DESIGN OF A COOLING TOWER

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for The Course

Heat and Mass Transfer for Chemical Engineering

Submitted by:

Callueng, Jomhel B.
Mamauag, Alberto Jr.
Maquera, Kricel-Mae M.
Pasicolan, Christian D.

Submitted to:
ENGR. CAESAR P. LLAPITAN

DECEMBER 30, 2017

 ABSTRACT

An induced draft cooling tower is designed to be integrated in a heating, ventilation and air
conditioning system of a building. The tower was designed to maintain a cooling capacity of
1004.88 kJ/s to cool 15 kg/s of water from 45°C to 29°C by to condition the air inside the
building. A thermal and mechanical design procedure was carried out to obtain the design
specifications of the cooling tower including its cooling tower effectiveness, evaporation loss,
height, tower area and compensation water from a water tank. It was found out that the cooling
tower effectiveness obtained was 45.83%, the evaporation loss was 0.0220 m3/hr., the tower
height was 7.3 m, a tower area of 5.45m2 and a compensation water flow rate of 0.442 kg/s.

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 NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Parameter Dimension

r Air to water flow rate ratio
H Enthalpy L2T-2
G Air unit mass flow rate L3T-1
TL1 Outlet Temperature Θ
Tl2 Inlet Temperature Θ
Ci Numerical Integration Coefficient
a Mass transfer surface
A Cross-sectional area L2
TWB Wet Bulb Temperature Θ
TDB Dry Bulb Temperature Θ
L Liquid unit mass flow rate L3T-1
mTL Slope of the tangent line
NTU Number of transfer unit
HTU Height gas-phase enthalpy
transfer unit
ky Mass transfer coefficient
MB Air molecular mass M
z Packed height or tower height L
M Compensation Rate MT-1
B Elimination Rate MT-1
E Evaporation Rate MT-1
W Entrainment Loss Rate MT-1
dac Hardness Weight Fraction of
Circulating Water
daM Hardness Weight Fraction of
Compensation Water

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
II. OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................................... 2
III. COOLING TOWER ........................................................................................................... 3
A. Background ....................................................................................................................... 3
B. Principle of Operation ....................................................................................................... 4
C. Classification ..................................................................................................................... 5
1. Atmospheric Tower ........................................................................................................ 5
2. Natural Draft Towers ...................................................................................................... 6
3. Mechanical Draft Towers ............................................................................................... 6
4. Cross-current and counter-current .................................................................................. 8
IV. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................... 9
A. Thermal Design ................................................................................................................. 9
1. Range .............................................................................................................................. 9
2. Approach ........................................................................................................................ 9
3. Cooling Tower Effectiveness ......................................................................................... 9
4. Cooling Capacity .......................................................................................................... 10
5. Evaporation Loss .......................................................................................................... 10
6. Cycles of Concentration ............................................................................................... 10
7. Blow Down ................................................................................................................... 10
8. Liquid Gas Ratio........................................................................................................... 10
9. Heating load................................................................................................................. 11
B. Mechanical Design .......................................................................................................... 12
1. Structural Components ................................................................................................. 12
2. Mechanical Components .............................................................................................. 16
3. Electrical Components.................................................................................................. 18
V. DESIGN PROBLEM........................................................................................................ 18
A. Material Balance and Energy Balance ............................................................................ 19
B. Design Requirements ....................................................................................................... 19
C. Design Procedure ............................................................................................................. 19
VI. DESIGN CALCULATIONS ........................................................................................ 21
A. Thermal Design ............................................................................................................... 21
1. Range ............................................................................................................................ 21
2. Approach ...................................................................................................................... 21
3. Cooling Tower Effectiveness ....................................................................................... 21

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 4. Cooling Capacity .......................................................................................................... 21
5. Evaporation Loss .......................................................................................................... 22
6. Cycles of Concentration ............................................................................................... 22
7. Blow down.................................................................................................................... 22
8. Liquid to Gas Ratio ...................................................................................................... 22
B. Mechanical Design .......................................................................................................... 23
1. Height of Packing ......................................................................................................... 23
2. Tower Area ................................................................................................................... 30
3. Compensation Water .................................................................................................... 31
VII. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS ....................................................................................... 33
VIII. MECHANICAL DRAWING........................................................................................ 34
IX. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 35
X. APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 36

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Approach to Wet-bulb Temperature, Cooling Tower Range and Packed Height
Range (NPTEL) ......................................................................................................................... 9
Table 2: Heat Rejection Requirements of Various Types of ................................................... 11
Table 3: Uniform Loading Design (Hensley, 2009) ................................................................ 14
Table 4: Inlet and Outlet Temperature of Water ...................................................................... 23
Table 5: Dry and Wet-bulb Temperature ................................................................................. 23
Table 6: Enthalpy vs Liquid Temperature for Equilibrium Curve .......................................... 23
Table 7: Liquid Temperature vs. Enthalpy for Operating Line at r=1 ..................................... 25
Table 8: Liquid Temperature vs. Enthalpy for Tangent Line .................................................. 26
Table 9: Liquid Temperature and Enthalpy for Operating Line at r=1.5................................. 27
Table 10: Parameter and Values for Operating Diagram of Cooling Tower ........................... 28
Table 11: Design Specifications .............................................................................................. 33

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Schematic of Heat Transfer from Water Drop ........................................................... 3
Figure 2: Generalized Cooling Tower System (NPTEL) .......................................................... 4
Figure 3: Classification of Cooling Towers (NPTEL) ............................................................... 5
Figure 4: Schematic of Atmospheric Cooling Tower (NPTEL) ................................................ 5
Figure 5: Schematic of Natural Draft Tower (NPTEL) ............................................................. 6
Figure 6: Schematic of Forced Draft Cooling Tower ................................................................ 7
Figure 7: Schematic of Mechanical Draft Counter-flow Tower (NPTEL) ................................ 8
Figure 8: Schematic of Mechanical Draft Cross-Flow Tower (NPTEL) ................................... 8
Figure 9: Material and Energy Balance ................................................................................... 19
Figure 10: Equilibrium Curve .................................................................................................. 24
Figure 11: Operating Line at r=1 ............................................................................................. 25
Figure 12: Tangent Line........................................................................................................... 26
Figure 13: Operating Line at r=1.5 .......................................................................................... 27
Figure 14: Operation Diagram of Cooling Tower ................................................................... 29
Figure 15: Schematic Diagram for Compensation Water ........................................................ 31
Figure 16: Schematic Diagram for Typical Water-cooled Air Conditioning System ............. 34
Figure 17: Detailed Design of Induced Draft Cooling Tower for HVAC ............................... 35

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I. INTRODUCTION
In any facility, whether a building or a plant, considerable energy is invariably discharged
to their surroundings by heat transfer. Water drawn from a nearby reservoir can be employed
to carry this energy and initiate heat transfer and cool water. This is where cooling towers come
to play. Cooling towers provide an alternative in locations where sufficient cooling water
cannot be obtained from natural sources or where concerns for the environment place a limit
on the temperature at which cooling water can be returned to the surroundings. Cooling towers
are widely used to provide chilled water for applications other than those involving power
plants.
A cooling tower is a device that uses a combination of heat and mass transfer to cool water.
The water to be cooled is distributed in the tower by spray nozzles, splash bars, or film fill in
a manner that exposes a very large water surface to atmospheric air. The movement of the air
is accomplished by fans (mechanical draft), natural draft or the induction effect from water
sprays. A portion of the water is evaporated because the moisture content of the air is less than
saturated at the temperature of the water.
Cooling towers can be classified based on air draft and base on air flow pattern. The
classification based under the air draft covers the natural and mechanical draft cooling towers
and the classification under air flow pattern covers the counter-flow and cross-flow cooling
towers. Among these, the induced draft cooling tower is the most widely used in air
conditioning specifically the heating and ventilating air conditioning system (HVAC) which
are employed in buildings and offices.
The focus of this report is to show the integration of an induced draft cooling tower in a
HVAC system, the calculation of the design requirements and to show the process flow
diagram mostly used in buildings and offices.

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II. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the cooling tower design for cooling water in heating and ventilation air
conditioning system in a building are as follows:

1. Design calculations of thermal design considerations

a. Range f. Cycles of Concentration

b. Approach g. Blow Down
c. Cooling tower h. Liquid Gas Ratio
d. Cooling Capacity i. Heating Load
e. Evaporation

2. Design calculations of the mechanical considerations

a. Height of Packing
b. Tower Area
c. Compensation Water

3. Development of process flow diagram of an HVAC system with induced draft cooling
tower.

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III. COOLING TOWER
A. Background
A cooling tower is a special type of heat exchanger in which the warm water and the
air are brought in direct contact for ‘evaporative cooling’. It provides a very good contact
of air and water in terms of the contact area and mass transfer coefficient of water vapor
while keeping air pressure drop low. Enthalpy of air is lower than enthalpy of water.
Sensible heat and latent heat transfer take place from water drop to surrounding air.
Schematic of heat transfer from water drop to surrounding air is shown in Figure 1.

Heat Transfer Heat Transfer

Water drop at Air temperature at Tw

Interfacial film
temperature TW

Heat Transfer Heat Transfer

Figure 1: Schematic of Heat Transfer from Water Drop

to Surrounding Air (NPTEL)

Thus, cooling is accomplished by sensible heat transfer from water to air and
evaporation of a small portion of water. A generalized cooling tower system is shown in
Figure 2. The hot water which is coming from heat exchanger is sprayed at the top of the
cooling tower. Air enters through the louvers at the two opposite walls of the cooling tower.
During cooling process of water, around 2% water is evaporated. Make water is used to
compensate the water loss due to evaporation. Blowdown is there to drain a part of water
containing solid deposit. The exit cold water from the cooling tower is used in the heat
exchanger or other unit operation.

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 Humid Air

Heat Exchanger

Air Air

Make-up Cold Water

Water

Blowdown Pump

Figure 2: Generalized Cooling Tower System (NPTEL)

B. Principle of Operation

Factors governing the operation of cooling tower

1. The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air

2. Temperature of warm water
3. The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of volumetric mass transfer
coefficient, kya
4. Contact time between air and water
5. The uniformity of the distribution of the phases within the tower
6. Air pressure drop
7. Desired temperature of cooled water

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C. Classification

Classification of Cooling Towers

Based on Air Draft Based on Air Flow Pattern

Atmospheric Natural Mechanical Counter -Flow Cross-Flow

Draft Draft

Induced Forced

Figure 3: Classification of Cooling Towers (NPTEL)

1. Atmospheric Tower
It is a big rectangular chamber with two opposites ‘louvered’ walls. Tower is packed
with a suitable ‘tower fill’. Atmospheric air enters the tower through louvers driven by
its own velocity. Direction and velocity of wind greatly influence its performance.
Figure 4 shows the schematic of the atmospheric cooling tower.

Hot water out

Hot water
in

Louvers
Air in
Air in
Louvers

Cold water out

Figure 4: Schematic of Atmospheric Cooling Tower (NPTEL)

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2. Natural Draft Towers

Concrete shell wall

Drift eliminator Hot water in

Packing material

Air in Air in
Cold water out

Figure 5: Schematic of Natural Draft Tower (NPTEL)

A natural draft cooling tower has a large reinforced concrete shell of hyperbolic
shape (also called ‘hyperbolic tower’). Natural flow of air occurs through the tower;
hence it is called natural draft which is shown in Figure 5. The factors responsible for
creating natural draft are:
a. A rise in temperature and humidity of air in the column reduces its density
b. Wind velocity at the tower bottom
Fan is used to enhance the air flow rate in fan assisted natural draft tower. The
typical diameter of tower is 150 m and capacity is 5,00,000 gallons/minute.

3. Mechanical Draft Towers

Fans are used to move air through the tower in mechanical draft cooling towers.
Two types of mechanical draft towers are there, namely, forced draft tower and induced
draft tower.

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 Forced draft towers
It has one or more fans located at the tower bottom to push air into tower which
can be seen from figure 6.

Hot warm air out

Drift eliminator
Hot water in

Packing

Air in

Cold water out

Fan

Figure 6: Schematic of Forced Draft Cooling Tower

Advantages:
i. A part of the velocity head of air thrown by the blower is converted to pressure head
on entering into the tower. It makes energy efficient than induced draft.
ii. Less susceptible to vibrations as fans are installed near the ground.
Disadvantages:
i. Air flow through the packing may not be uniform
ii. Some of the warm and humid air may be recirculated back. Recirculation rate
becomes low if the wind velocity is high. It is not popular except for small
capacities.

Induced draft towers

One or more fans are installed at the top of the tower. Depending on the air inlet
and flow pattern, induced draft towers are of two types, cross-flow and counter flow
towers.

Major advantages of countercurrent induced draft cooling tower

i. Relatively dry air contacts the coldest water at the bottom of the cooling tower

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ii. Humid air is in contact with the warm water and hence maximum average driving
force prevails for both heat and mass transfer.

4. Cross-current and counter-current

Cross-flow induced draft cooling tower supplies horizontal air flow along the
packed height and requires less motor horse power than the counter-flow type.
Additional ‘cells’ may be added to raise the capacity. The schematic of induced draft
counter-flow and cross-flow cooling towers are presented in figure 6 and figure 7,
respectively.

Hot warm air

ID Fan

Drift
Hot water Eliminator
in

Louver

Air in
Cold
air out

Figure 7: Schematic of Mechanical Draft Counter-flow Tower (NPTEL)

Hot warm air out

Drift eliminator
ID Fan
Hot water in Hot water in

Air in Air in
Packing Packing

Louvers Louvers

Cold water out

Figure 8: Schematic of Mechanical Draft Cross-Flow Tower (NPTEL)

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IV. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A. Thermal Design
The thermal capability of any cooling tower may be defined by the following
parameters:
1. Range
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving. The
range at the exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation
rate through the exchanger and on to the cooling water.
Heat Load in kcals/hour
RangeC 
Water Circulatio n Rate in LPH
Thus, range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system.
Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature
to another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature.

Approach to wet-bulb temperature (℉) Cooling range (℉) Packed height (ft.)
15-20 25-35 15-20
10-15 25-35 25-30
5-10 25-35 35-40
Table 1: Approach to Wet-bulb Temperature, Cooling Tower Range and Packed
Height Range (NPTEL)

2. Approach
It is the difference between cooling water temperature leaving cooling tower and
wet-bulb temperature of inlet air which is approach to wet bulb temperature. For getting
small approach, cooling tower height must be increased. To achieve zero approach
theoretically, infinite packing height is needed.

3. Cooling Tower Effectiveness

Cooling tower effectiveness is the ratio of range, to the ideal range and difference
between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature,
Range
CTE 
Range  Approach

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4. Cooling Capacity
Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass
flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.

5. Evaporation Loss
Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and,
theoretically, for every 10,00,000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out to
1.8 m3. An empirical relation used as a rule of thumb is:
 m3   m3 
Evaporation Loss    0.00085 x 1.8 x circulatio n rate   x T2  T1 
 hr   hr 

6. Cycles of Concentration
Cycles of concentration (C.O.C) is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water
to the dissolved solids in make-up water.

7. Blow Down
During the cooling process of hot water in cooling tower, around 2% water
evaporates. In the long run, it increases the solid content in the circulating water. Some
dust particles also come from the environment and mix with circulating water. But the
solid content of the cooled water must be kept under a certain limit to avoid scaling or
fouling on the heat exchange equipment. A part of the circulating water is drained from
the bottom of the cooling tower to discard the deposited solids from the cooling tower.
This is called blowdown. The losses due to blowdown, evaporation, drift and leakage
are compensated by adding make-up water.
Evaporation Loss
Blow down 
C.O.C  1

8. Liquid Gas Ratio

Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio, of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air
mass flow rates. Against design values, seasonal variations require adjustment and
tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness through
measures like water box loading changes, blade angle adjustments.
Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal
to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air.

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9. Heating load
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being
served. The degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating
temperature level of the process. In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable
to increase process efficiency or to improve the quality or quantity of the product. In
some applications (e.g. internal combustion engines), however, high operating
temperatures are desirable. The size and cost of the cooling tower is proportional to the
heat load. If heat load calculations are low undersized equipment will be purchased. If
the calculated load is high, oversize and costlier, equipment will result.
Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process involved.
Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but proper
consideration can produce satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning and
refrigeration heat loads can be determined with greater accuracy.
Information is available for the heat rejection requirements of various types of
power equipment. A sample list is as follows:

Heat Rejection Requirements

Single-stage 129 kcal/kW/hr.
Single-stage with after cooler 862 kcal/kW/hr.
Air compressor Two-stage with intercooler 518 kcal/kW/hr.
Two-stage with intercooler and after
862 kcal/kW/hr.
cooler
Compression 63 kcal/min/TR
Refrigeration
Absorption 127 kcal/min/TR
555 kcal/kg of
Steam Turbine Condenser
steam
Diesel Engine Four-cycle, Supercharged 880 kcal/kW/hr.
Natural Gas Engine
Four-cycle (18 kg/cm2 compression) 1523 kcal/kW/hr.
Cycle
Table 2: Heat Rejection Requirements of Various Types of

Power Equipment (ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals, 2017)

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B. Mechanical Design

1. Structural Components
The structure of cooling water must accommodate long duration dead loads
imposed by the weight of tower components, circulating tower, snow and ice, and any
build-up of internal fouling; plus, short term loads caused by the wind, maintenance,
and in some areas, seismic activity. It must maintain its integrity throughout a variety
of external atmospheric conditions, and despite a constant internal rainstorm. Wide-
ranging temperatures must be accepted, as well as the corrosive effects of high humidity
and constant oxygenation.
Cooling tower must also provide least possible impedance to the free contact of air
and water and to give solution to the constant vibratory forces imposed by mechanical
equipment operation, dictate structural considerations, and variations, which are unique
to the cooling tower industry.
The components of a standard cooling tower are as follows:
a. Cold water basin f. Mechanical equipment support
b. Framework g. Fill
c. Water distribution system h. Drift eliminators
d. Fan deck i. Casing
e. Fan cylinders j. Louvers

a. Cold Water Basin

The cold water basin has two fundamentally important functions: collecting the
cold water following its transit of the tower, and acting as the tower’s primary
foundation. Because it also functions as a collection point for material washed out
of the air by the circulating water, it must be accessible, cleanable, have adequate
draining facilities and be equipped with suitable screening to prevent entry of debris
into suction-side piping.
The cold water basin includes:
1. Basin Types
2. Basin Support
3. Basin Depth
4. Basin Sumps
5. Basin Cleaning Facilities

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b. Framework
The most commonly used materials for the framework of field-erected towers
are protruded fiberglass, wood, and concrete, with steel utilized infrequently to
conform to a local building code, or to satisfy a specific preference. Factory-
assembled towers predominate in steel construction, with stainless steel
increasingly utilized in locations that tend to promote corrosion. A uniform wind
load design of 30 pounds per square foot is standard. The materials of framework
for wood members are based on the specified values of the National Design
Specifications of the National Forest Products Association. Steel members are
governed by the American Institute of Steel Construction Manual and concrete is
based on Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete of the American
Concrete Institute.

c. Water Distribution System

In general sense, piping and distribution of water within the envelope of the
tower, site piping, as well as attendant risers, valves and controls, which occur
outside the confines of a cooling tower are included in its water distribution system.
Lines might be buried to minimize problem of thrust loading, thermal expansion
and freezing; or elevated to minimize cost of installation and repair. In either case,
the risers to the tower inlet must be externally supported, independent of the tower
structure and piping.

d. Fan Deck
The fan deck is considered a part of the tower structure, acting as a diaphragm
for transmitting dead and live loads to the tower framing. It also provides a platform
for the support of the fan cylinders, as well as an access way to the mechanical
equipment and water distribution system. Fan deck materials are customarily
compatible with the tower framework. Wood towers normally utilize tongue-and-
groove fir plywood; pultruded FRP on pultruded FRP towers; galvanized steel on
steel towers; and pre-stressed double-tee sections on concrete towers.

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 Uniform Loading Design (lbs./ft2)
Larger Towers 60
Smaller Towers 40
Table 3: Uniform Loading Design (Hensley, 2009)

e. Fan Cylinders
Calculation, modelling and testing goes into the design and construction of a
fan cylinder because it directly affects the proper flow of air through the tower. Fan
efficiencies can be severely reduced by poorly designed fan cylinder, or
significantly enhanced by a well-designed one.
The essence of a well-designed fan cylinder incorporates:
 An eased inlet to promote smooth flow of air to the fan
 Minimum fan blade tip clearance
 Smooth profile below and above the fan
 Sufficient structural strength to maintain stable plan and profile
 Sufficient height to protect operating personnel
 Removable mesh guard, structurally reinforced

f. Mechanical Equipment Support

The framework of a cooling tower is not totally inflexible, even on concrete
towers which utilize structural members of relatively massive cross section.
Considering the tremendous torsional forces encountered in the operation of large
fans at high horsepower, it becomes apparent that some means of assuring a
constant plane-relationship throughout the motor-gear-reducer-fan drive train must
be provided in order to maintain proper alignment of the mechanical equipment.
Customary material for the unitized supports is carbon steel, hot-dip galvanized
after fabrication, with stainless steel construction available at significant additional
cost.

g. Fill
Fill called heat transfer surface is able to promote both the maximum contact
surface and the maximum contact time between air and water determines the
efficiency of the tower. Most reputable cooling tower manufacturers design and

14
produce fill specifically suited to their distribution, fan, and support systems;
developing all in concert to avoid the performance-degrading effects of a
misapplied distribution system, or an air-impeding support structure. The two basic
fill classifications are splash type and film type. Splash type fill breaks up the water,
and interrupts its vertical progress, by causing it to cascade through successive
offset levels of parallel splash bars. It is characterized by reduced air pressure losses,
and is not conducive to logging. However, it is very sensitive to inadequate support.
Film type fill causes the water to spread into a thin film, flowing over large vertical
areas, to promote maximum exposure to the air flow. It has capability to provide
more effective cooling capacity within the same amount of space, but is extremely
sensitive to poor water distribution.

h. Drift Eliminators
Drift eliminators remove entrained water from the discharge air by causing it to
make sudden changes in direction. The resulting centrifugal force separates the
drops of water from air, depositing them on the eliminator surface, from which they
flow back into the tower. Eliminator are normally classified by the number of
directional changes or “passes”, with an increase in the number of passes usually
accompanied by an increase in pressure drop.

i. Casing
A cooling tower casing acts to contain water within the tower, provide an air
plenum for the fan, and transmit wind loads to the tower framework. It must have
diaphragm strength, be watertight and corrosion resistant, have fire retardant
qualities, and also resist weathering. Currently, wood or steel framed, field-erected
towers are similarly cased with fire-retardant fiber reinforced polyester corrugated
panels, overlapped and sealed to prevent leakage. Factory-assembled steel towers
utilized galvanized steel panels, and concrete towers are cased with precast concrete
panels.

j. Louvers
The purpose of louvers is to retain circulating water within the confines of the
tower, as well as to equalize air flow into fill. They must be capable of supporting
snow and ice loads and, properly designed, will contribute to good operation in cold

15
 weather by retaining the increase in water flow adjacent to the air inlets that are
necessary for ice control. Closely spaced, steeply sloped louvers afford maximum
water containment, but are antithesis of free air flow, and can contribute to icing
problems. Increasing the horizontal depth of louvers significantly increases its cost,
but it permits wider spacing, lesser slope and improve horizontal overlap, and is
design direction taken by most manufacturers.
The most-utilized louver materials are corrugated fire-retardant fiber reinforced
polyester and treated Douglas Fir plywood on field-erected towers, galvanized steel
on factory-assembled steel towers and precast, pre-stressed concrete on concrete
towers.

2. Mechanical Components
Cooling tower mechanical equipment is required to operate within a highly
corrosive, moisture-laden atmosphere that is unique to the cooling tower industry. The
mechanical components basic to the operation of the cooling towers are fans, speed
reducers, drive shafts, and water control valves.

a. Fans
Cooling tower fans must move large volumes of air efficiently, and with
minimum vibration. The materials of manufacture must not only be compatible with
their design, but must also be capable of withstanding the corrosive effects of the
environment in which the fans are required to operate. The type of fans includes the
propeller fans, automatic variable-pitch fans and centrifugal fans. Propeller fans
have ability to move vast quantities of air at the relatively low static pressure
encountered. They are comparatively inexpensive, may be used on any size tower,
and can develop high overall efficiencies; but their application naturally tends to be
limited by the number of projects of sufficient size to warrant their consideration.
All propeller type fans operate in accordance with common laws:
 The capacity varies directly as the speed ratio, and directly as the pitch angle of
the blades relative to the plane of rotation.
 The static pressure varies as the square of the capacity ratio.
 The fan horsepower varies as the cube of the capacity ratio.
 At constant capacity, the fan horsepower and static pressure vary directly with
air density

16
 Automatic variable-pitch fans are able to vary airflow through the tower in
response to a changing load or ambient condition. Centrifugal fans are usually used
on cooling towers designed for indoor installations; their capability to operate
against relatively high static pressures makes them particularly suitable for that type
of application.

b. Speed Reducers
The optimum speed of a cooling tower fan seldom coincides with the most
efficient speed of the driver (motor); thus a speed reduction or power transmission
unit is needed between the motor and the fan. In addition to reducing the speed of
the motor to the proper fan speed the power transmission unit must also provide
primary support to the fan, exhibit long term resistance to wear and corrosion, and
contribute as little as a possible to overall noise level.
Speed reduction in cooling towers is accomplished either by differential gears
of positive engagement, or by differential pulleys connected through V-belts.
Typically, gear reduction units are applied through a wide range of horsepower
rating, from very large down as to 5 hp. V-belts on the other hand are usually applied
at ratings of 50 horsepower or less.

c. Drive Shafts
The drive shafts transmit power from the output shaft of the motor to the input
shaft of gear reduction units. Shafts are fabricated of carbon steel, hot-dip
galvanized after fabrication. Shafts for larger industrial towers, and those that will
be operating in more conducive to corrosion, are usually fabricated or tubular
stainless steel.

d. Water control valves

Valves are used to control and regulate flow through the water lines serving the
tower. Valves utilized for cooling tower application include:
i. Stop valves are used on both counter-flow and crossflow towers to regulate flow
in multiple-riser towers, and to stop flow in a particular riser for cell
maintenance.
ii. Flow-control valves are considered to discharge to the atmosphere, and
essentially as the end-of-line valves.

17
 iii. Make-up valves are valves utilized to automatically replenish the normal water
losses from the system.

3. Electrical Components
a. Motors
Electric motors are used almost exclusively to drive the fans on mechanical draft
cooling towers, and they must be capable of reliable operation under extremely
adverse conditions.

b. Motor controls
Motor controls serve to start and stop the fan motor and to protect it from
overload or power supply failure, thereby helping assure continuous reliable
cooling tower operation. They are not routinely supplied as a part of the cooling
tower contract but, because of their importance to the system, the need for adequate
consideration in the selection and wiring of these components cannot be
overstressed.

c. Wiring system
The wiring system design must consider pertinent data on the available voltage
(its actual value, as well as its stability), length of lines from the power supply to
the motor, and the motor horsepower requirements.

V. DESIGN PROBLEM
A building requires that 15 kg/s of cooling water will flow through a condensation
equipment. The water leaves the condenser at 45°C. To reuse water, it is planned to cool it by
contact with air in a cooling tower of induced draft. The design conditions are 30°C inlet air
dry bulb temperature and 24ºC wet bulb the air thus, to 29ºC; a ratio of air and steam of 1.5
times the minimum value will be used. Water compensation will come from a make-up water
tank at 10°C, with a hardness of 500 ppm dissolved solids. The circulating water cannot have
a hardness greater than 2000 ppm. Regarding the package that is to be used, it is expected that
the value (Kya) will be 0.90 kg/(m3s) for a speed of the liquid of at least 2.7 kg/ (m*s) and for
a gas speed of 2.0 kg/ (m*s). Calculate the dimensions of the packed section and water
compensation required.

18
A. Material Balance and Energy Balance
Assumptions made during mass balance.
 Steady state condition
 No leakage
 No accumulation
Assumptions made during energy balance
 The heat exchanger operates under steady state, steady flow conditions.
 Heat transfer to the surrounding is negligible.
 The pressure is constant throughout 1 atm.

L2=15 kg/s
TL2=45°C Air

Water
Tcomp=29°C
dac=500ppm L2 G2

Cooling
Tower

L1 G1 TdbG1=30°C
TwbG1=24°C
Water
Air
TL1=29°C
B
daM=2000ppm

Figure 9: Material and Energy Balance

B. Design Requirements
 Range  Blow down
 Approach  Liquid gas ratio
 Cooling tower effectiveness  Heating load
 Cooling capacity  Height of packing
 Evaporation loss  Tower Area
 Cycles of concentration  Compensation Water

C. Design Procedure
1. Specify the inlet and outlet temperatures and flow rate of warm water.

19
2. Select the design value of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air (at the proposed
geographical location).
3. Draw the ‘equilibrium line curve’ i.e., saturation humidity curve H’ vs T. The enthalpy
data are calculated using vapor pressure equation for water and physical properties of
air and water vapor H y1  1.005  1.88H TG  T0   2500 H kJ / kg . T0 is 25°C.

4. Locate the lower terminal of the operating line, ‘B’ on T L-H plane by the point (TL1,
H1’). This point indicates the condition at the bottom of the tower.
5. Draw a tangent to the equilibrium line through the point ‘B’. The slope of the tangent
gives the ratio of the liquid and minimum gas flow rate. Hence, minimum air rate is
calculated. Actual air rate taken is usually 1.25 to 1.5 times the minimum [not required
if air rate is given].
6. The upper terminal of the operating line is located by the point ‘A’ (T L2, H2’). It is the
point where the operating line of the slope determined in step 5 meets the vertical line
through TL2. It can also be located by calculating the top end enthalpy H2’ from the
equation LcL TL 2  TL1   GS H y 2  H y1 .

Hy2 dH '
7. Evaluate the integral in the equation NTU  
Hy1 
H yi  H y 
, number of gas phase

enthalpy transfer units and calculate height gas-phase enthalpy transfer units,
Gs
HTU as HTU  . k y ' a and hL a are required. A set of parallel lines called the tie
ky 'a

 hL a
lines with slope of is drawn between the operating line and the equilibrium line.
ky 'a

H’ and Hi’ are taken from terminals. Integral is calculated numerically or graphically.

8. If the overall enthalpy transfers coefficient Ky’ is known and used, ‘tie lines’ are
vertical. For a given value of H’, value of H*’ is given by the point on the equilibrium
H2 ' dH '
line vertically above it. The integral of equation NTU   gives the number
H1 ' H *' H '
of overall transfer units.
Gs L
9. The height of a transfer unit HTU  or HTU  cwL is calculated. The packed
ky 'a ky 'a

height is the product of height of transfer unit and number of transfer units

20
VI. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
A. Thermal Design
1. Range
Heat Load in kcals/hour
RangeC 
Water Circulatio n Rate in LPH
Heat Load  gpm x 8.33 xR

x45  29C
kg 1 L 0.264 gal 60 s 60
Heat Load 15 x x x
s 1 kg 1L 1 min 1 hr
kcal
Heat Load  228244.64
hr
kg 3600s
Water Circulatio n Rate  15 x
s 1 hr
Water Circulation Rate  54000 LPH
Heat Load in kcals/hour
Range 
Water Circulatio n Rate in LPH
kcal
228244.64
Range  hr
Liters
54000
hr
Range  4.23C

2. Approach
Approach  TL 2  Twet bulb
Approach  29C  24C
Approach  5C
3. Cooling Tower Effectiveness
Range
CTE 
Range  Approach
4.23C
CTE  x 100
4.23C  5C
CTE  45.83%
4. Cooling Capacity
Cooling Capacity  mass flowrate x Sp. Heat x T

x45  29K
kg kJ
Cooling Capacity  15 x 4.187
s kgK
kJ
CoolingCapacity  1004.88
s

21
5. Evaporation Loss
 m3   m3 
Evaporation Loss    0.00085 x 1.8 x circulatio n rate   x T2  T1 
 hr   hr 
 m3  kg 1L 1m 3
x 45  29
60s
Evaporation Loss    0.00085 x 1.8 x 15 x x x
 hr  s 1kg 1000 L 1hr
 m3  m3
Evaporation Loss    0.0220
 hr  hr

6. Cycles of Concentration
dissolved solids in circulatin g water
C.O.C 
dissolved solids in make  up water
2000 ppm
C.O.C 
5000 ppm
C.O.C  4

7. Blow down
Evaporation Loss
Blow down 
C.O.C  1
m3
0.0220
Blow down  hr
4 1
3
3 m
Blow down  7.33x10
hr
8. Liquid to Gas Ratio
m water
L/G 
m air
kg
2 .7
L/G  m2s
kg
2 .0 2
m s
L/G  1.35

22
B. Mechanical Design
1. Height of Packing
a. Inlet and outlet temperature and mass flowrate of water
Parameter Value
Mass flowrate 15 kg/s
Liquid unit mass flowrate 2.7 kg/m2s
Inlet Temperature 45 ºC
Outlet Temperature 29 ºC
Table 4: Inlet and Outlet Temperature of Water

b. Design value of dry and wet-bulb temperatures

Parameter Value
Air Unit Mass flowrate 2 kg/m2s
Dry-bulb Temperature 30 ºC
Wet-bulb Temperature 24 ºC
Table 5: Dry and Wet-bulb Temperature

c. Draw the equilibrium line curve

Liquid Temperature, TL (ºC) Enthalpy, Hy* (kJ/kg)
25.0 77.0
27.0 86.0
29.0 94.5
32.2 112.0
35.0 129.0
37.8 149.0
40.0 167.0
43.3 197.2
45.0 216.0
Table 6: Enthalpy vs Liquid Temperature for Equilibrium Curve

23
 Enthalpy vs Liquid Temperature
250.0

200.0

Enthalpy, Hy*
150.0

100.0 Equilibrium Curve

50.0

0.0
25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0
Liquid Temperature

Figure 10: Equilibrium Curve

The figure above shows the equilibrium curve generated by plotting the liquid
temperature and the enthalpy values read from the psychrometric chart. Stating from
25℃, the enthalpy read at the saturation humidity from the psychrometric chart is 77
kJ/kg. The enthalpy values were obtained by doing the same procedure.

d. Draw the Operating line

Calculating Hy1, given that at a dry-bulb temperature of 30 ºC and a wet-bulb
temperature of 24ºC, from the psychrometric chart the value of specific humidity
kg H 2O
H  0.0166 .
kg of dry  air

H y1  1.005  1.88 H TG  T0   2.500 H

H y1  1.005  1.880.016629  0  2.5000.0166
kJ
H y1  71.6
kg


Lc L TL 2  TL1   G S H y 2  H y 1 
2.74.187 45  29  2H y 2  71.567 
kJ
H y2  162.006
kg

24
 Liquid Temperature Enthalpy, Hy* (kJ/kg)
29.0 71.60
32.2 89.68
35.0 105.50
37.8 121.32
40.0 133.75
43.3 152.39
45.0 162.00
Table 7: Liquid Temperature vs. Enthalpy for Operating Line at r=1

Liquid Temperature vs. Hy at r=1

180.00
160.00
140.00
120.00
Hy, kJ/kg

100.00
80.00
Operating Line
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Liquid Temperature, ℃

Figure 11: Operating Line at r=1

The operating line was drawn after obtaining the values of Hy1 and Hy2 using the

equations H y1  1.005  1.88H TG  T0   2.500 H and LcL TL 2  TL1   GS H y 2  H y1 
respectively. Using interpolation, the enthalpy values dependent of the liquid
temperature was obtained. The value of G used was the Gmin at r=1. Therefore,
generating the operating line below the equilibrium curve.

e. Drawing the Tangent line

The line was obtained by drawing a tangent to the equilibrium curve. The slope of
the tangent line was obtained by getting the ratio of its rise over run.
209.8  71.6
mTL 
45  29
mTL  8.6437

25
 Liquid Temperature, TL (ºC) Enthalpy, Hy* (kJ/kg)
29.0 71.60
32.2 99.26
35.0 123.46
37.8 147.67
40.0 166.68
43.3 195.20
45.0 209.8
Table 8: Liquid Temperature vs. Enthalpy for Tangent Line

Tangent Line
250.00

200.00
Hy, kJ/kg

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Liquid Temperature, ℃

Figure 12: Tangent Line

The figure shows the tangent line from the terminal of the operating line drawn
tangent to the equilibrium curve. The slope was then obtained and will be used to solve
the Gactual given by the formula Gactual=1.5Gmin. The slope will give the ratio of the liquid
and the minimum gas flow rate.

f. Operating Line at r=1.5

LcL
mTL 
Gmin
LcL
Gmin 
mTL

209.8  71.6
mTL 
45  29
mTL  8.6437

26
 2.74.187 
Gmin 
8.6437
Gmin  1.3079

Gactual  1.5 Gmin

Gactual  1.51.3079
Gactual  1.9618


LcL TL 2  TL1   GS H y 2  H y1 
2.74.187 45  29  1.9618H y 2  71.567 
kJ
H y2  163.8
kg

Liquid Temperature Enthalpy, Hy* (kJ/kg)

29.0 71.60
32.2 90.04
35.0 106.18
37.8 122.31
40.0 134.99
43.3 154.00
45.0 163.8
Table 9: Liquid Temperature and Enthalpy for Operating Line at r=1.5

Liquid Temperature vs. Hy at r=1.5

180.000
160.000
140.000
120.000
Hy, kJ/kg

100.000
80.000
Operating Line
60.000
40.000
20.000
0.000
25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Liquid Temperature, ℃

Figure 13: Operating Line at r=1.5

The figure shows the operating line based on the obtained value of the Gactual of
1.9618. The value obtained was used to solve for the Hy2. Using interpolation, the
values of the enthalpy corresponding to the liquid temperatures was obtained.

27
 Liquid Equilibrium Operating Tangent Operating Numerical
Temperature Curve Line Line Line integration
1/∆h
at r=1.0 ∆h = at r = 1.5 ∆h = coefficient
tL, ºC hair,sat hoper_r=1 hair,sat -hop_r=1 hair,sat hoper_r=1.5 hair,sat -hop_r=1.5 Ci f(x)
kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg 1/(kJ/kg)
25.0 77.0
27.0 86.0
29.0 94.5 71.60 22.90 71.60 71.600 22.9 0.04367 1 0.04367
32.2 112.0 89.680 22.3 99.26 90.040 22.0 0.04554 4 0.18215
35.0 129.0 105.500 23.5 123.46 106.175 22.8 0.04381 2 0.08762
37.8 149.0 121.320 27.7 147.67 122.310 26.7 0.03747 4 0.14987
40.0 167.0 133.7500 33.250 166.68 134.988 32.0 0.03124 2 0.06248
43.3 197.2 152.395 44.805 195.20 154.000 43.2 0.02315 4 0.09259
45.0 216.0 162.00 54.0 209.80 163.800 52.2 0.01916 1 0.01916
 f(x) = 0.63753
Table 10: Parameter and Values for Operating Diagram of Cooling Tower

28
 250.0
Operation Diagram of Cooling Tower

Enthalpy air-vapor [kJ/kg da]

200.0 O'(tO',hO')

T
Equilibrium curve A-B O
150.0 O(to,ho)
Equilibrium curve
Equilibrium curve, Operating line with r = 1 Op. L, r = 1
for saturated air
Op. L. r = 1.5
100.0
Operating line with r = 1.5 h_tangent
hT
A Poly. (Equilibrium curve)
N (tN, hN)
50.0

0.0
25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Liquid temperature [°C]

Figure 14: Operation Diagram of Cooling Tower

Figure 14 shows the Operation diagram of the cooling tower. The equilibrium curve, operating line at r=1 and r=1.5 and the tangent
line were all incorporated one graph. The equilibrium curve is represented by a blue curve. The operating lines are represented by green
and violet lines representing the operating lines at r=1 and r=1.5 respectively. The tangent line is represented by a yellow line. This diagram
will be used in obtaining the enthalpy values taking the tie lines to be vertical lines to compute for the number of transfer units and the
height transfer units.

29
g. Number of Transfer Units
Hy2 dH '
NTU  
Hy1 
H yi  H y 
H y 2  H y1
dH '
 fo  4 f1  f 3  f 5   2 f 2  f 4   f 6 
Hy2
 H
Hy1
yi  H y

 3N
Hy2 dH ' 163.8  71.6 0.04367  4 0.04554  0.03747  0.02315  
 H
Hy1
yi  H y

 36 2 0.04381  0.03124  0.01916




 5.120.63754
Hy2 dH '
 H
Hy1
yi  H y 
NTU  3.27

h. Heat Transfer Unit

Gs
HTU 
M Bk y ' a
2
HTU 
 
29 6.2 x105 500
HTU  2.23
i. Height of Packing Tower
Z  NTU HTU 
Z  3.272.23
Z  7.3 m

2. Tower Area
a. Using area of cross sectional surface
L
Area 
Lu
kg
15
Area  s
kg
2.7 2
m s
Area  5.56 m 2

30
 b. Using the gas flow rate
Gas rate
Area 
unit flow rate
Gs
Area 
G Su
kg
10.90
Area  s
kg
2 2
m s
Area  5.45 m 2

The area chosen from both results is the smaller value to ensure that the value of the
product kya has at least the indicated value
kg
k y a  0.90
m3 s
So the area chosen is Area  5.45 m 2

3. Compensation Water

L2=15 kg/s
TL2=45°C Air

Water
Tcomp=29°C
dac=500ppm L2 G2

Cooling
Tower

L1 G1 TdbG1=30°C
TwbG1=24°C
Water
Air
TL1=29°C
B
daM=2000ppm

Figure 15: Schematic Diagram for Compensation Water

a. Evaporation Rate
From the derived equation relating compensation rate, evaporation rate, elimination
rate, entrainment loss rate, hardness weight fraction circulating water, hardness weight
fraction of compensation water:

31
 B  W dac
M
dam
Absolute humidity at inlet air
kg H 2 O
x1  0.1066
kg dry  air
Absolute humidity at exit air
kg H 2 O
x2  0.0470
kg dry  air
Absolute humidity change
x12  x 2  x1
x12  0.0470  0.0166
kg H 2 O
Δx 1 2  0.0304
kg dry  air
E  Gsx1 2 
kg  kg H 2 O 
E  10.90  0.0304 
s  kg dry  air 
kg H 2 O
E  0.331
kg dry  air
b. Entrainment Loss
In estimating entrainment loss, assume that losses are percentage of the water flow
rate.
L  0.2%
kg
L  15
s
W  LL 
 kg 
W  0.00215 
 s 
kg
W  0.03
s
c. Elimination Rate
da M
B  E. W
daC  da M
da M  500 ppm
daC  2000 ppm

32
  kg  500 ppm kg
B   0.0331   0.03
 s  2000 ppm  500 ppm s
kg
B  0.0805
s
f. Compensation Rate
B  W dac
M 
da m
 kg kg 
 0.0805  0.030 2000 ppm
M 
s s 
500 ppm
kg
M  0.442
s

VII. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter Values
RANGE 4.23 ℃
APPROACH 5℃
COOLING TOWER EFFECTIVENESS 45.83 ℃
kJ
COOLING CAPACITY 1004.88 s
m3
EVAPORATION LOSS 0.0220 hr
CYCLES OF CONCENTRATION 4
m3
BLOW DOWN 7.33x10-3 hr
LIQUID TO GAS RATIO 1.35
HEIGHT OF PACKING 7.3 m
TOWER AREA 5.45m2
kg
COMPENSATION WATER 0.442 s
Table 11: Design Specifications

33
VIII. MECHANICAL DRAWING

BY OTHER BY COOLING
CONTRACTOR T OWER SPECIALIST
CONTRACTOR

BY COOLING BY OTHER
T OWER SPECIALIST CONTRACTOR
CONTROL PANEL AND CONTRACTOR
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

MAKE-UP
WATER TANK
SAMPLING TAP
FAN
SUPPLY WATER DRIFT
WATER
ELIMINATOR
METER OVERFLOW

FILL M
WATER-COOLED
CONDENSER/ AIR INTAKE DRAIN
HEAT CONDENSING LOUVRE

EXCHANGER WATER PUMPS OVERFLOW

MAKE-UP WATER
RETURN WATER FROM CITY MAIN

BLEED-OFF
SAMPLING TAP
WATER DISCHARGE AND REUSEFOR
CHEMICAL M FLUSHING UNLESS A
CONNECT TO
DOSING SPECIAL PERMISSION FOR
EVAPORATOR/
PUMPS BLEED-OFF WATER DISCHARGING IS GRANTED
HEAT GENERATING
RETENTION TANK BY DSD/EPD
EQUIPMENT

CHEMICAL TANK TO DRAIN

PHYSICAL WATER
TREATMENT
EQUIPMENT

BY COOLING
TOWER BY OTHER
SPECIALIST CONTRACTION
CONTRACTOR

Figure 16: Schematic Diagram for Typical Water-cooled Air Conditioning System

34
 Hot humid
air escapes

Exhaust fan

Hot Tower Height = 7.3 meters

Coil
Cooled

Outside air
enters

Pump for Cooling basin

circulation

Figure 17: Detailed Design of Induced Draft Cooling Tower for HVAC

IX. REFERENCES
[1] ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals (Vol. 4). (2017).

[2] Bureau of Energy Efficiency. (2005). Cooling Tower. 1-17.

[3] EMSD of the Hong Kong Administrative Region. (2006). Code of Practice for Water-
Cooled Air Conditioning Systems. Hong Kong: EMSD.

[4] GE Oil & Gas. (2013). Induced Draft Cooling Tower and Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger
Monitoring Application Guide. New York: Application Note.

[5] Hensley, J. C. (2009). Cooling Tower Fundamentals. Overland Park, Kansas USA:
SPX Cooling Technologies, Inc.

[6] Mulyandasari, V. (2011). Cooling Tower Selection And Sizing (Engineering Design
Guideline). Johor Bahru, Malaysia : KLM Technology Group.

[7] NPTEL. Chemical-Mass Transfer Operation. Humidification and Air Conditioning.

[8] SPX Cooling Technologies. (2009). Cooling Tower Fundamentals (2nd ed.). (J. C.
Hensley, Ed.) Kansas, USA: SPX Cooling Technologies.

[9] Treybal. (2006). Cooling Tower Design. Excel.

35
X. APPENDICES

36
37
38
39
40
 RUBRIC FOR HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER DESIGN PROJECT EVALUATION
Name:
Title of Design Project:
EVALUATION CRITERIA 1 2
Beginning
Identification of Problem or Definition Insufficient identification
of Project of problem; inadequately
objectives.
(3 points)
Application of Engineering Principles No or erroneous
application of
(5) engineering principles
yielding unreasonable
solution.
Use of Computer–Aided Tools Serious deficiencies in
understanding the correct
(2) selection and/or use of
tools.
Meeting Design Requirements Few design requirements
are met.
(5)
3 4
SCORE
Developing Proficient Exemplary
Partial identification of Adequate identification of Clear and complete
problem; lack of specifics problem; any lack of identification of design
does impair solution of specifics does not impair goals and objectives.
design. solution or design.
Serious deficiencies in Effective application of Critical selection and
proper selection and use engineering principles application of engineering
of engineering principles. resulting in reasonable principles ensuring
solution. reasonable results.
Minimal application and Computer–aided tools Computer–aided tools
use of appropriate tools. used with moderate are used effectively to
effectiveness to develop develop and analyze
designs. designs.
Only basic requirements Design requirements are All design requirements
are met. met. are met and exceeded
 Design Documentation Reports may have poor
and Presentation quality writing and mix
jargon with engineering
language.
(5 points) Reports miss many
important topics and are
not easy to read.
Information in report is
not organized. Data or
design features
explanations very difficult
to locate.
Evidence of plagiarism.
Punctuation, Capitalization & Spelling There are a number of
(3) major errors in
punctuation, grammar
and/or spelling which
make it difficult to read
Sources Attempt to document
(2) source used is not
completely accurate
Only 1 source was used
Rater: Engr. CAESAR P. LLAPITAN
Reports attempts Reports use mostly Reports use appropriate
appropriate appropriate language/format for the
language/format for the language/format for the engineering field.
engineering field. engineering field.
Reports are informative
Reports are fairly Reports are mostly and easy to read.
informative and generally informative and easy to
easy to read. read. Information in reports is
well organized so that
Information in reports Information in reports is data or design feature
organized into sections well organized. All data explanations are easy to
with data or design and design features can found.
features explanation be found without
present. difficulty. Avoid plagiarism, does
not use information
Evidence of plagiarism. Both positive and without giving credit to
negative results the appropriate source.
presented.
There are 3 or 4 minor There are 1 or 2 minor There are no
errors in punctuation, grammatical, spelling or grammatical, spelling or
grammar and/or spelling punctuation errors punctuation errors
which do not break the
flow for the reader
All sources are All sources are All sources are
accurately documented accurately documented accurately documented
Only 1 or 2 sources were and in the desired format and in the desired format
used 2 or 3 sources were used
TOTAL SCORE