Plasma cutting

Plasma cutting is a process that is used to cut steel and other metals of different thicknesses (or
sometimes other materials) using a plasma torch. In this process, an inert gas (in some units,
compressed air) is blown at high speed out of a nozzle; at the same time an electrical arc is
formed through that gas from the nozzle to the surface being cut, turning some of that gas to
plasma. The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the metal being cut and moves sufficiently fast
to blow molten metal away from the cut.

Process

The HF type plasma cutting machine uses a high-frequency, high-voltage spark to ionize the
air through the torch head and initiate an arc. These do not require the torch to be in contact
with the job material when starting, and so are suitable for applications involving computer
numerical controlled (CNC) cutting. More basic machines require tip contact (scratch) with the
parent metal to start and then gap separation can occur similar to DC type TIG welders. These
more basic type cutters are more susceptible to contact tip and shield damage on starting.

The Pilot Arc type uses a two cycle approach to producing plasma, avoiding the need for initial
contact. First, a high-voltage, low current circuit is used to initialize a very small high-intensity
spark within the torch body, thereby generating a small pocket of plasma gas. This is referred
to as the pilot arc. The pilot arc has a return electrical path built into the torch head. The pilot
arc will maintain itself until it is brought into proximity of the work piece where it ignites the
main plasma cutting arc. Plasma arcs are extremely hot and are in the range of 25,000 °C.

Plasma is an effective means of cutting thin and thick materials alike. Hand-held torches can
usually cut up to 50 mm thick steel plate, and stronger computer-controlled torches can cut
steel up to 150 mm thick. Since plasma cutters produce a very hot and very localized "cone" to
cut with, they are extremely useful for cutting sheet metal in curved or angled shapes.

Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the
U.S.) and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals,
respectively. French engineers Edmond Fouché and Charles Picard became the first to develop
oxygen-acetylene welding in 1903.[1] Pure oxygen, instead of air, is used to increase the flame
temperature to allow localized melting of the workpiece material (e.g. steel) in a room
environment. A common propane/air flame burns at about 2,000 °C (3,630 °F), a
propane/oxygen flame burns at about 2,500 °C (4,530 °F), and an acetylene/oxygen flame
burns at about 3,500 °C (6,330 °F).

Oxy-fuel is one of the oldest welding processes, besides forge welding. Still used in industry,
in recent decades it has been less widely utilized in industrial applications as other specifically
devised technologies have been adopted. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as
well as repair work. It is also frequently well-suited, and favored, for fabricating some types of
metal-based artwork. As well, oxy-fuel has an advantage over electric welding and cutting
processes in situations where accessing electricity (e.g., via an extension cord or portable
generator) would present difficulties; it is more self-contained, in this sense — hence "more
portable".

In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two
pieces are heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten
pool is generally supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the
metals to be welded.

In oxy-fuel cutting, a torch is used to heat metal to its kindling temperature. A stream of oxygen
is then trained on the metal, burning it into a metal oxide that flows out of the kerf as slag.[2]
Sometimes called a "Gas Axe".

Torches that do not mix fuel with oxygen (combining, instead, atmospheric air) are not
considered oxy-fuel torches and can typically be identified by a single tank (Oxy-fuel cutting
requires two isolated supplies, fuel and oxygen). Most metals cannot be melted with a single-
tank torch. As such, single-tank torches are typically used only for soldering and brazing, rather
than welding.

Confined Spaces

A confined space is usually small and difficult to get into and out of. As such, the normal
hazards of welding are intensified when carried out in confined spaces. Asphyxiation is the
main danger and the most common cause of death in confined spaces. A formal 'safe system of
work' should be followed at all times.

Many of the everyday hazards encountered in welding can be exacerbated if the work is being
carried out in a confined space. A significant number of deaths involving people working in
confined spaces occur each year, with asphyxiation being a major cause of those deaths, so
extra vigilance is needed.

One dictionary definition of 'confined' is 'imprisoned', and a confined space is one where the
means of entry and exit are restricted. The space itself does not have to be small and cramped,
but if it is then there is likely to be restricted ventilation, which can allow the build up of a
hazardous atmosphere. Then it may be described as 'confined'. An example of confined spaces
would be a storage tank, it may also contain, or have contained, toxic, flammable or hazardous
substance, vapour or gas.

So it is clear that working in such spaces requires a greater awareness of potential hazards and
safe working practices than normal.

Welders working in enclosed spaces must be properly trained, equipped and supervised.
Additional protective and monitoring equipment over and above that normally necessary may
be required when welding in a confined space. It is also recommended that a formal 'safe system
of work' should be followed at all times.

Major Hazards

When welding in confined spaces some hazards become more intense and require more
attention. These are ventilation and the maintenance of a safe working atmosphere, the risk of
falls or entrapment, the risk of electric shock, the risk of fire or explosion, and radiation or heat
problems.

Ventilation/Fume

Maintaining an atmosphere that is fit to breathe inside a confined space can be difficult as
fumes and gases may build up and displace the oxygen present. This presents one of the most
insidious hazards, since lack of oxygen, or the presence of a toxic, explosive, flammable or
inert gas cannot be seen and more often than not cannot be smelled either. The danger is that
an operator could unwittingly enter what seems to be a perfectly normal area and quickly find
out that it is not, and by then it may be too late!

Falls and Entrapment

Due to the difficult and restricted entry and exit it is easy for someone to trip, stumble or fall
whilst getting into or out of the space. Merely slipping on a wet or greasy floor inside a confined
space can be serious, the casualty could become trapped in a position where his breathing may
be restricted and he may suffocate.

Electrical

Particular attention should be paid to electrical safety when welding in a vessel or tank. The
metal of the enclosure will become part of the welding circuit and you may be standing on part
of the vessel that is electrically 'hot' and any metal you touch may also be part of the welding
circuit.

Radiation and Heat

When welding inside vessels made of reflective metal or alloy, for example, aluminium or
stainless steel, the problems presented by glare and UV radiation can intensify. The risk of
getting arc burns to the skin or 'arc eye' or arc flash due to reflected radiation increases.

Fire and Explosion

There is a great danger that flammable gas and vapour may collect in a confined space, and
these may ignite when welding or cutting takes place leading to an explosion.
Fuel gas processes also increase the risk of fire and explosion particularly if leaking equipment
is left in the confined space, allowing a build-up of fuel gases or oxygen. Any heat from
welding or cutting, or just an electric spark, can then result in a fire or explosion.

Precautions

Ventilation/Fume

It is essential that the atmosphere in any confined space is tested and passed fit before entry.
An atmosphere fit for working in is one that is breathable (i.e. has about 21% oxygen) and there
are no toxic, flammable, or explosive gases or vapours present. It is also important that there is
no enrichment of the atmosphere with inert gases or oxygen.

Evaluation of confined space atmospheres must include measurements for oxygen plus any
other relevant gas.

Falls and Entrapment

Precautions to avoid trips and falls are basically common sense, vigilance and good
housekeeping. Keep floors inside the space as dry, grease-free and free from obstructions as
far as possible.

Electrical

To reduce the risk of electric shock, it is recommended to locate electric welding power sources
outside and ensure all cables entering the area are properly insulated.

Welders and others should make sure that they are insulated from the workpiece and grounded
by dry insulation.

Radiation and Heat

Wherever possible use radiation and heat shields to prevent burns. Take plenty of replacement
fluid when working for lengthy periods in hot conditions to avoid dehydration and possible
heat exhaustion.

Fire and Explosion

When using fuel gas processes extra care should be taken to ensure that the equipment is not
leaking, as this can result in build-up of gas and possible explosion.

Oxygen should never be used to enrich the atmosphere in a confined space. It is a severe fire
and explosion hazard.

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than
the adjoining metal. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting
the work pieces. In brazing, the filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but the work piece
metal does not melt. In the past, nearly all solders contained lead, but environmental concerns
have increasingly dictated use of lead-free alloys for electronics and plumbing purposes.

Brazing is a metal-joining process whereby a filler metal is heated above melting point and
distributed between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is
brought slightly above its melting (liquidus) temperature while protected by a suitable
atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the base metal (known as wetting) and is then
cooled to join the work pieces together.[1] It is similar to soldering, except the temperatures
used to melt the filler metal are higher for brazing.

Achieving a good quality weld requires the following parameters to be monitored:

– The power transported by the beam: it is the product of the electron acceleration voltage and
the beam intensity. The power will be selected according to the thickness of the parts to weld,
the nature of material and its physical properties (for the same thickness, we need more power
to weld copper than steel) and welding speed;

– The welding speed: this should not only be selected according to gun power but it must be
determined by the metallurgical weld ability of material, i.e. its ability to form a defect-free
weld (with no cracks for example);

– The pressure in the enclosure: this parameter is linked to the equipment, which is designed
to work either in primary vacuum or in secondary vacuum. Some machines are able to work
either in primary vacuum or in secondary vacuum; in this case, the choice of the pressure will
be dependent on the material to be welded and its reactivity with oxygen (zirconium alloys for
example);

– Focus current: this very important parameter because it determines the specific power and
thus has an important effect on the geometry of the molten zone. This parameter varies
according to the nature of material to be welded and its thickness. It is thus related to the
acceleration voltage and the welding intensity;

– Beam deflection makes it possible, by movements imparted to the beam, to carry out welds
by limiting the movement of the component. It is possible for example to perform a small
diameter circular weld without any movement of the work piece or of the gun while making
the beam describe a cone having for its axis that of the work piece;

– Beam vibration: depending on the signal imparted to the deflection coils, it is possible to
impart sweeping movements to the beam, (transverse or parallel to the welding seam and
circular or elliptic in shape). Two parameters, amplitude and frequency, are added to the signal,
which have a bearing on the width of sweeping and the stirring of molten metal. This beam
vibration is used at an operational level to widen the molten zone and thus to tolerate a gap
between the components, to improve the quality of the weld pool when welding in position.
From a metallurgical perspective, it can help reduce hot cracking observed with certain
materials (nickel alloys for example) and aid degassing of the weld pool, thus limiting
porosities;
– The welding position: a flat welding position (beam axis is vertical) is used for welding
thicknesses from 15 to 20 mm with a complete penetration mode. This limitation is due to the
loss of balance between the surface tension forces which maintain the molten metal on the
edges of the capillary and gravitational force. Impartial penetration mode, the maximum
wieldable thickness in flat position is about130 mm for steels. Beyond these limits, it is
necessary to use the horizontal/vertical welding position (beam axis is horizontal). In this case
the thicknesses are dependent on the electron gun’s power. Vertical upwards welding and
vertical downwards welding can also be used on steel thicknesses from 60 to 80 mm. For the
overhead welding position, the maximum thickness is the same as that of the flat welding
position.