03
Edition 1 - 2002
W O R L D S TA I N L E S S
training notes
the mechanical properties of stainless
steel: how these are determined and
the factors which influence their values
Stainless steels are primarily used for their
corrosion resistance. However, the range of
excellent mechanical properties offered by
the various grades within the family of
stainless steel makes them extremely
versatile materials.
Throughout this article representative or
typical values will be used to illustrate the
different properties being discussed (unless
noted otherwise) and will be referred to as
nominal values. The nominal values are
those which are the norm for the various
properties, but it is stressed that these must
not be regarded as minimum nor, for some
properties, maximum values for
specification purposes. The nominal values
inevitably vary, depending on the reference
or source of the publication, e.g. grade 304
hot rolled and annealed plate at room
temperature:
Tensile Yield
Strength Strength
Source ‘A’ 565MPa 241MPa
Source ‘B’ 600MPa 310MPa
Specification 500MPa 205MPa
ASTM A240 (min) (min)
Specified values are usually lower (more
conservative) than the nominal values.
Therefore, if guaranteed values are required,
reference must be made to the actual code
or specification. It should be noted that
different specifications and codes stipulate
different values, and this may lead to either
less or more cost-effective use of material.
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U N D E R S TA N D I N G S TA I N L E S S S T E E L A N D I T S P R O P E R T I E S
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Strain = Increase in length
Mechanical properties are a measure of the Original length
metal’s response to an applied force. Units: Strain has no units, but is usually
expressed as a percentage (%).
Yield strength and tensile
strength The stress-strain curve has several regions
The most common mechanical property (see Figure 2, p2):
used for comparison, reference and design • From O to E, the strain produced is
purposes is strength and two forms of this elastic. On removal of the stress, the
are commonly reported – yield strength specimen will revert to its original
and tensile strength. dimensions. The stress value
corresponding to E is termed the
To determine both these strengths, standard
elastic limit.
test specimens (see Figure 1) are machined
• As the stress is raised above the elastic
from the material and subjected to an
limit (E), the material will start to deform
increasing measured load in tension until
in a plastic manner, i.e. the material
rupture (breakage) occurs. As the increasing
undergoes a permanent strain or change
tensile load is applied, a graph is plotted to
in dimensions.
show the relationship between the stress
and the strain.
A typical stress-strain curve is shown in
Figure 2. Stress refers to the force applied
while strain refers to the defamation of the
sample. The definitions used for these two
terms are as follows:
Stress = Applied load
Original cross-sectional
area of the specimen
Units: Mega Pascals (MPa)
Useful conversion factors:
15.44MPa = 1 ton ƒ/square inch (1tsi)
6.9MPa = 1,000lb ƒ/square inch = 1,000psi = 1 ksi
1MPa = 1N/sq.mm
9.8MPa = 1kg ƒ/square mm
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of
rectangular and round tensile
test specimens
I N T E R N AT I O N A L S TA I N L E S S S T E E L F O R U M
Many metals (eg mild steel) show a
pronounced yield point, as indicated in
Figure 3. At the yield point, the material
shows a sudden increase of strain for no
increase in stress. For such steels, this is
reported as the yield strength or the yield
stress. Stainless steels do not show such a
distinct yield point, and the change from
elastic behaviour to permanent plastic
deformation is not usually easy to detect.
In the initial stages of plastic deformation,
only a small amount of permanent strain
occurs for relatively large increases in stress.
The yield strength for stainless steels is
usually taken as the stress which will
produce a 0.2% permanent strain (offset).
Referring to Figure 2, this is obtained by a
line drawn parallel to OE from 0.2% strain
to intersect the curve at Y. The stress value
corresponding to Y is taken as the yield
strength.
The yield strength for stainless steels is,
therefore, reported as 0.2% proof stress (Rp
0.2), proof stress (0.2% offset), proof stress
(0.2% strain), yield strength (offset 0.2%),
0.2% yield strength, etc. All these terms are
equivalent.
Note: Occasionally, the yield strength is
reported at different amounts of strain or
offset, e.g. 0.1% or 0.5%. This should be
taken into account when comparing reported
Figure 2: Schematic stress-strain
curve for stainless steel
Figure 3: Schematic stress-strain curve
indicating a yield point
03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel
figures or if designing to minimum specified
values.
With further tensile loading the plastic
deformation continues. Typically, the amount
of increased stress required to induce
permanent strain decreases, as indicated by
the flattening of the curve between Y and T
in Figure 2. In this region, the deformation is
uniform within the reduced cross-section of
the tensile test specimen, until the resistance
of the material for stress to produce
permanent strain reaches a maximum at T.
The stress corresponding to T, i.e. the
maximum load divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen, is taken and
reported as the tensile strength (also termed
ultimate strength or ultimate tensile strength
– UTS).
After this the plastic deformation becomes
localised in a short length of the test
specimen. Rapid decrease of the cross-
sectional area occurs (necking) and,
therefore, the stress required to produce
strain decreases, as shown in Figure 2 by
the falling portion of the curve TF. The final
fracture (breakage) of the specimen occurs
at F.
Elongation and reduction
of area (RA)
The mechanical properties of elongation and
reduction of area (RA) are also determined
at the same time as the yield and tensile
strengths.
Elongation is determined as follows:
Before the tensile test specimens are
subjected to the load, a standard length is
marked on the reduced section of the test
specimen. This is known as the gauge length,
and is indicated by ‘G’ in Figure 1. Different
specifications lay down different gauge
lengths, e.g. 50mm (2”), 200mm (8”) or
sometimes as a formula:
gauge length =
5.65 x s original cross-sectional area
For example, the gauge length for a round
tensile specimen of 12.5mm diameter in the
reduced section would be as follows:
5.65 s π x (6.25)2 = 62.6mm (2.5”)
After fracture, the two pieces are carefully
put together and the increased distance
between the marks is measured.
The elongation is calculated as follows:
(Distance between marks after
fracture – original gauge length)
x 100
Original gauge length
It is thus reported as a percentage, with the
gauge length specified, e.g. elongation in
50mm = 28%.
Note: Elongation taken over different gauge
lengths can vary. The elongations determined
on shorter gauge lengths tend to show
slightly higher values than the elongation
measured in longer gauge lengths. This
should be taken into account when
comparing reported values.
Reduction of area (RA) is determined as
follows:
After fracture, the two pieces of the
specimen are carefully fitted together and
the average diameter is measured (the width
and thickness of the smallest cross-section
to which the specimen has been reduced by
necking). The RA is calculated as follows:
Original cross-sectional area –
smallest cross-sectional area
after fracture
x 100
Original cross-sectional area
It is thus reported as a percentage, e.g. RA =
55%. Both elongation and RA are a measure
of the ductility of the material, i.e. the ability
of the material to deform in a plastic manner
without fracturing. Elongation is the
property most often used in this respect
since RA is a relatively insensitive
assessment of ductility.
Hardness
Hardness is an often reported mechanical
property. It gives an indication of the tensile
strength and is used as a non-destructive test
for checking heat treatment and the sorting
of material. Hardness is determined by
measuring the resistance of the material to
penetration (indentation):
• Brinell test: a hardened steel ball indentor
(10mm diameter) is forced into the
material by a standard load. The diameter
of the impression gives, from tables,
the Brinell Hardness Number (HB).
• Rockwell test: either a hardened steel
ball (Rockwell B – HRB) or a diamond
conical indenter (Rockwell C – HRC)
is forced into the material by standard
applied loads. The depth of penetration is
used to give a Rockwell number directly
from the scale on the equipment. HRB is
used for soft materials and HRC for hard
materials.
ISSF training notes page 2
• Other hardness tests are also sometimes used: It is determined using a pendulum test. may be used in engineering design
– Vickers test: Vickers Pyramid Number A standard specimen which is notched to calculations.
(NV) is usually only used in the localise the stress is struck by a single blow
Impact testing may also be used to assess
laboratory. from a swinging pendulum. The energy
the effect of high or low temperatures on a
– Shore test: Measures the rebound of a absorbed in deforming or breaking the
material. Impact specimens are uniformly
hardened ball up a standard tube (used specimen is measured by the loss of
heated or cooled to various temperatures
when no indentation can be tolerated). energy in the pendulum.
then quickly impact tested.
Some comparisons are as follows: Tough materials absorb a lot of energy,
A plot of the energy absorbed is made
Very Hard 62 HRC 688 HB whereas brittle materials absorb little energy.
against the testing temperature of the
Hard 48 HRC 455 HB
The most common test is the Charpy ‘V’ specimens. The Ductile to Brittle Transition
Medium
Notch Impact Test (see Figure 4). Other Temperature (DBTT) is taken as the
Hard 30 HRC 286 HB
similar tests are used, namely the Charpy temperature at which the slope of the curve
Soft 90 HRB 185 HB
Keyhole and the Izod Test. changes (see Figure 5).
Very Soft 72 HRB 130 HB
Impact values are reported as the energy Most steels suffer from a loss of toughness
Note: Brinell hardness tests are not carried
absorbed, with the type of test and the as the temperature drops to freezing point
out on materials of over 400-450 HB, as the
temperature noted. The units are Joules (J). (O°C) and below. The actual impact strength
hardened ball indentor would itself tend to
For example, impact strength: Charpy ‘V’ at the DBTT varies for different steels. As a
suffer distortion.
(20°C) = 60J. general rule, if this value is less than 35J, the
Toughness material is described as ‘brittle’. This does
The values determined are for comparison
Toughness is the capacity of a material to not necessarily prevent the use of the
purposes only and, although often reported
deform or absorb energy before breaking and material. However, it does indicate that the
or specified as acceptance criteria, they
is an important engineering property. material must be used with due
cannot be converted to energy values which
consideration. Some steels exhibit impact
strengths in excess of 35J at the DBTT and
even at lower temperatures, and, therefore,
are considered as ‘tough’ at all temperatures.

Note: It is usual to take test specimens in the

direction of rolling or extension (termed
longitudinal). Thus, strain or fracture takes
place at right angles to any directionality
which may exist in the material. Such
longitudinal test specimens generally exhibit
higher values compared with values obtained
from test specimens taken across the rolling
direction (termed transverse).

AUSTENITIC STAINLESS
STEELS
Yield strength and tensile
Figure 4: Schematic illustration of the Charpy ‘V’ notch impact test strength
Nominal room temperature yield strengths
(0.2% offset) and tensile strengths for some
annealed austenitic stainless steels are given
in Table 1, p4.

Compared with structural, plain carbon steel

(yield strength 270MPa, tensile strength
465MPa), austenitic stainless steels have
superior properties.

Cold working significantly increases both

the yield and tensile strengths of austenitic
stainless steels. The degree to which work-
hardening affects the strength levels depends
on the chemical composition of the particular
austenitic stainless steel, particularly with
regard to the elements which stabilise the
austenitic crystal structure (especially the
Figure 5: Schematic representation of loss of toughness (ductility) as temperature is
lowered, with indication of ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT)
Nickel (Ni) content).

03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel ISSF training notes page 3

For example in Table 2, grade 301, which Higher strength austenitic stainless steel The strength properties associated with
does not have a composition necessary to sheet and strip may be produced by cold the various tempers are given in Table 3.
fully stabilise the austenitic structure, is rolling annealed feed coils to thinner
Such temper rolling is usually confined to
compared with grades 304 and 310, which finished gauges without a final annealing
grade 301 because of its greater response,
have fully stabilised austenitic structures at operation. The starting feed coil thickness is
and other grades of austenitic stainless steel
room temperature and show less response calculated to allow a consistent percentage of
are not readily obtainable in this condition.
to work hardening. rolling reduction (cold work) for finished
High strength wire is also produced by the
The austenitic stainless steels, therefore, gauge product of the same temper, i.e.
same principle. Different tempers are used
have the ability to be work-hardened to very 1/4 hard; 1/2 hard; 3/4 hard; full hard. These
according to the application:
high strength levels, significantly exceeding higher strengths are defined according to
• annealed temper: soft wire; no drawing
those obtainable from conventional structural temper. The process is referred to as temper
takes place after the last annealing
steels and heat-treated, low alloy steels. rolling to differentiate it from cold rolling.
treatment;
• soft temper: one single light draw after
Table 1: Nominal room temperature yield and tensile strengths for annealed the last annealing treatment to produce
austenitic stainless steels properties below a specified maximum;
AISI type 301 304 304L 309S 310S 316 316L • intermediate temper: progressive drawing
Yield strength operations after annealing to produce
(0.2% offset) MPa 275 290 270 310 310 290 290 minimum specified strengths; and
Tensile strength MPa 755 580 560 620 655 580 560 • spring temper: several drawing operations
to produce high tensile spring wire
Table 2: Indicative response to cold working different grades of austenitic requirements. The tensile strengths
stainless steels to varying degrees
obtainable in the spring temper condition
Grade % Cold work Yield strength Tensile strength are very high, especially for small
(0.2% offset) MPa MPa diameter wires. Nominal tensile strength
301 10% Cold work 585 1,035 levels are indicated in Table 4.
30% Cold work 1,035 1,275
50% Cold work 1,310 1,445 As the temperature increases to elevated
(up to 500°C) and high (above 500°C) levels,
304 10% Cold work 480 685
30% Cold work 825 860 the strength properties decrease.
50% Cold work 1,000 1,100
Nevertheless, austenitic stainless steels
310 10% Cold work 470 744 possess useful elevated and high temperature
30% Cold work 854 965
strengths which are commonly reported in
50% Cold work 1,010 1,145
two different ways:
Table 3: Strength levels for various • Short time properties: the tensile test
Table 4: Tensile strength levels
temper rolled sheet/strip specimen is heated to the required
obtainable for cold drawn
Temper Yield strength Tensile wire (Grade 304) temperature of the test and tested at this
(0.2% offset) strength temperature to obtain the stress-strain
Wire diameter Tensile strength
MPa (min) MPa (min) curve and the resultant yield and tensile
range (MPa)
1/4 hard 515 860 strengths.
0.46 - 0.51mm 2,070 - 2,275
1/2 hard 760 1,035 The effect of elevated and high
0.94 - 1.04mm 1,895 - 2,095
3/4 hard 930 1,205 2.41 - 2.67mm 1,600 - 1,805 temperatures on both the yield and tensile
Full hard 965 1,275
strengths in MPa is taken on a short time
Table 5: Indicative short time elevated and high temperature yield and tensile basis, as indicated in Table 5. In general
strengths for various austenitic stainless steels terms, it may be seen that the ‘L’ grades
(Note: YS=Yield Strength, TS=Tensile Strength both in MPa) lose more properties with a rise in
Temp 304 304L 316 316L 321 347 temperature, particularly with regard
°C YS TS YS TS YS TS YS TS YS TS YS TS to their tensile strengths.
150 191 465 180 431 205 510 176 450 156 475 224 480 Against the values given in Table 5,
260 166 445 152 409 173 500 149 435 131 468 198 437
370 150 445 140 400 157 500 134 435 121 468 182 426 it is interesting to note the maximum
480 137 428 130 382 152 475 123 415 116 468 176 426 allowable stresses in tension for austenitic
595 125 365 116 327 144 407 109 360 112 400 173 402 stainless steels in unfired pressure vessels
705 112 266 - 245 134 298 - 272 102 276 161 324 (see Table 6), which are clearly
815 79 145 - 142 112 172 - 168 95 141 113 168
conservative.
Table 6: Indicative maximum allowable stresses in tension for use in unfired
pressure vessels
Allowable stress in MPa for tempertures
Steel grade 150°C 260°C 370°C 480°C 595°C 705°C 815°C
304 103 86 74 65 52 17 5
304L 90 67 58.5 - - - -

03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel ISSF training notes page 4

• Long time properties: at high Ductility Charpy V values at sub-zero temperatures do
temperatures metal undergoes a Annealed austenitic stainless steels have decrease, but even at temperatures as low as
continuous slow deformation, which is excellent elongation values (typically 200 below zero, they are typically 90-120J,
termed creep. Creep can occur at stresses 50-60% and higher). Therefore, they have a i.e. not approaching values which are
below the short time yield strength. There superior ability to be cold formed, pressed, considered as brittle. Cold work also reduces
are three stages of creep (see Figure 6): drawn and spun into deep shapes. Cold the impact strength values. The relative
1. Primary creep over a relatively short working does cause a decrease in the reduction depends on the amount of cold
time during which the creep rate ductility. Elongation of approx. 20% is work. Even severely cold worked austenitic
decreases. typical for material which has undergone stainless steels retain a considerable amount
2. Secondary creep at a constant rate 30% cold work – still a very acceptable of toughness, and the decrease will
over an extended period at a minimum ductility by normal engineering standards. ordinarily never approach a brittle condition.
creep rate. At sub-zero temperatures the elongation From the above it may be seen that austenitic
3. Tertiary creep over a relatively short decreases only slightly, giving a typical stainless steels have exceedingly good low
time during which the creep rate elongation value of 40 - 50%. temperature mechanical properties.
increases and the metal finally Therefore, they are used widely for the
Hardness
fractures. manufacture of vessels to contain liquid
In the annealed condition, typical hardness
gases at cryogenic temperatures (grade 304N
Long time creep values are sometimes is 150-160 HB. Small amounts of cold work
is preferred due to its superior strength
presented in tabular form (see Table 7). can rapidly increase the hardness up to levels
properties). However, austenitic stainless
of approx. 250 HB. Further cold work results
Austenitic stainless steels increase their steels may exhibit low toughness under two
in a slower increase in hardness. Spring
strength progressively as the temperature is circumstances:
temper wires and grade 301 cold rolled to
lowered, even to as low as the cryogenic 1. The composition may cause the brittle
full hard temper have hardnesses in the
temperatures of liquid gases such as minus order of 340-380 HB. phase called sigma to develop within the
200°C. Those austenitic stainless steels crystal structure when heated to high
which have higher levels of addition Toughness temperatures of 600-850°C for extended
elements (i.e. elements which have a strong The annealed austenitic stainless steels have periods. The embrittling effect of sigma is
influence on stabilising the austenitic crystal excellent toughness, with Charpy V (room not deleterious at these high temperatures,
structure, such as nickel (Ni) and/or nitrogen temperature) typically in excess of 165J. but seriously reduces the toughness of
(N)) tend to have a smaller increase in
tensile strength, but a marked increase in the Table 7: Indicative maximum permissible stress values for different creep rates
0.2% offset yield strength as the temperature for 304 stainless steel
decreases. Temperature 538°C 648°C 734°C 815°C
Those alloys which have low Ni and N Stress for 1% in 10,000 hours 138 MPa 56 MPa 25 MPa 19 MPa
Stress for 1% in 100,000 hours 76 MPa 27.5 MPa 12 MPa 9 MPa
contents undergo change to the crystal
structure as the temperature drops, i.e. Table 8: Indicative 0.2% offset yield strength and tensile strengths for different
metastable alloys. Such alloys have a larger austenitic stainless steels at temperatures below freezing point
increase in the tensile strength, but only a 304 304N 310
Test
slight increase in the 0.2% offset yield Temperature 0.2% YS TS 0.2% YS TS 0.2% YS TS
strength. °C MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
Indicative values are given in Table 8 for 304 -50 236 1,101 495 940 392 848
(metastable), 304N (stabilised with N) and -100 223 1,280 615 1,110 466 950
310 (stabilised as a result of its high -140 245 1,365 665 1,345 557 972
-196 232 1,610 850 1,620 671 1,138
Ni content).

Figure 7: Schematic representation

of fatigue properties plotted as S-N
curves for:
(a) material which has fatigue limit; and
(b) austenitic stainless steels which have
Figure 6: Schematic illustration of the three stages of creep a fatigue strength

03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel ISSF training notes page 5

 steels when they are cooled and tested
at room temperature.
2. If austenitic stainless steels are first cold
worked to a significant degree and then
heated in the sensitisation temperature
range of 550-850°C for sufficient time
to cause carbide precipitation, such
sensitised steels will suffer loss of
toughness at temperatures lower than
100°C below zero.
Fatigue
If metals are subject to repeated fluctuating
(reversing) loads at stresses below the tensile
strength, a fatigue crack can result. With
increasing number of cycles, failure by
fracture will occur. Resistance to fatigue is
important for many engineering applications
and is assessed by subjecting polished
specimens to repeated cycles of a fixed
reversing stress until fracture occurs. The
higher the stress, the lower the number of
cycles required to bring about failure.
The results obtained at different stress levels
are plotted against the corresponding number
of cycles to final failure to give an S-N
curve (i.e. Stress-Number of cycles – see
Figure 7, p5). Most steels exhibit a stress
below which fatigue failure will never occur.
This stress is called the fatigue limit (or
endurance limit).
However, in the case of austenitic stainless
steels such a limit is not reached and
progressively reducing stress continues to
cause fatigue failure as the number of stress
cycles increases. The stress required to
produce failure in a specific (large) number
of stress cycles is termed the fatigue strength
(see Table 9).
In practical terms, however, the progressive
decrease in stress becomes so small at a
large number of cycles that, provided the
number of cycles is large enough, the fatigue
strength may be taken as a fatigue limit.
Cold working and sub-zero temperatures
increase the fatigue strength.
Any surface defects or imperfections Elongation in 50mm:
adversely affect the fatigue strength, 430 = 25%
lowering it to a half or a third of the value 446 = 20%
obtained with perfect surface conditions. 18-2 super ferritic = 30%
26-1 super ferritic = 28%
3CR12 = 22%
FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS
Yield strength and tensile Ferritic stainless steels clearly have a
strength ductility equivalent to the usual plain carbon
Nominal room temperature yield strengths mild steels and are, therefore, suitable for
(0.2% offset) and tensile strengths for cold forming operations of a moderate
annealed ferritic stainless steels are given degree. A Deep Drawing Quality (DDQ)
in Table 10. grade 430 has also been developed. While it
has drawing properties superior to standard
• Ferritic stainless steels show little 430, these do not approach those exhibited
response to cold working. An increase in by the austenitic grades.
both the yield and tensile strengths takes
place, but only to a minor degree. Hardness
Ferritic stainless steels in the annealed
• Ferritic stainless steels have useful condition have a nominal hardness of 165
elevated temperature strengths, but these HB. They are non- hardenable by heat
strengths tend to fall off rapidly at high treatment and are only hardened to a minor
temperatures (see Table 11). degree by cold working.
In general, ferritic stainless steels are not Toughness
recommended for load bearing components The impact strengths of ferritic stainless
at high temperatures, as their creep strengths steels vary according to the chemical
at temperatures above 450°C are low. composition, particularly with respect to the
However they are used at high temperatures DBTT. Grade 446, for example, has a DBTT
on account of their oxidation (scaling) of 120°C, i.e. it has low toughness at room
resistance (especially grade 446). temperature. The standard ferritic stainless
steels are tough at room temperature and, in
Fatigue general, their DBTT is between 20°C and
Nominal fatigue strengths for ferritic O°C - below O°C may, therefore, be
stainless steels range from 310-330MPa. considered low toughness. The super ferritic
stainless steels and 3CR12 (with low levels
Ductility of both carbon (C) and nitrogen (N)), have a
Ferritic stainless steels have nominal DBTT in the range of O°C to 20°C below
elongation values as follows: freezing point.
Table 10: Nominal room temperature Yield and Tensile Strengths for annealed
standard and proprietary alloy ferritic stainless steels
Steel grade Yield strength Tensile strength
(0.2% offset) (MPa)
(•) Proprietary alloy grades (MPa)
430 345 510
446 345 550
(•) 18-2 CrMo Super ferritic 340 515
(•) 26-1 CrMo Super ferritic 345 480
(•) 3CR12 320 500

Table 11: Nominal short time elevated and high temperature Tensile Strengths
Table 9: Nominal fatigue strength for standard and proprietary ferritic stainless steels
for various annealed
Tensile strength (MPa)
austenitic stainless steels
Temperature 430 446 18-2 Super 3CR12
Steel grades Fatigue strength °C Ferritic
(MPa)
200 465 580 480 420
301 245 400 395 550 450 360
304 245 600 165 240 - 160
316 265 700 89 110 - -
321 260 800 45 55 - -

03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel ISSF training notes page 6

In general, therefore, not all the ferritic highly stressed, hard and strong, but significantly improves elongation and
stainless steels are suitable for use at which has low ductility and toughness. toughness, but with a major sacrifice of
temperatures approaching or below freezing strength and hardness.
3. The quenched steel should then be
point. It should be noted that welding can
immediately tempered by re-heating to The high carbon grades (440 A, B and C) are
considerably reduce the toughness of
the temperature necessary to produce mainly used at high strength and hardness
standard ferritic stainless steels within the
the desired combination of strength, levels because of the abrasion and wear
weld zone due to changes to the crystal
hardness, ductility and toughness resistance required in their typical
structure brought about in the heat affected
(see Figure 8). applications, e.g. pivot pins, dental and
zone (HAZ).
surgical instruments, cutlery, hardened balls,
Nominal values for the yield strength, tensile
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS needle valves, bushing and bearings. At
strength, elongation, hardness and toughness
STEELS these levels, the associated mechanical
for some quenched and tempered martensitic
properties of elongation and toughness are
Martensitic stainless steels are usually stainless steels are given in Table 12. The
relatively inferior. This must be taken into
supplied in the annealed (soft) condition effect of different chemical compositions
account if they are used in engineering
for ease of machining. As such, they have should be noted, particularly the carbon (C)
applications involving impact loading etc.
mechanical properties similar to the ferritic content (medium to high levels in grade 420
stainless steels, because in this condition and grades 440 A, B and C respectively). The fatigue properties of martensitic
they do possess a ferritic structure. The mechanical properties actually obtained stainless steels depend on the quenched and
from the various grades in practice will tempered tensile strength level (fatigue limit
To develop their potential mechanical
depend on the chemical composition, the ≈ 45% of the tensile strength). Fatigue
properties and their corrosion resistance,
cross-sectional area, the quenching medium performance is reduced by the presence of
they need to be heat treated by quenching
(rate) used, and the austenitising (hardening) any surface imperfections or defects.
and tempering. This involves the following
temperature.
process: The quenched and tempered steels may be
The strength and hardness of these steels is used at temperatures up to 25-30°C below
1. The steel should be heated to within a
maintained up to a tempering temperature their tempering temperature. If the tempering
specified high temperature range for long
of approximately 425°C (see Figure 8 and temperature is approached or exceeded in
enough to ensure uniformity of this
Table 12). Tempering is usually applied at use, the mechanical properties will be
temperature throughout the cross-section.
a temperature between 260-300°C, which affected. Short time strength values at
At this temperature, the crystal structure
gives satisfactory elongation and maximum temperatures up to 350°C are approximately
becomes fully austenitic and, therefore, it
toughness. 90% of that of the room temperature
is termed the austenitising or hardening
strength.
temperature. Note, in particular, the typical drop in
toughness between 375°C and 600°C. Quenched and tempered martensitic stainless
2. The steel should then be rapidly cooled
Tempering in this range is not recommended steels show a marked drop in toughness as
(quenching) from this high temperature,
as low and erratic impact properties are the temperature is lowered to 0°C and below.
usually in oil. (Faster quenching in water
obtained. Tempering above 600°C However, if the steels have been tempered at
is seldom used, but slower quenching by
simply cooling in air may sometimes be
Table 12: Nominal mechanical properties for some martensitic stainless steels
used.) This quenching produces the in the quenched and tempered condition
martensitic crystal structure, which is
Grade of Tempering Yield Strength Tensile Elongation Hardness Izod “V”
Steel temperature (0.2% offset) strength in 50 mm Notch
°C MPa MPa % J
200 1,000 1,310 15 41HRC 47
315 965 1,240 15 39HRC 47
410 425 1,035 1,345 17 41HRC -
538 790 1,000 20 31HRC -
648 585 758 23 97HRB 102
760 415 620 30 89HRB 136
200 1,380 1,755 10
315 1,345 1,725 10
420 425 1,380 1,755 10 48HRC 14
538 1,000 1,170 15
648 585 790 20
200 1,070 1,415 15 43HRC 41
315 1,035 1,345 15 41HRC 61
431 425 1,070 1,415 15 43HRC -
538 895 1,035 18 34HRC -
648 655 860 20 24HRC 68

Figure 8: Schematic illustration of 440A 315 1,655 1,795 5 51HRC 5

modification and combination 440B 315 1,860 1,930 3 55HRC 4
of properties resulting from 440C 315 1,895 1,965 2 57HRC 3
increasing tempering Note: Historically the Izod Impact Test was used. These figures are still quoted in most references.
temperatures It is not possible to convert results from one method of impact testing to another.

03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel ISSF training notes page 7

the highest tempering temperatures There is one common grade: Table 13. The specifications on which these
(650-700°C), impact values range from • S31803 - (Also known as 2205) figures are based are in ASTM Standard
15-40J Izod V, and with due care, they may Cr: 22; Ni: 5.5; Mo 3; N: 0.15 A276.
be used at low temperatures. However, their A typical supler duplex grade is as follows:
As with the other stainless steels, the
toughness progressively decreases as the • S32750 - (Also known as 2507)
properties will depend on the chemical
temperature falls, and at 150°C below Cr: 25; Ni: 7; Mo: 3.5; N: 0.25;
composition and, more particularly, on the
freezing they become exceedingly brittle. (plus W and Cu)
thermal history during manufacturing.
Room Temperature
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS Mechanical Properties High and low temperature
applications
The actual properties will depend on the The duplex steels all have high yield
amounts of ferrite and austenite, the two strengths that can lead to cost savings related Duplex stainless steels are not recommended
components that make up a duplex steel, and to the higher load bearing capacity. A for temperatures in excess of 250-300°C
the particular grade of duplex steel being tabulation of minimum properties compared because of the possibility of the precipitation
considered. to quench annealed S30400 is shown in of brittle intermetallic phases in the ferrite
component of the structure. The higher the
chromium content, the more likely is this
problem to occur. There is also a slight
Table 13: Minimum mechanical properties of duplex stainless steels compared decrease in strength at temperatures between
to S30400 room temperature and 300°C, Table 14 1.
Minimum room temperature mechanical properties – Quench
annealed condition (rapidly cool from 1000-1100˚C depending There is also a potential for problems at low
on the grade) temperatures because of the possibility of
brittle failure in the ferrite phase. A lower
UNS No Tensile Yield Elongation Impact strength Hardness
limit of -60°C has been suggested but the
strength strength % on 5cm at 20˚C (Brinnell)
MPa (0.2% offset) Charpy V impact strength commences to fall at around
MPa Notch J 50°C for S32750, 10°C for S31803 and
with the steels reaching half their room
S30400 515 210 45 ª300-350 90
temperature toughness at approximately -
S31803 620 450 25 ª300 290
S32750 800 550 15 ª275 310 30°C for S32750, -40°C for S31803.

Table 14: Elevated temperature strength of duplex stainless steels Table 15: Effect of cold work on the
strength of S31803
Test Temperature Tensile Strength Yield Strength
°C MPa (0.2% Offset) MPa Percentage Tensile Yield Strength
S31803 S32750 S31803 S32750 cold work Strength (0.2% Offset)
MPa MPa
50 660 780 415 540
100 620 700 360 480 5 700 810
200 570 650 310 400 10 790 855
300 560 650 280 380 15 860 905

Table 16: Mechanical properties of some precipitation hardening stainless steel bar stock

UNS No Also type Treatment Tensile Yield Elongation Reduction in Hardness

known as code strength strength % on 5cm area (HRC)
S15500 15-5PH Martensitic H900 1310 1170 10 longitudinal 35 longitudinal 40
(Bar) 6 transverse 15 transverse
S174000 17-4PH 10 longitudinal 40 longitudinal
(Bar)
S45500 Custom Martensitic H900 1620 1520 8 30 47
(Bar) 455
S17700 17-7PH Semi- RH950 1275 1030 6 10 41
(Bar) austenitic
S17700 17-7PH Semi- CH900 1585- - - - -
(Wire) austenitic 2515
S66286 A286 Semi- ST1650A 895 585 15 18 248
(Bar) austenitic (Brinell)

Heat Treatment Codes:

H900: (S15500and S17400) 1035°C for 30 minutes, oil or air cool to below 30°C, age at 495°C for 4 hrs, then air cool
H900: (S45500) 830°C for 1 hr, water quench, age at 480°C for 4 hrs, then air cool
RH950 (S17700) 1065°C for 30 minutes per 2.5cm of section, 955°C for 10 minutes, air cool, refrigerate at -75°C for 8 hrs, age at 510°C for 1 hr, then air cool
CH900 (S17700) 1065°C for 30 minutes per 2.5cm of section, air cool, cold reduce to give required strength, age at 480°C for 1 hr, then air cool
ST1650 (S66286) 900°C for 2 hrs, oil or water quench then age at 760°C for 16 hrs, air or furnace cool

03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel ISSF training notes page 8

Cold working END NOTES
The higher basic strength of these steels 1 Avesta Sheffield Product Data Sheets
makes them more difficult to cold work. 9137, 9516 and 9164
The lower ductility also means that processes
2 Walden B and Nicholls JM The Sandvik
requiring this ductility, such as deep drawing
family of Stainless Steels – Summary
and spinning are difficult compared to the
of Data. Sandvik Steel Publication
austenitic steels. Quench annealing is
S-51-53-ENG (April 1994)
normally recommended after approximately
10% cold work. An indication of the effect 3 Avesta Sheffield Product Data Sheet
of cold work on S31803 is given in Table 15, 9516
p8.
4 Sandvik Steel: Product Data Sheet
PRECIPITATION HARDENING S-1874-ENG (April 1994)
STAINLESS STEELS 5 ASM Stainless Steel Specialty Handbook
These steels can produce very high strengths p37 (1994)
with ultimate tensile strengths around 2000
MPa being achievable. The steels are
fabricated in the annealed condition prior
to any heat treatment.

The corrosion resistance approaches that of

type 304 stainless and thus the combination
of strength and corrosion resistance exceeds
that obtainable from the martensitic steels.
Ductility at a given strength, however, only
matches that of the martensitic steels.

Because of the complexity of the heat

treatments given to these steels,
specifications are usually related to codes
identifying these heat treatments.

Table 16 gives the mechanical proper ties

for some precipitation hardening stainless
steels related to these heat treatments 5.

Because of their high strength and superior

corrosion resistance compared to other high
strength materials coupled with a high base
cost, precipitation hardening stainless steels
find their main application in the aerospace
industry.

Edition 1
© 2002 Australian Stainless Steel
Development Association

Acknowledgment: The contribution of

the Australian Stainless Steel Development
Association’s Technical and Education
Committees in preparing this course is
acknowledged with thanks. Some material
in this course originated from the Southern
Africa Stainless Steel Development Association.
Disclaimer: The technical data and views
expressed in this publication are for the
general information of interested persons
and should not be relied upon in specific
applications without first securing competent
advice. Whilst all care is taken to ensure that
the information contained herein is accurate
and up-to-date, the ISSF does not warrant its
accuracy or completeness and does not
accept liability for errors or omissions.

03 the mechanical properties of stainless steel ISSF training notes page 9