Elementary Particles

BY ENRICO TERMI

NEw FtvEN: YALE t NIvn asr?r Pntss

UNIVERSI?f PNESS
 -
Cawilltt, 1951,hu lot. Lalnvi\ Pt.ti
Pr'ii..l in lE United Statu aJ Anr.tit:u
FiBt PahlilL.l, Mat!, 1951
SuantJ Printrts, /1xsrtt, M)e
A tislts tsetre'l Thi{ baa| nds tat l)r r.-
r,odked, it uhoL. nL ytt. in LL! Tnnr
lotuptltl tri.1trttsJot th. pnblit p ti),n:nh
att ritbr pd"tirian ,onL the PrbliiLo!
TED EILLIMAN FOUNDATION
In the sear oJ eishty thousand Aoll,rs
t88s a leltdc!
aas leJt to ttrc Presit:lent and Fellaus d Y&le ao\ese in the cila ol
Nen Ilauen, to hc hekl in trust, as a silt lrcm her chiLbm, in memary
ol their belo\ed, and hanored mathet,LIrs. He?'a Elv Silliman.
On tlis loudation Yale Collese uas req\ested anA
.lirected to esldblish '1n annllal alse o! Iectves desisned ta iLlu'trak
the tfesencc antl, prol)iLenc., the uis|lo'r. ar^,] goodncss al God' as
naniJesled in thc naLural and narul uo d These uere to be de$isnaled
s.s tlw Mts. Hepsa Dt! Siltirnan Menorial Lectutes ll uas the beL;el
oJ the testatar that an! or(lerl! presentatian al tlrc lacb ol nature at
historu cantributed to Lhe enl oI tlis tounLlattion nrore ellectiuela tlnn
dr! attempt to emphdsi1e the clenents oJ doctrine or aJ crecd; antl he
thcreJore prarided that lrctwes on dogmatic ar palemical theolosu
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It
uas Jltflher d;rected that edch annual aLrsc should
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llut&rial ta Mrs. Silhnan The memarial lund came intn the pcl'
sessian oJ the CorporaLion oJ
ydle Ltnil)ersila in lhe lear 19a1; and
the prcscnt lnorh con:tlitutes the thirtietk Mlume published on lhis
-v

Foreword
Wiih nunerous additions and subtractioDs thc present
book contains the matorial presented by ilre author in the Sillimar
l-€ctures at Yale Unir-crsity in lpril, 1950. Six l€ct:ures for tho
gen€ral public snd six lcctures lor ttle physics students were
given. In this rewritins ihe subject matter of tlre latier has been
emphasized and amplincd.
IIany of the lheoretical papers on the subject of el€mentaw
pariiclc; and of Ureir intcra(tions are 1'ery dimcult reading ercept
for r small, highly specializcd sroup of theoreticnl physlcists. Ttis
book is not $'ritten for thrit sroup. It attempls insiead to make
accessiblc to a larg-"r mrnber ol shrdenis and, I hope, e larae frac,
tion of experjmLjrtal phtsicists so c ol the most signilicant rosults
of tbe 6eld ihoodes of elemeniiary particles that can be under
stood, at leasii in s semi quantitaiive wry, \Lithout e{cessive mrthe
matical apparal,us- A rcader $ho has lo o$'€d understood a
sood Etandard univcrsity course in quanlum ^nd neclanics should
not firld sedous djfrcutiics in the follo{'ing putsris.
I have not been able io sivc jn the text rdeqrLaic references to
tbe rerjr extensive originr,l litcrs,ture. I am afruid, also, that in
se\''€ral instarccs I lnav noii ha\,c succeeded in givins du. cr€dit
to Ure origin{tor of a paticuhr iden. I rpologize for the omissions.
l'ortunately rn €xcellent "cu e to tlle l-iteraturc ol Elcmentary
Particles Physics" has been prcparert recently by Tlomno and
wl€eler (,,lnen.lr?' Sci.n,ist, s7, Apdl and Juty, 1919), ond tte
reader is relerred to it lor much dctail. A list of books rnd reliew
aruclcs in {'lich cxknsive additional information can be found is
appendcd here.

II. n. Beihc, lllementrry Nuclear Theory, Ncrv York, 1917.

87, 1932.
'l\'. Hejtler, Qu{ntum Theory of Ra.li:rtion, Oxford Univ. l,reEs,
1944_
E. J. Konopinski, "Bela Dccay," R€r. Motl. Ph!'i. 15,209, t943.
 V

FOEEI''OND

W. lauli, I{€son l'heorY, Nex' York. 1946i "Relativistic Field

Thcories of Elementary Ps,rti0les." Rrr. Moal. PhtJs. 1s' 203'
1941.
r Ro.cn"e'o.\u.t,er fo-... \r\v Yorl,, lqrS Contents
.r s"t'*1"*.-. QL r "m Ih ''Jtnani'r" Pi's f'' );
r439'

1948: *.
65I, 1949i7n,790, 1949
J Tiomno and J A \lheelcr' "spcctrum of Eleclirons from l4eion
Decrv. ' /?nr. f,fnd. Phlr' 21, 1+s, 1q79
c \\enL)e].a,n|mT\'""Jo'f 'ld'. \'$ Y rk ll19: Be'"nr
Rcsear0h in tr{eson Thcorv," Rt,. Mod Ph't/s 19' I' l9!\7 One. Qu&nta or o Field as P&riicles r

Chi.cago, Seplember l95A 1. IntrcdLclion I

' 2. The ELectranagnctic Field 4
t. S.al6 Field uih Mass a
4. Fiekl oJ Ch setl Scalar Patticles 10
5. Particks Abeging th. Pauli Ptinciple 12

TYo. lni€ra.tioD ol i\e Ficlds 16

6. Gen al TlpB aJ Interd.tion !t)

7. Con*Naton aJ Monentw n
8. Ylkaba ltutatdcti.ans 2\
L Ather Intetuclions 26
!0. Cdlcxlation aJ 'lransitial Eatet 30
11. Der.l,.pnent Patmelers 32

TLree, 'l'he Itrteioction Consl,aris 36

1t, glecttonasnctic md yLkdud Intarar:tia Canstdnts

ts. DecaiJ aJ the Pion ds Dtrrdr Pr...ss 38
14. 'l lLe BeLa Interaclion 39
1n. Spa an.aLs Dq:all aJ the lrhlar 41
1A. lrarcetl D.ca! aJ the MLon 4t"

Four. Pions, Nucleons, .rd dnti-nucl-"oN a0

17. ylkaua'1hcoru aJ Ntclaat Fotces ,A

18. PntlLc[ion aJ Pians ilL Nrdah Colliia$ 55
19. Ef.4.t ltn NL.leafl Bonn 5E
10. P ad a. n at r 'r. h, Go1^o \'o . t.
ti1 . Captue aJ i-csati"?, Pions b! Pratons 66
22. Scatterins oJ Pians by Nucl.nns 1-0
23. 'l'he Anti, tLucleolt,. ,\nniliLatiaL 73
,4. Decalt aJ lln l:ethal Pion in ) Tat PholoB 76
95. StaListl.dl. Tlbotlt aI Pian Pradtctiatu 79
 doN?tv?a

26, Collisions oJ lrdtelnel! EiqlL Eners! Patticl$ 81

1. O)antizdLian oJ thc naAi66or lrield 9L

ltQT,lTlO^'8
,. Seond Qumtization ui L PdLLi I'rin iple 9a
L LI.a |abiliti! o! the Fi.lds 101
,1. Re atitisti. In\atidn e fi6
6. Eelaliorships betueen Intera.tiatu Cor.stants rca
This is a collcction of ihe notations most frcouen v
Lspd :, r\is boot \ -l-cn I l...enF h,,Fr i. use, ror,.t %
jnss the I'arious meaninss sre listed, somerjmes \r,ith
-n, n er;-
indicatioD

d, d* I)estruction and creation operators.

o Bohr mdius.
,{ \rector potential.
B Plane wave spinor.
c Yelocity of light.
D Deuteron wave function.
€ ElemeDtary €lect c chaqe.
, SFnbol for el€ctron. Also amptitude of electron field.
€' Yukawa bteraction conStant.
€j Interaction constanij of pion decay.
/ Composite interaction constant for pion production (secs.
18, 19,25).
ft Constant of the beta interaction.
,r htcraction constant for spontaneou6 muon d€cay.
t, Intcraction constant for forced muon de.'v
,i. ft PleD.L co,r.renr , ,d p .
"n,.t cor.,er di!i;d b, 2"
l/. li Hrnrlrorian or .'Fra. ion Hari' on,rD
/ Culrert densiiy.
a l-agrrngian density.
nl Mass of a pa:rticle, pariicularly electroD mass.
M Mass of a nrcleor
lr'equeDtly used as number of particles in stat€ s.
t/ llrequently used as number of stnteE.
Strnbol for the neutroD. Also amplitude ot neut.on field.
iv S]'nbol lor the anti-neutron.
p Mom€ntum
P Symboi for ihe pmton. Also anplitude of the proton lield.
Symbol for the anti proton.
q Relalive momentum (secs. 18, 19).
a Yolume of momentum space.
 NOf.ITIONS
r Vector of a pojnt in splce.
s Frequcntly used as index for a particlc state.
7 Kinei,ic enersy.
1,(r) Iiisenfuncijon of a partjcle.
U Potential of nuclear forces.
I Velocity, somelimes speed.
Y. Yo Volumes (sccs.25,20).
u Energy of e pariicle including rcst mass.
I,II Total ene.sy ol rhe system.
Energy of bombftrding nucleon in labomtory syslem.
a Dirac rnatriccs (space componcnts and vecto.).
0 Dirac matrix (fourih component).
7 Symbol for s. pholon.
Pohrization unit vector.
r,i De llrosljc $,ave length, ordinnry and dn cd by 2tr.
SJ'nbol lor the muon. Also rrnptitude of mLLon field
p }ilass of pjon-
p1 l,Iass 0f muon.
/ Slnnhol Ior tire neut no. Also ampliiudc of neutino field.
t Slmbol for t]]e anti nelrtrino.
. Symhol for pion. Also nmplitude of pion field
. Cross section.
o I'auli spin operators.
Lilelrime or invcrse jiransition rate.
" nucleon frcld, several mcson fields, etc., llre also introduoed.
/ TFmfFr|r. r' pr a-gJ u' r- '$ . 26\.
e Scftlar lielil amplitude.
Fieki amplitlrde for particl.s $'ift Pauli principle
'y'
o Angular lrequency.
o Nomalizationl'olune.
CEAPTER ONE
Quanta oJ'a Field as Particles
1, INTIIODUCTION
Po.haps the most central problem in theoretical
physics during the last iwenty years has beel Ure sesrch for a
descdption of the elencntrry parriclcs and ol iheir interaotjons.
The radiation theory oI Dnac aDd tho subsequent devetoprnent
of quantum clectrodynamics form thc present basis tor our under-
standing of ihe eleciromasnetic fleld fld iis associarcd partictes,
the photons. In paflicular, this theory is caplble of €xplaining ihe
processes of crcation of photons when light is emitted and of
destruction of phoions \r'hen tighi i6 absortred. Thc field theories
of other elementary particl€s are patterned on ihat of the phojron.
The assumption is mado that for esch type of el€nrcntsry parj,icte
there exists an associatcd field of which the particles e the quanta.
Tn additionto the electromsgnetic ficld an elecijror positron field, a
The Nla"xwell equaiins that describe t}le macroscopic bebavior
of the electromagnetic lield ha1'e bcen knos'n for a long time.
It is therefore natural to rssume ihat the6e are the basic €quations
one should !.ttempt to q ontize in constructing a quaniLrm electro-
dlnanics. 'fhis has bccn done n'iilr { consjderable mccsure of
success- Inthe prst twoorth.ee y*irs ihclast r€maining djfliculties
associated with the inlinitc value of thc clectmmagnetjc mass and
thc so-called vacuum pohdzal,ion hnvc been targely rcsolved
through the $'ork of Bethc, Soh$'inser, Tononaaa. Feynman, and
others. They hrvc been able to inieryrei satisfactority i,hc t,amb
shiJt in the finc structure ol hydrogen ond tlie anomaly of the in-
trinsic magneiic moment of the elecuon rs due to the interaction
with tihe radiaiion ficki.
Next to the photons tlL€ partid€s ii'hich are bcst known experi-
menially rnd besi, undorstood ileoroticellv llre ihe clectrons and
l
 QUANTA Otv t FILt,D ls PAnTlCLnS
positrcns. In the field theory of €leciroxs and positroDs the reta- jD tons ol r Dirac {rqurlion {hrt gives r\ro r,lpcs ot nentrino,
iivisiic cquarions ot Dirac rre irken as rhe tiel,l eq.aij,rns ncLrtrino proper rnd anLi neLioino, rctrl,ed ro €xch other lit<c thc
€lectron-posirron field. .IIle proccdure ot quanlizntion
of;h;
rhis case elfflrui rnrl tlrc posiirl)n. l'his is nr)r tlc ontr narhemrrical
rnust, LoweverJ Lc of a r1'pe sucli as to
f.ietd th€ prrl p;;"i;i; porsibiljt]'. -ltiotir one hds boen slqgcste.:t Ly ilajrlrari in $.tictr
for electuons and posirlons nrstead of ure Bose litnstein lhere ls !o ioti nouirino. In the alp]nra on to the b{jta iheoi.
srat;si;cs
that lpplies ro rhc phoions. This can be,lotr","nh
th"
qllantization procedure ot Jordan aml \\iiener. "";;,; resulLs &s thc l)itrr iheory crccpi iD Lhir ctlsc ot ilre very inprob
L:- .ol,\, ,c," r,. "..m t ,. tp. .ip, :!, ,.r i.r.t" able dooblc bcta r)roc6sresrctxrl]I irr..ligrte,:t Ly l'irerrdn_ The
$, h.\pmldI....0pr..,
.

ldr i. ""\rFll".. at L,;qhdap belx ra\. i|ix)ry brldl on tlic cur,l.nro ttli)o resjs has hrd some
.r
"oi.,1e}J rFu,,urq $ni,.r ,i.i rh.,pJ...,rorF. _b.J rh,.px,.ti succels ;n cxr)i[n]iDs the serei[l li]ahu e-! of ihe beia disinregrations
principle alrd have spin 1/2 !,re rrsl,,rity and in piri,icll,|r ihe (]nu.gJr djsirib|tion ol the emjri.!t etectrons.
atso dcscribediy a Dirac
eo',j1r,io j,t,t u.^.,,t.,.,u.c'.,.,ni"ur p."*n, pxt,F,.upni.Lr On the ol|cr h!nd. LLDr,il nor!,ro rerr y conrincirg torm ot ttris
:::l:l"i::."'- n' no!n'r"eri *iun' r'"'og''. tL{xDv lllls Lc(, disc.jv.red. Tnstc ot oDc srristictuv ])eta rtr€ory
,.r Ji..of"r. J \pi,r prt a!..:u'h'.i rl.r '-. \" to ., n,,. .p1..t op
ncut,;n,
1:,^n--1.::.-,
rL,- rn.,r,.,i_,, p,, i.,".-,",,",.,,,,,, 01,- r\ sre'lt dc:'] of {ork 1]l1s bi:rn devoted to the tidd theorv ot
.p, \ y,....,i Li.,rrr.r , ,"",1 ,""r"i,.,,
or nF pLp' rror . Ilr,.!n n.Irru.. d T".. -
. ^l hc n,r|r,.r ir r-:rr, lor ccs. 'lhe me-a )n ol YoLrrrl] sh ou td b€ irlcrrii fiecl wiih the /-meson
its intrinsic mrsrctic monent is dirc(red parallel ol Powcll (bricfll.,nlled lrerepn't. Ihe prrson ot porve (calted
t" th;;;i;
:ll.l, Al1""
n"r'r^1.
',1 ,rn.. in.
-J or i r,.r"j t,"r .,s :, is r^, h.
u.d , ry h"'r'n. r.,..' ',,',.t ,;4g.,, , p o,. o h. o,on, outr
o. Jd;rion,, ."mpti-r oD ..r pr, ,.nrp.4d,p.,use x'eihll. ]nrked i,o ihe nuchlns ard rlicretor.e ot lit e impotance in
h, rrp",f,, or hF Lr "b,,,t lr1 Ln4 .,ouJJ p\j,F.t the expliDralion oI nn.rlc.lr lorfes.'fho yukxv''a rlieorvhas proved a
the masneiic n)(,nent of ihc proion to bc verv Yrlu able gui<l: in erpcrimenlat rcscrirch and probabty {xDtxins
1 nuctcrr magncton and
thrt of the-neutron ro bc 0. .the laci rhar Ule proron has manv corr(jOt le.rds io a firiure theorl. In pa.tirrlar, it is plri,ly
irNiead a
lllTrl : r;{,c.,,:
s. rFIllj
| n,,r,r.,.. or .i.Jrnr
.rL,.r,,J ," ha, ri,n" .t.,n".., 'u.r-j I mj F.F. .ns
.,..1qrrr.,.no
responsiLl. l0r the (lisc,:,rery of Ure productim ot nesons in the
collision ol hst nucl(xms. Or tlrc orhcr hrnd, Lhe lttemprs to put
Dj
l]" "",
1 I rr r' . , i"a is -. m,,,"o \F ,r ,..t ru,r ,.or,.r .:iuo tlis theory in a quan{itrti\ c lorm l1arc h&d 1,ely ncdiocre success.
,' 1"" ,.,, .rr nr,ion .rn.l I . r, ,ctr mo,{ Olton r pond(,ous nrrthemrti(jrl apparatls js used in rtcrir-ing
',. ,t .r,,ru jp., .,."..1"y.-F,, "r., 1J,- t", rcsults ihal ere no bctier tl'xtr coutd be obiaincrl bv r skeiehv
".;:"i;. . . rtrr' , or . r'" ..1r.. en. ,r I I r ri. r., ..r.,,," ,,",
*h",".i..:,": or.,.snroi nlr. vill p( rcps iDprore only rhen nore erp(jrimenist informrtion
":1,. ,iF i i'.D.,..t,".a.
r..op..r:.. lrp
. ,.1o\, o. ...-p Ld ,no \,o r ,.,..":.,,..,^"" becomcs a1-ailablc io point the s'ry tr) {| corrcct under;tanding.
' t,.. p ..pi . rp | .,.rp.1t .rres 'l'he r)rrrpose ol this djsc ssion is noi to aiicDrpi a m!,itrematjcal
treooneot of tlio ioid r:hdn.ies Llrr rxther ro erenplity semi_
The existcnce of rhe r.ui,rino hls bcen qlrrnrill1iire ploc(Irres lhnt are sjmltc rnd mry be helptul in the
. suqgosicd by l)auli as an
.r
:._:l:lr..,r.pr"m.,, rr,.,:
"n.F ,.,, " ",.a,r,,,, irterpreiation of rixpe Dre ts. Tnere gre serer cases jn i,hictl
not rnucl irould he gained bv a morc elaboftte marticnatical
.\rFn pt j-'l., /t .. r'. n.r I s . p-i."pv.q .. trcrtD en i. since a convnrcing ir(jatment hlt,norycir ireend;scolered
r,..,r . Ir. .p,n is
Lrlie! d t^ be r 2; it. m,renciit rrumeni eitt, In othei chcs the quditrtjrc dis(jussion prosr,"nrcd trere mev scrve
r' th" th""; ;i ;i,;;;;;;;;,' * Hfif l"'::il1;:T";"f#l 3s0|i rodu,ion ,t"ra". u1,o.l I,""uLj,.,.r
"
 Q.Li.lNTA Ol A FiELD '15
PInTICLLS 1'IIE 1I LECTNOM/1IiNETIC FIEI,D 6
$ritli this riirormalizrti(n the toial cnergy content of the rldiation
field rncy l,c writien
9. IIl E LLECTROII'IGNlITIC IlLLD
r firsi (ixarnple ol the quantizatio of a iekl l,he
r' - t i",
",
. (2)
^s
c{Sc ol the electromeltnciic field aDd of ilis photons wiil be discussed
Ea{rh terrD ol the sum rcpresenis ilr{j coni,ribuiion to the roral
l:nfortunately tlie electromqnetic field lics r rathff complicated encrgv of one vibrational mode.
stNcture sjnce ii is slre('ificd rt each pojnt hv ihij clecLri0 rnd ihe In the langtrll]€ ol thc lhotons (2) nldjcatcs ihat rhere arc n,
mqnctic veciors. On the olihcr hlnd, il is thc mosi. lrmiliu field photons oI cncrsy id. . Erch one oI them is thought of as a rcr
rnd its qrlanlum propertics arc nost clerrlv undostood. puscle 11il,h a momenl,rin p" related io the \\'avc length I, by thc
Iri qtr{rtum mechanifs ol)scrvrblc physical qurnlil,ies rr{i de- de Broglie rclotionslip I
soibcd by opelalors obeying r non commrhtil.c Li$r' .,1multilnica-
ttun. 'lhis is true, lor e\:Lmplc, r)l thc coodirrtcs :ind the xr- 2rh h lb, (3)
poDents ol ille mc,menlurn of a mlrs-* point. It is t e also ol oiher l"d
iypcs ol obscrlables lihe, for crnnple, anl' (nlponent of the The rcpre"qcntrtion of thc elechom{snetjc [c]d jn terms ot
eleotric ficlcl rt a given point of sprc.. h qurntum elccirodvn{mics os0illators is i lmplete. It is suiiallc to reprcscnr radjarion
the comrJrtrrcnts ol i,he field or thc potcntials 0t a posiiion in sp.ice plienonena bui itoes noi irxtude, for .xampte, :rn clectrcstatic
rre cons crcd as oper:Ltors i{hich in senenl do not commute 1ield. ()tre can shoN, hoirevcr, that rhe railirrion phcnomena car be
\ritli eAch oiher. ,\ field, ho$'e1-cr, is a system Nith an infinjte treated separatdy lrom ihu {rl€ctroslati( phenornc . r\ complete
numbcr ol degrees of {reedon and lrom tlii; hci mxny com description of cl{xrtrodyrrrnn,s iF obl,aiicd by consjdejng on orlc
limd the radir,inD fiekt dLrc to the supqposjtion of transvcn{l
No aitcmpl rvill be madc here to gil'e c romplele dcscription wd\'es of all Ircquencjes and on ihc other hard lihe Coutomb
ol tLe quanlization pror:cr:lurc adopted; it is dcscribed in detnil for0es b€tseen rilcctric charscs. In thc prcsont discussion 11e shnu
h more speciaUzed publications. Orlv thc sinplesi idclrs of tho be pdDrarily intcrcsted in thc behavior of the radiain,n fietrt and
rrri tion iheory rvill lx: ourlined. I"or {dditional exphnations th.refore \ye shell linit oursclves to thc rninsl,ersal ll,!ves.
soe ,\ppendix l. As tong as no pefturbalion .tisturbs thc elecLronqlnetic [e]d
Since the early rttdnpts at seiting up thc staLjstic- oi radiatioll thc qLrantum nunhcls r" of thc radiation osci aiors r.il be con-
jt hm been custom y to ialk ol ndi:iiin,n oscillatoL. 'fhe ele0tro-
siants and there will be no ch{nge jn thc mrnber of photons.
magneljc fie].1 cutoscd irr a cavit"v tr'ith perfecl,l"Y rellccting srlls A pcrturbation x.ill induce l,ransitjons \rhercbv the nurnber n. mrr-
is capable of os(iiLhiirg accordins to { number ot dji{orent modes Fir', n,F,."
{'ith dilTerent clnrracicrjstic lrequen.ics. Each mod.r crn be e\cited ",..,i ,o ru";.,ora..."" 1,,'-
sorption or desiructjon of qui1]rta). Tn ordcr to undcrsrm,:l ihis
independently of ihe oLhers 1d hus properties qrrile similrr lo lundamentrl point Ne shall discuss first an ordinary lirlc{r oscil-
those of an $.itlrtor. In prrtnxtltir, one of the modes can t:rl(e up lafor. TLis lan be cx.ited to ihc ?rth qrur,ntum stlite. Thc cxcitatjon
an amount 0{ e crgv: enerey of this slate cxduding tho rest energy is ion. Wc sav that
fil the cx.it{tion amounts to,1 qua t{ ol €nergy I'o each. Thc nuntrer
\rbere @" is thc anslrllrr lrequency ol thc mode and n" : 0, 1, 2 ?1 oI qurntc Nill be a constarrL as long as rhe oscillotor is lcft rlon€.
The additioml tctn no./'2, thc so c.illcd zero poi t eDergv, can
be neglecterl c6 1l non-essentirl : ditiye constrnt to lhe energvl
llis cofftart is jtnnjLelv larsc 'l')e.umbo ol osoilhlors
1. Aciuellr-',
ol lrequ€.cr b.t{eer o rtd o + d- is giYcn by (7) OorsequertlJ lhe loial
IiTt-^
This inLes.rl is obviously djvcrscrt rt,larsc trcoueocies. This is re 6rsi
aoouDi or zerc poini, ene.gt i6 bul noi lle vo.Bt exampi!^ ol innniti.e thsi one en;ounters in tield rheori€s.
 v
t,x
QOAN'I/I OF A FIELII AA I1R1:ICLL}J I1]L IILECTROMACNETIC 1'] EI,D
Perturbations, however, may eil,her inffease or d(rcasc the .,,,n_
ru n. nu',l r , \mu.linL trrnsitio.s in wlich the quentum number?r. ofoneolihe oscillators
1,. .cn.,., .,..r..i.,t i q.,1|.1r
mp- E.is t.rrrrlror .(it ,..,r.I chanses to ,, + 1.'1
I r:I ue Note that whil€ .1(r) is en operrior, ihc ,ecror / rhar de6n€s
of lhe quanium nunbor ?1 vhen flLe mrtrix ijterncnt ol re n.n.
,u-hp'ror . onl tle posjtion in sprce N,t which the isjtor potential is obscrved is
I n6 o ,, .n \:,l,rp ,.r t.",
dJl-er l.,m1ro'onfu "r..rp'.., rrr"pF..u,,.,r.1 ..o"ot,.ri r.t &n odinary clcssical vector.
lo h, 3br r.. r ul '\r o.. .t ,..,t poIpr,,r,.,rion.ri.re The rcturl valucs of the matrix ctemenis c&n be obtrincd fsee
ilosFb-\',,a.jt,a.,trto.q App"n Ji\ r' o! "\tr, . rs,4 n r" rn. o InF.- tr ..oora ,rtes
.h 1"r.. .i\ ,Ir d,,.. " etements
ru \rr:.h. lhF..m!ri{.-n r,"an.jt. .,. I".F,,rr. n. Ft,r,4-r. v
and using (a). Ore findsihc ftnlowing resutr for themAtrjx
. . of the obucrvable,4(r) corrc$pondjns to rr:inSitioff in which one
,,
:'LlJ'r,r.r" ... J I "! br' .t ,{.r,. ,. i.., n ;,. o photon id, is eiihcr oreai.ed or desirovedl
''11) i, o .re,,. .^rn",,.errnrM I
li" , .,,. , ,..,
I
L for ,, ,r o-
".. t, ,,,. oi n,s. a a , t r u.n,., . t,"
only non-vanishing mrtrjx €lenenis of rhc coordinate r rre r,. ,." .." | _,,vvlln-. t

(5)
x(n+n - t) - y'#ro'
(4
; Here p, is the moneDturr of the plroton. Its masniiude js
rth-n1r) |
/ 'z';v n t t

Ip" : h."/. (6)

The processes of creaiion and d€struciion of photons jn the
r',"or, drF.n.dtv,:pd ro hi. l,f^oc"J or rt"oeitr wliile €, is n unit vcctor perpcndicular ro p" and poiniing in the
l-d.ilion ur.
l,Jp- J. h, rsu,riou 'pjd:i "o,ri\st r.r r,,,1 lr_"n,hyo|ir..r direction ol the pol:r.rizrtior.
oscilhtors. Transitions in w-liich rhe exc ation nunbc; n" The formula givins the numbo of osciltarjort nodes offrequency
of one bet\veen o nnd @ + dd $'ill also be gi'en I
of Ure radiation os0iltators increftcs are proccsses jn rvhich
Dtroions
" .', ".,"d f .i..:" ^r r.J ., io.. r, ,nsi,ion: n "t,i.t," a.
"creases ': )'J' dP
describe ihc desrrLrcrn,n of photons (absorpUu"
ot."airtio,rl. - -2Qa1t'' tt'
'/f Er"i
In_ r.orking out I quarllitative radiation
tbeory orre tn.ls ; In lhe l.rst form ol lN thelrrtor 0 X 4rpi dp js the rotunlc elemcnt
simpler to dcscribe the fietd in rerms of rhc veci;r pot€ntial
,4 of phasc sp:Lce. This, dnidcd by the cube ot phnck,s {jonsrrnt
rather ihsn of the elecrric rnd masnerjc frirds. As iong
as ih; /l : 2ri, cives tie rllrmber ol morles excepr for l,he fsctor 2, due to
discussion is limited to the radiaridr thcory t]re scatar potcDtial
can rllvays be lssruned io be ,ero since nn elcctro-agneitc the t1l'o possible pol:rrization directions.
rvrve 'fhe second of
.ani"oF.riLFdb\ , or y. lhe.,, orpo,.oriat Lhc i\ro expressions (i) contains ihe tactor
afr"i , to'n'" is ',F.,rr .:,i .. ot r\p .^.ro- po,.nriat, 4,
rontributed bv tLe \.arious modcs. u" : L
.,1".rcpresents the ficld oI the sth mode. Its masniiude
V! "oao".,
. is prcpor_ \lhich iirn be resl1ded $ rhe cisenfunction 0t a photon of mo_
tional to the coodinate of rhc racliorion oscilaror numbel
s. meniun p" (iorm{lized plane wrve). T}ris is a pdticutsr case of a
l-ihe lihis coodinate,4. lus nlltrix eicments indrcj4
rransitjons
I.an n,
?n,. - L T|, v"ru"o.,rFn,rdt I/ a r gr"r po.iriun
D rp8c' rs'LF quT ot I p qJ!, F. ,4" /. .l\/ qi ,bq.torc 2. ln lhe lhotrn largurse a chlnge l.onz. hra, l- l nLears r,j, ! phoion
also be !n opel.alior h.r,nrg non vanishi.g mstdx etemeniis .l th. .o.respordins trcqocDcr lns been c.e,red, !nd a ctrarse tr.or; z" ro
for z, - I Drcan3 tbat . lt'oioD hrs bc.n desrro,cd.
 t-

3 QUANI'A OI .1 I'ITI'D AS PAR'I'IALES so.tL.4n I7IELD VlrE MASS o

'l'he rnatrix clcmenl lor ihe destruclion of a pnrticlc js propor' The snnplest field €quaiion for thc s(rhr pions is the ltlein-
tiond io thc eipienlunction of the state ol ihe particle rhat is Gordon equotioD
destDycd.
A sinilar lrlle is:
Thc nalriri element for the oeriiorl of I prrti0le is proporlional
v"o -!$ - r'r: o (10)

to thc compler conjug,lte ol tho eisenfunction of thc sii1le ol Lhe which difr'ers only bythe lost term lrom thc D'rllcmbert equation.
pfticlc ihal is created. The field amplitude e is a scalar.s
This sccond rlrle is exemltificd b-v thc first frrmuh (5) s'hich Iiqu:Ltion (10) has planealrvc soluii,,ns of thc form
si\.es ihc matrix elerlent for tlie lllniion of li phon,n and is a cxp i(:r,i i o0.
prop0rtionrl to
Substitutins in (10) one obtains
., l^-,,i,,,",.,
v!t -f+!-i":o (i1)

3. SCALAN TlLLD IIIl']'H M,i.I]S Is nr the o|ise of the elechomagrctili ficld, the vibrations ol the
lield,, (nn be desoibed as a supcrposiiion ol fundamental nodes
The photons behrve likc pfticlcs ol rcst mlss zcro with difierent dumcterjstic frcrlLLr:rrrirr o". I]aoh mode behares
as is indicrted by tlie relatiouship bot\v$D cniirsy lnd m(trn(inhrm lilie n linear oscillallrl ot frc(luuxry o" . Omitting :lgaiD the zero-
point cnergy, the enetgl levcls oI tlis os(iillntor lrill be no"n" . ,{lso
hu": cp" (8) in this cose the jnlegral rurlnb{rr n, is niterpreted as lhe number of
quanta in the uode s, each hrlvins thc enersv rr" : td". The
that holds for lhem. Thjs relalionship is o conscqucncc of thc
momentum p. of each quanluln is si\1xi i)y the de Rroglie relation-
D'Alenberi equaiion
ship p" : ii'i". Usins this vrlLrc ol p, and (ll) the follo]vins
v,.r * !44: o (e)
relrtionship is obtrjned bei\\.ccn ihc cnersv arld momeni,um ol a

f|on which it follorys th:rt ilio photons tm\.el n'ilh thc \.clociit' ot 1t" : h6" - \/ cil+jF c,Tx. (12)
light. Tbis isqluilrlent io tLe rehtj\ istic cncrs]. nom€ntum rehtionship
l
or thG rc{son thc liel(] {au:rtn,n (C) crnnot be used lor thc pion
liekl. The pions In1'c r rcst mNs dillorcnt from zero r d tralcl . : \/ c?f +.\' (13)
with r rc|)(iity lcss tlran t][i ol l]ght. l,ihe the phoions t ey rre lor a particlc with r€st nass
b€lievcd to obey thc llosc Mrisiiiiri strtistics since rccodi g 1io the
Yuli:rN! thc(ny pions (frn l)c cmittcd or :lbsorled by r{clij1)ns. (14)
In this scctjrn rnd ir tlrc r(ixt r il'pc of lield Nill be djsclrsscd 3. Scda. (luartitics rrc usrrllj- chssed rs serlrN lrrolcr and pscudo
\\t!)sc (1trsntr hrlc r n(n vurishirrg rcst mass. T|is liekl mis|i bc F.llrru. $rlLer ilie -spare coordnrats arc enccierl $iih respeei to theorisi! t
arloptr:rl lor ihc dcscil)innr ol piorls. The clrse ol nenlr pjons scali. J.rnains an.liungcd rnLl a ls.ud.s.ah..hrnsed ils disD. A(oordnrs
Nill bc discuslcd in this scctio nnd lheL of olurscll piors in ihe to th. lssunttiors rnj.lc ,,,1 llt behlvior ol e on. .,n ...sl,dr.l eiilie. I
scdu or a pscudos.rlD lh.oLT.l llre pioh. T|ere ii no dio.rcn.e b.t$ecn
trcxt. In both cases these parLicles sjll be rssurarll to have zero thcsc l,no llLelie! e\c€pt nr t[e{llo1t.b1c ftrdrs ol interrctiol ol t}]epiom
spin so that they mry be represenied try r scahr [e]d. $.iih ih. r .lcons. (!ec Sccrior 8.)
ro a1N71Ott,1 !1i!,t) 1S P-jR:]ICLLS
Q F11"1,1) OF CEIiGED SCAL/|L'? pARIICLES ll
Ntost ol the discussjon ol Section 2 a d Appcndir I can be
repeated for the scalar ficl(l e. In prrticr lr ihc anllitude e(D lion mr.y be used to ctisrfibe :r Iirtd s'hose qMnt:r arc e]ectricalty
of the lield rt n posii.io r ls al opemtor iLii.h miltrix clenents chalged. I complex 1l{)l() ol tlir tl.pc s,ill be used for ihe chalged
corr€sponding lo lhe creatioD or to illc destl\rction ol a qruntun. pions. Th€ quanla ol th;s complcl fietd can l,e ch'rsed boih
Thc matr elenents ol e(rJ alc posiiively &nd negaiivcly. Itor eidl llloll,able vrluc p. ot rhe
momc tum there rrny be rr.1 posiiivo and n; nesr"rive pcrtictes.
h.
I-- P"J'\, li) Omittirs again ihe zcro poinl enersics, the iotal eners'- in ihe
^
v zydt field rlill be

lt n ."-l
h.
\.., ,16l rr :t D.(nl +,r). (1s)
\/ 2t)u
Tbc mairix elemenis (1;) &nd (lr-jl are quitc rftLlogous io (5). Both the complcx qucniii,y e ard 1ts compler conjngare e* $ill be
Siucc q is a scalar, ol ctnxse \re lL:Lve no pohrizrliioD vcci,or .. inportant. The qur.iitie.r (.(r) rnd e+i.) r,c operai.o$ \'hose
The dih'crlnre br l,hc irclor l/+f; is due to hI-ins u;ed llca.'ysjdc n{trix elelrcnis (onnecr. slalcs in $'hich ilrc rrrmljer ol prftictes
urils lor e rnd Dor r:lijrnlliz(l urits lor thO electrousnciiic obrnges by +1. l,Iore prcciscLl., I'ruli and l.i,.skopf havc toun,:l
tield. Whdi the field is ilcltrdirl n,si{le:L lolume a onty a djsc,cic tl*Lt e(4 indorcs tmnsiiion! in whitlh eir,hr:r rii decreascs l,y one
series ol nomenluDr l.rlu($ is Nllo\\.rble.'flic lorirula givins 1,lri) uDit or 71; irr(J{}l;es by one unit. The oppo"cite hotds tor t}re con-
nuntrer of loNoble nlomentum vNhres bel\um t ond p + d? j-. jus:ite rielde+(r) \!hichprodu(s either ihe tr:insitioDs rl+ zl + I
1 ln other nbrds, e is the opcr:rtor tlar rcdures ttie
. f't. _;_,ndn
d\ _ -:t 7\ totxl chargc by one unit, ciihcl bv destloyins a posirivo particte
.,.,, or by clel1iirlg , negative onc- p* has lhe opposite effecr.
This founuh comrnonly used io stitisiilrlll mechrnics js qrite Sirce as far as rve hnorv l,hc iilcctric chargc is ahv0\,s consaNed,
simihr io (7) and diffeN floJl it onl)' l)y rr l!ctor 2, du{i io ihe r\\,o we expecl theii neither e ror' e* \rill eyer nlpeor alone ;n rny
,li{, n1r to.. term of the Hamiltonian. Thcy s'ill alwrJ,s b(i rs.qociaied ryith
':.:.o '. 1.,., r.. oth€r qrlantities so tllnt the clursc trill be conserved. Iior ex,mpl{r,
!j. IIELD Oti l:IIAnUED nCAL.4R P/1H,tICLES
erndp* olone1l'oultl be inoccep tallc. Ilur rjhejr produd e*(r)e(r) is

Asnr b, p ticles Niihout elcctri(i.tnrge are(tuanrr Exccpt for these difererces, Lhe matrix elemerts of e and !,* are
of r ficld Njlh real componenLs. Ior e1:Llrlplc, rlLc ptroton! xrc itr quitc similar to (15) and (10). Thcy arc
quanfu ol the e]ecrron,gnetiN [dr]. Insrexd, jt i,c fouud thai a (\/ nI
fielrt irhose quanie rrc olerirically chxrsed h$ compLex anplit:rrir:.
n: t'
lllis js tNe also lor rinrle! irhiirh, thoug| n(Itrrl, bale son{)
r a\', 4 V2a'
elecl,romrguelic pnrt)cnir- lor e\mit)lc, the ncuiiur \ritlr its nxg
nelic monenl. This t)ro|e(y is q ji{r senel3l and is r(rated ro ttrc lr/i__ + r
tto'
requircment of gaugc irrr-nirnce a
For tlris reiLson thc r{rrl fjeld e ol i|e l)rcr.b s secLion hrs neuirJ h"
i.u;-=.,- ,
puliclcs trs iis phoions Dd therelore cou|l be rL €d xs iho lietd ot
p'rt,) -,i = t)- v ;-21rt,,"'" :

l.he neutrtl pions. Paltli xrd Iieissltopl hrr(i shos,n, troNever,

) ,_
ihal, a sc.tlu roDrdex qLuniiiy e obe) iris {lrc lilcnr cordon equa- The formula siviru the number of alloirable valucs of the lno-
.r Sc. Ior dxurjlle l,roli, -rler. oj itlod. PU$ , 13,2t3, t!4L mentun p" is identic{l io (17).
 QI].INTA O1' l NIELD 'I3 PAI]TICLLS
I P)R] /CLES 0Rlt'Ir"G t IIE
P 1TiT,T PRI):'IPLE
'fll(i (rurntr ol lire eled|ornrgnetic ficl(i rnd thosc of
thc scrhr fiel(l. b.{h neutrtl .r d clisrsrd, obe}-tlr(i llose-Tiinsi(iin
sl.ali-.1ii:s. lhis is evide.t btt:luse l iriiegr rlurLber 2" of
p.rl.i( L{rj clln be iornd irr r silitc ol giren nNmentum l,
-{ dillcrefl ilpri of iheorY is necded fr)r the nurr .l|meniuv
]ral1rrl{s ifrl cm l! o$n or b{tnrvcd lo ohcl Lhe l'tuLi prirciple.
'lr, I r.,rt' r'.torr' n It shout(l be noiql tlui'y' r.Lir lis a rl.stiucrioL opcrrror (iursi
'""
tnrl probehlymuons ?l|rliltes ob{r) ing lhe l'aLlli €\clusion princjple
bc desoiL(l in lems ol .r liek1 ilir;ory by thc so called
olso.rn
se0oDrl quantizotidr procedure ol Jordlm and \Vigner, {or Nhicii
r.he nrrml)n ol p|lxtnilcs jr c qu riun] stttc cin be onlv 0 or i.
Ii$t, rclalirily .x!recLions xrd spir $-ill be resle(it{t1 On€
fin(h nr this crse tLari l]le rolc ol leld qutniir;y i.r pltlo(t bv tlle
proi)rl)ili1y aDrflittrdc,y' obe-ving the limo dcFjndentS.ltrocdjrger
p1, ..,\',1'I,r.. lLFr '".rFnI ." - than in plcne war..is.
(20)
In the ordin J Srlurnxlirger ilr(r)ry lhis equttioo is construcd i,o
desoibc thc st!le ol t single ptrticLc (elertron) 'Ihe rmplirude ol
probrrbilii:! lor obsrirr.rtion of thc electron {1i position I is then
t(r'). h the nel(t thco,t'ol tllc dccirorr: equttion (20) is;till LLsed,
lornrLly unchrLngcrl but lvith a vers dillerent mr:tnirtg ltr
the (iase ol thii lilciD-(loiln equrlion N'( ha1'e trcricd the
fiel(l s ls ar op tlor whi(ih has mrlrix cl{rncDli givrl }rv (15)
and (1ti) conncdirs statcs i $l1ich tlt(, nuuber ol parlicles
chtrng.s by +l. I a similtr $.rv tfe ficl(l (|taniit)',y' rlso rvjll be
consirtued rs rn operalor.lior docLlons ol)cving ih€ Ilu iprincipl€'
ho$1rvcr, the nrrml)er of ptrticlcs in .1 strtc ol gi\'en monlcnlum p"
crn bc on11'0 or 1 m lons $ the spirl is nogltcled ln olhcr ilods'
th(i occuprtion unlbers n" cxn be only 0 or I ffc opefutor
pr)r)crties olilr(i clcctron fittd nust be sI(ih.t-.lo lntd this prop tv
(s(x: Appendi\ 2). As in thc crse ol thc s.tl t fietd s one finds thtt
hoth 9(r) rnd,1,+(,) arc oper:rtors \rhidr hrl'c mal ri elemdrts
connectin'. steles lor i'hich the ocorPrtion nurnber n. changr:s trv
P,lRTlt:l,t:SOBEII,'C'lE|tP.!Li1,II'tlttitlpLt ls
ono nil, .ritlro fr.oot 1 rio 0 or lrom 0 l.o 1. One fiDds Gec ,\ppeuLli\
2) the folL.,Njris mairft derne|ts:
t/ /rll 0 - v1.l
|2l
I (r 0-,,
v{t
lhe -l or sisn shoul(l t)c ll.:lop{d accordnis to a s.n\trrt
(onpiicai(id rulc,i s'hich n(!d noi (n.reln us liere sincc ir mosl
cLses Lhc sqrrle Dr)dulLN ol rhe nririr eleururr; Ni be u.rol.
tion L - 0) :lnd,r'* rs a c(,arion opcrator GlrilsirnD 0
$ilren no i(x.1's act on rlie p rir,les rhejr r.|r.s{xrt - 1). jr
ion
terms ol shies ol gi\.cl Nrmenirm (phnc 1\rvcs) i,. the most
conleriort. lvhcn ihe st)jn pl.opurijes :Lre rcg|rctcd this ler!:ts
to thc mrhir .lonenis (21). 1\rh()1 e\tern:il fr)roes Nci on rhe
porliclcs, ho1rl]\'(T, ii, is prelel.|1blc ro annl].zrj in tcrms ot €iscl-
lunclidrs ol lho plr.r.tic]cs nr the ldd ot U]e ext,(lrxil torres rdher
Tnsi(x of chrracterizirs I stalc t)v indical,i s ihe number ot
eleclrons of r gi1B. mollintu p., \{r drrlaci{Jizc ilie slxte'. b!
i-cli- r qr pp rr., i- ,
of Ure de0i.ron in the cricrnal fntrl. ,\grin rhc l1urLi principte
wilL limit the vrlu; ol tlic o.cxpr.ij(n numtrers ,'l, to onlr 0 or t.
'fhe mrtri\ elerrcnt ol thc fttrl,y'(d rld of tne comtncx conjugrre
qurnlity /*(f \,i11 (Dnrect strLtes in slnrtl,rr clmgcs L\. + l rs
foLlows (scc {ppendir ,)l
t, (r) (i + 0) : +1r,(/) (.2))
,r'*(r)0+1):+trl(r)
jyhclc r.(r) is thc eisenflnn tion ol rh{) t l sratc ot ! ete(tronh ihc
sir(! nnce firld. Notico tl,rt ilc mrt x eldnu,rs (!l) c,r
pariicul crsc of (22) 11hrin no lorcs lcr on tL{) (t(jrron rrec:,us(j
the cxr)ressions rn the r.iglrr Land snhs of (21) rrc rtro pl:lne $rKjr
5. (he nNt ordc. llie srai.s a..rrding io s.m. r.biimrj.rul{r, tor cr
ahpl., in.(!sirg vrlncs ol2. . Oi tlr slrles tlLri pr..cdc s r o.ririn nx,trlje.
\Lill be oocut,icd.'l'lie sisn l,! be choscr is + or - r..ojdirs to rtrcrtrcr
lhis runber is .v.,r .r o.id
 QUTNIA Ot ,1 IIELI) '15 l A E',f ICI'88 PANTlCLES OBEYING TI]E PAULl PRINCIP].1' 15

that rcpresent lhe normaliz l ejgenhnci.ioDs ol an electroD or
lvhich no forces lr,ct.
In mosi calcuhtions of orders-of mrgnitudc lornules (21) or
(22) are uscd. HoNcver, tllc case in Nhich thc relatifistic Dimc
equation is acloptcd will also be bricnv ouilined. ln tlis case
instead ol (20) the licld eq,,Ation Nill Le llie Dilac equ{tior
1!-"rt,+ffa*
ll'lrere a., d/, a., P ar€ the rvell kno$n llil:rc mairices ln this
js
clse th.,lield,y' js no lonser t scalar brrt r four componcni' spinor'
Ior crch momcniuur p, there ue four staies corrcsponding
to the two spin orienlations and to positivc or neg:Ltivc energv:
b,: :tv t'p; + tn'c'
I moit ol Ure :rppliittio.s ol iljs formula \t shal bc loncencd
mercly with orde$ ol mqlnitude end shall rhcrcfore rijplace t
l1ilh its order ol magnitu(]c 1. The malilix etements rhen becone
ideniical i0 (21).
ID thc Dn&c hole thcory alL tlle posirjve-energy sl,ales in the
va.,,,,o ' ,r1o-.D:^d .i i. rh",.. '...F.i. jy .,,nc d-4
(28)
fuuy ociiupied by one elartroD per sirtc. Creation of a posit|on
conespords to the deslirLietion oI :'n cl€otron in one ot these
negaLive cDergy slaies. Consequenily the opeHtor / serves the
dual purpose either ol d.istroying {n cleciron or of crcnting a
positron. l'he operaior ,y'* hlrs the opposite efect.
(24)

The fo r componetrt \rave functioDs ot one of tlrcse siates can be

ryritte in the lorm of a planc wave sotulion ol the Dimc equntior:
J-- 31' ;"^""
VO
\tLclc the lour vahed indr:r p specifies the spin rnd tlle sign of the
encr$'of the strLe, and ihe lourvrlucd indc\ I dcroles the fo r
.omponents ofthe wave fu ciion Tlle qulnliiies Ij :'r'e dnncnsion-
less and are ol Lhe ord€r ol magnitude 1 "
In the electron-field ih€ory all loL1r componcnts ,h(,.) j1nd ihejr
conplex conj,rsates 'r'i(r) are operttoN Thev induce destruclion
rind crertiorl transitions ol the odlpatjon nunber 1'l'" {rom I to 0
or from 0 to 1 $'ith m{trix elernents
l
t^.r)Ll ,0/ - ' w!;. E, "' "
Q;)
l
l:Lt(o l) - + '^ Bl P '1'"'
VV
6. Whcn the eleclron mo!€s f ilL velocitv smrll corrr)r.cd nith c o.e
nrds tbai t$o of thc lour quttrlitica A ar€ ol l,!e o er or 1lrd t\to.r€
ol ihe orde. of masDilude ,/. For a losilivc cncr$ staie tlLe conilonenis
3 rnd 4 ore larse and lh. cornporerls I ard 2 rre smdll, ud lor a siate oI
regaii"e elergy lle otposiie is ilo crse

clt,lPf ER t lt'o
I nltraclion oJ' thr Iri,'/ds
cttNERIL TfPES O! INTnnlATIOlf
ti.
The fieldr dijcusled in (i,{ptcr I $'i]l b(iuled in thc
:1ppli0flinn$ to folloN lor tlrc inleryrotlrtirnr ol i nuilLcr of proper
lies ol tlio tr)llo$ins elomuitrry prri csl
'lhc photor (.qyrnhol'r) is describd bv itrc r.rdiation field
ol So.ti(D 2 s'iih amt)Lilude,l lhe l'e.ior pr)tc ii: .
The pitrrs, clarged t d neulml (indicticd by syrnboLs
n*, u , l'1, .r'itt tre assumcd lor simtli(itv to hlve spin zero.
Th€ clurscd pions rrc (lcicribed by a oonplca scrlar field as
in SectnD l rnd 1e ncutl.ll pions lrl'a rc.rl scalar field as nr
Se.inm 3. As a rule, tlru lctier indnrtinu ihc partjcles will bc
used to i dicite tho ficld amplitndc as well. lor pions, ftrr
errmt)lc, Lhe leller n n'il] denotc tlic .rmplitude of the fiold in
p] ce of ihe letter e [sed in Scciidrs l] lnd 4.
Electrons Gvmhol r), prot!,r$ (symbol P), neutrons (synbol
-\ ), mLrons (stmbol !), reut*ros (syorbol !) lrro {ll tssuncd
io obey the Ilirrc licld €qurti(n ol Seclion 5. lt (istinalics of
order ol mngnitudo ihe spn!' ch acter rvill hc dlsrcgttded
and ihe simplilicd e\pressnns (21) for tlic metrix ddnenis
of the fiel(l rml)lilrldes Nill Le applied.'l.hc synbols of tlie
paticles $i11 bc used to rcprcsent eiiller ihe particle or the
:unrlitudc oI the conespo di4 tield
InterlctioN bc{s'een vorious particles rrc responsible for a
variety ol phcnornena su(fi as ihe scrttcring of t\Yo colliding
€lementrry prrticles and th.r more complcr cvents in ilhich some
prrticlcs djsapper,r *ud some are {rrcricd TNo Dorticl€s mry
cE);IR)t,'tf Pr.F oli t]*TtR.1at tntL
interaci only lcn llrey occupt ih(i slurc posilion in sp[(e (contact
interrciion) or \Lhen tlre]'' e scprratcd by r finitc rli,(lNnce. 1'lris
li'si .ise is us(ally id(irpreled noi :1s .iL acturl lcti(,r rt r dist.nce
btrt rs lhe eflccl, oI r field thit lunsnils ilru i)r(i) lrom oDc io thc
otlier parliclc. h thc qlnnlurn illi.crprcl.til,i l.lis ficl(] r'ill lure
its o\yn quml,a lnd the iDlc,racl,ioo bcl$.txr tlli tn( orislnxl
prrlicles \rill bc dcsoibed as. proccss irr \lhnih I' qr!nturn ol tlLis
tielcl js cmilftrl hy o.e ol lhe pxllicL.s rnd rlbsorlrcd by lhe oilLcr.
l'l1is gircs riso to 0 muluxl cncrgl.ol illr t\'o prflirles thrl is 1
lnnciirD ol ilrcn dislllnce m(l r{)trrsdrts ihc poti.jrtial ol the lorce
Iield. Thc tr.nd is to co|sid.r n1,1i sriisir(torr.l theorr' Njlh ooly
conia,.i. iniorr(iions irhich is nr)rc olsily hrousht nrto :r rela-
tivistically n1!rriant loml.
In:rlmost:Lll lield lheorics ilut ue at prcsent under.liscus-.i(r
th{i inierrction €nergy ot i\Lo or morc ivpes ol ptrriicles is rtt)r(l
s{xitcd rs ihe voluDre inl,.gral ol rn niierriion energJ. dcnsilt.
lhis hlrs usurily the form ol .l frodu.t ol,rmt)liiudos ol ihe yxrious
ficltts.
tn thc 0!se of the nrtenciil:,r ol (t(xirons {nd tle furlirtion h(t(]
th. sul()rl lorm of the clensiil ol irit(irrctior {rrcrrjv is suggcsicll
by iis cx|r.ssion dr$sical el:c trorll rrrn ics. l his is siren bJ ifc
scalar prrhrrt -1 ./ ol lhe lecl,or r)o{crlirl ,{ rrxl ihe c ent
dcnsiiy ,/ ol th. c|ritrons. Sincr: thr: scrler f,)t{)riirl rxrlshes
in e radiatiui licLrl this is the onl) iuicriclio]l l'rrrn. OilierNise the
prodler| ol cl(]cliriri dcn;it! and sc rr potenliJ also should be
addcd. Thr: crrint dcl1jit,r J crD Le e\pressed iL t.m: ol the
ampliiudc / ol l,hc cl{1.lircn neld. Negleciing spj .ind rditi!.itiv,
one can exprcss ,/ .rs in ilie elernenluy Sdlroedi gcr theor). b-v
- lv/.ru'
,1,
'- .,,",,,1 \,1 z,\
Thr: iriierLction ene|gy is tlrLrs \rriiten ir tlie lorm
T_ r,t Jl lt. :;
/,/it_
ln order lo crlculiio iL. transitjr)ns due to the intcr:rcin)n (27)
ot cl$,irons rnd photrtrrs, its mrtrix clonents {ill bc n.cdtrl. In
cont)utins lherrr rho list tenn (27) \.ill be conlid{)r(xt fi$r.
11, niirins lhe opurtor ,{ which c,L (ir se the clestrLrcti('r or
crc:lii,n ol c pholon accortnrg 1,o (5), n d the opercrors,y' and r+
 .

T3 INTEEAQTIO,' AI TEN FIELDS GElit:RAL fYP}]S Ott Ii"TERICTION

which, according to (21), putu(ie respectively the desir ction ov-ar the larca r-olune a will be dificrent from
and tlie creation ol aD electron. Let p. be i,le momeDtum ol the
photon thai is emitted (or absorbcd), ft be lhc momentum of the
electron tliat is deslroyed, nnd p) tLe momentum ol the electron
i"-i":0 (30)

thrt is cr€ated. Destroying nn electron ol momentum Ir1 s.nd vanishes, bc(ruse otherwise rle interjrand avenges to zero. The
cre:itjng anotller onc oi momcnium pr is of couEe equivalent to a condiiion (30) expie,caes lhe colserr-ation of momentum: The
tr,rnsition in which an clcciron changes its momenium from a to malri\ clcrlerlt lanishes unl.ss the initial norncrfun p, of ihe
zi . Therefore the mrtrix clements of (27) will connect the inirial electron is quil to the vecior sum of l,le mom€nts ?, ol ihe
sicte to a find stftte ilrit djlTet's from it beoause a photon of phol,on nn{l ?! ol the elecLron i the finrl state. Il itre nomentum ;s
momeDilun p, ciliher hls been created or destrcJed and at the conservcd tlre exponeni.ixl is equrl to I and its volune inLegral
same iime an elcctron has ohanged iiis momentum from a to p: . is 0. thc totil co.liibution to ilrc nrtrix elemenli ol the Iirsr
We considerfor exrrnple the case in iyhich tlr€ jnii,ial si,rte contajns term ol (27) is then
no pho ion of momentum p. I in other \vords, the initial valu€ of the
2rh
occupatior number u, of the photors in tlie given state is zero. rPL €' r' (3r)
2. aq
Il a photon ol momentum p" is crcrteil the occupation nunber ot
the final siat€ will be 7i" = 1. ,{ccordins io the firsii form la (5) the Th€ second tcrm ol (27) lriekls r similtr coDtdbuliion wjth Z,
conesponding mnirix el€menii of the vcctor poteni,ial is changed into p!. Sin.e (27) is a on r.lativistic fornuln, the
erpressions 21,i m rnd pr,/,r aretle velo.jtics,r and u ol thc€leiitron
Jii n" . ,,,^,"" (28) before end after the transition. The m{trix eleme.li is lh.,',lore
'" t-ffi' "

Accordnq h, (21) the operalor,, th"t cruses the destruction ol .rn t (32)
electron ofmomentum pr 11ill contribute to ihe matrj\ elemcnt th€
t^cLat +etthb" /y'e. Accoriling to (27) we need ihe crdicnt of
Ib can be proved in a sinil&r ryay thaii thc matri\ element
corrcsponding to the desLruclion of a phoron also is sil'en by (32),
this factor. This gives merely an ildditional facior tr'ln. Fnially,
plovided thc momcntun is conscrled between initi:rl and final
the operator \r+ thrt is responsible lor the ueation of an el,"ctron of
momenlum p, contributes in (27) l,hc frotur +c t'tt)'.'/\/s. Btates. Othe visc lihis mairir element al6o vrnishes.
'fh€ t{'o processes which have becn considered correspond to ihe
In conclusion thc intcsr:md ol th€ fir$t tcm of (27) contribuics
to ihe malrir elemcnt 1ilrc term'
eni$ion or Lhe abEorption of light rccompenied by , chrnse of
moment:um of the eledron in comlormit)' x.ii.h ttre momentum
ehL I
tpr.")1:!! x consen':rlion. It shotrl(l be noticed, however, that ihe flot thai
2it c \/A JN these processes have a non vanishins mjitrix element does not
(2e) meen thAt the processes ,.iulllly happen. It is well hnown that:r
(yt h) t"'-' frce clcct.on cannol emil radiation bec&usc in this case iL is impos
2-a 9* e,) rttt "' "1'
Eible to sntisfv aL the ssme time Ure conserr-stion of momentum
'l'his expression rnust be ini.rsrried over l,he normalizrtion volume and ol en€rgy. Tn Seclion 10 the methods lor c&lcularing rhc
0. 1he integraiion is immcdirte, sinre the onlv space-deperdenli prcbibilities ol l,ransiiion and in perticuhr lihe role ol the con
factor in the abovc expr{)ssion is the e{porentiil. Its inl,€gral servrtion ol energy wjll be dlscussed. (Soc also AppeDdix 4.)
Tle Eornuln (32) sives the correct order of magnitude of the mairix
1. ol uris cruessio! is eorectlr gire! iD
sigtr (29) iD ih. pDciicolly
imloi.ni crs. tlat onc c!.ctrD only is irvolled. elemert also iD the rclativistic case in which the elcctrons obev the
 !o I\IE&ICIIO\" OT IEE FIEJ,DS yuKAtyA IN't ER,lCl IONA 91
Dirrc equaii.,D. l'he expresslons for the currenr densfty ad the ments.]'he vohme irtlegrrl ofthe encryy densiry invoh-es thereforc
interl1cti(D ene|gJr arc then
merely the iDtegnl over ihc spoce 0 oI r producij.,i cxponentjals
r- -e{,av
which mrv be Nr;iien

x: I t.raa: -" ! t"v tan (34)

I t*'*'-* -' ' (3ri)

vhere ,y' is thc i,rinsposod conjuglte ot rhr tour-conponeni Dtrac Thjs intcsral is dilTu.eni lrom zero only $4ren the vector

In the relrtirisiic cllse both the Dirr(i mltriccs a and thc
qurniiiies, of (25) hrye ihr r)rder of ron!{nirude 1. lrljne (5)
orrc fi!ds ihalithe mat.ix elemu t for rh e crerrioD or ihc desiruction
ol ,. single photoD is ol the ordcl ol mlgniiude
(35)
When thc relocitics src clos(i to c rhis exDressio difi€rs fron
32 or r Iv. rJ, .rur,r,).
Iror particLcs obeyi s th," Bosc ltinsiej st:riisrics, like the pions
for exampl., the exprcssioD of thc ounent donsii,y an.i consequcn y
also the lom ol Lhc cle0i,romqtnei,ic into.rction are soneNh4t
dilTerenii fron (27) or (3r). Orc finds, troll.,er, rhrri jn rhe simple
processes wLnjl] (e arc going tio discuss rhc order ot murnibuitc
+it+i,+.+i,:0 (37)
becausc oiher$ise the intosrrnd avcfuses ro zero. When this
conditidi is fr []lcd the inkisrand is I and rhe irrcgr becomes
equal lo the nornrlizrtion rolune O. Thc above equr.iion expresses
rhp tu^r p um 1"... r. ir
" r,,, r L. " ot ,he
parl,iclcs desj.roycd appcsr witli ihe plus Eign and those of rhe
pariiclcs creaied oppear $'ith the minrs sign. Ilencc rhe vector
sum of the lrlom(lri& of thc particles crcrted equats the \'$jtor sum
of iihc momeni{ of the parti(iles destroy(jd. One
obrri$ theretor€
ihe foll(xvnrg thcor€n and the follorving rule:
Theorcn a! thc nonL.ntun conseruition. Two sl,r.ies that arc
connected Ly I non vlnishing matrj: etement of ihe inter-

"l l' ^r,,i, pio..." o1

"r..';onanJ I-.riu",or
of r phoion is gir.en also by (32).
f, CONSEN|ATION OF MOMEN TU|I
It hrs l)een secn thc1, ihc 0onserQtion ot mom€ntum
in the casc ol ihc €lectronrisneijic interaciion i! a necess!.ry
condjtion jn order to harelr, non-v:l ishing m.t x etcmeni. The
samc is lru. also for rlie oth€r field inreraciions rlt we shall
encounter. It will be scen ihaji nll inier.rctions :ire volumc integrats
of tcrms contrjnins fr.tors equ to thc rmplii,rdes of the va;ious
tields (or sonxjtimes of tlieir d{rrjl,ativcs). rii is scen from (5), (15),
(19), (21), (2;) thai lor rlt iypes ot ltdds ijtre space cl{rpendencc
ol the mrtri\ clements ol the n ous ficld components is contained
in an c\poneniirl lacior exr) \+ip.t lh) \.|rcrc p js the momenrum
of th€ puticle th!.t is crc.Lted or destroycd_ Thc sisn is alilays +
for the destuction matrix elemcnts and for the crearion ele_
action eneryy opellLor hrve equal momenta.
RuIe Jot culxularinlt N)hme irLrestuts. rn calcr rrins the
vollrme iniegrrl of thc en€rgv dcnsity the momcntum con-
scNation is r{rquircd. 'lhe jntegral is then obiaincit by sub-
stitutins the volume [] for the volumc integral of ttrc prcduct
ofalltlre exporlcntjal iactors. These prope.ties greal,lv simptjtv
rh" rurpurr r,' a rrp nJ,i\ F.FmF.lrj.
For fLuiiher discu-$ion ol thc en€lgy-momcntum conservaiion jn
field theoriessee Appendix 4.
3. YU K,,)IT',,) INTENAqTIONS
In ilis section and the next tLe rnain interactions
bets'een elcmeniary p:triricles llill be enumcrated. We begin vith
the Yuhawa interaciion belween pions and nucl€ons. Thc assump-
 --

.e lNTl:R,1ufION AF T E I.tt:LDS fIi KlIf1 INTERACTTANS

tion jsmade thal lhere.remNirix elem.nis seneratins the foli{) \.ins possibilitv for the irlerrcinm brm in the Lrsrrnsiin densiiy is
therefore tlrc HcrmjiisD opc[io]
(a)1'= li + II+ (1,)NcP+r e;(11P,9",",".,\ + rriri-rd,a:d!P).
(38)
(, P.1P + f (l) N,rn +no. ITem ei is a coefiicicnt lhlrl deicnnines the Etrcrlith ol the inler-
In the originrlYuhria theory only the reactnlrs jnvolrjrLg chareed actrn and ha! ihc dimensionB ol ar elecliic ch{rsc If is found
,r:idF r.t |p.cLr,.ite,.p rn,t F-. t.,.,,.e,rain ih,t the abole tcrm in the Lrsfungixr le&ds to " Hrmilionjan
density eqrl.1l to it crcepi lor the sign. 1Ve ceD th.*forc wrile i,he
that a neutral pion also eriists, rnd xccordinsly Lhe r\ro rexcl,iolls
(38c) and (38d) havc been oddcd. tl ttre r(a'rtions (38) arc correct
one \rould cxpect thc pion io obcy Rose stntistics and ha1.e inl,e
gml spin. If the spj iE 0 a repr(isc.taLion $ith a sc:Ju fi{rld rs dis :t' = "l / trrPl","^,'v + r*-Vrja,d,d,P) .10 (39)

cussed jn Sociions 3 And 4 is plausible. tI rhc spin \\'.t? I :r, l.ector

This is not the only possibilil,l', becouse ii n is a pseudoscalar
field shol,l(l be adopied insic&d. tn \.liat ft,lo$s a sp 0 wjlt be
its gladient is r p;eudorecior. Thcrefore an jnrllri'rnt expression
Tlis stiLl learnjs op€n the possjbilii,jes ihrli the lletd amptjtude, crn Le lormed l.ls l,he for.rr dinensionrl ve.tor producl of the
tr'hich \1ill be denote,:l b], Ii, may be a scuhr or a pseudosr,lar. srrdieni of n or II+ and a fsord.,veclor frrmed wil,h P and lr'
iccordina to thc p:ittern of (5) i Appendix l This yields in the
It is lashionable io rssume the latter sircc onc linds rhar i1i lcds to
H'nillonian r tdrn
nuclear forces less 1n disagreemcnt irith (jxperimeni. 1V. slrall
loUow ihis fashbn.
Whcn II reprelcnts a neuirAl pion {icld jt rrill
be r rc{t qurnritv
:ll'' -*4 I(-.,r qi".\'+ c,,n'pt.
"o.'1.)
an {+o)

u.'r. r:c",ior ?. Io.:,\...n, a".l.. Lr,d where thc pirn rnas:. The factor n,/!. h$ been writteo e \plniitlv
p is
nrskad by a complcx nel{l. Onc shoutd ot corrse use ll diflcrcnt jn the cocHicic l, !1, thal the consturt e!' again will ha.vc tlle
notalion tor the ivo cxses. In order ro keep our founulas snnpld
dnnensions ol rn €lectric chlrlge.
this $ill not be done.'rhe poinL will Lr€ ctarificil $henever necessrr.v.
In oomputmg odcrs ol mrgritudr: snnplihed erprejsions $'itl be
ll-p dis.u.,:no r'!r ",llu\- sr r,.1., o rr",.\rn ntF,t..,r.q;d
userl. Instr:ed ol Lrsing (39i or (10) or d co,nbnltiidr of tLen ooe
p.ors ror q Lr, l- n is a .uTp ar fFlJ
can eimpLily thc crlculaLiions by Dcglcciirg thii spln propcrties
From (19) and (21) it follows il,rt the reacijons (3S:r :lnd b) jn the form
of tlrc nlrcleons ard by writiDs thc inleraclion tc.m
can be producc{l by terms in the intcrx.tion enersl cont!in;rs r,he
re.r',,.I V P,,ndnP \ ln.onLurr un oIo|ar.,ir.j-r 'u-" a:"/{nr-.r-+n-rv)ao (r1)
tbe intemci,ior cnergy density {jU Le trl(en proporijonrt tr) these

For lihis parlicul where P, /'*, N, N* hrvc mahir elemenis conptted tccoding
it nay be inslr.uctil,c to tmk
case, hoirever,
to (21).
sonewh&t nlorc closely iDio the xciual fo.n of the possibtc inter-
1'hc errolls itltlodurcd by adopiing (1I) .rre varions Firsi of
action tcrm.l Sinca n and II* hive LeeD $sumed io L{j r)scrdo-
all, lle resulis aie nol rd|1iivistically inrtriani. Therclore one
loalars, the simplest iDvarirnt combiDations ol the desjrld type
crnooi e\leci tlie bcllrjor ot pi li.les wiih enersl' rery hrsc
are obtrin€d by issocioting l,hepion rmplii.udcs n ith a pseudoscrhr
conprlrcd lo lheif rc-ll elt1gy i.o be rct)reseolerl properly ilso
expresslon p&tterned accordnrs to (3) in Appendix 1. .uhe simllcst
ai l,nv 1'elociri€s errors mny be exDecictl. Althongh l,l1e Dirrc
2 TILo reod.r inr.ro6ted iir this l)rrl, ol the,lir. sj.r sl,oulrL tjrsr ud mlllrices rnd tLr.rir producls hrve elcrncdts of thc order oi uDitv,
ApDerdir 4. Otl)€rsis. Eo r\,er to lormnh l.1l). factors ol tlrc orcler ?,/c ffequcDtly appeu thejr expccl.iiion

I Ii 1'F)RAI]TlON OT IHE NILLDS
values. TLe snmc is true ol tllo quantity (r,/pc)V .ppearnrg to"
.'xamplc in (40).
The mrin features thai are losi in substiturins (.11) for (39)
o- ru rr. l,p quari, rr\",r1,1"r. . dirrg.,r r r" pir.l"l"n r.r.c
of the nlrclexr lorces trnri of the contribution of rhc pion fietd to
the magn.itic moment ol the nucleons. 'tliese eflcclis ot coursc
\rould not be obtain:rble from ! spintcss expressnni litre (11).
T F ,'ij. rtar'r1ts.. ,.rp irr t. r nt,, -1,"J , r h" er.
mplr.Iy ,.f he . l, -. ion t",-pd o..
' \j.., ulc .\., rl.l
observc that a convincing form of the inicracijons is nor known.
ericcpt in the case ol the intem.liion bei$ren elecirons !,nd etccrro-
masn{rtic field. Indced, no expcrimental c'idence crn be quorcd to
pror-c thot inieractions lilte (39) or (a0) cre corrc.t. This uns{tis-
fach)ry silurtion is probably due in p
t to rhe t:ici thar no Droper
math.im&lics h:rl been evolvcd cap{ble ot 11:1 dling inier.r{rtion
terms umlnbiguously. The prccedurc most us&t currentlv is to
'eB.'I I'cin.r,.riuI rF ,'.,s16ru|l .rjon.rrI i.omp prp
prol)rbiliiies ol lirsnsition to th€ lo$,est rpproxjmation rhlt vi€kts
thc desired result. Iiven \.ithin tliis limited scopc one trcqucntly
cncounters diversent c\pressions ihai {re esiinated bv cur otT
nr'" " lu,." I lrr.'o1. 1r'..6,,; r'
Under these conditn,ns one wonders wh{)ther ;i plvs to spend
time and efiort h computing some terms exaclittr $,hile other
'lirerg, r'r re"ms r. 1FC ".r.J I l,F r".r rh., Fptd r..or:F. otren
give results jr:rsreem€ni $'ith expe ment ar leasr as to the order of
magnitude mrkes it appcrir likely that the linai theory IriI beir
or.,".iTijri'\ r.,.l6pr.n. a:.nr1,r . t'"r rp.rt, ,1,o.t
",,.n
of a finite sizc of the €l.meniary plriid€s or evcn a granulcr
geomctrt such as is suggested by I{eiscnberg :rnd Snyder may bc
clucs to lle solLrtior.
Th{rse sonxj\vL:r.t disprr:rging rcmarks as ro tlie shhrs ot Dresenl,
.hj
iFl , rr,,,," o., o r,..' ,, .t . ,t-\,
", ";t,,
This disciplinc hlls progrcssed to r poinr Nhere it givcs usR (tetajted
undcrstLnclirp of the plroton-elc(jiron irrcmcliion. cr.*Li shides
hrvc heen nulc in ii i the lNt l€$, yea$. Sj.ce, ho$.{x,!I, ihere
e\ist .xcellent monogrrlhs on qurntun eledrodvnanics, $,e wjll
nol girrc il mucL &l,tenti(D here bnt reter rhc reader to more
specializ$t publicstions.
The Yukrwa pro.csses (3E) h:rve a vcry imporianli consequence.
Y
YUKATYA INTENACTIONS 95
According to (38b) lor exlmple, a neutron is converiiLrlc into a
proton lrnd a negatire pion. llroln the existence of { strorlg inter-
action bctwccn these two possible strtes it {olloNs, m $ill be
discusscd in more detail in Section I1. thrt tlicre is d coniinuous
interch&ngc Loineen these lrvo forms of the neutron. fhc ncutron
spends prrt of its time as ner.rlron proper cnd prrt ns r proton
with o ncg:rtirc pi(]II noarby. Similarly, p:Lt of the iiimc:r proton
,
is a Droton p(4xr and prri of rle liDre it is a neutron \vith n
positive pion jn thc vicinity. The anomrlies ol thc masnctic
mom€nt of thc n clcons alrc:rdy mentioted are nrturyrcicd :1s
b€ing due to thc mas ()iic ellecl,! of ],he pioDs thrt {r(i lound a
part ol the time in t}lc l.ici il,x ol 1,!e nucleon. UnfortunAtcty ille
attempts to e\phin thc mtignctic aDomaljes quantitttil.cly in this
manrer li&\'e t'rihl, snd nothing more tlian cn qrccmurt jn the
orders ol mosnitud.i hrs bcc ilchieved.
lrormula (11) rppLnis io ihe clse of chrrged pions. fhc ilssump-
tion js usurll]' madc ttltl, the irl.eracljon of tlic ncutr pions
with the nr0lei is simihr to il. In ihis case, lio\re!.r, II is a real
quaniity:rnd th{:rofor(i lr and rl* arc thc stmo. The present
evidenc€ seems to indicrte Lhai, lhe couplins constitDts r! have
appro\imntcly equill values for lhe inter$.tions ot thc cbarged
and thc ncutral pio s. In tlis booh ttte t$'o t{rrAction consLants
will bo i{kcn l1! (r|rlr].
Wc conclLldc illis seclion by compuiing thc mairix elements
ol the intc ction (11) accordins to the lcs ai lhe end ol Section
7. lhcse lomulas vill later be usnl in ihc applications. fhe
matrix rloncnis fol aU pro!€,.ses (38) in which r pion js created or
destroycd are obitrin€d fro,r tlle formul$ (19) lor crlculrtnrs tho
mal,d\ €lernenis of iI and (2I) nrr ciiculating the rnatrix elemcnts
of P and -\t. The inl,egral over thc cxponerttial lrciol is replr(€d bl'
o as explained in Secl,ion 7. The rcsult is
ni..
hc I 1 t'hc
..,
"Vz!)u, VA Va O:-::V 2ttu" (42)
-
totil cnogt
{'here u" is the of the
Dion 0t cried
ihaL has been either
or desiroyed. In computirg ihese formulas ii hm bceu msnnted
that the tmnsiinm oi ihe occupaLion number of thc pii[ was
cither fron 0 to 1jn a crealjon process orfrorn I io 0 ir a dcslruclion
pro(rss. Othcrlvisc ihe factors.v/n. -l- 1 or Vn. appcaring in (19)
sbould be iDcluded.

lNTLnlCftON OF TIIt)
9. 01' II ER ]N T ER AC T IO N S
It is knoNn €riperincnially th$t the pion is an
unslablc psrticle and thrt it dec:,ys sponi.ancoLrsly vith a tifctime
of abort 2 X l0'3 rcconds into a rnuon. Powc]l, $,tro firsr otrscn-ed
lhis decay, fouDd that the muon decayirig trom a pion at rest
always hll6 a consirnt r&nge ot about {j00 micrors in ihc photo-
gr*phic emulsion. From considerutions ol enersv momentum con-
scrv&iion one conclLxle6 that, in th€ pioD docav o neurrat partjcte
mu5t also be emittcd which lcr\'es no photosrcphjc tracc. It is
consislent $ith tbe rrther $idc limits ol experimeni.:it error ro
assume ihat tbis neutral pariicle has niss zero. Tbc or.renr
asslrmption l,hat se shilL loll(,w is i,hat it is a nentrino. Ii is,
ltowever, more convenieDL to cail this parrjcle an anii neutrjno
(symbol t), which ol oourse nakcs titLte diiTercnce. t.hercft,re we
shali postulcte the rc{etions
IIt=p'+t ind 11:A +,.
An inier:r,ction term suiiable to causc tlre first ol thcse iransiiions
should include lhe operotor II, s.hidr acmdins ro (tg) desiroys s
posiiivc pion, ard the operators p+ and /, vhicL r(jcording to
(21) crc.ric a posiiisc nuon and destroy a neutrino, i.e., crcaie rn
&nti-neutdno. The samc combinatior ol ope.atoN wilL also cause
the jnvcrse of i,he seud reaclion (13) because the operaior tr
can creaie ! legnlive pioD.'fhe opemnrr !* ma) crc,te e positire
muon of ihc negative Dir^c seo of ihesc prrrictes, thrr is, desi,ro)-a
ncsative muon. Simlhrll.ihe operlror / mrv desl,roy a neutrjno.
Since the hierartion erreryy is lL real qLL.tntitv (Ilerlnirir operaror)
its complex conjug:Lie u+/*/ should bij riilded to the prcdous term.
'lhis complex conjugai,e is snitrble to prodrrce the second rc.cr,ion
(43) nnd ihe inlerse ol l,he first. The sinplcsr form ot intcuciion
enersy suil0.ble to produce the relrctioos (.13) ard rhejr inverses
would thereloro be
0u*, + n*,*u)
"" | a9
rh€reca,is r suitable nrteraction {xrnFtxnr hrr,ing ihe dimensions
ofalr cleclric c]]!rg€.1'lc interactiol iun (+ l) is not relaririsinja y
-trF
FI lt /,DS oTul t lN't LRACTION I r7
inv|1rnDt and should be replaced by more eiaborrte exprcssions
somewhat on the liDcs folloircd in discussing vrrious lorrN of the
Yulia$o jnieractio . Sincc orLr oim is ncrcly to cdcula|e orders of
magniiude \ve shalt turi:go thcse conplicaiions in lhe inier€st of
simpliciL]'.
f'hc mrtrix €lemcnis of tlle interaciioD (aa) can be calculai€d
wiih lhe Lsual proccdure by combining the matrix elements of
II, p, r ohtnincd r.spci]tircly lron (19) atrd (21) and applyins
ihe rulc of Scctiol 7. One {inds t}r&ii thc mtrix elements for ali
proccsscs (13) Lave equal values,' nrncly:
(45)
\/ 2a,"
s'h€re u, is ttLe energv of the pion. ]'hii formula be used in
"'ill
Section I;l when the lifetime ol the pion is dis(,ussed.
Th€ interaction constrnt betweer elecirors and the mdiction
neld is the elecironic 0harge The interaction consliants e1 of the
':.
Yuk!$'a theo.y (formuia (11)) snd the constant e3 lor ihe process
(43) (a3) all hrve tlie dnnensiors of an electric cbarse. Theil aciual
vahes, liorvever, are quite di8'erent, as $'ill be seen in the next
rve shall procced now to dis{iussthree other el€mentary processcs
\ hr' r \..' .,,''" :u .n-,.r.* " l",liTr,'"r..rsc / ,mo.
'I'hesc const{nts will hc dcnoi.ll by sj , t' rn{l ra .
rhc first ol tlcse int{rrrctnms responsiblc lor the bcta rey
dni-.sion. This proccss h.is long sincc bccn intcrprctcd as due to the
dcmcniery'prrticle reaction
(46)
The formulas becone more symmetric by assuming thai an anti-
neutrino and not a neutrino is associated wiih the emission ol an
eleciron, and the reaction (ad) has been rvitten accordinsly. A
transition of this type might be due to an iDteraction tenn in the
Ecniltonion of the snnplilied lorm
s, I e.N"., + N*Pre) do. (.47
)
(44)
3. ir ih€ crse ol tlre similar lorN ! (42) the assumpiion has beer
Urri ihe occuJJilior Jrurtrbe.s ol lle J]ioos chsnse either lron0 io I o.
rntde ^s
rrom I to 0. othowis. tlc Imtor y'i + I oL V; sotrld &ppcar in (aI).
 INTERACTION OF IIIL IIELDA - OTEER 1!t7 ER'|aTION t 99

In this casc rll loul paticles arc of the I'ruli tvpe anrl (21) rvill The spontrDeous de(ny (a9) js noi i,he only procesd by rvhlch a
rruly. \\ r'- 1,, r, ps o c", .,o ; L, m. .,
" "nl, ,,, on."i. ,i .rine nuon mtyvanish. Thr:ri: is d idcrlce thal anegative muon crpLured
,
,o rle i1 .r1. rior, , i7 L rrmpd:r .t-, .d , Dear r nucl€us mrx disrppear without ernitting rn clccLron. ,l
r*r.tion ot ihc typc
''G)"":3
This formula, horverer, corrcsponds
to a rranEilion in which $ll
(48)
r+t+N+r (52)

is consisient with thclinown facts. ,\s soon o$ tLc muon is captured

four p:rrticles ol reaciion (16) rre in siates $.irh de lnirc rnomentum
values (planc wavcs). In rhc applictrions atso ttrc toll1lutas .or_
rcsponding to the eLse in Nhioh thc states of rhe noltron, proton,
and_clectm! ll,re not reprcscntabtc !s ptanc rLal es de treq[en y
used l'hesc formul:is coutd be obr$nred by us;ng tLe erprcssions
(22) irstead of (21) lor ihemlirix cl{rmenrts ofihen(td conlrronenis.
Th ,-.p.,di,c o,mul.s, a. \1tts.
rha, l'1!Fl...rm:,.|p nonJFrrod.,"...ir r,"n.,.,e-.-n ot he
r.yirr"r.cri,.r.inr, .r.d""r h,r, i. q.c;,\ I
"eru ""iTl.:rFd
tj'pe (47), $'ill be meni,i.,ncd in Scction 11.
'lve procccd
to discuss rnother ctement:ut jnremotion wtrich is
rcsponsiblc for i|c spontaneous dccay ot ttrc uruon. t.he mLlon is
an unstaLlc partide. It has a mcrn life oI 2.15 1 t0 'scconds
and emits an electron. The me{sLrre ents ot Sr,.nrbergcr rnd
AndcNon indjcai,e that ihc energy of tte clecrror (lnir,terl is nor
always the srme. This fact has bccn inicrpreted br: Si.eilbereer
1rd \V'p"l r
rta :t,e mu n dF- .. nrLo rl,ee
pr"i1...e|la r"r'.Ip1r:.,..,"-,"...
neu { nucleLrs ili ryould rcact with one of tlrc nuclcri protons and
the t\{o ptrrticLcs rvould change into a neutron and ft neut no.
One leoture o{ tlris hypothcsis js that lrom it lolldrs thai ihe
Dudeus in $.hnti thc rclciior takes place would not be slrongly
excited sinc€ nost ol t]rc mass energy ot the muon r1'ould be losi
jDto neuirino energy. This w{,uld erplajn why thc process as a
rule does rot l€ad to st:ir lormalion.
In the usual simplificd lorm ar jntemction tern suiLable to
cause (52) may be $'rittcn
s, I @-P,.p* + P*Np/) .Jr. (53)
The mrtrix elemcnt corresponding to this inleractioD is quite
similar to those of thc prcvious two iDterrNliions and is given by
0j
(5,1)
.""
1'

to be ncutrims. Or this assrLmption rhe reaciion $.outd be The three constants sL , s: , s3 ol (a7), (s0), and (53) rll h{vc the
(1C)
same dimeDsi{,ns, crgs X cm3 = ,'M? '. Ii is x reurLablc lact
This reacinrn has been witten for the case that one of th€ t$,o that thcir rctld values seem to be quite close, ntmcly aboui
neuirinoE is an anti-neutri o, a ma ftcr of li fttc prac ticjil importrnce. ltl " ergs x crnr. This faot w&s noticed indeperdently by Thmno
-4. sinplilied interacliioD term leadi4 to (a{l) coutd
ard lvlicel(ir, Lee, Rosenbluth and Yang, aud othcr luthom, and
te probably is !ot a cojncjdenc€, {lthough at prcsent iis sigrtilicsnce js
unknoirn. Perhaps ii may bc (orrelaled to the somc\thal similar
s" J a.*." + c+ptt) iot. (50)
fact tL{t thc electric chargrs ol all ijhe elemontffy prrticles are
Also in this case the four particles rr€ all of the pnuti tJ,pc aDd (21) equ0l. Thcir common talue e phyr ihe role of i"t.r^.1id. .nnstrnt
n'ill be used for caloularirls rhe mririx ctelnents of rhc fie1d corn betwecn thc clec tronagnetic ficld:!nd lhevariouskinds ofparticles.
poDents. Onc finds as in ihc case ot the beta irtemctim rh,i ih{l It shonlri be noticed hrrthcr that some ol the interactions
mat x el€ments for the proce,.ses (d9) are dislusscd iri thc prel.ious scctions may not bc primary but may bc
0onstrucd is a conse.Ludrc. of oihers. Tlis possibilily, i'hioh is
(5t) erenplilicd by the Yuliilwa theory ol betll disjntegntnrns, is
0
discussed jn Appendix 5.
 V
IN7'E]tAI,'TIAN OF TIl
ll. '
FIT:LDS CALCULATION OF TRANSITION RATES
': 3I
ijnuun. This nrfinity, however, is compensated for by ihe fsct
IA. CALQT]LATION O]I 1,IIAN8lTION EA|,ES thal :1t;,,, is inlinitesimal.
A conver$nt pror:edure lor avoiding mistnkes is to quantize le.+apl
In practicrl computations it is cusrornarv to hrn.lt.
,le in -rr.r,,. ,Frns h,,nFFL i6tuq t.(e I,d. r,, ,,;o". .,.
in a finiie |olumc a \rhich is later on allo$'ed to increase to -. = 4n
trVhen ihis proccdurc is followed the number ot finrl stntes will be j
r'
-
,'pnr'a1ri,, lar,-.ty'rr rn"po,.r,,.-io. ,- -"*t. frcquently exprcs-qiblc by a lomula lihe (17) an -! +i
L,rofj bF., "" .. ,d ^,ti,"rg,nr .t. " . r rn
cxcepi.ion. lvhethcr ultjmjitety a math€maljcaL procedure \vilt bc dN:ltlr (56)
L]+el ,ryu ,. oacl, .,'h,r , rgr."pr^,tFm.,,. d,," -- -Ly1 1t,
'hF',.rn^ " 1,r" .,LJ ,,,oifi.J ,r1....h, rpdInriF.\i ,, where p is the momertum of the particle crcat€d in the reaclion.
at'.ii
.0lled fo. is not lino$n ar prcscnt. Botli in relativistic lr,nd in cl{ssical meoliaDics the energy If and
Tn this clem€nt{ry discussic,n $e shdL avont the difiicllries
l,\. momentum p ire rehtcd for s single pafiicle of l.elocity 1, by
rFrn,n.:rg hcrt,oo,ia- o. I.o,!q. .."o".. ,.n_r..,i,:r : I d,p.
dW (57)
"e"rl :. 1.1,i"?d..nJ:r .or."..qc. t.J .r, rr..r: r.m- rlrr l
il".,.nrrib'||ion. ul"ar.. o. \"Jrgr r. ,r"rl n ., .t, ac
senerrillv responsible for lilre divcrsencjcs.
Extcnsive use witl be made of I geneful formutaa which gir-es rhe
rate at r.hich the transitions trom arr initiat staie zer; inro a
continuum of states ?i t!.ke place. (lrjg. 1_) STATE O _F
:a
a(0+z): Tl,'79 ($)
R'0-,' . rl,erruu.iri,nrJ ".rh.r ,,,"oo. :ti., uf ,r. - :o,, ]'rc. 1 TrDsiiiors lrom lhe sirtc irio ihe.ortinuum
P4r ur . rm...^m. rrna. rTp"otr ,'y I L r-d .1,. uioorLrl \ o
zcro of ststes a

".nsi r". tC f rh.mf i.,tpm, oIr-.De . .".,n,".po,.r tF When a sinsle p ticlc is produced one will haye
l^, ,p, !1.i.u 1, i. jr..TFd t,1 i, I.t,..1" J",r,.rte
mean square modulus :lC,J for a sroup ot si:lres ?, cDerserjc,ltv dN Opr
(58)
.lurp osErFz.'o. lb!"\pr, !'orJ\ a ,.p,,.".,.r"nu,,,e
ot
t:o.rl .re,ps p.r uni ..r" sy nrer.,t ror pnFrsr .to.. o ,.. I oi lvhen ihe reactjon yields tx'o psrticles of equal and opposite
state zero- StricUy specking, dlldtt/ $.iI be infinitc for a con_ momentum, p and -p, and speeds u and r,, formuia (56) is
4 Spp ^r...r. mchanscd but one finds insNeld ol (57)
. "1., fi.t/ o,.1 tt..,rr?r. \.u \,r... t.{,,.-. .,,J.
)",,1,1-"," ...or. n,...,n JW:(r,+Ddp. (5e)
sl.esdy been rlis.ussed itr $eciio! 7. Th€ inositio!
.lisous6ed L,.e krF
o''.-r,o,^, "s'.."?.,o . ..a,p .i.1,.e, *,,,-..,,. .,-",,.;i,;
"0. 9. . q ,r- s ,," /" o 1 ,.,s ,, 1.r.,, o,,",.h ",i ..^n In the parenthesis tlie 6um of 1,he magnitud€s of the velociiies
yi\a,i ot " ..s|h and not their vector sum appears. In ihis cr,se one obtains
.. 'h.r,.ro..,,,,,r
. r ..-F , i I o,r. .."."".. "h.n:-..^,. .-o ".. .. *.,...
L1 ,
":'... :,
\bi.h ma\ /iT"r I ,A ,s rror. ,tp, o --,, "r L r., \.,.i..
.,.J dN !)p"
" ".,,o., "n, tsv,0., (bo)
tlIV 2n'1hxlh + u')
 A2 |NTEN|CTION OI' TEE ILIILD'
The cnse x.heD three prrtictes cmerge olrt of rhc reacrion wil be
discussed in the srxrcial applioarions.
Fornula (55) for the tri1nsition rrte is obrr,ined fron rhc ouaD-
r.nmalar '.-'l p"r 'rrbr .,1 al.tr,\i.'ld:o,..\,..
'Jrdirts ro i, 5l,ouu p " l,t,"p .,,t..- .h" n. ri\
,lam" or,r..,i-sr\p \o"r1p, FJir,";,.tr,mzero tnrn.rv
o .. na ,""",,,, , , ;,; ,.":.,;";
",..-,,;"
even wben th€ matrix €lemcnt vanishes. In rerrns oI the perrurba_
tjon ihcory this is due to a p.ocess of highcr approximarion. i.he
t.aDsitjon occuls tluough rhe jntermerliary of onc or more stares
connected by non,vsnish;is mairix etements borh to srat. zero
&nr:l to the strtes n. As a rule these intermcdiate strtes havc
energy
quite dilTerent fr.,n sts,re zcroJ and therefor€ no permane t transi_
tion of the system into ihcm is possibte o sccount ot the consewa-
One rpplics in such cas€s ihe strndard rules of jitre perturbation
theorys (second approxjmiion). The rr:rnsitjons from zcro to,i
o.cur ns if l,he tso st:rtes w.jre connected dir€orty by an ,,cfi€ctive
a: tv,- tr,
(.t1)
^ Sirut tlLe pion muss is smat compiu€d to that of the nuctcon the
The sum is cxtendcd to all rhe intermcdiate sraics ??1 conneciect to
slatcs zero rnd n by non vanisbing mrtrir elcnenrs. In pracri.e
such suns rre frcqu€ntty diverseni,. When rhis is ihc inse we
6hall .dopi crude cut-ot1 procedures in ordel to obrain so catled
"plausible" results.
1]. bEI'EI,O PJ4EN T P}lRAMETENS
\ ("ll bo\'F- ."J h.r i. t,., .h .n"-.,fl,.r1-".oi
^
.r1nr ,'6,
ll37 1.... r." ro,.orJ. "top1"ar p,nFF i,
hJi.ri,, r'..,n"n" f . rpan. rj, I r r jps p\t"r:ion rn
porrers of e obtainrd x.helr applt'ing rhe perturbari.D meihod
Jp. - .p n ord. I ot m. rnir .,h r. rr,+s.i\^
pu p' ol Vp a. .08;. \. u.'llr, ml l" r. . .i rrLr ,ti-ren
sionallv, irrfinitc numcrical cocfiicicnrs ofren arc excountere.t which
5. See foi era.rlle: Sctjifr, emntlm ltect,anics, D. tg6.
- DEYELOP}TENT PANAMET'ERg 99
obviursly spoil ihe argLrment. In any case, the srrlatl vrlue ot l,he
developmeni prmmeter may bc tahen as a indjcaiion of the
.eliability ol thc approximatior procedure.
,A,s rn e:rample of ihe meanirlg of the development paramerers
appropri:rte io the va ous forms ol field iniGricrions \'€ shau
djscu;s ji$t ihe Yuka$a interaction (a1). The st$te represcnrins
proton P ai rcst i6 connectcd hy a non-vanishing mardx element
11
(a2) tu r sialie (X + I1 )! reprcscnting a posiiir-e pion and a neuj.ron
with €qual nnd opposiie rnomenta p and -p. !-rom thc pefiurba-
tion theorl. we hnox'lhat ihe unpefiurbed sliete (P) will be mixed
with siates (N + n)! i the l €or conbhrtion
(P)+Xk(N+n), (62)
nhere .AlIr is lho anergy dificrence bet$een thc two statcs. In rhis
:lpproximatior the probability of firlding the stsrem h the staie
(rV + n), js :hj,,, ',/Alt/!and ihe prcbrbitiiy ot findins the svsiem
inrnyoneof lhcsi,it€s(N+ l]),is>! j1!. i,A /!whcrerhesum
should be rahcn Ior all allowablc v ues of p. In order ro cv{luate
this sum one r.phoes the matrix element:h- bv iis vatue (42)
.1 \ '/.1 .r,.^, -\r' " |,r' - Ip.n,rqJ o|1,, p,on.
encrsy difierence bcli$'een the statc (rV + n), rnd the unperturbed
siatc (/) caD be tak{r equal to u. Tho sum cln rhen be converted
into an integral by mtltiplying l,he snmmand Ly rhe expression
(56) ol lihe nunber of sraics beiNeen p rnd p + dp rnd integratins
to all vrlres of p. Introd cins as a virirlte insread of p the new
vadaLlc, = tipc, onelinds
' \rl - trh r
",, Jo ; t ,d,
1rr''
U lorhrnatelJ' the int{rgral has 11 losariilnnic dir,'ergcnce at
,? : o.We gei arol1lld ihis dilticultr by one of thc clude cur ofi
proccdrros Nlready nlultlorcd. Instead of integrarjng up to infidte
ol ihe momerrLum w(i limir thc integral io rnaximum
values
rnomcrltrun ol the ordel p., lihrt is, to 1'alrrcs of r7 ol orrler onc. A
jusliticrijon h this cut-ofi is thc expecrtatirD ihat rhc eapressiorr
(42) ol Lhe rmtrix elenrent max in frct breali d.nl.n at rclrrivistic
velocities of ihc pion. Th€ inteeral in tlie formul:r above bc(x)mes
 INTER}ICTlON OF TEE IIELDA PANAMETENS 36
DEVDLOPMENT
now of the order oI magnftude of udty and the expr€ssion itreu
Since e, ijuns out to be verl small i,his p3rametal is&lso quite
becomes of tbe order of Dagn ude
sm l so that th€ pcrturbaiion method is presumebly reliable The
same is true ol the development parameteB for lhe int€ractions
(63) (a7), (50), (53). These parameters ore siven by
Gh;
whichjs the usual expression adopted tor the devetopmeni param 9mc (65)
eter of. the_Yuk$wa theory. The devetopmenji prraneler repre
sents therefore ns order ol magnirude tlie traction of ihe
(..v, l,n \"di1 wi,l, P,.Trpnyurpi.ion.L,3 L n.ar"og,r" states where sliould be repiaced in ihe tllree cases by 91 , s' , g' s.Ld m
t
ol ,LFfroesru.,u,F.o,sranr should be rcpllced for tlie mses (a7), (50) by the m,ss of the
oir " r,o",ior .h.".1 Tt,. ir^i," electron rnd for clse (58) by th&t ol the muon ln aL1 cr,r.scs the
4/ in the denominator is thcre beccuse;n r. yukawa ih€on, one
rdopr, r, :on1l:Fd urir. Tl,F d"re opmcn 1,.r,r.."r 6r, ;" paranet€r (65) is qujle smail, ranging in value fro," to " to l0-"
qmsll nraber. I i, d..i.Ll. ro "",ro
. The approxi,ni1tion meihod lor thcsc cales should therefore b€
a.c, in ro . a fr".F. \l! ,r,. sin.c foD ol the jnterottion ter!]!
meson theory accounts for the nuctear torces $€lt
relirble prorjdcd lhe actunl has
enough to been gucssell correcl,ly.
permit 6. determinr,tion of the coupling consiant. However,
it is
b€lieved ihat (63) nu.y bc of thc order of 1/a. Then r, wouid
be
about twenty times the elcmentary etectric charge.
These lsrge velues of 4 and of (63) mean of coursethai
d physic
proton.is rath$ poorty reprcsenied by rhe methemrticaffy
simpfe
6late that $.e have indicaicd bjr (l'). _{cruattx, ir, js a rnixture
of
the state (j') rcpresenring D proion proper, nnd ot stahs
ff
represeriins a_neutron with a positive pion n€arby. The physicnl
+ [
proioDis,btrFro far hum, L n
rha a
"
ruar'u1 " o "1 J.y.Tl,Fu usIn11 o"a... i; ,;p.
'h"r ! f,o,.,. o..!.ionellv pmir. a p,- ;..
pion snd converts"rr temporerily into a neurron. Soon atrcrs.ard
it reabsorb the pion and goes i]'ctr io the proton forni. Tha
ncurron h1c a .;n,r1r 'e\r\
p-uron rn 'hr si ir \ "". I t"lrrrpr.,b,
fl ralre-
r,t,r! ot In, r,6 r,
r I " -r.r .. ,t i luire^
iarse, boing of the order of masniiudc ot ttr{r dev,toproonr, pa.r,,n_
eiier, or perhrips 25 per ceni. When trro rLtcteons
other thci surrounding pjo. fields inicracr in a mrnner "pp.o""t "u"r,
thai gives
rise to the stronll short,rflnse foroes betileon nucteons
m rvill te
explsined in Scction 17.
The developmeni parameters for the other typcs of intemction
arc obtained in s similar way. tror rhe interactjoir (a+) rhe pararn
eter b siven by sn expressioD like (63), naneiy

"1 164)
 =
ELECTEOMAGNETIC AND YUEAI|A 37

t3 the interaction constant of a hypothetical process similar

to the beta interaction excepi that the electron is replaced

CElPTER TIl RFN

Perhaps fubure developments of thc thcory will eniblc us to
undeNtand ihe rcasons lor the e\isicncc nnd thc str€nsth ol thcse
T'he Interaction Constants vadous interactidF. Ah prescnt, howcvcr, \1'c must trkc an em-
piricd approach and detcrmine lihc values ol thc various coutArrts
from the intcnsity of the phcnomem lihnt arc c:ruscd by them.
In Appendix 5 sono ol thc possiLle relationships bet$,een various
19. ELLC'l FOIl7t)N |t't,IC tlND I'OK,4WA constanis Are dis(usscd.
IN I LRAQ 1' ION CONSII]\r?S Thc ehctromisnctic intcr{.tion constent € is ofcoursc vcry $'€ll
Tn 11- 1,r'n".l,rg,rap,." 6i\
known. Its v ue is
.
ra\. , . r .,1 Tl-r do ro n,"r,l
rarFr.,crion tro"".".s
:
I,Fpn no. .hr ri,.. ThL.e a 4.8025 x 10 " cm'/u
sr'/'sec*'.
could be additiond iricrt.tions amons the iiementarJr partjclcs,
and bcsides there ftre prrrilles hose 0xistence is either hnown or
It is a rcmrrkable laci thab itre valuc of thc clementuy chnrge is
-(uspectcd drich we have teti out of the same for all chargcd pariiclcs: clcctrors, protons, muons, lnd
consideratioD becruse lo.
"-l.n,r, orr'. tr,rp.rip. I.orF,. ,.f .p.\in..rcrion
pions. This ideniity is pr.sumably relntcd to tlro conscNrtion of
processcs ol Chapicr Il 1r. consr.lni, h{s bocn inliroduce{t cleclriciiiyand to ihe faci thalparticlcs can chango into erch other.
irt,r. For cxample, the bcta processcs in which a neuliron chrnges into e
dci€rmlnes its strensth. Three ot rhem ha1,e the dimensions
of an proton, an elcctron, rnd a neutrino $'ould be incomprtible $rith
elclt.ic chargc lnd ihree have the dinensjons of energl,. X votume.
The first tlircc dre the conservalion of eleciriciijr il the absoluie valucs oI the charge
ol the proton and the electron $'ere diflerert. $re $ill troi discuss
r-the elemenrary etectdc charge ihat deic.mjncs the the eleciiromagnetic processes here oicepi lor a few cases h whicl
strength of the elcctronugnetic interaction_ they are necessary in order to undeniand oiher properlies of ihe
elementary particleE.
cFthe interaction constrnt of thc yuk:iwa theorv .torer_ The Yukawa interaction is responsible lor the nuclear lorces,
mrling rle .."",.gr1 _t ,1,. r,r, rs.,i,.1 b" ."er and the 1'alue of the corespondins interaction constant c' should
1.ior" rr.l be adjusted to fit the expcrimcnt'rl vrlues of these forces. r\
sketoh of the Yukor& theory ol Duclear forces will be siven
e-the consrant ot an intc.action ihAt has been postut$.ted later in Section 17. It wi be lound there tllAt in order to obtain an
to act bets.een pions, muoDs, aDd nentrinos. Nhich .ont,l h. order of maqnitude aerc€ment bctircen the observed andcalculated
responsjblc for the Epontancous dccay of the pion. strcngth of thc nucl€sr forccs lihe mnstrnt c' must be taken about
ti.'€nty times hrger th$n the clemcntary elcctic charge. In the
The threc constants $ith climensions cnergy numedcal c:ilculations we shall $dopb the value
X volumc &re
: ru cm Ar sec
r? (06)
,1-ilre iltcraction constant of thc betli pmcesses.
It should be stresEed tlirt this 1'alue i6 merely
an order of magni'
,,-on jnter&ction that has bcen postutated to act ]retneen tude. The quantitstive rgreement betlveen the Yukawa theory
muons, alectrons, andneuirinos and vhnjh coutd bc responsibte of nuclear forces and experiment is so indeflnite that it haE not
for ihe lpontancous dc(jly of the nuon.
 v
3A TEE INTENACTION CONS?,4NID' ,f EE BE'I'N INTENACTION SO

been possibla 1io determi.e rhe precise fotm of rhc jni,€rlction from the experimerltal value ', : 2 X l0 eeconds given by 3
en€rsy and therclo.e thc value of ihe constnnii musr atso be arrd Panofski we obtain t|e interacii.m consklnt
Martinelli
lell Lrncertain. In pnrticutar, rhe vatue of th€ spin irl rhe pion : 15 : 6r.
i.rot noro. I .^,rll Fnur Lorp"rt .psr...prD,.Fr r.:ErrF- cr 1.1 I 10 2.4 ,( 10 (63)

r.L.p. In ou,
"i1lpt r- I Jr".f;o" a cnr zi.., ,,q ...,.," t.""
It Nill be secn in Appendix 5 that this interrction may not bc
,siLtucd. pdmary. 1t mry Lc an indirect efect of other iDter;ictions that
hsve been tostulatcd.
13, DECAv OT THE PION,IS
DIRLCT PROAESS
14, T E BNTA INTEAACTION

TIre spontaneous conversjon ol the pion inio a muon The interaction responsjble for the beta transitions
s'ld i t'", ri.l di.. .."o i, cp.,:u1 eniJ t.- uu, .o I Jirc(L hos aL€ady been givcn in a crude forn in Section g. Nexi to the
"
rdc., .l rh":r ."!.r,u ..1 . t hp L F nF to hi" I,role"-, $i.t case ol ihe mdiation theory tbis is lhe process on \4ich Nc lnrve
no\
lr ."l,, 1 eo ,{, rli.. 3. .n ,rio, , in , rd.r ,o ,"J_ce rr,,m rl. tlle greaiest amount ol etperimcnLal jnfonnriion. ln spitc of this
iuTtJ Unor rr,orJ ,n.r"\t"..n,.1 rr,,.v,1,, or,t" in.rcrron {:rvorable situation thc attcmpis to subsiitute n,r (a7) a more
delftiled expression lnYe not lcd so lar to a linol {ronclusior. Nlosi
-{ pion at rcst h$ rcsi energy pc'. Tl,is cnergy is converted of the attempts sre biscd on assuning an interscliion tenn in the
inio ihc energy of ile ncutrino oi momcntum p ancl tLe muon of Lagrangian forned with cxpressioN p:rtternetl on those gjven in
rnornFniLm -i,. C^.!p.r. ,u.. ot,.aFfg\ rpluil.- Appendjx 4. Since the tcrnl in Lhe Lrll{lansirn must L,€ a surl&r,
one might for exrrnple proceed as folLos's: 'lhe expressior PPN
ce + t/ dc1+-Cp, = pcx (67) js a scalar c.ecording to (2) in Appendix 1; so is the exprersion e$v.
rvhere pr is the Frcm this cquaiion one Therefore thef product multiplied by ;! arbitrrry jnteraction
computes
the momctrtum p of thc tFo particles produced in the rcaciio;. let constant sr \ri[ be an jnva cnt sealar that cou]d be added to ihe
be the lifetime of the pion. The ratc of thc pjon decay ft(cor.linrl Lagrlnsian to represent the iDterrctior. In prssins from the
'-
to tlre reaction II Lasrcngirn to the Ilamiltonicn thcrc is in ibis case only a chanse
p + y is 1/r, and can be cllcutaterl v:ii,
(55) {nd (60) usjns- the rnatrix ctement (15). Sincc pjon of sian and therefore a possiblcinlarirni inieraclion temr Fould be
o at rcsi
disappears, its encrsv 1r. in (a5) \,iI be pcz. one finds
| _?".( :r- \ s, I Qi:NeS, t \trl)Pttsc) da. (70)

. h \\'/2a"-l
ap, _ ."p"
In vritilrg this crpression the complex conjugate quaDtiiy
2nt u i. 2;t.,,, u,'
has
been added sincc the Hamillorlian mttst bc Hcrlnitian. The inter
AI spins have bcen ncstecred, and ur and r,r are rihc sDecds of
acijon (70) is callcd scllar' inteEction. Onc can forn four cdditional
'hF In | -i!,. ,n I ,. ,h. -iL, r,. Orp hr. ,t"rFt,. p - ... t.e relativistio inruinrli lypes of intertctio by trsing the erpressions
velocltt' 4 of the nuoD rnd the momcnrum p c:rn be compuied
(3) to (6) of \ipendix a in a sinilarmcnrcr. They are called respec-
frcm the ron-"ervainrn ol onergy. ]\ssuming p : 276 m antt pt :
tively psetrdoscnlar, vector, pE.xxlolcctor rnd tensor intc.Actions.
m, with m the eleciron mass, one finds by soh,ins (67) p :
,210 For example, the pseudovcctor intcr.rction would lead to n term ol
58.1 nc, florn $tich ii, Ioilorvs thai r]re neuirino canies N,v
tho foliowing folm:
about 30 Mev rvlLile the lrilx,tic encrsy of ihe muon ts onty a.I
Mti.
li,. ir ..r , I d, f otdld, \..d
4"o3
The velocity of ihe nuon is 0.27 c. $/irh thesc nunefcal 1,eljr.rs ,".iac
-J l.
t

(71)
l "= 3r l0'ej. (68) ' "","U]. " ".)
 10 lII D lNlER,lCttO^" CONSTltt,tE
*hcrc dp, represonts tlre vrlue oI rhc inieraotion constrnt tor
ihis c,rse. ,Uso, linc combirariions ot lihei;e \ ious inier.t{itions
may be adopted. ditonpts hive becl made b cornpl1rij $,i r
erpcrinenl ih€ coDscquenoes oI ihe v n,us ir|crection lorns in
ordcr to decide which if an]- ol rhenr sives aftepiabte rcsult!.
Ii turDs out, unfortuutcly, i,hri lor rhc so caltcd Derniftcd r*insi-
i".. I'F h t" ul h, l."r ,,by.,," 11,T i r.,. ..rp or rlt rynF.
ol interacl,im. TIle cx(jelleni ssreemcni treiwcen the thir)rerical
and erperim{rntol shrpe ol ihe fermjiied spoirr rherctore does
not oller l1 clLre lor a decisior. Or tlic other txind. l,h(i difierenr
types of interr(ition si|e diflerenr sclection tes. l1or €xarrlptc,
t|e scrlar {nd tle v€cior irtcrocrions sjve rs s seleciiol rute tor
pennilted transitions I
\o clangc of nucletr spin, no clxnec ot
pa iy. (/-scle.tion fttes.)
The scle{,tion rules for the pscudovector or tcnsor inrc*r,ctiors
Chenge ol spin by 0 or +1, no clnngo ot paritv. 0 + 0 transjrions
lorbidd€n. (Cz-selacrion rulcs.)
Ii appcrrs lhat experim€ntal evnlence tends i,o faror rhe Gf
sdection ml€s, or perhaps r mixrure of thc IJ ancl 6'? nJes. This
cvidence, hor.ever, is not quiie co.dllsive, sincc unforrunal,ety
little is l(]ro\i'n expedmenlally of ihc spin and parity of betn aciive
sul)stances nnd ore is usuallyforced tosuess on the b$is ot nuctear
nodels whioh, althoush plausible, e nor v€w wc esreblishecl.
Il on€ assuDes the AI rulcs one {outd bc ted i,o rse eithcr Lhe
pscudovector interaction (?1) or rhc tunsor iniemcrjon. In most
crlscs thesc ts'o inrtcftrltions gjve almoEt jdcnti0at rcsulis.
lvjsner ftnd CriLchnetd ture co$ntered in addiiion the pos,
sibility ol a liDear conbinarion ot scr,tar, pscrrdovector anct pseudo_
scahr inieraotions $hich can be expressed in a rcrnerkabtv svm,
m,,r',., lorn. 1,. r.., . .h.$ j1n alrFpn,||,,,,h
"tlr..ir;"n. n"
$-orse than thri of other {hcories. Tlie resutts of the c.,mDlrison
of \.,J s,l.p{rprincnr .,n.€.'rrr Iiz,,t ov .vi.lsrt"
,tL"
shap€s ol tlrc permitted spcctr,r and of sevcral forbjddcn speclra
seem to folld{ the theoreticrl shape or shrpes wjth srrrprisinE
:r.cuI r Or 'ce orr-r l,r,L o ll rnl I",,r .,..,.... f,,r ,cc;
met until no$ in thc rttemprs to corretaic ihe inrensiiv ot ihe
hera r"asr'on. .Li \ rl,n mrrrir FtFm.., s.rt, .'r."o frorllunte-r
THE BET\ INIERACTIOtr" 41
- nodels. Ol course, the nuclear rnodels used are very crude so tlat
lbe tost is not vcry con.lusir-e.
'flr(i virious trpos of nrftraction lead to difierent prcdiciions as
to thc rnsular corelaiions of ihe dircctions ir Fhich thc clcctron
and thc ncutdno sr€ emitted. Since, horrever, l,he obscrv{tion
ol tlre rc(ioil of the neutrino is not sumciently rccuratc ii h{s not
provert possible until noir to drcw reliable conclusions. In the
present discussion ile sholl lirnit ou$elves to the use of i.hc simpli
6ed interaction (47) and to ine dedvation of its most imnediato
ln calcr aiing ihe maLrix element ol a bela iransiriion one cannot
apply $'ithout modificai,iorl ihe rules ol Secliioll 7 bccausc |hc
ncuLron r d l,hc prol,o cannoi be rcpr€senicd by planc wavcs
but tuc bound by slrorg torces i sidc the nrLclcrs. l'or this samc
rerson no ixnscrvdtion ol noncnturn holds lor thc loL[ rnuticlcs
jn cqurtion (40) sircc thc rcsidLrI] nuclcus crn trkc up rny arnount
fhe crltulation *'ill bc simplilicrt by disrcgrrdins thc Coulomh
lorces e.rtins on tlrc {rlectron. ,{1so tho rrsLral {ssumption ii'ill bc
na.de that the ivave lcnsths of the clcctron and thc ncutrino arc
larse conparcd to th€ nuclear dimcnsions rnd thr:refore the phaso
factor can be omitted {,om]rutins thc .(nitributiorl i,o tlrc mri,rix
element ol the frctors €, e*, r, r* according to (21). Iisch of thcsc
erpressions cort butes ther thc mnstrnt frctor 1/\,/4, excei
for the sisn Nhi(h is of no rele\arncc. TL€ firs1i ic.n ol (17) is lihc
one that, is r€sponsible lor the bclia proccssr:s with tnission of
nesatire €lectrons, whilc ihc sceond icrm produces thc reycrse
r%1.'rion pnJ rr" op I u''.. sr.\ I',.rrr"1 n' :u,
Since proton and D€utron a.e bound in the nurLeus tlicir rnn-
tlibution to the natrix clemcnt of (17) should bc complrtcd
according to (22) and not (21). Dcnotnu by N rnd.1'tlt(i \\a'c
funciions of the neuircn that is prcscnt in ihc nudqrs bcforc thc
transformation and ol the proton that is th€rc aftcr\vird, one
finds ihe meiri\ e.lement
n". : ff/r-r'ao
: ff,rn. (72)
This matrix elem{)nt can Le uscd lor c culaiing thc probability
of the tr.insiiion froni the inil,ial si.ate to a siaie in wlich an
electron is emittcd $ith momentum bei\veen p and p + dp and
 Y
4E IEE INTDR,ACTIAN CONS?,1N7S TgE BIIT.I INIENACTION 43

lihe neutriDo escrpcs Nith momentum q, carrJ,ins awaythe bahDce io do much morc lhan guess the order ol magnjtude of9n. There
of the araril:ible energy. lf ?o is ihc maxjmum momcrtum wjth arc some fcrorable cises lor rliich orc has remon to bclieve thst
rvhich elecir.,ns crn be cmitt€d, the ndrtrino enerlrjr .q $,ill be rtrc the neutron and tlie protm ]ur-c approxinliely e(1u41 wa1'c Iu c-
dilTcrence beiwccn the energy of elecirons rvilh momenrrr p! and pl
tions. Such cases arc trorlucntly ertuuntered for lighh elelncnts,
t:.1 : \//n/ +.i'pt ^,/m'4, + Cf (73) p:rrlicularll' for the so 0 |:rl \\'1gncr nuclei. If P rnd N in (72) are
We complrtc the prob&biliiy ol r:rinsition witt tormutr (551. the sa e {ave lunclions, thc intcsml r{rduccs to thc normdljzaiion
jntegrd and is tnerelore e.tu{l io onc- In such ijtses, tir{]rclorc, the
lhF ra ,./\ r'lr'$il p.o uo " I
". l' ;a "'r'
:l
for p the rnomenlun q of thc neutino and fo its vclocity, c. simplified lheory lerds to the simple result 9)t : 1. Some{h$t
An additional l{ci)r represcnting tlrc nunber ot sratcs ot an more c.,mplicaled reslrlt! are etperted, however, even in this
eleclrod of nonenium belillt€n p and p + dp given Lj. (56) must simplesi case il one oi i|e moLe elaborate forms of jnteractions
be included. ]'he fina] result is
thrt hrvc already been discussed is adopted. In particular, if
onc uscs the G'l''scleciion rules, one finds for 9t the followjng
2n s,rL " ad ap" ,:tp: silt)]t i, , ,
,2rrt{c qP
. exprcss n nlstcad ol (7:):
n s ,."ii t""h: t1P

., rrh '71 er : /P%N ,ro (for G? rules) (77)

''r,or'V,.." r'; - 1/n; ,p.p'dp.
$'here o is the Pauli spir operator of lhe nucleors. Even with (77),
This fornula sivcs the shape ot rtrc spectrum ot the emifted bera
however, 9r usually is ol ih€ order of nngnilude ol ah least 1iD the
rays. lrrom it orc our also ralcutare the toiat prol)ebilirv ot rransi-
rro. fo",1. r,.. ,.i.rnv rt ,.,.r'" en.r|v bi An addjiional complication concerns the shape of i]]e spcctrum
inlesrating lrom zero to p0 . Inl,roducins for corrlenience the new
and the lorm of the funclion a(,r0). The aciiou of lhe Coulomb
variAbles J? :rnd a0 repres{rniing rtrc momenra ni rurirs ?nc one
field of the nucleus on lhe eleclron llis b€en neglecied so lar. The
findr the lilcinne Ior the tnnsilion sir-en by Lhc forDluta
Coulomb field distorts lh€ electron rvi1.e lunctions and changes
I _ /i 9[ s'l?s.r
-, the shape of the speclrum especially rt low electron energies.
, - 1

:,""n "n'' (75)

Sirnil:[1y, the function /(?t \fiI] be nore coDpliccted. The reader
is releued to specialized xrtntcs lor a rnore elaborat€ discussjon
of tlie beta rav theory and of it; comprison irith experiment.
:
t'(n|t
I i,/ L + ti \/r + ri \, d, The velue of th€ intcrurtion lonstrnt that sives the best aerce-
ment with experimental drtr is f(,r c1l f(,ms of nrterootion of the
,0 1ta
. (70
orrler ol 10 " r;rgs X cm'. fho prccise valuc depcnds ol course
,;'.!:, -;/
; --;rn', /' ,r'\
on ihc inicraciion lorm th,i is a$umcd. For the pse,.tdoscalar
The tcrrn i tll ]!i (75) js rerared to ihe Duclecr s.ave funcrions intcructn,n (71) onc lirds for cxample
by (72). Its celcula&,n requircs ttre.efore l(no\,terlgc ot rhe $?\.c 10 a'erss
{un0tioN of i,hc ntidrl and linnt strrc ot rLe nucleus. Since thesc
rr 2 - X cm'. X (78)

n' -e functions i! mosi crses ue noi knoi1.n, ir is usually impossiblc s' has the dimensions of enersy X 1'olume. In order to appreciate
its order ol nasriiude we divnle it by tlre clasBical volume of the
i. Snr.c electror xnd aeuirino ue retri,il,isiic lu.tiot.s tle retaiivisric
o ,ul . /i .t r,, .. L. \,r, rh-.
."'1".'
-.' mi!,L u..,p11' ..,,. too....\..I,,L.,ru,-.r-rtr, X 1['3
rr z \M) = 9.4 cm.'.
 -v-
14 IllE INI.IIRACIION CANATAIITS DECAv 0tt lni Mu(ttt
The rcsult is 2.1 X 10 u crss or aboui 1.3 ev. fhis mry '?oN?-4XtOli'S (56) bv tlie rtte ol
sive an
idtrr of ho$ ileali thc bell1 bteraction is. lr.or erampte, rhe int{} ibe nunber of these clecttrn st.ttts siven bv
(55) Nesle(itnis
trrnsiiion into one electron sirtc compuLed with
aclion potential beilrccn iwo nuctcons itrioh atso is somerimes
repr€sented l)r r poicntial hote ot radius equat ro re ctnssicrl
,r," u. n of n" r..|l'...-. r, a-mLa- 'l ' g r" 1

nttop r.', t,t . !\'i'' 1. '{p1 :or, J" Q I r'- n '\ 'lFr''rr'
cledron udtus has a depth oi 20 Mev, th&t is, abour ien mi ion
one 6nd. i! iltrs iYal ihe transiiion ruie
2' l. \'t:P'dD !'t . ;l
16. SPANfII"EOUS DEtatf OF IIIE MUON
t \a / ,'.|' l]r'
2

The sponirrneous decry of ihc nuon Nith .rnission The number oi neut no srci(is per unii cnersv intcrval' 'lN/'llr'
monrentun
ol an elcctron h{s becn afirjbuied jn Secrjr)n 9 to ! pr.orcss p + still niust l)€ lrlculrted ln lisure 2 tre reprer:ented thc
, "t tt lhc rDomrntr pL ancl ol
p! ihe t\to ndrLrinos
! + 2, dLle to {n inicraciion rerm (50) w h mBtrjx ""a
1i",," ,r." *"t- *-..anishes the ilrrce \tclo$
etemeni " "t,,"t."o lorm ihe sidts ol a
o,/{l siven by (51). ncglectcd' tho enersv
triangle. The rest mdls of th€ dectron bclng
of thc ihrce eniited Pariicles is
It': c(l p, j + lP, L+ lP ) (80)

Tf 11r h rD the monentum p of ihe eleciro and ihe

eners) Iy
constant, ihe sum ol thc rnru tudes ol pL and ?r,
ot
lP'1+ 2' : tric-\P '
will also be corstnnt- From this it follos's thit hhe i ol
'ertex
ii'". ,.ilrr'"]" wiu nro\rc on an cliipsoid Bv sinple geomerri'
lrc.2. I{onenl! oI th-" €t.oi.on {p) ,n,t ot rhc iso rcuirilos (p,,n.l p:) con::]e.lor on.."n" .,,1 ,.;..\ lun,:
Th€.ralculation ol tLetiferime ot rhcmuon due to this ;rteuction rl ll - rrl , tZ" t,"\
is a liitle bit more comptical,(] un lihe simitar cil( jL l1 tion of the !.j\.. ,. ).
lifeiimc ol i,hc pion car ed orr jn.qoction t3 because in rhis.,se
r'"e r,, i 1". Lr "rJ , ,s.,.,+ p, .t r.,J. I.rorn rr:. ,1 rol,,,s Tl,, c"rresDon.lrls Ih. " 'pa " o'r,oe: r"1-od oltlerlore
rr l', p1"" ,, "e. .l ns n,.m h. I ,n,^r.,.ior rlp \J,um' a Tr" run r'r V nr rau ro : "
-p" (r l'1., ^;;l ,'e.,, 'rr :,nd
l;;i"",;;;, ; : i" ot, ".u" " or r.d' 'o"r" r,/
" ""t, .p*,.,,., ,r" ,r"rimur ii. i:a.^' '" ,*'1. ,rp-. ion rr"
' ''\ /rr-;'
elecllon energy is oLiained wh{rn tbe two ndrtrinos flv oui in ihF
. n p J, ,,:on j,J i ..,.n"-rj t. ,t" m,.. .nrrAl t 1" .-on o. .io-,,,. r' i ".1ur - ,,". ll - r'" "hF" J i rlFauon r'la''
.o'. Ll |p ir -r"n,.",. ,l ,.' ,,...1t p..rrrro!. ln rt,, and \re find
cal0ulalion tlDi loliows ihis rvil be dore.
lvhen r muon at resr de(ays into ar olectron and r$,o ncut nos
,./\ a",:f3. dPrz {,). ,8t.
tltc vecr.or sum oI the monleria ?, ZL , p, of these three p&rtjctes dll lb!\
ol lrarNition
\vill vl1nisL. Srbstiiuting in (7!) oue obirins ihe rrte
The rai,e of iransitioD into a sirt€ in *{rich rhc elecrron escaDes
$il, n omFn,u 1L,,\Fpr pl,.il p r dp .,.t.rx:r..t L1 mrt iplirrg ri':c 11-nP +21\0",,r. (82)
48nr,{'i \r,r !{ /
 ta TUL IT1.ERAC'| )^" CONs/,{l?s roRcED DLC.lv Of ',t HE MOON 41
l'he to1,al rAte of iiransil,ion, rli{t is, itioinveNcot ihelifcrnne ot thc- known only vcry cmdely. The thcorctjcnl spcctrum. horvever. is
muon, is obtained by integhting (E2) ro atl ratues of p, trolr] noi, inconpaiiLle wilih ttrc meNuremeots of Sleinbcrgcr rnd Ander-
0 to pLcl2. TLa resull, is son. It should be re icmbdrrl ihrL tbe prccise form of th€ inter-
(;0) js not knond. \hrious tvpes ol interacliojr 0ou1d be
L: 7080rr n,
(83)
'iciion
Llscrl irr ilris c$e as $'e l1rro {lrcxdv seen lor the betr interaciion.
Wheeler hrs mide aL e\iensifc study ol the elfe{ri that a spccilic
Expedmcntally : 2.15 X 10 0 seconds. Subsiiluting this choice ol the inieraciion lorm hm on the shape of th€ spectrum
', and on the oiher lealures of disintesration of the nuon.

16. FORCED DDCAY OF TNE MUON

Thc mLron may decay also br a difiereni procesg
wlich is calkrd forcr:tl rtcr.ry becnrse ii hlppens only when tlle
muon is ciptur&l rcrr r nurtcus. l'he lorced decay is observed
only for negrti\-c nuons, pLsunably beoaus€ only muons of this
sisn arc atiraclied n*r! lihc nu(tei bv electric forces. In Seclion I
forced decay has bccn rlitributed to the reaction (52) with m&irix
elements (5a).
In order to estimate Lhc v ue of ihe coupling constant g? ve
shal assLlme thal n'hen a n€rtive muon comes to rest inside a
naierial it is very rapidly capiurcd in the vicinity of one of th€
nuclei in an orbiii $'hich is the andogllc of the loly€st Bohr orbit,
only much smaller. Iis radius x'il bc obiained by dividing the
Boh. radius o : 5.3 X 10 ! cm by a Iictor Z due to the nuclear
chaqe and by a factor 210, ihe miio of the muon and the electron
masses- The radius of this Bohrlihe orbii is therefore

n' : (rtl210z) :2.t l10 "/Z cn. (85)

The iirne required for ihe capture in this orbit js estimated to be

",".,,.." r.",:tj" I::
Frc.3. llnergy ,,,"
. of t e order ol 10 seconds so thrt the probability that the muon
sDccl,.um 1'
",
may decay spontaneously during this time is neslisible. ,qjter the
value and p1 : 210n in (83) onc ot)trins iihe vrtuc of Lhe.orptins capture haE tlhen place 1,he destruction of the muon may occur
either by the spontaneous proc€ss of the prcvious section or by the
forced prccess. f'he relative probrhility ol thcse t$'o mecharisms
9x=3.3X104! (8:1) depends on the nucleus tllat hlis capturcd iihc muon since the
The closencss of the vrlues of sL rud s! i6 r.ery st kjns_ probability of forced decay incrcases rripidly $'ith Z for two
Fomulc (82) sives ilre specrillll disrribuiion ot r|e ernji:r,ed reasons. For larse Z the radius a' ol 1,he o rih is smaler so that the
cLectrons. Its rcsults aro repreNrrte{t sMphjcalty jr Iisure J. rnuon is found on the a1'erage closer to the nucleus. The nucleus
Expedmeri,allv the slupc of ihe specirum ot rhese eltciroos is furthemorc contains c large number of proions that ma,y induce
the dccay. The experim€ntal rcsulis confijm this seneral picture
 48 T D INI'ERACTION COIVS?INrS FORCED Dlic,tf Ot lAD MtiON 40

ald dical,e lhat tlre proccss (52) is ncsligible lor ljglrr In calculating the prolubilitl' thai a muon capt{rcd in a Itohr
ccpl,utng demcnts ard is clomlmnt f or hul,icr elemerl,s. 'ery
A0cording likc orbit near a nucl:us ol charge Z js destroycd by the lorced
to the mcffiurcm€nls ol ficho thc rate ol trxnsirion for the rrvo decay process ire usc (88) sith the lollowing cb{ ecsi (a) multiply
competing prolxjsses is alproxim.rtclv equrl lor Z : tl (sodium).
by Z because thcrc t're Z protons tliet crn iifitct lle carrture;
Situie tbe sporrt:'neous dc.rr has .l tifetiDre of 2.15 X 10 i seconds (b) substitute lor a the eileciive volume oi thc Bohrlike orbii,
n'c {ronolLlde thrt tle rate of for(ed demx ol a muon mpturcd of the muon of rdius r,', namely za"; (c) makc i1 lurlher cli{4e
by t nucleus wilih Z : 11 i6 also in the coefijcient of (88) in order to accouni lor lhe possibility
1/(2.1i X 10 6)
sec
I
Z - 11).
(tot that ihe process mry bc inhibiied by the I'ouli principle. In thc
forced deca o rathcr llng energy neutron is produc€d and thc
$t) fir6t calcrlaic the rate ot rllnsjrion for rhe process (52) reliciion $ill il the orbit ini,o which lhe neutron
be possil)lc only
.
"1,.r. r\ orr" I ,.n rrJ ,,n" p.r ,r or 2,.,u pto.i,\. p prF.Fr, occupicd in ihe nuclcus. The reductnnr
mry be crealed is not
in a vohrme o. The rnairia elemenr accordi {l ro (51) is o3i,0. Thc lactor would be diftiorlt lio calculaie accurately, but $'e eslimate
ral,eol trcnsitiol car thur be cslcutated with (55) anct (60): i,hst A reduclion of the coellicicni from 11,400 to;,000 lnay be of
thc correci order ol mrgnitudc.
,u. o, r'.o"nin" - t,'' /t'\' tt/"
\'.t / 2ah.+u.) In conclusion, the probability ol iransjtion lor t]to lorced decay is
(8ti)
1 s000Q101' m'cZa (8e)
- :'' !'^; "

" Fhichbc:rrs out thc greaii difier€n(c

The term .+ r ihat appcars jn the dcnomjnrijor is the sun of the Notice the proportionality to Za
speeds . ol the neutrino and I, of the ncutron. ?, is the maqnii,ude in il1e iDtensity oI this process for light arld heal'y nuclei.
o r r. rur ard nf 'o-:r" I uT"1,r of \ !.r.r , i.8" r ,1 , a bp From thc expcrimdtal fact prcviously quoied ihat,lat Z : ll,
computcd frcm ttre conscrvrtion o{ crergy. II the sma m[Ss ,, is about ertual to 2.15 X L0 'seconrts, one ulculaies the value
difierence bei,wccn proton ilnd neutron is negtccii€d, the avrjlible of the coupline constant si :
cnergy is the rest cnergy of the muon, 210nd1. This energy appc:rls gg:1.3X10i' (s0)
rs liineiic cnergy oI the neutrino and of the nentron, both havlng a
momenlum Z. Thc.efore It hos aheady been noiiciid that the three couplins constants,
91 , 9i , si are quit€ dos€ : 91 -2xL1-an,9t:33X104',s!:
js
ztOnc':ce+{r. (87)
1.3 X 10 .]'his sinil,rdty probably not an accidcnitl rcin-
c ence t,ut has some dcep mctning vhjch, ho$'€vcr', is not under'
.U : trucleon rnrss. lrom this equatjon onc fincls the momentum
2 of the tn'o prrticles, p : l99,nc. The velociijy of the ncutron
siven by this momentum divided by ihe n€uiron mass is r,. :
0.11c. From (86) one finds now

ra,te ot transitioD : 11,400 9.1-* . (ss)

h4A '
TIF nrF ol ,ransi,:nr is io\"'b"tt p,.,ponio,rt ro O Lprau.n wp
hov rs.und hlr Ir,."i6on, roonrn hplot ,rneO,ldrrprFfo"c
the concentmtior of protons is jn\€rsctl' proportionat to A.