High-Speed - Aerodynamics - PDF Filename - UTF-8''High-Speed Aerodynamics PDF

High-Speed Aerodynamics | LF Banal | © Copyright 2015 | All rights Reserved
We will cover
compressible flow
and
supersonic flow
Supersonic Flow:
Normal Shock Waves

Oblique Shock Waves
Expansion Waves

Supersonic Flow through:
Nozzles
Diffusers
Supersonic Wind Tunnels

Compressible Flow
Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by John D. Anderson, Jr.

Review
Of
Thermodynamics

Some Terminologies
Substance
Properties (intensive vs extensive)
System, Boundary and Surrounding
Phase vs State
Process and Cycle

Perfect Gas
A perfect gas is quite, discreet and definitely just a gas (wink) ;-)
Perfect Gas Law AKA Ideal Gas Law, AKA Equation of State
p  RT
pressure density temperature
specific gas constant

R = 287 J/(kg-K) = 1716 (ft-lb)/(slug-R)
for air

Work

Heat

Heat

Processes
Adiabatic Process.
One in which no heat is added to or taken away from the system.
Reversible Process.
One in which no dissipative phenomena occur, that is, where the
effects of viscosity, thermal conductivity and mass diffusion are
absent.
Isentropic Process.
One that is both adiabatic and reversible.

Work
For a reversible process, closed system
w   pdv
w  - pdv
Work
Work depends on the process

Internal Energy

Internal Energy
Mathematically,
e e
de  dT  dv
T v
But, e  f (T )  f (v)
e
Thus, de  dT  cv dT
T
Enthalpy
h  e  pv
Enthalpy
Mathematically,
h h
dh  dp  dT
p T
But,
h  f (T )  f ( p)
Thus, h
dh  dT  c p dT
T
First Law of Thermodynamics
q  w  de

Other Forms of the First Law
q  w  de
w   pdv
h  e  pv  dh  de  pdv  vdp
q  pdv  de
q  dh  vdp
Specific Heat
-heat added per unit change in temperature
q
c
dT
dT depends on the type of process, so does c

Specific Heats
q q
cv  cp 
T v T p
constant volume constant pressure
specific heat specific heat

Specific Heat (constant volume)
Previously,
e
de  dT  cv dT
T
because 0
q  pdv  de

Specific Heat (constant pressure)
Previously,
h
dh  dT  c p dT
T
because 0
q  dh  vdp

Specific Heat, Internal Energy & Enthalpy
de  cv dT dh  c p dT
e  cvT h  c pT
Calorically Perfect Gas: cv and cp are assumed constant.

Relation Between Specific Heats
h  e  pv
c pT  cvT  RT
c p  cv  R

c p  cv  R cp

cv
cp cv R 1 R
  1 
cp cp cp  cp
R
cp 
 1
c p  cv  R
R
 cv  R
 1
R
cv 
 1
Specific Heats Ratio
cp

cv
  1.4 for air
Entropy
qrev effective
ds  equivalent
heat added
T if process is
non-reversible
q
actual heat added
ds   dsirrev
T due to dissipative phenomena
Second Law of Thermodynamics
q
ds 
T
ds  0
Entropy
q  pdv  de dh  de  pdv  vdp
Tds  pdv  de q  dh  vdp
Tds  pdv  de Tds  dh  vdp

Entropy
Tds  pdv  de Tds  dh  vdp
cv dT pdv c p dT vdp
ds   ds  
T T T T
cv dT Rdv c p dT Rdp
ds   ds  
T v T p
Entropy
cv dT Rdv c p dT Rdp
ds   ds  
T v T p
T2 v2 T2 p2
s  cv ln  R ln s  c p ln  R ln
T1 v1 T1 p1

Isentropic Process
Let Δs = 0 in the previous equations.
  /( 1)
p2   2   T2 
     
p1  1   T1 

Isentropic Process
Defining relation:
p  k 

Example
Consider a Boeing 747 flying at a standard altitude of 36,000 ft. The
pressure at a point on the wing is 400 Ib/ft2. Assuming isentropic flow
over the wing, calculate the temperature at this point.
At a standard altitude of 36,000 ft, p   476 lb/ft 2 and T  391 R.
 /(  1)
p T 
  
p  T 
(  1)/ 
 p 
0.4/1.4
 400 
T  T    391   372 R
 p   476 
Definition
Of
Compressibility

Compressibility
Measure of the relative volume change with pressure
p p+dp
1 d
 
 dp

Compressibility
Isothermal compressibility
1  d 
 T    
  dp T
Isentropic compressibility
1  d 
 s    
  dp  s

Compressibility
1 d 1 d
 
 dp

 dp
d  dp
Whenever a fluid experiences a change in pressure,

there is a corresponding change in density.

Compressibility
d  dp
τ for solids and liquids is small;
thus dρ is small for every dp
( ρ is practically constant )
τ for a gas in low-speed flow may be large,

but a small dp dominates

Compressibility
p Incompressible Flow
p + dp
Compressible Flow
p
p + dp

Inviscid
Compressible Flow
Equations

How to Derive the Equations
1. Model the fLow
2. Apply the three fundamental principles:

1. Newton’s Second Law
2. Conservation of Mass
3. Conservation of Energy (First Law)

Modeling the Flow

Modeling the Flow

Continuity Equation


t V
dV  
S
V  dS  0

   V  0
t

Momentum Equation


t V
V dV  
S
( V  dS )V   
S
pdS  
V
f dV
Du p Dv p Dw p
    f x     f y     f z
Dt x Dt y Dt z

Energy Equation
  V 2
  V 
2

t V 
  e  dV     e  V  dS   qdV   pV  dS    ( f  V )dV
2 S  2 V S V
D(e  V / 2) 2
  q    pV   ( f  V )
Dt

Other Equations
p  RT
e  cvT

Definition of
Stagnation
(Total)
Conditions

Stagnation Properties
Properties that would exist at a point in a

flow IF (in our imagination) the fluid
element passing through that point were
brought down to rest adiabatically.
Every point in a flow has both static and

stagnation properties.

Total (Stagnation) Conditions
A point (or points) in the flow where V = 0.
a) Fluid element adiabatically slow down
V1 V2 = 0
b) A flow impinges on a solid object

The same thing
Total Pressure
Stagnation Pressure
Pitot Pressure
Reservoir Pressure
Impact Pressure
Head Pressure
Nose Pressure

Total Enthalpy
Total enthalpy is constant in a steady adiabatic inviscid flow.
2
V
h0  constant  h 
2
This is the energy equation for steady adiabatic inviscid flow.

Total Temperature
Total temperature is constant
in a steady adiabatic inviscid flow for a calorically perfect gas.
h0  c pT0
T0  constant

Total Enthalpy and Total Temperature

Total Pressure and Total Density
Total pressure and total density can also be
defined in a flow similar to how total enthalpy
or total temperature is defined, but there is an
additional requirement to the process of
bringing a particle to rest, that is, the process
must also be reversible, in other words, the
process has to be isentropic.
p0 0
Total Pressure and Total Density
Total pressure and total density are constant in an isentropic flow.

Example
Consider a point in a flow where the velocity and
temperature are 230 m/s and 375 K respectively. Calculate
the total enthalpy at this point.
V2 V2 R V2
h0  h   c pT   T
2 2  1 2
2
1.4(287) (230)
h0  375   403 kJ/kg
1.4  1 2
Example
An airfoil is in a freestream where p∞ = 0.75 atm, ρ∞ = 0.942
kg/m3 and V∞ = 325 m/s. At a point on the airfoil surface, the
pressure is 0.62 atm. Assuming isentropic flow, calculate
the velocity at the point.
R V R V
2 2
 p
2
V  p V 2
T   T   
 1 2  1 2   1  2  1  2
2 2
0.75(101325) (325) 0.62(101325) V
3.5   3.5 
0.942 2  2
Example
An airfoil is in a freestream where p∞ = 0.75 atm, ρ∞ = 0.942
kg/m3 and V∞ = 325 m/s. At a point on the airfoil surface, the
pressure is 0.62 atm. Assuming isentropic flow, calculate
the velocity at the point.
 1/ 
p     p 
1 / 1.4
 0.62 
           0.942   0.8222 kg/m3
p      p   0.75 
2 2
0.75(101325) (325) 0.62(101325) V
3.5   3.5 
0.942 2 0.8222 2
V  368 m/s Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by John D. Anderson, Jr.
Example
A perfect gas is expanded adiabatically from 5 to 1 bar by the law
pv1.2 = constant. The initial temperature is 200°C. Calculate the
change in specific entropy. R = 287.15 J/kg-K,  =1.4
RT 1.2  0.2
pv 1.2
 p( )  p ( RT )  constant
1.2
p
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
 p2
1.2 1.2
p1 ( RT1 ) 1.2
 p2 ( RT2 ) 1.2
p1 T 1 T 2
0.2 / 1.2
T2  p2 
0.2 / 1.2
1
      0.7647
T1  p1  5
Example
A perfect gas is expanded adiabatically from 5 to 1 bar by the law
pv1.2 = constant. The initial temperature is 200°C. Calculate the
change in specific entropy. R = 287.15 J/kg-K,  =1.4
T2 p2
s  c p ln  R ln
T1 p1
s  1004.5 ln 0.7647  287 ln 0.2  192.5 J/kg - K

Some Aspects of
Supersonic Flow
(Shock Waves)

Flow Regimes

Flow Regimes

Flow Regimes
Subsonic Flow
Transonic Flow

Flow Regimes
Transonic Flow

Flow Regimes Bow Shock Wave
Bow Shock M>1

Hyperbolic region
M<1
M > 1 Blunt-nosed
δ
body
Elliptic
region
Sonic
Line

Flow Regimes
Supersonic Flow

Flow Regimes
Hypersonic Flow

What is a Shock Wave?
Shock wave: A large-amplitude

compression wave, such as that
produced by an explosion, caused
by supersonic motion of a body in
a medium.
From the American Heritage Dictionary
of the English Language, 1969

What is a Shock Wave?
A shock wave is an extremely thin

region, typically on the order 10-5 cm,
across which the flow properties can
change drastically.

Normal Shock Waves

Oblique Shock Waves

Oblique Shock Wave

What we discussed so far
Take time to chew the information.

Normal Shock Waves

NSW Equations
assumptions
1| The flow is steady
2| The flow is adiabatic
3| There are no viscous
effects on the sides of the
control volume.
4| There are no body
forces

NSW Equations
continuity
zero


t V
dV   V  dS  0
S
 V  dS  0
S
1u1   2u2

NSW Equations
momentum
zero zero


t V
V dV   ( V  dS )V    pdS   fdV
S S V
 ( V  dS )V
S
   pdS
S
p1  1u1  p2   2u2
2 2

NSW Equations
energy
zero zero zero
  V2   V2 

t V 
2 S  2 V S V
 V2 
S   e  2 V  dS  S pV  dS
2 2
u1 u2
h1   h2 
2 2
NSW: 5 equations, 5 unknowns
continuity 1u1   2u2
p1  1u1  p2   2u2
2 2
momentum
2 2
u1 u2
energy h1   h2 
2 2
enthalpy h2  c pT2
equation of state p2   2 RT2
Speed
of
Sound

What is sound and how does it travel?



Speed of Sound

Speed of Sound
 p  The speed of sound in a
a   
   s
calorically perfect gas is
a function of temperature
p only.
a
 At sea level, a = 340.9m/s
or a = 1117ft/s.
a  RT
Special Forms
of the
Energy Equations

Special Forms of the Energy Equation
2 2
V1 V2
h1   h2 
2 2
2 2
u1 u2
h1   h2 
2 2
2 2
u1 u2
c pT1   c pT2 
2 2
2 2 2 2
a1 u1 a2 u2
  
 1 2  1 2
2 2 2 2
a1 u1 a2 u2
  
 1 2  1 2
2 2 2
a u a0
 
 1 2  1
2 2 2 2
a1 u1 a2 u2
  
 1 2  1 2
a u   1 *2
2 2
  a
  1 2 2(  1)
2 2
u1 u2
c pT1   c pT2 
2 2
2
u
c pT   c pT0
2
T0  1 2
 1 M
T 2

 ( 1)
p0    1 2 
 1  M 
p  2 
1 (  1)
0    1 2 
 1  M 
  2 
Isentropic Table
Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics by Moran & Shapiro

Sonic Conditions
Similar to the idea of a stagnation
condition. However instead of bringing
a particle to rest, it is accelerated or
decelerated to Mach 1.
Every point in a flow has an associated
static, stagnation and sonic properties.
p  T * * *
Sonic-to-Stagnation Ratios
*
T 2
  0.833
T0   1
 (  1)
p  2 
*
    0.528
p0    1  1 (  1)
  2  *
    0.634
0    1 
“Characteristic” (reference) Mach Number
u u
M   * *
RT * a

M & M* 2
M 
2
a2
u   1 *22 (  1) / M  (  1)
*2
  a
  1 2 2(  1) (  1) M 2
M *2

2 2  (  1) M 2
(a / u ) 1  1  a
2 *

   
  1 2 2(  1)  u 
 1  1  1
2 2
(1 / M )
  * 
 1 2(  1)  M  2

Example
Consider a point in an airflow where the local Mach number, static
pressure, and static temperature are 3.5, 0.3 atm, and 180 K, respectively.
Calculate the local values of p0, T0, T*, a*, and M* at this point.
 ( 1) 1.4 (1.4 1)

p0    1 2  p0  1.4  1 2 
 1  M   1  3.5  p0  22.9 atm
p  2  0.3  2 
T0  1 2 T0 1.4  1 2
 1 M  1 3.5 T0  621 K
T 2 180 2

Example
T* 2 T*
  0.833  0.833 T *  517.5 K
T0   1 621
a  RT  1.4(287)(517.5)  456 m/s

* *

Example
(  1) M 2
M *2

2  (  1) M 2
(1.4  1)3.5 2
M*   2.06
2  (1.4  1)3.5 2

Example
Consider an airfoil in a freestream where M∞ = 0.6 and P∞ = 1 atm, as
shown below. At point 1 on the airfoil the pressure is P1 = 0.7545 atm.
Calculate the local Mach number at point 1. Assume isentropic flow over
the airfoil.

Example
the airfoil.
The freestream total pressure is,
 ( 1) 1.4 (1.4 1)
p0    1 2  p0  1.4  1 2 
 1  M   1  0.6  p0  1.276 atm
p  2  1  2 
This is also the total pressure at point 1 because

total pressure is constant in an isentropic flow.
Example
the airfoil.
At point 1,
 ( 1) 1.4 (1.4 1)
p0    1 2  1.276  1.4  1 2 
 1  M   1  M  M 1  0.9
p  2  0.7545  2 

Example
Calculate the velocity at point 1 when the freestream temperature is 59oF.
Assume isentropic flow over the airfoil.
V1 = ?

Example
Calculate the velocity at point 1 when the freestream temperature is 59oF.
Assume isentropic flow over the airfoil.
T  460  59  519 R
(  1) /  (1.4 1) / 1.4
p1  T1 
 ( 1)
 p1   0.7545 
   T1  T    519   478.9 R
p  T   p   1 
a1  RT1  1.4(1716)(478.9)  1072.6 ft/s
V1  M 1a1  (0.9)(1072.6)  965.4 ft/s

Criterion
for
Compressibility

When is a flow compressible?
Rule of thumb:
M  0.3
Why? Because Chuck Norris says so?

1
0    1 2   1
 1  M 
  2 

1 (  1)
0    1 2 
 1  M 
  2 

1
0    1 2   1
 1  M 
  2 

Compressibility Sensitivity with γ

Solution
to the
NSW Equations

Normal Shock Waves

NSW: 5 equations, 5 unknowns
p1  1u1  p2   2u2
2 2
momentum
2 2
u1 u2
2 2
enthalpy h2  c pT2
equation of state p2   2 RT2
Prandtl Relation
a  u1u2
*2

Mach Numbers Relation
1  [(  1) / 2]M 1
2

2
M2
a  u1u2
*2
M 1  (  1) / 2
2
1 M M *
1
*
2
(  1) M 2
M *2

2  (  1) M 2

Mach Numbers Relation
1  [(  1) / 2]M 1
2

2
M2
M 1  (  1) / 2
2

Density Ratio
1u1   2u2
 2 u1 u1 u1 *2
2 2
   *2  M 1
1 u2 u2u1 a
(  1) M 2
M *2

2  (  1) M
2 (  1) M 1
2
2

1 2  (  1) M 1 2

Density Ratio
2 (  1) M 1
2

1 2  (  1) M 1 2

Pressure Ratio
p1  1u1  p2   2u2
2 2
 u2 
p2  p1  1u1   2u2  1u1 (u1  u2 )  1u1 1  
2 2 2
 u1 
p2  p1 1u1  u2  u1  u2  2 u2 
2 2
 1    2 1    M 1 1  
p1 p1  u1  a1  u1   u1 
p2  p1 2 2  (  1) M 1 
2
 M 1 1  
(  1) M 1 
2
p1 
Pressure Ratio
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)
M1 1
2
 
Temperature Ratio
T2 p2 /  2 R  p2  1 
    
T1 p1 / 1 R  p1   2 
T2  2  2  (  1) M 1
 
2
 1  M1 1 
2
T1    1  (  1) M 1
2

Temperature Ratio
T2  2  2  (  1) M 1
 
2
 1  M1 1 
2
T1    1  (  1) M 1
2

Normal Shock Table

Entropy Change
Why must M1 ≥ 1?
The equations describing the relationship
between upstream and downstream
properties do not explicitly restrict the value
for the upstream Mach number.
What has the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
got to say about this?
Entropy Change
T2 p2
s  c p ln  R ln
T1 p1
 2  2  (  1) M 1 
 
2
s  c p ln 1  M1 1 
2

   1  (  1) M 1 
2

 R ln 1 
2
M1 1 
2 
 
 (  1) 
Entropy Change
 2

 2  (  1) M 1  
2 
 
2
s  c p ln 1  M1 1    R ln 1  M1 1 
2 2
   1  (  1) M 1   (  1)
2

The 2nd Law states that s  0

If M 1  1 then s2  s1 or s  0
If M 1  1 then s  0
But if M 1  1 then s  0
which violates the 2nd Law
What happens to the total properties across a NSW?

Total Temperature Change
Because the flow across a NSW is adiabatic,

total temperature is conserved.
T0,1  T0, 2

Total Pressure Change
T2 a p2 a
s2 a  s1a  c p ln  R ln
T1a p1a
T0, 2 p0, 2
s2  s1  c p ln  R ln
T0,1 p0,1
p0 , 2
s2  s1   R ln
p0,1
p0, 2  ( s2  s1 ) / R
e
p0,1
Total Pressure Change
p0, 2  ( s2  s1 ) / R
e
p0,1
Since s2  s1  0
p0, 2  p0,1 That is, total pressure

decreases across a NSW.

Normal Shock Wave

Normal Shock Wave

Example
Consider a normal shock wave in air where the upstream flow properties
are u1 = 680 m/s, T1 = 288 K, and p1 = 1 atm. Calculate the velocity,
temperature, and pressure downstream of the shock.
a1  RT1  1.4(287)(288)  340 m/s
M 1  u1 / a1  680 / 340  2
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)
M1 1
2
  p2
1
 1
2(1.4) 2
(1.4  1)

2 1  p2  4.5 atm
T2  2

 2  (  1) M 1

2
 1  M1 1  T2  486 K
2
T1    1  (  1) M 1
2

Example
Consider a normal shock wave in air where the upstream flow properties
are u1 = 680 m/s, T1 = 288 K, and p1 = 1 atm. Calculate the velocity,
temperature, and pressure downstream of the shock.
1  [(  1) / 2]M 1 1  [(1.4  1) / 2]2 2

2
 M2   0.5774
2
M2
M 1  (  1) / 2
2
1.4(2)  (1.4  1) / 2
2
a2  RT2  1.4(287)(486)  442 m/s
u2  M 2 a2  0.5774(442)  255 m/s

Example
T2  ? and p 2  ?
M  2  isentropic 
p  2.65 x 10 N/m 4 2 M 2  0.2

T  223.3 K

The Solution Plan
Given: p  2.65 x 10 4 N/m 2 T  223.3 K M  2
Required: p2 and T2
p0,1
Compute total pressure behind NSW p0,1  p0 , 
p0 , 
p0,1 p0,1 p p1

p0 ,  p1 p0, p
 ( 1)
p0 ,     1 1  [(  1) / 2]M 
2
2
 1  M1 
2
M 
p  2  M  2  (  1) / 2
 
 ( 1)
p0,1    1 2  p1 2
 1 M  1
2
 1  M1 
p1  2  p (  1)
The Solution Plan
Given: p  2.65 x 10 4 N/m 2 T  223.3 K M  2
Required: p2 and T2
Compute the total temperature in front of and behind the NSW.

T0,  1 2
 1 M
T 2
The total temperatures in front of and behind the NSW are the same
because the flow across a NSW is adiabatic; also, total temperature and
total pressures remain constant in an isentropic flow, thus,
T0,1  T0, 2  T0, p0,1  p0, 2  p0,
The Solution Plan
Given: p  2.65 x 10 4 N/m 2 T  223.3 K M  2
Required: p2 and T2
Compute the pressure and temperature at point 2 using,
p0,1 p0, 2    1 2 
 ( 1)
T0, T0, 2  1 2
  1  M2    1 M2
p2 p2  2  T2 T2 2

Example
Given:
p  2.65 x 10 4 N/m 2 T  223.3 K M  2 M 2  0.2
The freestream total pressure and total temperature are,

 ( 1) 1.4 (1.4 1)
p0 ,     1 2 p0 ,   1.4  1 2 
 1  M   1  2  p0,  2.07 x 105 N/m 2
p  2  26500  2 
T0,  1 2 T0, 1.4  1 2

 1 M  1 2 T0,  401.9 K
T 2 233.3 2
Example
p
Given:   2.65 x 10 4
N/m 2
T  223.3 K M  2 M 2  0.2
Computed: p0,  2.07 x 105 N/m 2 T0,  401.9 K
The Mach number behind the NSW is,
1  [(  1) / 2]M 
2
M1 
2
M  2  (  1) / 2
1  0.2(2) 2
M1   0.577
1.4(2)  0.2
2

Example
p
Given:   2.65 x 10 4
N/m 2
T  223.3 K M  2 M 2  0.2
Computed: p0,  2.07 x 105 N/m 2 T0,  401.9 K M 1  0.577
The pressure ratios are,
2
 
 ( 1)
p0 ,     1 2
p1
 1 M   1  4.5
2
 1  M   7.824 p (  1)
p  2 
 ( 1)
p0,1    1 2 
 1  M1   1.253
p1  2 

Example
p
Given:   2.65 x 10 4
N/m 2
T  223.3 K M  2 M 2  0.2

p1 p0, p0,1
 4.5  7.824  1.253
p p p1
The total pressure behind the NSW is,

p0,1 p0,1 p p1
  (1.253)(1 / 7.824)(4.5)  0.7209
p0, p1 p0, p
p0,1
p0,1  p0,  (0.7209)(2.07 x 105 )  1.49 x 105 N/m 2
p0,
Example
p
Given:   2.65 x 10 4
N/m 2
T  223.3 K M  2 M 2  0.2

p1 p0, p0,1
 4.5  7.824  1.253 p0,1  1.49 x 105 N/m 2
p p p1
The total temperatures in front of and behind the NSW are the same,
T0,1  T0,  401.9 K

Example
p
Given:   2.65 x 10 4
N/m 2
T  223.3 K M  2 M 2  0.2

p1 p0, p0,1
 4.5  7.824  1.253 p0,1  1.49 x 105 N/m 2
p p p1
T0,1  T0,  401.9 K
The flow between points 1 and 2 is isentropic, thus, the total pressure and
the total temperature are constant.
 
 (  1)
p0 , 2    1 2  149000
 1  0.2(0.2) 2
3.5
 p2  1.42 atm
 1  M2  p2
p2  2 
Example
p
Given:   2.65 x 10 4
N/m 2
T  223.3 K M  2 M 2  0.2

p1 p0, p0,1
 4.5  7.824  1.253 p0,1  1.49 x 105 N/m 2
p p p1
T0,1  T0,  401.9 K
The flow between points 1 and 2 is isentropic, thus, the total pressure and
the total temperature are constant.
T0, 2  1 2 401.9
 1  0.2(0.2) 2  T2  399 K
 1 M2 T2
T2 2
SCRAM JET
The results of the previous example are,
p2  1.42 atm T2  399 K
If M   10 instead of the original M   2,

p2  32.7 atm T2  4653 K
These results describe an extreme environment that is very difficult to

handle for a ramjet.
The solution is, DO NOT slow the flow to M2=0.2.

Keep the flow supersonic all throughout.
Scramjet

Measurement of
Velocity in a
Compressible Flow

Subsonic Compressible Flow

Subsonic Compressible Flow
 ( 1)
p0    1 2 
 1  M 
p  2 
(  1) 

2  p0  
M 
2
   1
  1  p  
(  1) 
2a  p0  2 
V    1
  1  p  

Supersonic Compressible Flow

p0, 2 p0, 2 p2

p1 p2 p1
 (  1)
p0 , 2    1 2 
 1  M2 
p2  2 
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)
M1 1
2
 
1  [(  1) / 2]M 1
2

2
M2
M 12  (  1) / 2

 ( 1)
p0, 2  (  1) M 1  2 2
1    2M 1
2
  
p1  4M 1  2(  1) 
2
 1
Rayleigh Pitot Tube Formula

Example
A Pitot tube is inserted into an airflow where the static pressure is 1 atm.
Calculate the flow Mach number when the Pitot tube measures (a) 1.276
atm, (b) 2.714 atm, (c) 12.06 atm.
First, determine the total pressure that divides subsonic and supersonic flow.
 ( 1) 1.4 (1.4 1)
p0    1 2   1.4  1 2 
 1  M  p0  p  1  1   1.893 p
p  2   2 
When p0  1.893 atm, the flow is subsonic.
When p0  1.893 atm, the flow is supersonic.

Example
atm, (b) 2.714 atm, (c) 12.06 atm.
(a) Flow is subsonic

(  1) 

2  p0   2   1.276 
(1.4 1) 1.4

M 
2
   1 M    1
  1  p   1.4  1  1  
M 1  0.6

Example
atm, (b) 2.714 atm, (c) 12.06 atm.
(b) Flow is supersonic

 ( 1)
p0, 2  (  1) M 1  2 2
1    2M 1
2
  
p1  4M 1  2(  1) 
2
 1 M 1  1.3
3.5
p0, 2  5.76M 1  2
(0.4)  2.8M 1 2.714
2
   
p1  5.6M 1  0.8 
2
2.4 1

Example
atm, (b) 2.714 atm, (c) 12.06 atm.
(c) Flow is supersonic

 ( 1)
p0, 2  (  1) M 1  2 2
1    2M 1
2
  
p1  4M 1  2(  1) 
2
 1 M 1  3.0
3.5
p0, 2  5.76M 1  2
(0.4)  2.8M 1 12.06
2
   
p1  5.6M 1  0.8 
2
2.4 1

Example
Consider a hypersonic missile

flying at Mach 8 at an
altitude of 20,000 ft, where
the pressure is 973.3 Ib/ft2.
The nose of the missile is
blunt and is shaped like that
shown below. Calculate the
pressure at the stagnation
point on the nose.

Example
Given: M  8 p  973.3 lb/ft 2
Required: p0  ?
3.5
p0  5.76M   (0.4)  2.8M 
2 2
  
p  5.6M   0.8 
2
2.4
3.5
 5.76(8)  2
(0.4)  2.8(8) 2
p0  p  
 5.6(8)  0.8 
2
2.4
p0  (973.3)(82.87)  8.07 x 10 4 lb/ft 2

p0  38.1 atm

What we discussed

Oblique Shock Wave

Expansion Wave

Propagation of Disturbance


The physical generation of waves in a

supersonic flow is due to the propagation
of information via molecular collisions and
due to the fact that such propagation
cannot work its way into certain regions
of the supersonic flow.

Why does it have to be oblique?

Mach Wave
at a 1
sin    
Vt v M
1
  sin 1
M
Mach angle

OSW vs Mach Wave

Oblique
Shock Waves

Oblique Shock
Relations

Oblique Shock Waves
OSW
deflection angle
wave angle
Continuity Equation
zero


t V
dV   V  dS  0
S
 V  dS  0 control volume
S
1u1   2u2
Momentum Equation
zero zero


t V
V dV   ( V  dS )V    pdS   fdV
S S V
 ( V  dS )V    pdS
S S control volume
tangential component  ( V  dS )w   ( pdS )
S S
tangential
w1  w2
Momentum Equation
zero zero


t V
V dV   ( V  dS )V    pdS   fdV
S S V
 ( V  dS )V
S
   pdS
S control volume
normal component  ( V  dS )u   ( pdS )
S S
normal
p1  1u1  p2   2u2
2 2

Energy Equation
zero zero zero
  V2   V2 

t V 
2 S  2 V S V
 V2 
S   e  2 V  dS  S pV  dS control volume
2 2
u1 u2
h1   h2 
2 2
Summary
w1  w2
momentum
p1  1u1  p2   2u2
2 2
2 2
u1 u2
2 2
Summary
1u1   2u2 w1  w2 p1  1u12  p2   2u2 2 h1 
2
u1
 h2 
2
u2
2 2
These equations are similar to the NSW equations.
The only difference is that u here is not the

total velocity as in a NSW, but rather the
normal velocity of the OSW.

Summary
1u1   2u2 w1  w2 p1  1u12  p2   2u2 2 h1 
2
u1
 h2 
2
u2
2 2
Hence similar results can be expected.

OSW Equations
1  [(  1) / 2]M n ,1
2
M n,2 
2
M n ,12  (  1) / 2
2 (  1) M n ,1
2

1 2  (  1) M n ,12
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)
M n ,1  1
2
  M n ,1  M 1 sin 
 2  (  1) M n ,1 M n,2
T2  2
 
2
 1  M n ,1  1 
2 M2 
T1    1  
2 sin(    )
 ( 1) M n ,1

Normal Shock Table

Θ-β-M Relation
M 1 sin   1
2 2
tan   2 cot 
M 1 (  cos 2 )  2
2

Θ-β-M Relation
M 1 sin 2   1
2
tan   2 cot 
M 1 (  cos 2 )  2
2

Θ-β-M Relation
Modern Compressible Flow by John D. Anderson, Jr.

Θ-β-M Relation

What does the graph or the equation say?
There exists a maximum deflection

angle for every upstream Mach number.
There exists a maximum deflection angle

for every upstream Mach number.
There is a weak shock and a strong

shock solution corresponding to the
two values of the wave angle.

If θ=0, then β=90o or β=μ. These

correspond to a NSW and a Mach
wave. In both cases, there is no
flow deflection.

In general, for attached shocks with a

fixed deflection angle, the wave angle
decreases as the upstream Mach
number increases and the shock wave
becomes stronger. The reverse is also
true.


In general, for attached shocks with a

fixed upstream Mach number, as the
deflection angle increases, the wave
angle increases and the shock
becomes stronger.


Example
Consider a supersonic flow with M = 2, p = 1 atm, and T = 288 K. This flow
is deflected at a compression corner through 20o. Calculate M, p, T, p0,
and T0 behind the resulting oblique shock wave.
M=?
M=2 p = ?, p0 = ?
p = 1 atm T = ?, T0 = ?
T = 288 K
20o

Example
M 1 sin 2   1
2
For M 1  2 and   20,   53.4 tan   2 cot 

M 1 (  cos 2 )  2
2
M n ,1  M 1 sin   2 sin 53.4  1.606
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)

M n ,1  1  2.82
2
 p 
p2   2  p1  2.82(1)  2.82 atm
 p1 
 2  (  1) M n ,1
T2  2
   T2 
2
 1  M n ,1  1   1.388 T2   T1  1.388(288)  399.7 K

2
T1    1  (  1) M n ,1
2
 T1 
1  [(  1) / 2]M n ,12 M n,2 0.6684

M n ,2   0.6684 M2    1.21
M n ,1
2
 (  1) / 2 sin(    ) sin(53.4  20)

Example
p2  2.82 atm M 2  1.21 T2  399.7 K
 T0,1 
T0,1  1 2 T0, 2  T0,1   T1
 1 M 1  1.8  T1 
T1 2
T0, 2  1.8(288)  518.4 K
 p0 , 2 
p0 , 2    1 2 
 ( 1) p0 , 2    p2
 1  M2   2.457  p2 
p2  2 
p0, 2  2.457(2.82)  7 atm
Example
Consider an oblique shock wave with a wave angle of 30o. The upstream
flow Mach number is 2.4. Calculate the deflection angle of the flow, the
pressure and temperature ratios across the shock wave, and the Mach
number behind the wave.
p2/p1 = ?
T2/T1 = ? M2 = ?
M1 = 2.4
θ=?
β = 30o
Example
Given: M1 = 2.4 β = 30o
 M
2
sin 2
 1 
  tan 2 cot  2
1 1
  6.5
 M 1 (  cos 2 )  2 
1  [(  1) / 2]M n ,12
M n ,1  M 1 sin   2.4 sin 30  1.2 M n ,2   0.8422
M n ,1
2
 (  1) / 2
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)

M n ,1  1  1.513
2
 M2 
M n,2

0.8422
 2.11
sin(    ) sin(30  6.5)
 2  (  1) M n ,1
T2  2
 
2
 1  M n ,1  1   1.128
2
T1    1  (  1) M n ,1
2

What does the example tell us?
The wave is weak.

Produced only 51% increase in pressure.
This is because deflection angle is small.
Also, wave angle is small; close to Mach wave angle of
  sin 1 M 1  sin 1 2.4 1  24.6  30
Only 2 properties need to be specified to completely
describe (solve) a given OSW.
In this example, these properties were M and β.
In the first example, it was M and θ.

Example
Consider an oblique shock wave with β = 35o and a pressure ratio
p2/p1 = 3. Calculate the upstream Mach number.
p2/p1 = 3
M1 = ?
β = 35o
Example
Consider an oblique shock wave with β = 35o and a pressure ratio
p2/p1 = 3. Calculate the upstream Mach number.
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)
M n ,1  1  3
2
 
 p2  (  1)
M n ,1    1  1  1.6475
 p1  2
M n ,1 1.6475
M n ,1  M 1 sin   M 1    2.87
sin  sin 35

Example
Consider a Mach 3 flow. It is desired to slow this flow to a subsonic speed.
Consider two separate ways of achieving this:
(1) the flow is slowed by passing directly through a normal shock wave;
(2) the flow first passes through an oblique shock with a 40° wave angle,
and then subsequently through a normal shock.
Calculate the ratio of the final total pressure values for the two cases.
Comment on the significance of the result.

Example
p0 , 2
?
p0,1
p0 , 3
?
p0,1

Case I
p0, 2  p2 p0, 2  p0,1
  
p0,1  p1 p2  p1
 ( 1)
p0,1    1 2 
 1  M1   36.7327 p0,2 10.3333)(1.1672 
p1  2  
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)

M 1  1  10.3333
2
 p0,1 36.7327
p0 , 2
1  [(  1) / 2]M 1
2  0.3283
M2   0.4752 p0,1
M 1  (  1) / 2
2
 ( 1)
p0 , 2    1 2 
 1  M2   1.1672
p2  2 
Case II
M n ,1  M 1 sin   3 sin 40  1.9284
 M 2
sin 2
 1 
  tan  2 cot  2
1 1
  tan 1
0.4  21.8461
 M 1 (  cos 2  )  2 
1  [(  1) / 2]M n ,1
2
M n,2   0.5902
M n ,1  (  1) / 2
2
M n ,2 0.5902
M2    1.8942
sin(    ) sin(40  21.8461)
Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by John D. Anderson,

Case II
M n ,1  1.9284 M 2  1.8942
p0 , 2  p 2 p0 , 2  p0,1
  
p0,1  p1 p2  p1 p0,2 (4.1717)(6.6413)

 (  1) p0,1 36.7327
p0,1  1 2 
 1  M1   36.7327
p1  2 
p0,2
 0.7542
p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)

M n ,1  1  4.1717
2
 p0,1
 (  1)
p0,2  1 2 
 1  M2   6.6413
p2  2 
Case II
p0,3  p3 p0,3  p0 , 2 M n,2 0.5902
   M2    1.91
p0, 2  p2 p3  p2 sin(    ) sin(40  22)
 ( 1)
p0 , 2    1 2 
 1  M2   6.805
p2  2  p0,3

 4.089)(1.2692 
p3
p2
 1
2
(  1)

M 2  1  4.089
2
 p0,2 6.805
p0 , 3
1  [(  1) / 2]M 2
2  0.7626
M3   0.5937 p0 , 2
M 2  (  1) / 2
2
 ( 1)
p0 , 3    1 2 
 1  M3   1.2692
p3  2 
Case II
p 0 , 3 p0 , 2 p0 , 3
  (0.7544)(0.7626)  0.58
p0,1 p0,1 p0, 2
 p0 , 2   p0 , 3 
   0.33    0.58
p  p 
 0,1  CASE I  0,1  CASE II
 p0 , 2   p0 , 3 
     1.76
p  p 
 0,1  CASE I  0,1  CASE II
Case II is the more efficient flow with less reduction in total pressure.

Application Design of supersonic inlets for jet engines.

Supersonic Inlet

Supersonic Inlet

Supersonic Flow
Through
Wedges and Cones

Supersonic flow over wedges and cones

Supersonic flow over wedges and cones
(1)the shock wave on the cone is weaker,
(2) the cone surface pressure is less, and
(3) the streamlines above the cone surface

are curved rather than straight.

Shock
Interactions
and Reflections

Shock Reflections

Mach Reflection

Intersection of Left and Right Running Waves

Intersection of Left and Right Running Waves

Example
Consider an oblique shock wave generated by a compression corner with

a 10° deflection angle. The Mach number of the flow ahead of the corner
is 3.6; the flow pressure and temperature are standard sea level
conditions. The oblique shock wave subsequently impinges on a straight
wall opposite the compression corner. Calculate the angle of the
reflected shock wave relative to the straight wall. Also, obtain the
pressure, temperature, and Mach number behind the reflected wave.

Example
?
T1  519 R
p1  2116 lb/ft 2
M 1  3.6
  10

Example
M 1 sin 2   1
2
For M 1  3.6 and   10, 1  24. tan   2 cot 

M 1 (  cos 2 )  2
2
M n ,1  M 1 sin 1  3.6 sin 24  1.464

p2
p1
 1
2
(  1)

M n ,1  1  2.32
2

 2  (  1) M n ,1
T2  2
 
2
 1  M n ,1  1   1.294
2
T1    1  (  1) M n ,1
2
1  [(  1) / 2]M n ,1
2
M n,2   0.7175
M n ,1  (  1) / 2
2
M n,2 0.7157
M2    2.96
sin( 1   ) sin(24  10)
Example
For M 1  2.96 and   10,  2  27.3.    2    27.3  10  17.3
M n , 2  M 2 sin  2  2.96 sin 27.3  1.358

p3
p2
 1
2
(  1)

M n , 2  1  1.991
2

 2  (  1) M n , 2
T3  2
 
2
 1  M n,2  1   1.229
2
T2    1  (  1) M n , 2
2
1  [(  1) / 2]M n , 2
2
M n ,3   0.7572
M n , 2  (  1) / 2
2
M n ,3 0.7572
M3    2.55
sin(  2   ) sin(27.3  10)
Example
p2 T2 p3 T3
 2.32  1.294  1.991  1.229
p1 T1 p2 T2
p3 p2
p3  p1  (1.991)(2.32)(2116)  9774 lb/ft 3
p2 p1
T3 T2
T3  T1  (1.229)(1.294)(519)  825 R
T2 T1

Example
T3  825 R
  17.3
p3  9774 lb/ft 3
T1  519 R M 3  2.55
p1  2116 lb/ft 2 T2  671.6 R
M 1  3.6 p2  4909 lb/ft 2
M 2  2.96
  10

Blunt Body

Blunt Body

Prandtl-Meyer
Expansion Waves

Ludwig Prandtl Theodor Meyer

Prandtl-Meyer Expansion
(centered expansion waves)

Prandtl-Meyer Expansion
dV
d  M  1 2

The Prandtl-Meyer Function
M 2 1
M2
dM
 
M1
1  [(  1) / 2]M 2
M
M 2 1 dM
 (M )  
1  [(  1) / 2]M 2 M
  1 1   1 2
 (M )  tan ( M  1)  tan 1 M 2  1
 1  1
   (M 2 )   (M1 )

Computing downstream properties
1. Compute v(M1).
2. Compute v(M2) = v(M1) + θ.
3. Obtain M2 corresponding to v(M2).
4. Use appropriate isentropic equations
to relate upstream and downstream
properties.

Example
A supersonic flow with M1 = 1.5, P1 = 1 atm, and T1 = 288 K is expanded
around a sharp corner through a deflection angle of 15o. Calculate M2 ,
P2 , T2 , P0,2 , T0,2 and the angles that the forward and rearward Mach
lines make with respect to the upstream flow direction.
M1 = 1.5
P1 = 1 atm
T1 = 288 K
15o

Example
1. Compute v(M1).
v(1.5) = 11.91o
2. Compute v(M2) = v(M1) + θ.
v(M2) = 11.91o + 15o = 26.91o
3. Obtain M2 corresponding to v(M2).
M2 = 2.0 (rounding to nearest entry in table)

Example
4. Use appropriate isentropic equations to
relate upstream and downstream
properties.
p 0,1 T0,1
For M1  1.5,  3.671 and  1.45
p1 T1
p 0,2 T0,2
For M 2  2.0,  7.824 and  1.8
p2 T2

Example
properties.
Since the flow is isentropic, p 0,1  p 0,2 and T0,1  T0,2
p0,1
p0, 2  p0,1  p1  3.671(1 atm)  3.671 atm
p1
T0,1
T0, 2  T0,1  T1  1.45(288)  417.6 K
T1

Example
properties.
Since the flow is isentropic, p 0,1  p 0,2 and T0,1  T0,2
p 2 p 0,2 p 0,1 1
p2  p1  (1)(3.671)(1 atm)  0.469 atm
p 0,2 p 0,1 p1 7.824
T2 T0,2 T0,1 1
T2  T1  (1)(1.45)(288)  232 K
T0,2 T0,1 T1 1.8

Example
properties.
Angle of forward Mach line :
1  sin M 1
1
1 1 1
 sin 1.5  41.81
Angle of rearward Mach line :
 2    sin 1 2.0 1    30  15  15

Shock
Expansion
Theory

Shock-Expansion Theory: Flat Plate
R'  ( p3  p2 )c
L'  ( p3  p2 )c cos 
D'  ( p3  p2 )c sin 

Shock-Expansion Theory: Diamond-Shaped Airfoil
Schlieren Photograph SAEP Logo

Shock-Expansion Theory: Diamond-Shaped Airfoil
D'  2( p2l sin   p3l sin  )  2( p2  p3 )(t / 2)

D'  ( p2  p3 )t
Example
Calculate the lift and drag coefficients for a flat plate at a 50o angle of
attack in a Mach 3 flow.
M = 3.0
 = θ = 50o

Example
 ( M 1 )   (3.0)  49.76
 ( M 2 )   ( M 1 )    49.76  5  54.76
M 2  3.27
p0,1
 36.73
p1
p0 , 2
 55
p2
p2 p0,1 p0, 2 36.73
   0.668
p1 p1 p2 55
Example
For M 1  3 and   5,   23.1
M n ,1  M 1 sin   3 sin 23.1  1.177
p3
 1.458
p1
L'  ( p3  p2 )c cos 
L' L' 2  p3 p2 
CL       cos 
2 
q1S ( / 2) p1M 1 c M 1  p1 p1 
2
CL 
2
2
1.458  0.668 cos 5  0.125
(1.4)(3)
Example
D'  ( p3  p2 )c sin 
D' 2  p3 p2 
CD      sin 
2 
q1S M 1  p1 p1 
CD 
2
2
1.458  0.668sin 5  0.011
(1.4)(3)
CD
 tan 
CL
C D  C L tan   0.125 tan 5  0.011

Road map

Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow

Governing Equations
Continuity
1u1 A1   2u2 A2
Momentum A2
p1 A1  1u1 A1   pdA  p2 A2   2u2 A2

2 2
A1
Energy
2 2
u1 u2
h1   h2 
2 2
For a calorically perfect gas p2   2 RT2 and h2  c pT2

Differential forms
Continuity
d ( uA)  0
Momentum (Euler’s Equation)
dp   udu
Energy
dh  udu  0

Area-Velocity Relation
dA
A
 M 1
2
u

du


Subsonic to Supersonic

Supersonic to Subsonic

Supersonic
Nozzle

Nozzle
This is a rocket nozzle.

de Laval Nozzle

Area-Mach Relation
 *u * A*  uA
A  * a*  * 0 a*
 
A*
 u 0  u
1 /(  1)
  2 
*
  
0    1 
1 /(  1)
0    1 2 
 1  M 
  2 
u 

2

  1 / 2 M 2
 *
*2
M
 
a 1    1  / 2 M 2

Area-Mach Relation
(  1) /(  1)
1  2    1 2 
2
 A
 *  2  1  M 
A  M  1  2 
M is a function of local-to-throat area ratio: M = f(A/A*)

Local-to-throat area ratio, A/A* ≥ 1
There are two M’s for each A/A*, a subsonic and a supersonic value.
For M < 1, as M increases A/A* decreases (convergent duct).
For M > 1, as M increases A/A* also increases (divergent duct).
For M = 1, A/A* = 1.

Area-Mach Relation

Area-Mach Relation

Isentropic Supersonic Flow

(  1) /(  1)
1  2    1 2 
2
 A
 *  2  1  M 
 
A M    1  2 

 (  1)
p*  2 
    0.528
p0    1 

T* 2
  0.833
T0   1

The distribution of M, and

the resulting distribution of
p and T, depend only on the
local area ratio A/A*.

For an isentropic
supersonic flow to happen,
the pressure difference
between the inlet and exit
has to be just right for the
geometry of the duct.

Isentropic Subsonic Flow
What happens when there is an

inlet-exit pressure mismatch?
Freezes at choked flow.
For 1 and 2, A* is a reference area not

equal to At. For subsonic flow A* < At.

Freezes at choked flow.
 (  1)
p  2 
*
    0.528
p0    1 
There’s an infinite number of isentropic

subsonic solution and only one isentropic
supersonic solution.
Choked Flow
m  uA

Choked throat
A condition in a convergent-
divergent duct wherein sonic
condition has been achieved at
the section of minimum area, the
throat, and information is no
longer propagated from the
convergent portion to the
divergent portion of the duct.

Isentropic Supersonic Flow with NSW



NSW moves
further aft
upon exit
pressure
decrease

Example
Consider the isentropic supersonic flow through a convergent-divergent
nozzle with an exit-to-throat area ratio of 10.25. The reservoir pressure
and temperature are 5 atm and 600 R, respectively. Calculate M, p, and T
at the nozzle exit.
(  1) /(  1)
 2    1 2 
2
 Ae  1
M e  3.95
 *     1 1  2 M e    10.25
   
2
A Me 
 /( 1)
p0 , e p0    1 2  p0
  1  Me   142 pe  p0  5 / 142  0.035 atm
pe pe  2  pe
T0,e T0  1 2 T0
  1 M e  4.12 Te  T0  600 / 4.12  145.6 R
Te Te 2 Te
Example
Consider the isentropic flow through a convergent-divergent nozzle with
an exit-to-throat area ratio of 2. The reservoir pressure and temperature
are 1 atm and 288 K, respectively. Calculate the Mach number, pressure,
and temperature at both the throat and the exit for the cases where
(a) the flow is supersonic at the exit, and
(b) the flow is subsonic throughout the entire nozzle except at the throat,
where M = 1.
Ae
Given: *
2 p0  1 atm T0  288 K
A

Example: (a)
At the throat,
M * 1
*
p
pt  p   0.528(1)  0.528 atm
*
p0
*
T
Tt  T *   0.833(288)  240 K
T0

Example: (a)
At the exit,
(  1) /(  1)
 2    1 2 
2
 Ae  1
M e  2.2
 *     1 1  2 M e   2
A   
2
Me 
p0,e p0
pe

pe
 1  0.2M e
2
 3.5
 10.69 pe  p0
p0
pe
 1 / 10.69  0.0935 atm
T0,e T0  1 2 T0
  1 M e  1.968 Te  T0  288 / 1.968  146 K
Te Te 2 Te

Example: (b)
At the throat,
Mt  M 1 *
*
p
pt  p   0.528(1)  0.528 atm
*
p0
*
T
Tt  T *   0.833(288)  240 K
T0

Example: (b)
At the exit,
(  1) /(  1)
 2    1 2 
2
 Ae  1
M e  0.3
 *     1 1  2 M e   2
A   
2
Me 
p0,e p0
pe

pe
 1  0.2M e
2
 3.5
 1.064 pe  p0
p0
pe
 1 / 1.064  0.94 atm
T0,e T0  1 2 T0
  1 M e  1.018 Te  T0  288 / 1.018  282.9 K
Te Te 2 Te

Example
Consider the isentropic flow through a convergent-divergent nozzle
with an exit-to-throat area ratio of 2. The reservoir pressure and
temperature are 1 atm and 288 K, respectively. The exit pressure is
0.973 atm. Calculate the Mach number at both the throat and the exit
for the cases where
(a) the flow is supersonic at the exit, and
(b) the flow is subsonic throughout the entire nozzle except at the
throat, where M = 1.
Ae
Given: *
2 p0  1 atm T0  288 K pe  0.973 atm
A

Example:
From before, the exit pressure corresponding to a subsonic flow
throughout the nozzle (except at the throat), pe  0.94 atm
p0 1 At At Ae
  1.028 *
 *
 0.5(2.964)  1.482
pe 0.973 A Ae A
 p 1/ 3.5  M t  0.44

M e  5 0   1  0.2
 pe  
(  1) /(  1)
 2    1 2 
2
 Ae  1
 *     1 1  2 M e    2.964
   
2
A M e 
Supersonic
Diffuser

Diffuser Flow
A diffuser is a duct designed to slow an incoming gas flow to lower velocity
at the exit of the diffuser with as small a loss in total pressure as possible.
An ideal (isentropic) supersonic diffuser.

What happens in a real diffuser

Supersonic
Wind Tunnel

How to produce supersonic flow

How to produce supersonic flow

Supersonic Wind Tunnel

Relation between the two throat areas
The second throat must always be larger than the first throat.
At , 2 p0,1

At ,1 p0, 2
At , 2  At ,1
When the second throat area is less than stipulated by

this equation, the wind tunnel can become UNSTARTED.

Supersonic Wind Tunnel

Model in a supersonic wind tunnel

Reference

Thank you
for
listening!

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Normal Shock Waves

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Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by John D. Anderson, Jr.

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specific gas constant

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Work depends on the process

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q  pdv  de dh  de  pdv  vdp

Tds  pdv  de q  dh  vdp

Tds  pdv  de Tds  dh  vdp

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Let Δs = 0 in the previous equations.

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At a standard altitude of 36,000 ft, p   476 lb/ft 2 and T  391 R.

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Whenever a fluid experiences a change in pressure,

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τ for a gas in low-speed flow may be large,

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1. Model the fLow

2. Apply the three fundamental principles:

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Properties that would exist at a point in a

Every point in a flow has both static and

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Total enthalpy is constant in a steady adiabatic inviscid flow.

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Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by John D. Anderson, Jr.

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s  1004.5 ln 0.7647  287 ln 0.2  192.5 J/kg - K

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