Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2009.
and decision-making factors. The schematic defined agility as 7. Brooks, GA, Fahey, TD, and Baldwin, KM. Exercise Physiology:
an unpredictable open skill divided into two subcomponents: Human Bioenergetics and its Application New York, NY: McGraw
perceptual decision-making and change of direction speed (CODS) Hill; 2005.
(35). CODS is planned within training sessions to improve the
8. Cormie, P, McGuigan, MR, and Newton, RU. Developing
speed in which the direction is aimed, deceleration, and sprint
maximal neuromuscular power: Part 2 — Training considerations
technique. The research concluded that both subcomponents will
for improving maximal power production. Sports Medicine 41(2):
need to be trained in order to improve agility (35).
125-146, 2011.
In other words, agility is an open skill where an athlete’s response 9. Cormie, P, McCaulley, GO, Triplett, NT, and McBride, JM.
is based on the situation. Therefore, training the cognitive portion Optimal loading for maximal power output during lower-body
addresses the psychological factors of dynamic correspondence resistance exercises. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
principles by requiring the athlete to make a decision based on an 39(2): 340-349, 2007.
external stimulus or anticipation. This can thereby help the athlete 10. Deutsch, MU, Kearney, GA, and Rehrer, NJ. Time-motion
make better decisions during one-on-one situations and ultimately analysis of professional rugby union players during match-play.
improve their agility. Overall, the targeted goals for developing Journal of Sports Sciences 25(4): 461-472, 2007.
agility should be to develop sound movement technique (e.g.,
11. Faude, O, Koch, T, and Meyer, T. Straight sprinting is the most
braking and accelerating) and matching metabolic and mechanical
frequent action in goal situations in professional football. Journal
specificity of the sport.
of Sports Sciences 30(7): 625-631, 2012.
CONCLUSION 12. Garhammer, J. A comparison of maximal power outputs
The development of all the biomotor abilities and their interactions between elite male and female weightlifters in competition.
make training for soccer very complex. Table 1 illustrates a International Journal of Sport Biomechanics 7: 3-11, 1991.
summarized guideline on how to develop biomotor abilities 13. Haff, GG, and Nimphius, S. Training principles for power.
for soccer. The purpose of this article is to bring attention Strength and Conditioning Journal 34(6): 2, 2012.
to strength and conditioning professionals of the complex
nature of developing task-specific biomotor abilities for soccer. 14. Hori, N, Newton, RU, Andrews, WA, Kawamori, N, McGuigan,
When designing a specific program a “thinking outside the MR, and Nosaka, K. Does performance of hang power clean
box” approach is recommended as long as safe principles and differentiate performance of jumping, sprinting, and changing
guidelines are followed. of direction? The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
22(2): 412-418, 2008.
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Poulsen, PD. Increased rate of force development and neural drive 16. Kawamori, N, Haff, GG. The optimal training load for the
of human skeletal muscle following resistance training. Journal of development of muscular power. The Journal of Strength and
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of six weeks of squat, plyometric and squat plyometric training on Long-term strength training effects on change-of-direction sprint
power production. Journal of Applied Sport Science Research 6(1): performance. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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19. Little, T, and Williams, AG. Specificity of acceleration, 33. Wilson, GJ, Newton, RU, Murphy, AJ, and Humphries, BJ. The
maximum speed, and agility in professional soccer players. The optimal training load for the development of dynamic athletic
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19(1): 76-78, 2005. performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 25(11):
1279-1286, 1993.
20. López, SM, Marques, M, van den Tillaar, R, and Badillo, JG.
Relationships between vertical jump and full squat power outputs 34. Wisloff, U, Castagna, C, Helgerud, J, Jones, R, and Hoff,
with sprint times in U21 soccer players. Journal of Human Kinetics J. Strong correlation of maximal squat strength with sprint
30(1): 135-144, 2011. performance and vertical jump height in elite soccer players.
British Journal of Sports Medicine 38(3): 285-288, 2004.
21. Mendez-Villanueva, A, Hamer, P, and Bishop, D. Fatigue in
repeated-sprint exercise is related to muscle power factors and 35. Young, WB, James, R, and Montgomery, I. Is muscle power
reduced neuromuscular activity. European Journal of Applied related to running speed with changes of direction? Journal of
Physiology 103(4): 411-419, 2008. Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 42(3): 282-288, 2002.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
23. Newton, RU, Kraemer, WJ, and Häkkinen, K. Effects of ballistic Farzad Jalilvand is a Certified Strength and Conditioning
training on preseason preparation of elite volleyball players. Specialist® (CSCS®) and a Registered Strength and Conditioning
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 31(2): 323-330, 1999. Coach (RSCC) with a diverse background in health, fitness, and
24. NSCA’s Guide to Program Design. In: Hoffman, JR (ed.), sports performance. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Kinesiology-
National Strength and Conditioning Association. Champaign, IL: Exercise Science as well as a Master’s degree in Kinesiology-
Human Kinetics; 2012. Exercise Physiology. Jalilvand is currently the Sports Performance
Director for the Institute for Performance Rehabilitation and
25. Plisk, SS, and Stone, MH. Periodization Strategies. Strength
Wellness. He serves as the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach
and Conditioning Journal 25(6): 19-37, 2003.
for Granada Hills Charter High School and he lectures at California
26. Plisk, SS. Speed, agility, and speed-endurance development. State University-Northridge in the Department of Kinesiology.
In: Baechle, TR, and Earle, RW (Eds.), Essentials of Strength Additionally, Jalilvand has had professional soccer experience
Training and Conditioning (3rd Edition). Champaign IL: Human in Europe and his experience includes training male and female
Kinetics; 457-485, 2008. high school and Division I athletes in a variety of sports, such as
27. Robergs, R, Ghiasvand, F, and Parker, D. Biochemistry soccer, basketball, baseball, football, volleyball, softball, and track
of exercise-induced metabolic acidosis. American Journal of and field.
Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
287(3): R502-R516, 2004.
28. Siff, MC. Supertraining (6th Ed). Denver, CO: Supertraining
Institute; 2003.
29. Schmidtbleicher, D. Training for power events. Strength and
Power in Sport. In: Komi, PV (Ed.), Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific
Publications; 381-398, 1992.
30. Spencer, M, Bishop, D, Dawson, B, and Goodman, C.
Physiological and metabolic responses of repeated-sprint
activities: Specific to field-based team sports. Sports Medicine
35(12): 1025-1044, 2005.
31. Spinks, CD, Murphy, AJ, Spinks, WL, and Lockie, RG. The
effects of resisted sprint training on acceleration performance and
kinematics in soccer, rugby union, and Australian football players.
The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 21(1): 77-85,
2007.
32. Stone, MH, Stone, ME, and Sands, WA. Principles and Practice
of Resistance Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2007.

TABLE 1. GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING BIOMOTOR SKILLS FOR SOCCER (6,15,24,25)

EXERCISE TESTING
BIOMOTOR IMPLEMENTATION RATIONALE OUTCOME COMPATIBILITY
EXAMPLES RATIONALE
↑Leg muscle
quality ↑Sprinting Front squats
↑Eccentric ↑Jumping Back squats

Sprint training
≥ 85% 1RM strength 1RM testing
≤ 6 repetitions ↑Strength Hex bar protocols
Agility training
↑Neuromuscular deadlift
STRENGTH 2 – 5 min rest coordination ↑Effective force Multiple RM
Anaerobic
application Romanian testing protocols
endurance
2 – 4x/week ↑Cross-sectional deadlifts (RDL)
training
area of muscle ↑Force Measure
Walking lunge relative strength
↑Myosin heavy ↑Relative
chain IIx and IIa strength Bulgarian
isoforms split squat
↑Rate of force
Hang
development ↑Acceleration Standing long
power clean
Sprint training jump
0 – 90% 1RM ↑Neural drive ↑Jumping
Hang
1 – 5 repetitions Agility training Vertical jump
power snatch
↑Rate coding ↑Mechanical
*POWER
2 – 5 min efficiency Strength training Multiple RM
Depth jumps
↑Intramuscular clean or snatch
2 – 4x/week coordination ↑Power output Plyometric
Counter-
training Measure
movement and
↑Intermuscular power outputs
squat jumps
coordination
Volume
≤ 500 ms
Falling starts
Strength 10-15-20 m*
Work:rest ↑Acceleration
↑Type II training
1:12 – 20 10-15-20 m
efficiency Flying starts*
(metabolic ↑Mechanics sprint test*
Plyometric
*SPEED demands of
↑Anaerobic training Cone jump
the sport should ↑Speed
power to sprint*
be met)
Ballistic training
Resisted and
2 – 3x/week
assisted training

NSCA COACH 2.1
TABLE 1. GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING BIOMOTOR SKILLS FOR SOCCER (6,15,24,25) continued
EXERCISE TESTING
BIOMOTOR IMPLEMENTATION RATIONALE OUTCOME COMPATIBILITY
EXAMPLES RATIONALE
Volume
Arrowhead drill
≤ 5 – 25
(closed skill)
repetitions T-test
↑Ability to
per drill
change direction Technical training One-on-one tag
↑Motor control 5-10-5 m shuttle
(open skill)
Work:rest
↑Movement Tactical training
*AGILITY 1:4 – 20 ↑Anaerobic Illinois test
mechanics (involves mixed Z-cone drill
(metabolic power
approach for (closed skill)
demands of Measure ability
↑Acceleration superior results)
the sports to change
should be met) direction
2 – 3x/week
* Max effort given
**Table adapted from Plisk, Issurin, Bompa, and NSCA Guidelines (6,15,24,25)
FOR THOSE WHO TRAIN

WITH A HIGHER PURPOSE
FIRST RESPONDERS AT A UTAH FIRE TRAINING CENTER WORK OUT IN 5.11 TACTICAL RECON GEAR

VISIT 511TACTICAL.COM/RECON
HAMSTRING TRAINING FOR INJURY PREVENTION—PART I
JOEL BERGERON, MS, CSCS,*D, USATF-2
S
training the hamstring is a devastating sports injury. During contribute a smaller degree to these movements. Involvement
the course of a season, a coach may see a handful of their of the hamstrings is proportionately less due to their biarticulate
athletes give up early during a game or training session characteristic, mechanical leverage, and kinesiological positioning
when suffering from this type of injury. Depending on the severity (5,7). Consequently, they can often be underdeveloped as
of the injury, recovery can last from one week to several months compared to the other muscles previously mentioned.
and may even cause a premature ending to a competitive season.
Training to decrease risk for this injury is a valuable investment. Exercise selection and technique also contribute to strains (2).
This column is the first entry in a two-part series covering the Leg curl machines make up the bulk of hamstring work in many
mechanisms behind hamstring injuries and strategies on how to strength programs. A limitation arising from these machines is that
help prevent them. This column will review the anatomy of the they can develop the distal end of the muscle group (at the knee)
hamstring muscles and examine ways to minimize the severity to a greater degree. The proximal end (at the hip) receives less
and frequency of strains. Part two will provide instruction on conditioning and the result is muscular imbalance. A relationship
how to incorporate hamstring-specific exercises into an annual exists between distal hamstring development and proximal end
training plan. susceptibility to injury (3). When examining hamstring injuries,
lower hamstring strains are usually less severe, whereas high
THE ANATOMY OF THE HAMSTRING MUSCLES strains typically cause more debilitating symptoms.
The hip and knee are two of the most powerful joints within the
human body (5). The hamstring group, also a biarticular muscle Box step-ups are another example; although this movement
unit, is made up of three synergistic muscles: the semitendinosus, can condition the hamstrings effectively, it is often performed
semimembranosus, and biceps femoris (5,6,7). A biarticular incorrectly. This occurs when the athlete does not activate
muscle unit is one that crosses two joints rather than just one the hamstrings and gluteal groups proficiently and uses the
(the hamstring group crosses both the knee and hip joints). This quadriceps to perform the bulk of the work. While performing this
biarticular muscle unit creates movement by causing extension at exercise the athlete must consciously focus on activation at the hip
the hip and flexion at the knee. This is of particular significance as rather than the knee. Greater attention must be paid to maintain
the biarticular muscles sustain greater stresses placed upon them sound technique as fatigue becomes a factor as well.
when lengthened and contracted simultaneously across the two
joints (7). These same muscle actions occur with the movement On the playing field, the hamstrings can become vulnerable to
patterns for running and sprinting. injury as a result of inappropriate training volumes, inefficient
mechanics, and poor hip activation (1,6). Perception of muscle
Other muscle groups, such as the gluteus maximus and soreness can be used as a reliable marker for muscle damage.
gastrocnemius, assist the hamstrings through extension at the hip Greater degrees of soreness typically represent higher risk of
and flexion at the knees, respectively (7). Strengthening these injury. Alternating active rest and bodyweight training with
supporting muscle groups can help to lessen the workload placed high-intensity workouts can help shorten recovery periods and
on the hamstrings (6,7). maximize adaptation (6). Ignoring these early markers of fatigue,
and forcing workouts on a fatigued body, can result in diminished
FACTORS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO returns and ultimately injury.
HAMSTRING INJURIES
Imbalanced training and inefficient sprint mechanics are major During the support phase of a sprint, the hamstrings assist the
factors that may contribute to hamstring injuries (3,6). Frequently, gluteals in hip extension and are the primary knee flexors during
the exercises selected for strength programs neglect the recovery of the swing phase. Hip tilt dictates how the femurs
hamstring group, which causes an imbalanced ratio of exercises act during locomotion. Posterior hip tilt limits stride length by
between muscle groups in a program. A ratio of 3:2 quadricep to shortening the swing phase. The compensatory result is a lower
hamstring strength is suggested in order to decrease risk for injury swing phase, which causes a “casting” of the foot at the lower leg
(6). Table 1 provides a list of common strength ratios for muscular just before foot strike. This action places the gluteals in a poor
balance. A simple way of checking for a balanced training program position for force application, transfers greater workload to the
is to classify an exercise as either a push or pull (Table 2). Coaches hamstrings, and positions the hamstrings in a state of exaggerated
using this system can quickly examine whether or not their stretch across both the hip and knee—a more vulnerable position
strength program is placing athletes at risk (Table 3). for injury (4).
Inadequate understanding of biomechanics can lead to hamstring By modifying sprint mechanics, along with understanding
injuries. Most coaches agree that squats and Olympic-style lifts why injuries occur, the coach can help to minimize the risk for
are an integral part of any successful program. These exercises hamstring strain. However, teaching proper mechanics are only
rely heavily on the quadriceps, gluteus maximus, and calf half of the solution. Incorporating specific exercises into an
muscle groups (7). While the hamstrings are involved, they annual strength and conditioning program is the other part of

NSCA.com
the equation. Part two of this column will review these exercises 7. Wright, GA, Delong, TH, and Gehlsen, G. Electromyographic
in detail, and provide examples on how to incorporate these activity of the hamstrings during performance of the leg curl, stiff-
exercises into practices and training sessions to help keep athletes leg deadlift, and back squat movements. The Journal of Strength
healthy and performing at a top level. and Conditioning Research 13(2): 168-174, 1999.
REFERENCES
1. Davis, DS, Ashby, PE, McCale, KL, McQuain, JA, and Wine, ABOUT THE AUTHOR
JM. The effectiveness of 3 stretching techniques on hamstring Joel Bergeron is the Director of Coaching Education for the United
flexibility using consistent stretching parameters. The Journal of States of America Track and Field (USATF) New England Chapter.
Strength and Conditioning Research 19(1): 27-32, 2005. Bergeron has previously served as the New Hampshire State
Director for the National Strength and Conditioning Association
2. Hayes, S, and Jones, MT. Alternative exercises for the glute– (NSCA), Strength and Conditioning Coordinator for the Manchester
ham bench. Strength and Conditioning Journal 22(2): 18-21, 2000. Wolves (a professional arenafootball2 team), a track and field
3. Hemba, GD. Hamstring parity. National Strength and coach and university instructor at Florida International University,
Conditioning Association Journal 7(3): 30-31, 1985. Strength and Conditioning Coordinator for Southern New
Hampshire University (SNHU) women’s basketball team, Strength
4. Ross, M. Effect of lower-extremity position and stretching
and Conditioning Coordinator for the New Hampton School men’s
on hamstring muscle flexibility. The Journal of Strength and
hockey team, and a member of the New Hampshire Governor’s
Conditioning Research 13(2): 124-129, 1999.
Council for Physical Fitness and Health. He holds a Master’s degree
5. Tortora, GJ, and Anagnostakos, NP. Principles of Anatomy and in Exercise and Sport Science with a concentration in Strength and
Physiology (6th ed.). Harper and Row: 1990. Conditioning and seven certifications. Bergeron has worked as a
6. Tyson, A. Rehab tips – Hamstring injuries: Rehabilitation and clinician at the international level, and presented at and directed
prevention. Strength and Conditioning Journal 17(3): 30-32, 1995. more than 100 different events and conferences. He is also a
published author for a variety of coaching magazines and books.
TABLE 1. COMMON STRENGTH RATIOS FOR MUSCULAR BALANCE TABLE 2. PUSHING AND PULLING EXERCISES
Knee Extension/Flexion 3:2 PUSHES PULLS

Hip Extension/Flexion 1:1 Presses Pull-ups
Plantar/Dorsi Tricep Extension Rowing Exercises
Ankle 3:1
Flexion Leg Extension Leg Curls
Squats Hip Flexion
Ankle Inversion/Eversion 1:1
Lunges Bicep Curls
Lumbar Flexion/Extension 1:1 Deadlifts
Shoulder Flexion/Extension 2:3
Elbow Flexion/Extension 1:1
TABLE 3. UNBALANCED AND PULLING FAVORED EXERCISE SELECTION

UNBALANCED PROGRAM PULLING FAVORED PROGRAM
DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3
Power Clean b Bench Press a Power Snatch b Power Clean b Incline Press a Power Snatch b
Back Squat a Pectoralis Fly a Leg Press a Bench Press a DB Row b DB Press b
Lat Pulldown b Lateral Raise a Low Lat Pull b Pull-Up b BB Glute Raise b Cable Pull b
Leg Extension a Tricep Extension a Lunge a Single Leg RDL b Inverted Row b Prone Hip Ext b
Leg Curl b Bicep Curl b Step-Up a Shoulder Press a Dips a Step-Up a
Calf Raise a Glute/Ham Raise b
Total Pushing Movements (a) - 10 Total Pushing Movements (a) - 5
Total Pulling Movements (b) - 6 Total Pulling Movements (b) - 11
Push:Pull Ratio ~ 2:1 Push:Pull Ratio ~ 1:2

IS LIVE HIGH/TRAIN LOW THE ULTIMATE ENDURANCE TRAINING MODEL?
JAMIE NESS, MS, CSCS
PURPOSE to working muscles. With greater oxygen carrying capacity,
T
he purpose of this paper is to review literature on the form an increase in VO2max and an increase in performance would
of altitude training known as “live high/train low.” Topics be expected.
that will be explored include what changes can be expected,
what dose is required, and if it preferable to other training models Little research has been done to determine what muscular
for improving performance in endurance sports such as running, adaptations occur due to altitude exposure (hypoxia). There
swimming, and cycling. is evidence to suggest that hypoxia results in greater
carbohydrate utilization and dependence, which could be
WHAT IS LIVE HIGH/TRAIN LOW detrimental to endurance performance (4). It is also likely that
Live high/train low is a training method in which athletes live anaerobic capacity increases due to increase muscle buffering
at high altitude and train at low altitude, usually with the goal capabilities, which could lead to better performances, even in the
of improving performance at sea level. The main idea is to reap absence of VO2max increases (5). Training in hypoxia, as opposed
the benefits of high altitude acclimatization while maintaining to simple exposure, may pose additional benefits or problems.
the intensity of low altitude training. The live high portion of the
method is sometimes simulated with the use of altitude tents. POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF BENEFITS OR PROBLEMS
The method used for these simulated environments is either Numerous mechanisms have been postulated to explain improved
oxygen filtration or nitrogen dilution, both of which reduce the performance in live high/train low athletes. These include
concentration of oxygen. The train low portion of the method can improvements in anaerobic capacity, muscle buffering capabilities,
be simulated by the use of supplemental oxygen (19). oxidative enzyme increases, and erythropoietic pathways (which
increases the amount of red blood cells) (10).
ALTITUDE ACCLIMATIZATION
The main adaptation from prolonged altitude exposure that is Some research suggests that the stress of hypoxia can reduce
believed to improve performance is the increase in the number of training stimuli to inadequate levels (i.e., runners training too slow
red blood cells, or more specifically, the amount of hemoglobin. to reap positive benefits) and seems to have a negative effect on
An increased red blood cell count increases oxygen carrying immune system function (14). Moreover, the effects of hypoxia in
capacity and therefore should increase the amount of oxygen the brain may influence both training intensity and physiological
delivered responses during training at altitude (14). Thus, interrupting
hypoxic exposure by training in normoxia (i.e., normal levels

NSCA COACH 2.1
of oxygen) may be a key factor in avoiding or minimizing the also showed improvements in VO2max which would be expected
negative effects that are known to occur during chronic hypoxia. with greater oxygen carrying capacity (18).
Exposure to hypoxia appears to have some positive transfer
effects on subsequent training in normoxia during and after live HYPOXIA
high/train low. The increased oxygen transport capacity of blood A study in 2006 investigated whether exposure to hypoxia in a live
allows training at higher intensity during and after the live high/ high/train low method would impair cardiovascular and autonomic
train low method in subsequent normoxia, thereby increasing adaptations to endurance training. The researchers determined
the potential to improve some neuromuscular and cardiovascular that exposure to hypoxia did interact with variables such as resting
determinants of endurance performance (14). heart rate, diastolic blood pressure, and total peripheral resistance,
which were all higher than in the control group, but changes
Other research contends that erythropoietic pathways are disappeared following a 15-day training protocol at sea level (4).
responsible for the improved performance (10). According
to this research, there are no other effects of altitude Hypoxia may induce greater oxidative stress than normoxic
acclimatization that can be manipulated independently to conditions. However, after an 18-day and 13-day live high/
improve athletic performance over a sustained period of time. train low protocol, investigators of a different study concluded
The magnitude of the response at altitude is qualitatively and that “repetitions of normoxic exercises at low intensity during
quantitatively similar to that induced by isolated manipulation endurance training seem to act as a pre-conditioning stimulus
of the red cell count (low-dose erythropoietin injection), and the for the oxidative stress induced by an acute hypoxic exposure,”
outcome is prevented if the erythropoietic process is impaired by thereby reducing the deleterious effects (11).
iron deficiency or infection (10).
EFFECTS ON PERFORMANCE
Opponents to this training method contend that a large amount of When considering what training method will best improve
error occurs when recording changes in red blood cell count and performance, it is important to consider where the performance
changes in red blood cell counts do not necessarily correlate with will take place. Since most athletes that live high, but train low, are
improved performance (7). Furthermore, increases in economy trying to improve their sea-level, or normoxic, performance, this is
have been recorded in several studies and it seems logical that where the bulk of studies take place.
hypoxia could trigger changes in cardiovascular regulation of
muscle blood flow as well as intracellular adaptations (7). As stated above, live high/train low training method is intended to
provide the benefits of altitude acclimatization, combined with the
IS LIVE HIGH/TRAIN LOW EFFECTIVE? neuromuscular benefits of intense sea-level training. In support of
To answer this question, we must look at physiological and this concept, a study of collegiate runners revealed that live high/
performance measures while comparing this mode of training train low runners improved their 5,000-m run performance while
to others. live high/train high runners did not (19). It should be noted that
both groups improved red blood cell counts and VO2max to similar
HEMOGLOBIN degrees. In the same study, the live low/train low group did not
Earlier studies (both published in 1999) on the effect of live high/ see improvements for any parameters (19).
train low showed no change in hemoglobin volume in male or
female athletes (1,2). However, these studies might not have A study of 39 competitive runners revealed that 5,000-m time trial
allowed for an adequate amount of altitude acclimatization. The performance was improved by an average of 13 s after a 4-week
subjects in these studies slept in altitude tents for up to 10 hours live high/train low protocol (9). All runners were trained together
per night (for 12 or 21 days depending on the group), but spent for six weeks before dividing into sub-groups of live high/train low,
the rest of the day at an altitude of just 600 meters (1,2). This ratio live high/train high, and a no altitude control group. Both altitude
of altitude exposure to that at sea level may have not induced the groups improved physiological measures but only the live high/
desired effects of acclimatization. train low group improved time trial performance (9). Similarly,
the study of Swiss orienteers showed an average improvement of
Contrary to those earlier studies, a more recent study in 2010 about 18 s in 5,000-m run times after following the live high/train
found increased amounts of hemoglobin, and increased 4-mM low method (18).
lactate threshold velocity in swimmers training under the live high/
train low method (12). Furthermore, a recent review of this topic Research is often criticized for not using ultra elite athletes, or in
suggests that quantities of hemoglobin may be increased by an the case of the orienteers, while their run time did improve the
average of 6.5% with sufficient altitude exposure (15). This review significance of a running time trial for orienteers is a limitation due
also revealed a 14% gap between altitude natives and other elites, to its lack of specificity to orienteering.
as well as the 35% gap between elites and the general population
(15). These numbers help put the training effect in proper A study of sub-elite runners and triathletes utilized altitude
perspective. A recent study of elite Swiss orienteers found not tents to induce live high/train low conditions. Each athlete
only increased amounts of hemoglobin and red blood cells, but completed normal training in normoxia for about 25 days, and

then performed 2-, 4-, and 8-min treadmill runs to exhaustion. (5,19). One study found a decreased leukocyte count, and the
Performance increased by about 1% when training was augmented other found depletion of secretory immunoglobulin A (5,19).
by sleeping at simulated high altitude (8). Based on this data, the
authors concluded that live high/train low is an effective method Some studies of elite runners have found large portions of that
for middle distance runners (8). population to be non-responders to live high/train low (3).
Specifically, runners that improved 5,000- or 3,000-m time
Another question to ask is whether alternative forms of this trial performance more than the average time were considered
training method produce different outcomes on performance. high responders, while runners that did not improve at all were
considered non-responders. Between the two studies, 20 of the 61
LIVE HIGH/TRAIN HIGH runners were considered non-responders (3).
A review of several different training methods states that training
in hypoxic conditions, specifically live high/train high, seems to Given the large number of runners that don’t respond to training,
limit the intensity of workouts and the authors site several along with possible immune system dysfunction, high cost, time
studies backing this claim along with data showing the time consumption, and possibility of acute altitude sickness, live high/
trial decrease (19). In another study, the authors thoroughly train low represents a more risky activity than normal sea-level
reviewed the performance outcomes of live high/train high and training (live low/train low).
found a split in the literature, with slightly more studies finding no
performance improvement (5). They concluded by acknowledging However, live high/train low has been shown to improve
the challenges of overtraining, detraining, and the effect of physiological measures and, more importantly, time trial
individual variability on the effective use of this method. performance over sea-level training (3). Live high/train low might
also have training benefits that go beyond an immediate time
As mentioned in the study of 39 competitive runners, VO2max trial performance as researchers have noted “increased oxygen
improved and red blood cell counts increased in both live transport capacity of blood allows training at higher intensity
high/train high and live high/train low groups but only the during and after training in subsequent normoxia, thereby
live high/train low group improved 5,000-m time. These increasing the potential to improve some neuromuscular and
findings support the idea that intermittent breaks from hypoxia, cardiovascular determinants of endurance performance,” (14).
as well as maintenance of training intensity, could make live
high/train low superior to live high/train high for improving Athletes must balance the risks involved with the possible benefits
sea-level performance. of live high/train low versus the live low/train low method, but if
the resources exist, it is clear that the risk could be well rewarded.
LIVE LOW/TRAIN HIGH
Live low/train high or intermittent hypoxic training involves living CAN LIVE HIGH/TRAIN LOW BE IMPROVED?
at a normal altitude while training in hypoxia via oxygen filtration Owing to impaired aerobic capacity in hypoxia, exercise intensity
or nitrogen dilution. Purported benefits of this method include has to be reduced during training at moderate altitude to reach a
increases in erythrocyte volume, muscle mitochondrial density, similar intensity compared to sea-level training. Therefore, training
capillary-to-fiber ratio, and fiber cross-sectional area (19). at altitude might be used for an increase in exercise intensity,
which might be more difficult to achieve during sea-level training.
However, reviews of the literature reveal little evidence that live In some studies, where athletes exercised with higher intensity
low/train high protocols increase the amount of hemoglobin, during altitude compared with sea-level training (although such an
improve VO2max, or improve performance (17,19). The results increase was not intended) sea-level performance improved after
are summed up in the following statement: “Collectively, live return to sea level (5).
low/train high studies have failed to yield a clear picture of this
training concept’s effects on VO2max, peak power output during Training in hypoxia is also associated “with beneficial changes in
incremental testing, or time trial performance,” (17). skeletal muscle mitochondrial density, capillary-to-fiber ratio, and
fiber cross-sectional area,” (19). Combining these adaptations with
Based on the evidence, it seems that the short duration of hypoxic a possible increase in intensity mentioned above and it becomes
exposure (far less than the minimally recommended 12 hours clear that there might be some benefit to a live high/train low +
per day), along with the intensity of training (or overtraining), train high model.
hampers performance improvements for athletes using this type
of method. A recent study of live high/train low + train high found subjects
improved VO2max and increased amount of hemoglobin after
LIVE LOW/TRAIN LOW training, but only a 1.1% improvement over a 3,000-m time
It is suspected that prolonged hypoxic exposure, combined with trial. This percent improvement does not distinguish itself from
exercise, can harm immune system function (5). This idea has been improvement in live high/train low methods. Investigators
supported by two studies of athletes living at 3,500 meters concluded that a combined approach of live high/train low + train
high results in an enhancement in the physiological capacities that
NSCA COACH 2.1
facilitate successful competitive performance compared with live REFERENCES

high/train low or train high alone (13). However, there was a lack of 1. Ashenden, MJ, Gore, CJ, Dobson, GP, and Hahn, AG. “Live
direct transfer of these physiological adaptations to improved time high, train low” does not change the total hemoglobin mass
trial performance (13). With 46% of the training being hypoxic in of male endurance athletes sleeping at a simulated altitude of
this study, it is possible that a smaller, or even a larger, portion of 3,000m for 23 nights. European Journal of Applied Physiology and
hypoxic training could have a positive impact. Occupational Physiology 80(5): 479-484, 1999.
2. Ashenden, MJ, Gore, CJ, Martin, DT, Dobson, GP, and Hahn,
Another possible way to improve upon the live high/train low
AG. Effects of a 12-day “live high, train low” camp on reticulocyte
model would be reducing the prevalence on non-responders.
production and hemoglobin mass in elite female road cyclists.
This could be achieved “by screening the erythropoietic and
European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational
training velocity response to acute altitude, either shortly after
Physiology 80(5): 472-478, 1999.
arrival at altitude or in a laboratory setting,” (3). This type of
screening could help identify athletes that could benefit from 3. Chapman, R, Stray-Gundersen, J, and Levine, BD. Individual
train high/live high as well as those better off staying at sea level. variation in response to altitude training. Journal of Applied
It could also help identify optimal training or sleeping altitudes Physiology 85(4): 1448-1456, 1998.
for individual athletes (3). 4. Cornolo, J, Fouillot, JP, Schmitt, L, Povea, C, Robach, P, and
Richalet, JP. Interactions between exposure to hypoxia and the
HOW MUCH ALTITUDE EXPOSURE IS NEEDED? training-induced autonomic adaptations in a “live high–train low”
It is unknown what dose of altitude exposure or training is needed session. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational
to induce the necessary adaptations for improved performance. Physiology 96(4): 389-396, 2006.
However, after years of research, a general recommendation is
becoming clear. A recommendation from a review paper stated 3 5. Friedmann-Bette, B. Classical altitude training. Scandinavian
to 4 weeks at an altitude of more than 2,000 meters for using the Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 18: 11-20, 2008.
live high/train high method (5). Interestingly, earlier investigators 6. Gore, CJ, Hahn, AG, Aughey, RJ, Martin, DT, Ashenden,
offered a similar recommendation, “the minimum dose to attain a MJ, Clark, SA, McKenna, MJ, et al. Live high-train low increases
hematological acclimatization effect is greater than 12 hours a day muscle buffer capacity and submaximal cycling efficiency. Acta
for at least 3 weeks at an altitude, or simulated altitude, of 2,100 – Physiologica Scandinavica 173(3): 275-286, 2001.
2,500 meters,” (14). It is possible that live high/train low sessions
7. Gore, CJ, and Hopkins, WG. Counterpoint: Positive effects of
require higher altitude than classical sessions of the same duration
intermittent hypoxia (live high-train low) on exercise performance
due to the reduced time of exposure.
are not mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume. Journal
of Applied Physiology 99(5): 2055-2057, 2005.
The authors of the most thorough review on this particular topic
recommend at least 4 weeks of at least 22 hours per day of living 8. Hinckson, EA, and Hopkins, WG. Changes in running
at 2,000 – 2,500 meters. If using simulated altitude, the authors endurance performance following intermittent altitude exposure
recommend at least 4 weeks and 12 – 16 hours per day of living at simulated with tents. European Journal of Sport Science 5(1): 15-
2,500 – 3,000 meters (20). Living at higher altitudes than those 24, 2005.
suggested could have debilitating consequences. 9. Levine, BD, and Stray-Gundersen, J. “Living high-training
low:” Effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude
CONCLUSION training on performance. Journal of Applied Physiology 83(1): 102-
Evidence suggests that live high/train low can enhance 112, 1997.
physiological and sea-level performance to a greater extent than
10. Levine, BD, and Stray-Gundersen, J. Point: Positive effects of
training methods using live high/train high, live low/train high,
intermittent hypoxia (live high-train low) on exercise performance
and live low/train low. However, before an athlete commits to
are mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume. Journal of
such a training regimen, the costs and risks should be considered.
Applied Physiology 99(5): 2053-2955, 2005.
Typically, 1% improvements can be gained after 3 – 4 weeks, but
this is not always the case. 11. Pialoux, V, Mounier, R, Brugniaux, J, Rock, E, Mazur, A,
Richalet, JP, and Fellmann, N. Thirteen days of “live high–train low”
Once individual response variability is understood to a greater does not affect pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance in elite swimmers.
degree, screenings may become more common and reliable, European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational
and live high/train low or live high/train low + train high could Physiology 106(4): 517-524, 2009.
be optimally utilized. Responders have shown as much as a 4% 12. Robertson, EY, Augrey, RJ, Anson, JM, Hopkins, WG, and Pyne,
improvement, while non-responders have shown as much as a DB. (2010). Effects of simulated and real altitude exposure in elite
1% decrement following live high/train low regimens, making swimmers. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
individual variability possibly the most important issue remaining 24(2): 487-493, 2010.
to be understood (20).

13. Robertson, EY, Saunders, PU, Pyne, DB, Gore, CJ, and Anson,
JM. Effectiveness of intermittent training in hypoxia combined ABOUT THE AUTHOR
with live high/train low. European Journal of Applied Physiology Jamie Ness first discovered an interest in altitude training in
and Occupational Physiology 110(2): 379-387, 2010. a college course in which he took part in a live high/train low
14. Rusko, H, Tikkanen, H, and Peltonen, J. Altitude and plus train high training for a short period in Colorado before his
endurance training. Journal of Sports Sciences 22(10): 928-945, upcoming track season. Since that time, Ness has coached cross
2004. country and track and field for seven years, including four at
the collegiate level. He is currently teaching in Eastern Kentucky
15. Schmidt, W, and Prommer, N. Effects of various training
University’s Exercise and Sports Science program. Ness holds a
modalities on blood volume. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and
Master of Science degree in Kinesiology and Health Promotion
Science in Sports 18: 57-69, 2008.
from the University of Kentucky and the Certified Strength and
16. Stray-Gundersen, J, Chapman, R, and Levine, BD. “Living high- Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) certification from the National
training low” altitude training improves sea-level performance in Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).
male and female elite runners. Journal of Applied Physiology 91(3):
1113-1120, 2001.
17. Vogt, M, and Hoppeler, H. Is hypoxia training good for muscles
and exercise performance? Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases
52(6): 525-533, 2010.
18. Wehrlin, JP, Zuest, P, Hallén, J, and Marti, B. Live high-train
low for 24 days increases hemoglobin mass and red cell volume
in elite endurance athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology 100(6):
1938-1945, 2005.
19. Wilber, RL. Application of altitude/hypoxic training by elite
athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 39(9): 1610-
1624, 2007.
20. Wilber, RL, Stray-Gundersen, J, and Levine, BD. Effect
of hypoxic “dose” on physiological responses and sea-level
performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 39(9):
1590-1599, 2007.

NSCA COACH 2.1
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THE IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN FOR ATHLETES
SARAH ROMOTSKY, RD, AND LESLIE BONCI, MPH, CSSD, RDN
S
trength and conditioing professionals help their athletes protein (21). Of the 10 essentials amino acids, valine, leucine, and
to optimize strength goals using two key components: isoleucine are the branched-chain amino acids, which stimulate
resistance exercise and nutritional recommendations. Protein muscle protein synthesis and help to prevent muscle breakdown
consumtion can play an important role in maximizing athletic (2,9). The following is a list of the 10 essential and 10 non-essential
performance. According to the International Food Information amino acids (21):
Council Foundation’s 2014 Food and Health Survey, the majority of
Americans agree that it is important to consume enough protein Essential Amino Acids Non-Essential Amino Acids
in their diet and that protein can help build muscle (20). Over
Isoleucine* Asparagine
half of Americans also correctly believe that protein can enhance
Leucine* Cysteine
recovery from exercise and that diets high in protein can help with
Lysine Alanine
weight loss (20). Although these statistics suggest that many
Threonine Aspartate
Americans are aware of the benefits of protein, confusion and
Tryptophan Glutamate
misperceptions on this topic may still exist. The top two reasons
Methionine Glutamine
cited as to why Americans are not consuming more protein is
Histidine Proline
because they believe they are already getting enough protein and
Valine* Glycine
because they think high-protein foods are more expensive (20).
Phenylalanine Tyrosine
Americans trying to build muscle and optimize strength
Arginine Serine
may not be consuming enough protein or consuming it at the
right times. The goal of this article is to help strength and *Branched-chain amino acids
conditioning professionals properly educate clients on how
protein can go a long way in assisting them in achieving their Protein is an important macronutrient because it plays several
health and fitness goals. roles in the body. Many are already familiar with protein’s function
in weight management, lean body mass, and muscle repair;
PROTEIN BASICS however, protein is also critical for supporting a healthy immune
There are 20 amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. system, maintaining glucose homeostasis, and optimizing bone
Ten of these amino acids are non-essential (i.e., the body can mineral density (10).
produce them) and the other 10 are essential (i.e., only obtained
through food), and without them, the body cannot synthesize new Protein amounts in the body are constantly changing, which

NSCA COACH 2.1
is why dietary protein consumption is so important (1,5). The meet the body’s protein needs. Proteins are classified as complete
amount of available free amino acids in the body can come from (i.e., containing all of the essential amino acids) or incomplete
amino acids generated from protein digestion in food, as well as (i.e., missing one or more of the essential amino acids) (2,9).
from skeletal muscle breakdown. The amino acid pool ensures a Incomplete proteins are sometimes referred to as the limiting
continuous availability of amino acids for protein synthesis and amino acids (21).
other functions. Consumption of adequate amounts of essential
amino acids is the key step in ensuring adequate amounts of Complete Incomplete
amino acids are in the free amino acid pool. If essential amino acid
Meat Legumes
consumption is insufficient, protein synthesis cannot occur.
Poultry Grains
Fish/shellfish Nuts/nut berries
HOW MUCH PROTEIN?
Eggs Seeds/seed butters
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 0.66 g of
Dairy foods Vegetables
protein per kg of bodyweight per day for adults over 18 years
Soy foods
of age (20,22). This intake has been defined by the Institute of
Medicine following their review of the available literature as the
level sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of 97 – 98% of USING PROTEIN TO BUILD MUSCLE
all healthy individuals (3). Data from the National Health and Adequate protein intake or resistance training alone can increase
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) has shown that most muscle protein synthesis, but the combination of both optimizes
Americans are meeting the RDA requirement for protein (20,22). results (13). To maintain or increase muscle, the body must be able
However, an important distinction is that the RDA is only meant to synthesize protein. Consumption of dietary protein increases
to prevent deficiency, but does not necessarily promote optimal the blood amino acid levels which leads to anabolism, or muscle
health. The current RDA recommendation may not be optimal for protein synthesis (10,13,17,18,19).
older adults and athletes, two subpopulations that may require
more protein for optimal health. Leucine is one of the essential branched-chain amino acids that
signals muscle protein synthesis. It acts as a dietary trigger
The RDA is only one context through which to examine protein to support an anabolic response in muscle tissue, while also
requirements. The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range contributing to skeletal muscle replenishment during periods of
(AMDR) may be a better choice. The AMDR defines protein food restriction. Above and beyond basic protein requirements, if
requirements as a range rather than an absolute number. The the goal is to optimize muscle protein synthesis, each meal needs
AMDR for protein for anyone over 18 years of age is 10 – 35% of to contain around 2.5 g of leucine (13,21). Leucine is prevalent in
calories consumed (3). For someone consuming 2,000 calories most proteins, but can be in limited supply in plant proteins. This
per day, this would be about 50 – 175 g of protein per day (22). means athletes may need to eat a higher quantity of plant proteins
According to NHANES data, Americans consume only about 16% in order to obtain adequate amounts of leucine. Table 4 provides
of their calories from protein, so the average person’s proportion the approximate amounts of leucine found in certain food items.
of calories from protein is actually rather low (20,22). Furthermore,
studies on satiety (the feeling of fullness between meals) have Consuming 30 g of high-quality protein at meals will typical
demonstrated that in order to achieve increased satiety, protein provide an adequate amount of the branched-chain amino acids,
should comprise about 25% of a person’s caloric intake (4). including the necessary 2.5 g of leucine. For example, a lunch
consisting of a tuna sandwich with 3 oz of tuna, lettuce, tomato,
PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS BY SPORT two slices of whole-grain bread, and an 8-oz glass of skim milk
Recommended protein intake is not “one-size-fits-all” and is based will meet the requirements for muscle protein synthesis (14). It is
on sport, age, and bodyweight. Table 1 provides basic guidelines important to remember that both plant and animal sources can
based on requirements for a general 150-lb athlete (22). contribute to the total protein content of a meal and that the 30 g
recommendation is a general guideline that will vary depending on
PROTEIN SOURCES AND QUALITY an athlete’s activity level, age, and specific needs.
There are a variety of animal-based and plant-based protein
sources available to accommodate all diets, preferences, tastes, Combining different types of protein may maximize muscle growth
and budgets. Tables 2 and 3 provide approximate amounts of and allow a longer time for muscle repair (13). Whey and soy
protein from various sources and the caloric amounts (11,12). are fast acting proteins (quickly digested) while casein is a slow
protein (slowly digested) (18). A mix of fast and slow proteins may
Many athletes inquire about what types of protein they should help promote muscle protein synthesis and prolong protein net
consume. This is a good question because the quality of the balance following resistance exercise (13,14,19). Blending protein
protein source is important for optimal effectiveness. Protein can be done by using different protein powders such as whey, soy,
quality in foods is determined by its specific amino acid casein, or through foods that comprise a variety of sources such as
composition and digestibility. Both animal-based and plant-based a stir-fry that contains beef, peanuts, and asparagus.
protein sources provide essential and non-essential amino acids to

tended to lose less lean mass (8). At 12 months, the protein group
PROTEIN AND RESISTANCE TRAINING: had greater improvements in body composition and those who
THE PERFECT COMBO consumed a diet of 30% protein lost more body fat after one year
In a fasting state, while the body is at rest, protein balance in the than those who consumed a diet of 15% protein (8).
body is negative (2). When eating, there is a shift to a positive
state, which results in protein gain. Exercising in a fasting state In addition to muscle mass preservation and accelerated body
can result in a negative protein balance. It is not until exercise fat loss, protein may also help with satiety. One short-term study
is combined with eating that the body can shift to a positive indicated that protein intake may exert a more powerful effect on
protein balance (2). satiety than either carbohydrate or fat consumption (4).
When resistance training is added, the fasting state losses TRANSLATING THE SCIENCE TO THE TABLE
are slightly reduced while the feeding state gains are slightly Protein is part of the package for health, athletic, and fitness
enhanced. If this pattern is repeated over time, lean body mass goals. Although the quantity of protein needed to optimize goals
can be increased (10). varies depending upon an athlete’s age and activity level, the
need for high-quality protein sources remains constant. There are
PROTEIN DISTRIBUTION AND TIMING a variety of protein sources available in food, which is the most
In order to optimize muscle protein synthesis and keep the body in common way to meet protein needs. However, supplements can
a positive protein balance, it is recommended to distribute protein be considered if it is necessary to augment an inadequate protein
evenly throughout the day. Evenly distributing protein over the intake. As strength and conditioning professionals, it is important
day allows for anabolism (1,19). If someone is aiming to consume to help athletes understand the benefits of protein consumption
120 g of protein per day, the ideal distribution would be to ingest and when to incorporate it into their diet.
30 g of protein at each meal and divide the remaining 30 g among
snacking occasions (9). For some, consuming 30 g of protein at each meal can be
challenging, which is why snacks and boosters to meals can be
To help maximize muscle protein synthesis, it can be helpful to helpful in meeting requirements. For these reasons, here are a
know how to “bookend” workouts with protein consumption few suggested high-protein foods that can be used for snacks
before and after. A guideline for athletes to follow would be 20 between meals or as “add-ons” to meals to increase the total
g of protein plus 35 g of carbohydrate 30 – 60 min before lifting protein content.
(e.g., 8 oz Greek yogurt and a small banana) and 20 g of protein
plus 35 g of carbohydrate within 15 – 30 min after lifting (e.g., 10-g Protein Snacks and Boosters
three slices of turkey or ham, one slice of cheese, one English • ½ cup whey protein powder
muffin, and one apple). Consuming protein with carbohydrates as • ½ cup Greek yogurt or ½ cup yogurt with 1 tbsp soy protein
described earlier will provide fuel to the working muscles before powder
exercise, and also indirectly stimulates the release of growth
hormones when consumed post lifting (2,6,16). • 2 eggs or ⅓ cup egg substitute
• 2 oz cheese
HIGH-PROTEIN DIETS AND WEIGHT LOSS • ½ commercial protein shake
Many strength and conditioning professionals have athletes who
are working towards weight loss goals in addition to fitness goals. • 10 oz low-fat milk (white or chocolate) or soy milk
Numerous studies have shown dietary protein to be a powerful • ½ sandwich with 1 ½ oz lean meat
ally in reaching weight loss goals. In one research study involving
• ¼ cup tuna salad
a 16-week diet and exercise program, subjects in the protein-only
and protein-plus-exercise groups lost more total weight and fat • 2 tbsp peanut butter
mass and tended to lose less lean mass than the carbohydrate- • 2 strips beef/turkey jerky
only and carbohydrate-plus-exercise groups (7). The researchers
concluded that as part of a reduced-calorie diet, diets higher in • Yogurt smoothies
protein may help to preserve lean body mass during weight loss, • Protein bar
with the effect magnified when an exercise component is added to
Strength and conditioning professionals are already in a position
the weight loss program.
to have a huge impact on an athlete’s health and wellness goals.
By highlighting the proven benefits of protein and by providing
Another study compared a moderate-protein diet to a
them with applicable strategies for incorporating protein into
conventional high-carbohydrate diet to understand the effects of
their diets, strength and conditioning professionals can help their
protein on body fat. At four months, subjects in the protein group
athletes maximize performance and maintain a healthy lifestyle.
had lost 22% more fat mass than the carbohydrate group and

NSCA COACH 2.1
REFERENCES 13. Reidy, PT, Walker, DK, Dickinson, JM, Gundermann, DM,
1. Atherton, PJ, Etheridge, T, Watt, PW, Wilkinson, D, Selby, A, Drummond, MJ, Timmerman, KL, et al. Protein blend ingestion
Rankin, D, Smith, K, and Rennie, MJ. Muscle full effect after oral following resistance exercise promotes human muscle protein
protein: Time-dependent concordance and discordance between synthesis. Journal of Nutrition 143(4): 410-416, 2013.
human muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. American 14. Reidy, PT, Walker, DK, Dickinson, JM, Gundermann, DM,
Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92(5): 1080-1088, 2010. Drummond, MJ, Timmerman KL, et al. Soy-dairy protein blend
2. Beelen, M, Burke, LM, Gibala, MJ, and van Loon, LJC. and whey protein ingestion after resistance exercise increases
Nutritional strategies to promote post exercise recovery. amino acid transport and transporter expression in human skeletal
International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology 116(11): 1353-1364, 2014.
20(6): 515-532, 2010. 15. Symons, TB, Sheffield-Moore, M, Wolfe, RR, and Paddon-
3. Dietary Reference Intakes: Macronutrients. Jones, D. A moderate serving of high quality protein maximally
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range. Institute stimulates skeletal muscle protein synthesis in young and
of Medicine. Retrieved 2014 from http://www.iom. elderly. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109(9):
edu/Global/News%20Announcements/~/media/ 1582-1586, 2009.
C5CD2DD7840544979A549EC47E56A02B.ashx. 16. Tang, JE, Manolakos, JT, Kujbida, GW, Lysecki, PJ, Moore,
4. Halton, TL, and Hu, FB. The effects of high protein diets on DR, and Phillips, SM. Minimal whey protein with carbohydrate
thermogenesis, satiety and weight loss: A critical review. Journal stimulates muscle protein synthesis following resistance exercise in
of American College of Nutrition 23(5): 373-385, 2004. trained young men. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism
32(6): 1132-1138, 2007.
5. Holm, L, Olesen, JL, Matsumoto, K, Doi, T, Mizuno, M, Alsted,
TJ, Mackey, A, Schwarz, P, and Kjaer, M. Protein containing nutrient 17. Tang, JE, Moore, DR, Kujbida, GW, Tarnopolsky, MA, and
supplementation following strength training enhances effect on Phillips, SM. Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein
muscle mass, strength and bone formation in post-menopausal isolate: Effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and
women. Journal of Applied Physiology 105(1): 274-281, 2008. following resistance exercise in young men. Journal of Applied
Physiology 107(3): 987-992, 2009.
6. Howarth, KR, Moreau, NA, Phillips, SM, and Gibala, MJ. Co-
ingestion of protein with carbohydrate during recovery from 18. Tipton, KD, Elliott, TA, Cree, MG, Sanford, AP, and Wolfe, RR.
endurance exercise stimulates skeletal muscle protein synthesis in Ingestion of casein and whey proteins result in muscle anabolism
humans. Journal of Applied Physiology 106(4): 1394-1402, 2009. after resistance exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise 36(12): 2073-2081, 2004.
7. Layman, DL, Evans, EM, Baum, JL, Seyler, J, Erickson, DJ, and
Boileau, RA. Dietary protein and exercise have additive effects on 19. Tipton, KD, Rasmussen, BB, Miller, SL, Wolf, SE, Owens-Stovall,
body composition during weight loss in adult women. Journal of SK, Petrini, BE, and Wolfe, RR. Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate
Nutrition 135(8): 1903-1910, 2005. ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise.
American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology, and Metabolism
8. Layman, DL, Evans, EM, Erickson, DJ, Seyler, J, Weber, J,
281(2): E197-206, 2001.
Bagshaw, D, Griel, A, Psota, T, and Kris-Etherton, P. A moderate-
protein diet produces sustained weight lost and long-term 20. United States Department of Agriculture. Dietary reference
changes in body composition and blood lipids in obese adults. intakes (DRIs): Estimated average requirements. Retrieved
Journal of Nutrition 139(3): 514-521, 2009. 2014 from http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI/DRI_Tables/
recommended_intakes_individuals.pdf.
9. Mamerow, MM, Mettler, JA, English, KL, Casperson, SL,
Arentson-Lantz, E, Sheffield-Moore, M, Layman, DL, and Paddon- 21. United States National Agricultural Library. Protein and Amino
Jones, P. Dietary protein distribution positively influences 24-h Acids. Retrieved 2014 from http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI/
muscle protein synthesis in healthy adults. Journal of Nutrition DRI_Energy/589-768.pdf.
144(6): 876-880, 2014. 22. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee College of Health Sciences
10. Phillips, SM, and van Loon, LJC. Dietary protein for athletes: – Department of Kinesiology. The Power of Protein. Presented by
From requirements to optimum adaptation. Journal of Sports Susan Kundrat. Retrieved 2014 from http://eatrightmn.org/docs/
Science 29 (suppl 1): S29-38, 2011. Kundrat%20-%20POWER%20OF%20PROTEIN%20KUNDRAT%20
FINAL%204_14.pdf.
11. Phillips, SM, Moore, DR, and Tang, JE. A critical examination
of dietary protein requirements, benefits and excesses in athletes.
International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism
17(suppl): S58-76, 2007.
12. Phillips, SM. Protein requirements and supplementation in
strength sports. Journal of Nutrition 20(7): 689-695, 2004.

Leslie Bonci is the Director of Sports Medicine Nutrition for

ABOUT THE AUTHOR the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and the Center for
Sarah Romotsky is the Associate Director of Health and Wellness
Sports Medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
at the International Food Information Council. Her responsibilities
(UPMC). She serves as the sports dietitian for the University of
include the development and implementation of strategic
Pittsburgh’s Department of Athletics, and is a nutrition consultant
communication initiatives, creation of external educational
for the Pittsburgh Steelers National Football League (NFL)
materials, leading consumer research projects, and speaking at
team, Pittsburgh Penguins National Hockey League (NHL) team,
professional conferences. Romotsky received a Bachelor of Arts
Pittsburgh Pirates Major League Baseball (MLB) team, Toronto
degree in Mass Communications from the University of California-
Blue Jays MLB team, Washington Nationals MLB team, the Kansas
Berkeley and later completed the Dietetic Program at San Francisco
City Chiefs NFL team, and Pittsburgh Ballet Theatre. Bonci also
State University. Before obtaining her Registered Dietitian (RD)
works with Olympic, high school, and master’s athletes. She was a
credentials, she managed several national advertising campaigns at
national media spokesperson for the American Dietetic Association
leading agencies and worked in marketing for a start-up company
and currently serves on the Editorial Advisory Board for “Fitness
developing functional food products. Romotsky’s experience as
Magazine.” Additionally, Bonci has her own weekly segment, “The
a dietitian includes communications, clinical nutrition, nutrition
Winning Plate,” on Pittsburgh KDKA-TV’s “Pittsburgh Today Live.”
counseling, and corporate wellness.
TABLE 1. BASIC PROTEIN GUIDELINES FOR A 150-LB ATHLETE (22)

PROTEIN DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR
TYPE OF ATHLETE
(g PER LB OF BODYWEIGHT) A 150-LB ATHLETE
Recreational 0.5 – 0.7 75 – 105 g
Endurance 0.5 – 0.8 75 – 120 g
Strength Training 0.5 – 0.8 75 – 120 g
Teenage Athlete 0.7 – 0.9 105 – 135 g
Athlete Building Mass 0.6 – 0.9 90 – 135 g
Athlete Restricting Calories 0.9 – 1.0 135 – 150 g
Maximum Usable Amount 0.9 – 1.0 135 – 150 g
TABLE 2. APPROXIMATE PROTEIN QUANTITIES FROM ANIMAL SOURCES

FOOD PROTEIN (IN GRAMS) CALORIES
Meat, poultry, or fish (cell
21 90 – 165
phone sized portion)
Canned tuna (3 oz) 21 89 – 145
Hamburger (3 oz) 21 190 – 230
Greek yogurt (4 – 6 oz) 11 – 17 60 – 90
Regular yogurt (4 – 6 oz) 5–8 80 – 110
Large eggs (2) 14 144
Cottage cheese (½ cup) 14 81 – 108
Cheese (1 slice) 7 70 – 110
Deli meat (3 slices/3 oz) 9 – 18 88 – 264

NSCA COACH 2.1
TABLE 3. APPROXIMATE PROTEIN QUANTITIES FROM PLANT SOURCES

FOOD PROTEIN (IN GRAMS) CALORIES
Quinoa (1 cup) 8 222
Whole wheat toast (2 slices) 6 200

Broccoli (1 cup) 3.7 55
Brown rice (1 cup) 5 216
Black beans (½ cup) 7 105
Lentils (½ cup) 12.5 161
Tofu (6 oz) 16.8 155
Hummus (¼ cup) 4.4 93
Edamame (½ cup) 16.6 188
Nuts (1 oz) 4.3 – 6.7 164
Veggie burger 10 110
Soy sausage 15 120
Peanut butter (2 tbsp) 8 188
TABLE 4. APPROXIMATE AMOUNTS OF LEUCINE IN FOODS

FOOD LEUCINE (IN GRAMS)
Greek yogurt (4 oz) 2.5
Beef (3 oz) 2.15
Chicken (3 oz) 2.0
Tuna (3 oz) 1.75
Salami (3 oz) 1.45
Soy protein powder (20 g) 1.4
Milk (8 oz) 0.85
Peanuts (⅓ cup) 0.75
Lentils (½ cup) 0.65
Large egg (1) 0.6
Almonds (⅓ cup) 0.4
Asparagus (½ cup) 0.1

MAINTAIN TRAINING WHILE TRAVELING WITH DUMBBELLS: PERSONAL INSIGHT
ALLEN HEDRICK, MA, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA
I
train on a regular basis. I lift four days per week (because I love Another way to make a dumbbell workout more challenging,
to) and I perform aerobic training twice per week (because I without increasing the weight, is to perform compound exercises,
know I should). Because I take my training seriously, the last which is where two or more movements of the same muscle
thing I want to do is miss training days when I travel. This also group are performed in succession. Compound training is
applies to the athletes I train. Traveling can create problems for somewhat common. For example, an athlete may perform a
continued training. Fortunately, with some minor adaptations, I power clean to a front squat or a squat to a power jerk. Similar
can continue to train myself and my athletes in most situations compound exercises can be performed when training with
simply by adjusting workouts from being centered on the use dumbbells, which can be very challenging because of the large
of a barbell to designing workouts based on using dumbbells. amount of muscular involvement.
Dumbbells can provide a beneficial alternative during travel when
barbells, bumpers, racks, and platforms are scarce. A similar approach can be taken by incorporating supersets, which
is where two or more movements of different muscle groups are
Most hotels and resorts have dumbbells in their fitness facilities. performed in succession. As an example, an athlete could perform
Although using dumbbells in such a situation is not likely to be as a set of the dumbbell fly exercise and then move straight into
beneficial as training in a primary facility with lots of equipment, it bent-over dumbbell lateral raises. Another example includes the
is still a lot better than doing nothing. dumbbell bench press into the bent-over dumbbell row. Using
this approach can increase the overload provided to the working
One benefit of using dumbbells is that it is possible to perform muscles and can be a beneficial training tool while traveling.
all of the weightlifting movements with dumbbells by making a
few minor adjustments to technique. As a result, if the training Performing a series of 8 – 12 dumbbell exercises with little to
emphasis is performance of the Olympic-style lifts, then with a few no rest will provide a challenging workout. Circuit training using
slight modifications, they can be performed with a barbell. While supersets can be planned to alternate the muscle groups being
this is not a perfect solution, it is better than no training at all. trained (e.g., dumbbell lunges to dumbbell bench presses) or using
compound training by working the same muscle groups on back-
If the training emphasis is built around lifts like squats, lunges, to-back exercises (e.g., dumbbell lunges to dumbbell squats).
bench presses, shoulder presses, and bent-over rows, then it
should be easy to perform these lifts with dumbbells as well. The There are a variety of methods that can be used to continue to
transition from performing these lifts from barbells to dumbbells train while traveling, even when equipment is limited. While
is relatively seamless. Many athletes may already be these alternative training methods may not provide the desired
supplementing their training program with some of these training stimulus typically accomplished in a full training facility,
dumbbell exercises. dumbbell training can provide a way to avoid missed training days
while traveling.
When I am on the road the range of weights available for
dumbbells may be limited. This can be problematic, but with ABOUT THE AUTHOR
some small adjustments this situation can be overcome. For Allen Hedrick is the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach at
example, if the available dumbbells are not as heavy as desired Colorado State University-Pueblo, in Pueblo, CO. Previously,
to perform the bench press, the athlete can adjust by performing Hedrick has been the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach
incline press. Similarly, if an athlete needs dumbbells that are at the United States Air Force Academy, the National Strength
heavier than what is available to perform dumbbell squats, and Conditioning Association (NSCA), and the United States
single-leg squats can be an effective alternative. Olympic Training Center. Prior to that, he worked as a graduate
assistant while pursuing his Master’s degree at Fresno State
Another way to increase the intensity without increasing the University. Hedrick was named the NSCA’s Collegiate Strength and
weight is to simply increase the number of repetitions and Conditioning Coach of the Year in 2003. Frequently published in
decrease the rest time between sets. For example, instead of various journals related to strength and conditioning, Hedrick
performing 6 – 8 repetitions with 2 min of rest between sets, a has authored books on football and dumbbell training, written
viable adjustment would be to perform 12 – 15 repetitions with 1 chapters in three textbooks related to strength and conditioning,
min of rest between sets. Another adjustment that can be made and has spoken at numerous conferences and clinics both
is to decrease the movement speed during a lift, which will result nationally and internationally.
in increased time that the muscle is under tension. For instance,
if an athlete typically performs a lift in 2 s, then increasing the
time to 4 – 5 s is an option. These simple adjustments may cause
different adaptations but will still have more benefit than not
training entirely.

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3
NECK TRAINING FOR CONTACT SPORTS—CONCUSSION PREVENTION
BRIAN JONES, PHD, CSCS, AND SEAN KRATCHMAN
C
ontact sports, such as football, rugby, hockey, wrestling, for the neck musculature (1,3). While strength and conditioning
and boxing, are very popular sports to play and watch. professionals have little control when it comes to rule changes
However, the hard tackles, big throws, and knockout or equipment modifications and requirements, they can help
punches can exact a toll on the athletes. The repeated head to prevent these injuries by incorporating neck training into
impacts from these sports can lead to various brain injuries, from an athlete’s training routine. There is still no consensus among
relatively mild concussions to life-threatening complications (8). researchers on whether neck training actually reduces concussion
Traumatic head injuries are not the most common injury in contact risk; however, there is evidence that should encourage strength
sports, but they can be among the most serious. A recent review and conditioning coaches to implement neck exercises into
found that the incidence of concussion in sport ranged from 0.1 their programs (1,3).
– 21.5 per 1,000 athletic exposures (2). The low end of this range
represented non-contact sports while the higher rates were found Studies have found correlations between concussions and
in contact sports. Coaches, physicians, therapists, and trainers neck girth and strength, both positively and negatively (3,9).
continue to search for ways to make sports safer for athletes and Research has found that women, who have significantly weaker
one of their primary goals is to reduce the incidence and severity necks than the averages found in the study, often suffer from a
of head injuries. disproportionate amount of sports concussions (5). It is a common
myth among coaches that basic heavy lifting routines will develop
Concussions are the most common type of traumatic brain injury neck strength. This myth was shown to be inaccurate by a study
in sports (1). In simple terms, concussions result from blows to where individuals that performed deadlifts and shrugs in their
the head that cause the brain to have an impact with the inside programs actually had less neck strength in comparison to those
of the skull. This can result from a front or rear impact but is also who performed neck exercises such as head extension exercises
associated with lateral impacts resulting in rapid rotation, and may (4). This finding indicates that specific neck training is essential for
often be the result of the brain bouncing off the other side of the increasing neck strength (3,4,9,10).
skull as well. Symptoms may include but are not limited to loss of
consciousness, headache, nausea, confusion, memory alterations, TRAINING EXERCISES
dizziness, and emotional or behavioral changes (2,8). A number of different neck training exercises are available for
strength and conditioning coaches. One is the plate-loaded
Strategies for primary prevention include rule changes, protective four-way neck machine, which is available from several different
equipment modifications and requirements, and training programs manufacturers and most of them operate similarly. The seat or the

NSCA COACH 2.1
neck pad usually rotates to allow for flexion and extension in the FIGURE 2. FLEXION – FINISH
sagittal plane and lateral flexion in the frontal plane. A four-way
neck machine can be very effective; however, they can also be
very cost-prohibitive for some budgets. Another potential issue
is that they often take up a considerable amount of space in a
training facility, which is often not ideal for small areas. Machines
also have limitations in that they do not allow for training in the
transverse plane or for rotational strength.
Other methods of neck training include head harnesses or

modified helmets that hold or allow weight plates to hang from
them. Head harnesses are less expensive and portable, but
using them for exercises other than flexion and extension can
be awkward. Modified helmets typically require custom building,
which may not be accessible to many coaches, plus they lack the
ability to allow for rotational training.
FIGURE 3. EXTENSION – START
Possibly, the most productive and cost-effective training is
manual partner resistance. Using this method requires nothing
more than a towel and a partner, and it can be used to train any
neck movement, including rotation. Manual resistance has a
long history in wrestling where the neck is used extensively for
bridging and must be protected against impact from throws
and takedowns (10).
MANUAL PARTNER-BASED NECK EXERCISES (FIGURES 1 – 8)

Each of these exercises can be performed by using a towel. Wrap
the towel around the athlete’s head, making sure not to cover both
the nose and mouth. The athlete should begin in the end range
position and the partner should provide resistance through the
range of motion. Both the concentric and eccentric phases can be
trained in this fashion. During the concentric portion, the athlete
should move against the resistance provided by the partner, and FIGURE 4. EXTENSION – FINISH
during the eccentric, allow the partner to move the head while
exerting force against it. Isometric training is also an option
by simply resisting the pull for 10 – 15 s. Figures 1 – 8 provide
examples of flexion and extension, as well as rotation from
each position.
FIGURE 1. FLEXION – START

NECK TRAINING FOR CONTACT SPORTS—CONCUSSION PREVENTION
FIGURE 5. EXTENSION ROTATION – START FIGURE 8. FLEXION ROTATION – FINISH
FIGURE 6. EXTENSION ROTATION – FINISH PROGRAMMING

Based on the research, the recommendation for general
improvements in strength from neck training start with one session
per week of 1 – 3 sets of 8 – 12 repetitions of each exercise (6,7).
It is also recommended to base the initial volume and intensity
on the level of the athlete, and build up gradually as strength and
endurance increase. It may be useful to include neck work after
the warm-up and split up the different exercises throughout the
training week. Additionally, including both dynamic and isometric
work may be most desirable in helping to prevent injury. A week-
long example program is shown in Table 1.
It is important to make sure that the partner understands the

proper amount of resistance to apply to the athlete to prevent
injury and promote efficiency. Sufficient resistance should be
applied to make the repetitions difficult, while still allowing for
FIGURE 7. FLEXION ROTATION – START proper technique. Strength and conditioning coaches should
watch for and correct any compensation with the trunk muscles,
and make sure that the athlete isolates the neck for these
exercises. Activation of the abdominals or back muscles in order to
complete a repetition is a sign that resistance on the neck should
be reduced. Teaching athletes proper form and instructing them
to provide feedback to their partner can help in maintaining the
appropriate intensity. It may be useful to pair the same athletes
each time to allow them to become accustomed to each other.

NSCA COACH 2.1
REFERENCES 8. Powell, JW. Cerebral concussion: Causes, effects, and risks in

1. Benson, BW, Mcintosh AS, Maddocks, D, Herring, SA, Raftery, sports. Journal of Athletic Training 36(3): 307-311, 2001.
M, and Dvořák, J. What are the most effective risk-reduction 9. Schmidt, JD, Guskiewics, KM, Blackburn, T, Mihalik, JP,
strategies in sport concussion? British Journal of Sports Medicine Siegmund, GP, and Marshall, SW. The influence of cervical muscle
47(5): 321-326, 2013. characteristics on head impact biomechanics in football. American
2. Clay, MB, Glover, KL, and Lowe, DT. Epidemiology of Journal of Sports Medicine 42(9): 2056-2066, 2014.
concussion in sport: A literature review. Journal of Chiropractic 10. Ylinen, JJ, Julin, M, Rezasoltani, A, Virtapohja, H, Kautianen, H,
Medicine 12(4): 230-251, 2013. Karila, T, and Mälkiä, E. Effect of training in Greco-Roman wrestling
3. Collins, CL, Fletcher, EN, Fields, SK, Klurchurosky, L, on neck strength at the elite level. The Journal of Strength and
Rohrkemper, MK, Comstock, RD, and Cantu, RC. Neck strength: Conditioning Research 17(4): 755-759, 2003.
A protective factor reducing risk for concussion in high school
sports. The Journal of Primary Prevention 35(5): 309-319, 2014. ABOUT THE AUTHOR
4. Conley, MS, Stone, MH, Nimmons, M, and Dudley, GA. Brian Jones is an Assistant Professor of Exercise Science in the
Specificity of resistance training responses in neck muscle Kinesiology and Health Studies Department at Georgetown College
size and strength. European Journal of Applied Physiology and in Kentucky. He has worked as a strength coach for several different
Occupational Physiology 75(5): 443-448, 1997. Division I athletic teams at the University of Kentucky and has
strength coaching experience with high school and professional
5. Dick, RW. Is there a gender difference in concussion incidence
athletes. Jones has authored three books, two book chapters, and
and outcomes? British Journal of Sports Medicine 43(suppl 1): 46-
numerous articles on strength training, supplementation, and other
50, 2009.
exercise science topics. Jones has served as the National Strength
6. Leggett, SH, Graves, JE, Pollock, ML, Shank, M, Carpenter, DM, and Conditioning Association (NSCA) State Director for Kentucky
Holmes, B, and Fulton, M. Quantitative assessment and training of and currently sits on the advisory boards for Kentucky and the
isometric cervical extension strength. American Journal of Sports Great Lakes Region. He also is the owner and Head Coach of
Medicine 19(6): 653-659, 1991. Valhalla Academy, a Brazilian jiu-jitsu school in Frankfort, KY.
7. Mansell, J, Tierney, RT, Siltner, MR, Swanik, KA, and Stearne, D.
Resistance training and head-neck segment dynamic stabilization Sean Kratchman is currently in his senior year of undergraduate
in male and female collegiate soccer players. Journal of Athletic studies at Georgetown College, where he is pursuing a degree in
Training 40(4): 310-319, 2005. exercise science. He played football at Georgetown College for
four years and was a 2014 National Association of Intercollegiate
Athletics (NAIA) Champion of Character. Upon graduation,
Kratchman plans to attend Eastern Kentucky University to attain his
Master of Arts degree in Occupational Therapy.
TABLE 1. WEEK-LONG SAMPLE NECK TRAINING PROGRAM
MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY
Warm-up Warm-up Rest day Warm-up Warm-up
Neck flexion Neck Neck extension Neck flexion – isometric

(2 x 8 – 12 reps) extension – isometric (2 x 8 – 12 reps) (3 x 5 – 10 s holds)
(3 x 5 – 10 s holds)
Neck flexion rotation Neck extension rotation Neck flexion
(2 x 8 – 12 reps Neck extension (2 x 8 – 12 reps rotation – isometric
right and left) rotation – isometric right and left) (3 x 5 – 10 s holds)
(3 x 5 – 10 s holds)
Lower body strength/ Lower body strength/ Upper body strength/
power training Upper body strength/ power training power training
power training

CATCH-22—WHY FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS ARE SO IMPORTANT
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW
T
he purpose of this article is to highlight the 22 fundamental 4. Kicking
motor skills and offer practical suggestions for implementing 5. Striking
fundamental motor skill training into an activity plan 6. Throwing (Figure 6)
specifically designed for youth (3). Training fundamental motor
skills leads to motor skill competence and self-efficacy, which have COMBINING FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS
been shown to improve health-fitness outcomes, athleticism, and In many sports and physical activities, it is clear that it is important
physical literacy across the lifespan (7,9,10). to not only develop all 22 fundamental motor skills, but also
combine them effectively in a variety of settings. For example,
The three domains of learning include the psychomotor domain the sport of soccer requires more than just running or kicking
(physical), the cognitive domain (thinking), and the affective skills alone; it requires a combination of running, kicking, turning,
domain (feeling) (2). It is clear to see that movement is an integral stopping, twisting, bending, walking, and throwing.
part of the learning process. The 22 fundamental motor skills are
separated into three categories: body awareness, locomotor, and CATCH-22
object control (3). When there is a lack of fundamental motor skills, it affects athletic
and physical performance. According to Canadian Sport for Life,
BODY AWARENESS when youth are not coached consistently in the fundamental
Body awareness skills focus on the ability to control body motor skills, they can be put at a disadvantage in sports and
movements in motion. The nine body awareness fundamental physical activities that require those fundamental motor skills (1).
motor skills are: For example, if a youth is not effective at the object control skill
1. Rolling of throwing, they are not likely to participate in sports or activities
2. Bending such as baseball, softball, bowling, soccer, football, or rugby. This
3. Climbing is where the catch-22 scenario comes into play because if they
4. Landing (Figure 1) are not inclined to participate in throwing-related sports, they
will likely never develop throwing skills. Table 2 provides some
5. Static and dynamic balancing
examples of catch-22 scenarios.
6. Stopping (Figure 2)
7. Stretching PHYSICAL QUALITIES
8. Turning The fundamental motor skills should be the focus of physical
9. Twisting development programs for early youth, and then introduced to
more sport-specific physical qualities at the onset of puberty,
LOCOMOTOR where the fundamental motor skills can be tested and applied
Locomotor skills are most often associated with successful in scenarios that are more competitive. According to the Youth
movement, especially in sports (i.e., athleticism) (4). The seven Physical Development (YPD) Model, nine main physical qualities
locomotor fundamental motor skills are: should be developed through childhood (6). The nine physical
1. Crawling qualities are:
2. Dodging (Figure 3) 1. Fundamental movement skills (FMS)
3. Galloping 2. Sport-specific skills (SSS)
4. Hopping 3. Mobility
5. Running (Figure 4) 4. Agility
6. Skipping 5. Speed
7. Walking 6. Power
7. Strength
OBJECT CONTROL 8. Hypertrophy
In addition to the fundamental need of managing the body in 9. Endurance and metabolic conditioning (MC)
space and in motion, it is also necessary to manage how the body
connects with external objects, such as balls, bats, clubs, racquets,
etc. The six object control fundamental motor skills are:
1. Bouncing (Figure 5)
2. Catching
3. Dribbling

NSCA.com
COACHING YOUNG ATHLETES 5. Knowles, M. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston,
For aspiring young athletes, the emphasis should remain on TX: Gulf Publishing Co.; 1973.
the practice of all fundamental motor skills. Ideally, the strength 6. Lloyd, R, and Oliver, J. The youth physical development
and conditioning professional should work to develop training model: A new approach to long-term athletic development.
programs that support the development of all 22 fundamental Strength and Conditioning Journal 34(3): 61-70, 2012.
motor skills, while also developing all nine physical qualities.
7. Meadors, L. Practical application for long-term athletic
This can be done with exercises, sports, games, and play.
development. National Strength and Conditioning Assocation
Table 1 provides a sample layout that may be a useful guideline
website. Retrieved November 28, 2014 from http://nsca.com/
for youth programming.
Education/Articles/Practical-Application-for-Long-Term-Athletic-
Development/.
Making it fun by mixing in games and competitions can be a great
way to keep youth interested while developing all 22 fundamental 8. Pangrazi, R, and Bieghle, A. Dynamic Physical Education for
motor skills. An almost endless matrix of possibilities exists Elementary School Children. (16th ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn and
to actively engage youth in purposeful movement to increase Bacon.
fundamental motor skill competence, fitness, and athleticism. 9. Stodden, D, Gao, Z, Goodway, J, and Langendorfer, S.
Dynamic relationships between motor skill competence and health
REFERENCES related fitness in youth. Pediatric Exercise Science 26(3): 231-241,
1. Canadian Sport for Life. More about fundamental skills. 2014.
Retrieved November 28, 2014 from http://canadiansportforlife.ca/
physical-literacy/more-about-fundamental-skills. 10. Whitehead, M. The concept of physical literacy. European
Journal of Physical Education 6(2): 127-138, 2001.
2. Clemson University. Bloom’s taxonomy action verbs. Accessed
November 28, 2014 from http://www.clemson.edu/assessment/
assessmentpractices/referencematerials/documents/Blooms%20 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Taxonomy%20Action%20Verbs.pdf. Rick Howard helped start the National Strength and Conditioning
3. Council for the Curriculum Examinations and Assessments. Association (NSCA) Youth Special Interest Group (SIG) and served
Developing fundamental movement skills. 1996. Retrieved this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on
November 28, 2014 from http://www.nicurriculum.org.uk/docs/ the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial
foundation_stage/areas_of_learning/physical_development/ Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard
FMS_Intro_Booklet.pdf. is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and
coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical
4. Gambetta, V. Athleticism. Retrieved November 28, 2014 activity and sports participation.
from http://www.performbetter.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/
PBOnePieceView?storeId=10151&catalogId=10751&pagename=318.
TABLE 1. SAMPLE TRAINING PROGRAM TO DEVELOP FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS AND PHYSICAL QUALITIES (6,8)
FUNDAMENTAL
SPORT ACTIVITIES GAME PHYSICAL QUALITIES
MOTOR SKILLS
FMS, agility, SSS, and
DAY 1 Kicking and catching Short-sided soccer Multi-ball soccer
endurance and MC
FMS, speed, agility, mobility,
DAY 2 Running and dodging Flag football Squad tag
SSS, and endurance and MC
FMS, speed, strength, SSS,
DAY 3 Rolling and turning Gymnastic tumbling Wheelbarrow relay
and endurance and MC
DAY 4 Dribbling and bouncing Dribbling with each hand 5-pass basketball FMS and SSS

CATCH-22—WHY FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS ARE SO IMPORTANT
TABLE 2. CATCH-22 SCENARIOS FOR YOUTH DEVELOPMENT (1)

Soccer
Basketball
Volleyball
Track and field
Those who cannot: Run Are less likely to participate in:
Squash
Badminton
Rugby
Tennis
Baseball
Softball
Bowling
Those who cannot: Throw Are less likely to participate in:
Soccer
Football
Rugby
Swimming
Diving
Water polo
Those who cannot: Swim Are less likely to participate in: Scuba
Kayaking
Sailing
Surfing
FIGURE 1. LANDING FIGURE 2. STOPPING

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FIGURE 3. DODGING FIGURE 4. RUNNING
FIGURE 5. BOUNCING FIGURE 6. THROWING

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information that is research-based and

Copyright 2015 by the National

Disclaimer: The statements and

Tai Tran, MS, CSCS,*D

2 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

04 WHAT IS THE CATCH? CLARIFYING WEIGHTLIFTING EXERCISES AND TERMINOLOGY

12 DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMOTOR ABILITIES FOR SOCCER

18 HAMSTRING TRAINING FOR INJURY PREVENTION—PART I

20 IS LIVE HIGH/TRAIN LOW THE ULTIMATE ENDURANCE TRAINING MODEL?

26 THE IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN FOR ATHLETES

32 MAINTAIN TRAINING WHILE TRAVELING WITH DUMBBELLS: PERSONAL INSIGHT

34 NECK TRAINING FOR CONTACT SPORTS­—CONCUSSION PREVENTION

38 CATCH-22—WHY FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS ARE SO IMPORTANT

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 3

4 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

FIGURE 1. POWER POSITION FOR SNATCH MOVEMENTS

FIGURE 2. POWER POSITION FOR CLEAN MOVEMENTS

FIGURE 5. MID-THIGH POSITION FOR CLEAN

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 5

FIGURE 11. BELOW KNEE POSITION FOR SNATCH

6 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

FIGURE 13. SNATCH MOVEMENTS FROM THE FLOOR

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 7

FIGURE 16. SNATCH RECEIVING POSITION CONCLUSION

A consistent use of terms is vital to understand training programs

FIGURE 17. POWER CLEAN RECEIVING POSITION

FIGURE 18. CLEAN RECEIVING POSITION

8 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 9

TABLE 1. TERMINOLOGY FOR STARTING AND FINISHING POSITIONS

POWER POSITION POWER SNATCH Power Position Power Position

POWER POSITION SNATCH Power Position Bottom of Overhead Squat

POWER POSITION POWER CLEAN Power Position Power Position

POWER POSITION CLEAN Power Position Bottom of Front Squat

POWER SNATCH From floor Power Position

POWER CLEAN From floor Power Position

SNATCH From floor Bottom of Overhead Squat

CLEAN From floor Bottom of Front Squat

10 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 11

FARZAD JALILVAND, MS, CSCS, RSCC, USAW

12 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 13

14 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 15

TABLE 1. GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING BIOMOTOR SKILLS FOR SOCCER (6,15,24,25)

↑Eccentric ↑Jumping Back squats

16 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

FOR THOSE WHO TRAIN

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 17

JOEL BERGERON, MS, CSCS,*D, USATF-2

18 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

Knee Extension/Flexion 3:2 PUSHES PULLS

TABLE 3. UNBALANCED AND PULLING FAVORED EXERCISE SELECTION

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 19

JAMIE NESS, MS, CSCS

PURPOSE to working muscles. With greater oxygen carrying capacity,

20 NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 21

facilitate successful competitive performance compared with live REFERENCES

NSCA COACH 2.1 | NSCA.COM 23

34 NECK TRAINING FOR CONTACT SPORTS—CONCUSSION PREVENTION

ALLEN HEDRICK, MA, CSCS,D, RSCCD, FNSCA