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LECTURE NOTES
VOLUME V
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
PROPAGATION
(ver1.2)
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4 SATELLITE
IONOSPHERE
1 DIRECT
3 5 2 REFLECTED
3 TROPOSCATTER
1
4 IONOSPHERIC HOP
2 5 SATELLITE RELAY
6 GROUND WAVE
TRANSMITTER 6 EARTH
RECEIVER
1. direct path or "line of sight" (most radars; SHF links from ground to satellites)
RX
TX o
o
SURFACE
2. direct plus earth reflections or "multipath" (UHF broadcast; ground-to-air and air-
to-air communications)
TX o
o RX
SURFACE
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TX o RX
o
SURFACE
5. ionospheric hop (MF and HF broadcast and communications)
F-LAYER OF
IONOSPHERE
TX E-LAYER OF
o o RX IONOSPHERE
SURFACE
(Note: this is not the same as ionospheric hopping. In this case the ionosphere and
earth's surface act like a parallel plate waveguide.)
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7. terrain diffraction
TX o RX
o
MOUNTAIN
TX o o
SURFACE RX
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VLF and LF Waveguide mode between Earth and D-layer; ground wave at short
(10 to 200 kHz) distances
LF to MF Transition between ground wave and mode predominance and sky
(200 kHz to 2 MHz) wave (ionospheric hops). Sky wave especially pronounced at night.
HF Ionospheric hops. Very long distance communications with low power
(2 MHz to 30 MHz) and simple antennas. The “short wave” band.
VHF With low power and small antennas, primarily for local use using direct
(30 MHz to 100 MHz) or direct-plus-Earth-reflected propagation; ducting can greatly increase
this range. With large antennas and high power, ionospheric scatter
communications.
UHF Direct: early-warning radars, aircraft-to satellite and satellite-to-
(80 MHz to 500 MHz) satellite communications. Direct-plus-Earth-reflected: air-to-ground
communications, local television. Tropospheric scattering: when large
highly directional antennas and high power are used.
SHF Direct: most radars, satellite communications. Tropospheric refraction
(500 MHz to 10 GHz) and terrain diffraction become important in microwave links and in
satellite communication, at low altitudes.
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Gain is proportional to the square of the electric field intensity. For example, if Gto is
the gain of the transmit antenna in the direction of the maximum (θ = 0 ), then
2
Gt (θ ) = Gto Et norm (θ ) ≡ Gto f t (θ ) 2
where Et norm is the normalized electric field intensity. Similarly for the receive antenna
with its maximum gain in the direction θ ′ = 0
2
Gr (θ ′) = Gro E rnorm (θ ′) ≡ Gro f r (θ ′) 2
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− jkR o
e &1 + Γ f t (θ B ) f r (θ D ) e − jkΔR #
= f t (θ A ) f r (θ C )
%
4π Ro $ f t (θ A ) f r (θ C ) !"
The quantity in the square brackets is the path-gain factor (PGF) or pattern-propagation
factor (PPF). It relates the total field at the receiver to that of free space and takes on
values 0 ≤ F ≤ 2 .
• If F = 0 then the direct and reflected rays cancel (destructive interference)
• If F = 2 the two waves add (constructive interference)
Note that if the transmitter and receiver are at approximately the same heights, close to
the ground, and the antennas are pointed at each other, then d >> ht , hr and
Gt (θ A ) ≈ Gt (θ B )
Gr (θ C ) ≈ Gr (θ D )
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An approximate expression for the path difference is obtained from a series expansion:
2 2
1 ( hr − ht ) 2
Ro = d + ( hr − ht ) ≈ d +
2 d
2 2
1 ( ht + hr ) 2
R1 + R2 = d + ( ht + hr ) ≈ d +
2 d
Therefore,
2hr ht
ΔR ≈
d
and
| F |= 1 −e − jk 2 hr ht / d = e jkh r ht / d e − jkhr ht / d − e jkhr ht / d = 2 sin (khr ht / d )
( )
The received power depends on the square of the path gain factor
2
2 2 & kht hr # & kht hr #
Pr ∝ | F | = 4 sin $ ! ≈ 4$ !
% d " % d "
The last approximation is based on hr , ht << d and Γ ≈ -1.
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ΔR = 2ht sin ψ
ψ
ht
ψ ψ
If the antenna is pointed at the horizon (i.e., its maximum is parallel to the ground) then
ψ ≈ θ A.
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60
d o = 2000 m
50
ht = 100 λ
40
30
20
10
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-5
-10
-20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
RECEIVER HEIGHT, hr (m)
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Multipath Example
A radar antenna is mounted on a 5 m mast and tracks a point target at 4 km. The target is 2 m
above the surface and the wavelength is 0.2 m. (a) Find the location of the reflection point on
the x axis and the grazing angle ψ . (b) Write an expression for the one way path gain factor
F when a reflected wave is present. Assume a reflection coefficient of Γ ≈ −1 .
(b) The restrictions on the heights and
5m
distance are satisfied for the following
2m formula
ψ ψ
x & kh h # & 2π ( 2)(5) #
x=0 x=4 km F = 2 sin$ t r ! = 2 sin$ !
Reflection % d " % ( 0. 2 )( 4000 "
Point
= ( 2)(0.785) = 0.157
(a) Denote the location of the reflection
point by x r and use similar triangles 2
The received power varies as F , thus
5 2
tanψ = = 2
x r 4000 − x r 10 log F
( ) = −16.1 dB
x r = 2.86 km The received power is 16.d dB below the
ψ = tan -1 (5 / 2860) = 0.1! free space value
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SURFACE SURFACE
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(ε r − jχ ) sinψ − (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ
− Γ|| ≡ RV =
(ε r − jχ ) sinψ + (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ
sinψ − (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ
Γ⊥ ≡ RH =
sinψ + (ε r − jχ ) − cos 2 ψ
For vertical polarization the phenomenon of total reflection can occur. This yields a
surface guided wave called a ground wave. From Snell’s law, assuming µ r = 1 for the
Earth,
sin θ i
sin θ i = sin θ r = (ε r − jχ ) µ r sin θ t ! sin θ t =
µ r =1 ε r − jχ
π
Let θ t be complex, θ t = + jθ , where θ is real.
2
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jη sinh θ + ηo cosθ i
Γ|| ≡ − RV =
jη sinh θ − ηo cosθ i
µo
where η = . Note that Γ|| = 1 and therefore all of the power flow is along
ε o (ε r − jχ )
the surface. The wave decays exponentially with distance into the Earth.
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• 5λ plate
• 15 degree grazing angle
• TM (vertical) polarization
• the total field is plotted (incident plus scattered)
• surface waves will follow curved surfaces if the radius of curvature >> λ
INCIDENT WAVE
(75 DEGREES OFF
OF NORMAL)
CONDUCTING
PLATE
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EARTH STANDARD
RADIUS, Re CONDITIONS:
4
Re′ ≈ Re
3
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SURFACE
Break up the atmosphere into thin horizontal layers. Snell’s law must hold at the
boundary between each layer, ε ( h ) sin[θ ( h )] = ε o sinθ o
h
h3 ! θ (h ) n (h3 )
h2 θ2 n (h2 )
h1 θ1 n (h1 )
THIN LAYER IN WHICH
θo n ≈ CONSTANT
SURFACE
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Re′ = κRe is the effective (equivalent) Earth radius. If Re′ is used as the Earth radius then
rays can be drawn as straight lines. This is the radius that would produce the same
geometrical relationship between the source of the ray and the receiver near the Earth’s
surface, assuming a constant index of refraction. The restrictions on the model are:
Under standard (normal) atmospheric conditions, κ ≈ 4 / 3 . That is, the radius of the
&4#
Earth is approximately Re′ = $ !6378 km = 8504 km . This is commonly referred to as
% 3"
“the four-thirds Earth approximation.”
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n =1
TRANSMITTER
hr
ht
REFLECTING SURFACE
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d
dr RX
dt
TX
hr
R2
ht R1 nth FRESNEL ZONE
REFLECTION POINT
• If n is even the two paths are out of phase and the received signal is a minimum
• If n is odd the two paths are in phase and the received signal is a maximum
Because the LOS is nearly horizontal Ro ≈ d and therefore Ro = d t + d r ≈ d . For the nth
Fresnel zone R1 + R2 = d + nλ / 2 .
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Diffraction (1)
ht SHARP
OBSTACLE hr
d
Smooth sphere diffraction
! = CLEARANCE DISTANCE ! = 0, SHADOW
!>0
BOUNDARY
!<0
BULGE hr
ht SMOOTH
CONDUCTOR
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Diffraction (2)
E tot
A plot of shows that at 0.6 F1 the free space (direct path) value is obtained.
Edir
SHADOW BOUNDARY
! 0
E
!
Edir
FREE SPACE
in dB FIELD VALUE
-5
-6
!<0 !>0
-10
0 0.6 F1
CLEARANCE DISTANCE, ! > 0
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The geometry is shown below (distorted The maximum bulge occurs at the midpoint.
scale). The bulge factor (in feet) is given d ≈ dt + dr
dd
approximately by b = t r , where d t and (15)(15)
1.5κ bmax = = 112.5 ft
d r are in miles. (1.5)( 4 / 3)
nd t d r
Fn = 72.1 ft
TX 0.6 F1 RX f GHz d
d 0.6 F1 = 53 ft
ht b bmax hr
Compute the minimum antenna height:
dt dr
h = bmax + 0.6 F1
Re′
= 112.5 + 53
= 165 ft
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hr DIFFRACTION
dr REGION
ht dt
SMOOTH
Re′ CONDUCTOR
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Ro
R2
R1 hr
ψ ψ
ht
dt dr
SMOOTH
Re′ CONDUCTOR
F = 1 + ρ e jφ Γ e − jkΔR D
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(1 − S12 ) + T 2 (1 − S 22 )
J ( S , T ) = (1 − S12 )(1 − S 22 ) , and K ( S , T ) =
1+ T2
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hr DIFFRACTED
ht d
RAYS
Re′
F = V1 ( X )U1 ( Z1 )U1 ( Z 2 )
Fig. 6.29 in R. E. Collin, Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, McGraw-Hill, 1985 (axis labels corrected)
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ht d hr
Re′
The power density at the receiver is the free space value times an attenuation factor
2
Pr = Pdir 2 As
where the factor of 2 is by convention. Most estimates of As are based calculations for a
surface wave along a flat interface. Approximations for a flat surface are good for
d ≤ 50 /( f MHz )1 / 3 miles. Beyond this distance the received signal attenuates more
quickly.
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−12
−1 &$ (12)(8.85 × 10 )( 2π )( 27 × 106 ) #! !
b = tan $ !
= 74. 5
% 5 × 10 − 3 "
Attenuation constant
2 + 0.3 p
As = − p / 2 e − 0.6 p sin b ≈ 8.33 × 10 − 4
2 + p + 0. 6 p 2
2 Pt Gt Aer 2 Pt (1) λ2 / 4π
(
= 2 As =
Pr = Pdir 2 As
) 2 As 2
4π d 2 4π d 2
(5)(8.33 × 10 − 4 ) 2 −14
= 2 2
= 1 . 52 × 10 W
(4π )(4) (601)
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FLAT EARTH
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Path loss is the 1 / r 2 spreading loss in signal between two isotropic antennas. From the
Friis equation, with Gt = Gr = 4πAe / λ2 = 1
2
Pr (1)(1)λ2 & 1 #
Ls = = 2
=$ !
Pt (4π r ) % " 2 kr
Note that path loss is not a true loss of energy as in the case of attenuation. Path loss as
defined here will occur even if the medium between the antennas is lossless. It arises
because the transmitted signal propagates as a spherical wave and hence power is
flowing in directions other than towards the receiver.
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Sources of signal attenuation in the atmosphere include rain, fog, water vapor and other
gases. Most loss is due to absorption of energy by the molecules in the atmosphere. Dust,
snow, and rain can also cause a loss in signal by scattering energy out of the beam.
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A = aR b , attenuation in dB/km
R is the rain rate in mm/hr
a = Ga f GHz E a
b = Gb f GHz E b
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1. Variations in the electron density ( N e ) cause waves to bend back towards Earth, but
only if specific frequency and angle criteria are satisfied. Some examples are shown
below. Multiple skips are common thereby making global communication possible.
N e max
4
IONOSPHERE
3
1
TX SKIP DISTANCE
EARTH’S SURFACE
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The electron density distribution has the general characteristics shown on the next page.
The detailed features vary with
• location on Earth,
• time of day,
• time of year, and
• sunspot activity.
The regions around peaks in the density are referred to as layers. The F layer often splits
into the F1 and F2 layers.
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ω 2p
kc = ω µoε rε o = ko 1 −
ω2
where ko = ω µ oε o
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TX EARTH’S
SURFACE
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At oblique incidence, at a point of the ionosphere where the critical frequency is f c , the
ionosphere can reflect waves of higher frequencies than the critical one. When the wave
is incident from a non-normal direction, the reflection appears to occur at a virtual
reflection point, h ′ , that depends on the frequency and angle of incidence.
VIRTUAL
HEIGHT
IONOSPHERE
h′
EARTH’S
SURFACE
TX
SKIP DISTANCE
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!
ε r ( z3 )
z3 LAYERED
ε r ( z2 )
z2 ψ3 IONOSPHERE
ψ2 ε r ( z1 ) APPROXIMATION
ALTITUDE
z1
ε r ( zo )
zo ψ1
ψi εr = 1
Note that:
1. For constant ψ i , N e must increase with frequency if the ray is to return to Earth
(because ε r decreases with ω ).
2. Similarly, for a given maximum N e ( N e max ), the maximum value of ψ i that results in
the ray returning to Earth decreases with increasing ω .
There is an upper limit on frequency that will result in the wave being returned back to
Earth. Given N e max the required relationship between ψ i and f can be obtained
sinψ i = ε r ( z )
2 ω 2p
sin ψ i = 1 − 2
ω
81N e max
1 − cos2 ψ i = 1 −
f2
f 2 cos2 ψ i 81N e max
N e max = ! f max =
81 cos2 ψ i
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Examples:
The value of f that makes ε r = 0 for a given value of N e max is the critical frequency
defined earlier:
f c = 9 N e max
Use N e max expression from previous page and solve for f
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Multiple hops allow for very long range communication links (transcontinental). Using a
simple flat Earth model, the virtual height ( h ′ ), incidence angle (ψ i ), and skip distance (d )
d
are related by tanψ i = . This implies that the wave is launched well above the horizon.
2h ′
However, if a spherical Earth model is used and the wave is launched on the horizon then
d = 2 2 Re′ h′ .
EFFECTIVE SPECULAR
REFLECTION POINT
IONOSPHERE
IONOSPHERE
h′
ψi TX
EARTH’S
SURFACE
d
Example: Based on geometry, a rule of thumb for the maximum incidence angle on the
ionosphere is about 74 ! . The MUF is
MUF = f c sec( 74 ! ) = 3.6 f c
For N e max = 1012 / m 3 , f c ≈ 9 MHz and the MUF = 32.4 MHz. For reflection from the
F2 layer, h ′ ≈ 300 km. The maximum skip distance will be about
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ψi d
where θ = and
h′ 2 Re′
! the launch angle is
90 − θ − ψ i
!!
φ − 90!
d /2
φ LAUNCH ANGLE:
! !
90 − θ − ψ i = φ − 90
!!
Re′
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Example: Ohio to Europe skip (4200 miles = 6760 km). Can it be done in one hop?
The virtual height required for the total distance is
This is above the F layer and therefore two skips must be use. Each skip will be half of
the total distance:
d / 2 = 2100 / 2 = 2h ′ → h ′ = 167.5 km
This value lies somewhere in the F layer. We will use 300 km (a more typical value) in
computing the launch angle:
Re′ 8500
cos θ = = → θ = 11.26!
Re′ + h ′ 8500 + 167.5
−1
! & 300 #
tanψ i = sin(11.26 ) $1 + − cos(11.26! )! → ψ i = 74.4!
% 8500 "
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The launch angle required (the angle that the antenna beam should be pointed above the
horizon) is
The electron density at this height (see chart) is N e max ≈ 5 × 1011 / m 3 which corresponds
to the critical frequency
f c ≈ 9 N e max = 6.36 MHz
and a MUF of
Operation in the international short wave 16-m band would work. This example is
oversimplified in that more detailed knowledge of the state of the ionosphere would be
necessary: time of day, time of year, time within the solar cycle, etc. These data are
available from published charts.
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EARTH’S
SURFACE
TX
• The formation of ducts is due primarily to water vapor, and therefore they tend to
occur over bodies of water (but not land-locked bodies of water)
• They can occur at the surface or up to 5000 ft (elevated ducts)
• Thickness ranges from a meter to several hundred meters
• The trade wind belts have a more or less permanent duct of about 1.5 m thickness
• Efficient propagation occurs for UHF frequencies and above if both the transmitter and
receiver are located in the duct
• If the transmitter and receiver are not in the duct, significant loss can occur before
coupling into the duct
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h
DUCTING − 39 N units/km
− 157 N units/km
Nr
Another parameter that is frequently used is the modified index of refraction
n ′ = 1 + N m × 10 − 6
& h#
where the refractive modulus is defined as N m = $( n − 1) + ! × 10 6
% Re′ "
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