MYCOTOXINS

A.P.Gandhi,TH-28,E-8,Shahapura,BharatNagar,
Bhopal(MP),India

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites which when ingested, inhaled or absorbed

through the skin cause lowered performance, sickness or death in man or animals,
including birds. In 943 AD- St.Anthony’s Fire affected many parts of Europe. Burning
sensation was experienced by the victims. Many visited the shrine of St.Anthony in
France in the hope of being cured. Later it was known as ergotism caused by Claviceps
purpurea.Mycotoxins has plagued mankind since the beginning of organized crop
production. Alimentary Toxic Aleukia (ATA) was caused by Fusarium mycotoxins, which
lead to the severe depopulation of Western Europe in the thirteenth century due to the
replacement of rye with wheat. Mycotoxins occur in a wide variety of foods and feeds
and have been implicated in a range of human and animal diseases. They produce both
acute and chronic toxicities ranging from death to deleterious effects on the central
nervous, cardiovascular and pulmonary systems and upon the alimentary tract.
Mycotoxins may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive. The
mycotoxins attract worldwide attention with their impact on human health, animal
productivity and both domestic and international trade.
Mycotoxicology-a system approach:
Cocker 1997 put forth system approach for the control of mycotoxins.It involves
interactions between and within, commodity, spoilage, mycotoxin and control system.
Within a system, the subsystems can interact freely.
The Commodity System :
It is composed of numerous interacting technical and socio-economic processes including
for example pest and disease control, harvesting, drying, processing, marketing, credit
and pricing policies and cultural issues to name but a few. The condition of the
commodity is determined by a complex mileu involving a multitude of interactions
between the crop, the macro and micro environment and a variety of biological, chemical,
physical and socio-economic factors. A change with in any one process will invariably
bring about changes in one or more of the other processes. Action taken before harvest to
control pest damage and or increase production can have a significant impact on the post-
harvest quality of the commodity.

The Spoilage System:

Biodeterioration is due to a number of interacting agents like biological, physical, and
macro-environmental. Factors are moisture, temperature and pests. Moulds utilize the
intergranular moisture. The typical aw necessary for moulds is in the range from 0.70 to
0.99.The mould growth increases with the temperature. Insects and mites can also make
contribution because of the physical damage. The proportions of oxygen, nitrogen and
CO2 in the inter-granular atmosphere also regulate nutrient loss caused by their activity.
Many moulds will grow at very low oxygen concentrations. Interactions between the
gases and the prevailing aw also influence mould growth. In the field grains are
predominantly contaminated by those moulds requiring high aw (at least 0.88) for growth,
whereas stored grains will support moulds which grow at lower moisture levels.
Mycotoxin System:

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The Mycotoxin System may be considered in terms of three interactingsubsystems,
metabolism&toxicology, health&productivity and wealth. After exposure the toxicity is
determined by a sequence of events involving the administration, absorption,
transformation, pharmacokinetics, molecular interactions, distribution and excretion of
the toxin and its metabolite.
Table 1.Mycotoxins of world-wide importance (Miller 1994)

Mould species Mycotoxins produced

Aspergillus parasiticus Aflatoxins B1,B2,G1,G2
Aspergillus flavus Aflatoxins B1,B2
Fusarium spototrichioides T-2 toxin
Fusarium graminearum Deoxynivalenol, Zearalenone
Fusarium moniliforme Fumonisin B1
(F. verticillioides)
Penicillium verrucosum Ochratoxin A
Aspergillus ochraceus Ochratoxin A

The Aflatoxins:
The optimal water activity for growth of A.flavus is in the range from 0.82 to 0.998. It
grows within the temperature range from 10-43oC. 20-30oC is the optimum range. The
term aflatoxin was coined in the early 1960s when the death of thousands of turkeys
(Turkey x disease) ducklings and other domestic animals was attributed to the presence
of A.flavus toxins in the groundnut meal imported from South America. The moulds
occur widely in temperate, sub-tropical and tropical climates throughout the world. They
may be produced both before and after harvest on many foods and feeds especially
oilseeds, edible nuts and cereals. Aflatoxin B1 is a human carcinogen and is one of the
most potent hepatocarcinogens known. Mostly seen in groundnuts and maize. The loss is
66% of the total loss in case of maize.
The Trichothecenes:
Fusarium moulds produce this toxin. In the case of Fusarium graminearum the optimal
temperature is 24-26oC.The minimum aw is 0.9.T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol belong to
sesquiterpenes known as the trichothecenes. T-2 is associated with the prolonged wet
weather at harvest. It is the probable cause of ATA.The most significant effect is the
immunosuppressive activity. DON is probably the most widely occurring Fusarium toxin
contaminating a variety of cereals, especially maize and wheat.
The Zearalenone:
It is widely distributed oestrogenic mycotoxin occurring mainly in maize. It is produced
with DON by Fusarium graminearum. Exposure to this toxin has caused
hyperoestrogenism in livestock, especially pigs characterized by vulvar and mammary
swelling and infertility.
The Fumonisins:
They are produced by Fusarium moniliforme, which is frequently found in maize. The
toxins especially occur when maize is grown under warm, dry conditions. The minimum
aw is 0.87. and the maximum is >0.99.The optimal temperatures are 32 oC-37oC.Exposure
to this toxin causes leukoencephalomalacia (LEM) in horses’ pulmonary oedema in pigs.

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It is also toxic to the central nervous system, liver, pancreas, kidney and lungs. It causes
esophageal cancer in humans.
The Ochratoxin A:
A.ochraceus produces this toxin. It grows more slowly than A.flavus and A. parasiticus.It
can grow at a low aw 0.79.The optimum temperature range is 23oC-31oC.P.verrucosum
also produces this toxin. Significant toxin is produced even at 4oC and aw 0.86.It occurs in
maize, rice, beans cowpeas, vine fruits and their products, coffee. Spices, nuts and figs. It
is found from trace amounts to 6000 ug/kg.It is transferred from feeds to the animal
products. Tolerable limit is 14-ng/kg body weight per day.It is linked with Balkan
endemic nephropathy, fatal renal disease.
The Patulin:
It is produced by a number of moulds. It is produced in rotten apples by Pencillium
expansum and consequently may be transferred to apple juice and other products. It
exhibits pathological changes in the viscera. Maximum tolerable daily intake of 400
ng/kg for patulin.
The co-occurrence of mycotoxins:
A mixture of mycotoxins can be produced in foods and feeds especially in cereals. The
co-occurrence of mycotoxins can affect the level of mycotoxin production and the
toxicity of the contaminated material. For example the production of aflatoxins in stored
grains may be enhanced by the presence of trichothecenes.
Mycotoxins of regional importance:
There are a number of mycotoxicoses, which are not widely occurring but are of regional
importance. They are associated with a variety of livestock diseases including ergotism,
paspalum staggers, ryegrass staggers, facial eczema, fescue foot, lupinosis, slobber
syndrome etc.

Table 2. Moulds and mycotoxins of regional importance

Mould species Mycotoxin produced Mycotoxicosis

Claviceps purpurea Ergotamine alkaloids Ergotism
Claviceps fusiformis Clavine alkaloids Ergotism
Acremonium loliae Loitrem Rye grass staggers

Balance spp Alkaloids Fescuefoot

Pithomyces chartarum Sporidesmin Facial eczema
Phomopsis leptostromiformis Phomopsin Lupinosis
Rhizoctonia leguminicola Slaframine Slobber syndrome
Stachybotrys atra Satratoxins Stachybotryotoxicosis
Diplodia madis Diplodiatoxin Diplodiosis

Most animals consume pasture crops, which harbor the moulds. The production of
mycotoxins depends on the microenvironment.
The Socio-Economic System:
The social and economic factors will exert an influence on the mycotoxicology system.
Technical interventions, which are designed to alleviate spoilage, will only be

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successfully implemented if they can be accommodated and exploited within the existing
socio-economic system.
The Integration of Systems:
HACCP is a food safety management system. The inter-relationship of HACCP with
other food safety tools will influence the control of these mycotoxins.

Prevention/Reduction of Mycotoxins:
The grains prior to storage should be thoroughly cleaned to remove mud, soil/dust/stones
etc and dried without time lag. Damaged or broken grains/dry fruits etc should be totally
removed. For high moisture foods the bacterial population should not exceed 1000 / g
while yeast and mould counts should be below 10/ g. For dried products like grains, dry
fruits, spices etc the bacterial counts should be below 500/g while yeast and moulds
counts should not exceed 1/ g. The grains/spices/dry fruits etc prior to storage should be
dried to <9% moisture content. Maximum of 48 hours’ time lag is suggested to dry the
product to the safe levels. In case of fruit juices/squash etc the use of over-ripen and
rotten materials should not be permitted. Low temperature storage under modified
atmosphere may control the microbes. Ammoniation of the feeds will reduce the
mycotoxins. Refining of crude oils may reduce the toxin levels.
The Control System:
The co-ordinated inputs of an inter disciplinary team are required. The team will have the
skills required to enable it to operate across commodity systems, identifying those
factors, which are compromising the quality of the products, and introducing appropriate
interventions. The control system illustrates a selection of preventive and curative
interventions, which may be utilized for the control of mycotoxins, once the nature of the
contamination process has been properly evaluated.