LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD.

• To understand the structure and classification of neurones,

• To understand the structure and function of myelination.
• To understand the structure of a synapse.
• To understand the role of glial cells in the nervous system.
• To briefly describe the structure of the autonomic nervous system.
• To understand the major divisions of the nervous system; including the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
• To briefly describe the development of the nervous system.
• To understand and demonstrate the areas of grey matter and white matter in the brain
and spinal cord.
• To understand the structure and function of the brain, including brainstem, hindbrain,
midbrain and forebrain. To describe the structures that make up each of these
divisions.
• Brainstem – midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
• Hindbrain – medulla oblongata, pns, cerebellum
• Midbrain – cerebral peduncles, superior and inferior colliculi, mammillary bodies
• Forebrain – Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), and
telencephalon, cerebral cortex, basal nuclie, limbic system)
• Cerebral cortex – frontal, parietal, occipital., temporal lobes
• Fissures/sulci - longitudinal fissure, central sulcus, lateral sulcus, calcarine sulcus, parieto-
occipital sulcus
• To understand and identify cranial nerves and spinal nerves (including plexuses).
• To understand the structure and function of the meninges.
• To understand the structure and function of the ventricles.
• To understand the structure of the spinal cord – conus medullaris, filum terminale,
cauda equine, cervical and lumbosacral enlargements.

2. BLOOD SUPPLY TO BRAIN

• To describe the two sets of arteries that supply the brain.

• The circle of Willis:
Ø Internal carotid arteries
Ø Anterior and middle cerebral arteries
Ø Anterior and posterior communicating arteries
Ø Vertebral arteries and basilar artery
Ø Medullary arteries

• To understand and describe the mechanisms, causes and warning signs of strokes.
• To describe the structure of venous sinuses and to describe the major differences
between these and regular veins.
• To identify and describe the drainage of the major venous sinuses.
Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 1
 BIOL2275
Lecture – 1. Introduction to the Nervous System

• Nervous tissue – one of 4 basic tissue types.

Nervous cells:
• produce electrical signals, allow nervous system to communicate with body systems
• 2 classes of cell: Neurons& glial cells

NEURONS
• cells that communicate within the nervous system, 10-100 billion in the brain alone
• basic functional unit, conducts impulses

NEURON STRUCTURE:
• Cell body - nucleus & cytoplasm, contains cell organelles, bound by a cell membrane
(cell membrane specialised to produce an electrical impulse = action potential)
• projections from body = axon & dendrites, give cell polarity or direction.
• Axon - Extension that sends information to other cells
• Dendrites - receives information from other cells, multiple signals are then combined

• Neurons have a polarity or a directional organization

• Afferent = incoming stimulus (from another cell)
• Efferent = outgoing stimulus (communicated to another cell)
- information comes in from one part of the neuron (the dendrites), this
• information is taken to the neuron cell body (soma) for integration and then an output
• (an action potential) is generated in the output section of the neuron (the axon).
- action potential of the neuron is transferred to other cells through synapse
• Synapses release chemical substances known as neurotransmitters, which “transmit”
• information from one neuron to another or from a neuron to a muscle cell.
• The axon of neuron is of variable length.
• Short axons communicate with other cells close by (i.e. within the CNS)
• Long axons communicate with other cells a large distance away (this is how the brain is
able to control what is going on in the periphery of the body).

Functional classificiation of neurons – based upon direction impulses are

conducted
1. Sensory
2. Motor
3. Association or interneurons

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS:

• Neurons exhibit enormous diversity within the nervous system.
• The ability of a neuron to process different types of specialized information depends
upon not only its connections to and from other cells but also on its shape, size and
structural configuration.
• Structural classification of neurons – based on number of processes that extend from
cell body.

4 main types of neuron:

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 2

• Anaxonic – small, all cell processes look alike; in brain and special sense organs.
• bipolar (2 processes, 1 peripheral dendrite & 1 central axon); rare, in special senses
• unipolar (or pseudo-unipolar which are T-shaped. Dendrites & axon are continuous;
axons may be up to 1 m or more)
• multipolar (most common type of configuration. Many dendrites & 1 axon); eg. Motor
neurons

MYELINATION:
• Axons of peripheral neurons - surrounded by a myelin sheath formed by glial cells.
• Begins near the origin of the axon and ends just short of its terminal branches.
• Composed of very closely laid-down layers of the plasma membrane of the glial cells
• This insulates the axon from the extracellular environment and insulates it electrically.
• The sheath is not continuous and is interrupted by areas known as nodes of Ranvier -
• Myelin affects the speed at which the electrical impulse can travel through the neuron
(the conduction velocity).

Myelin:
• is produced by glial cells called Schwann cells in PNS
• is produced by glial cells called oligodendrocytes in CNS
• electrically insulates axon from extracellular environment
• increases speed of propagation of the action potential
• prevents crossover & facilitates transmission

GLIAL CELLS
• support cells of nervous system and other functions
• provide structure, nutrients, defense, myelin and immunity
• outnumber neurons x10

• CNS cells: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, Müller cells only in
the retina
• PNS cells: Schwann cells, satellite cells.
• Myelin forming cells: (Schwann cells & Oligodendrocytes)
• Astrocytes: Star-shaped (stellate), Provide structural framework
• Ependymal cells: Involved in formation & movement of CSF.
• Microglia: Immune cells of the brain and retina. Some are phagocytic.
• Satellite cells: Similar to astrocytes in CNS. Structure, nutritional support and protection.
• Many glial cells may be involved in induction and maintenance of a protective barrier
called the blood-brain barrier, that isolates and protects the CNS from the peripheral
circulation.

GREY MATTER AND WHITE MATTER

• 98% of the nervous tissue is in brain and spinal cord = Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Central location helps to protect the tissue and aids coordination of function.
• The neurons and glial cells give it a characteristic macroscopic appearance known as
grey and white matter.
• Two major types of tissue in CNS are:
• Grey matter (consisting of nonmyelinated cell bodies & dendrites) - cortex of brain
(outermost layer); centre of spinal cord; ganglia / nuclei (regions of grey matter)
• White matter (myelinated nerve fibers) - forms an outer cortex in brain, but an inner core
in spinal cord. Looks white due to the lipid material in myelin; peripheral nerves &
Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 3
 central fibre tracts.

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The two major subdivisions of the nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS) - brain and spinal cord, 98%; integrates & coordinates
sensory data & motor commands; also location of higher centres such as intelligence,
memory, emotion
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - nerves leading to & from CNS; communication between
CNS & rest of body
• Brain and nuclei, and spinal cord = CNS
• Ganglia and nerves = PNS

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

CNS – processes information

PNS - Carries messages between the CNS and rest of body.
• Afferent division - brings sensory information to CNS
• Efferent division - carries motor commands to mm. & glands
(i) Somatic NS - voluntary control over skeletal muscle
(ii) Autonomic NS - visceral; motor system; automatic, involuntary; for
regulation of smooth m., cardiac m. & glandular activity or secretions
• Forty-three nerve pairs make up the PNS
* 12 pairs of cranial nerves
* 31 pairs of spinal nerves

• Nucleus (L, nut) - a collection of nerve cell bodies inside the CNS
• Ganglion (G, swelling) - a collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Carries messages between the CNS and rest of body.

• Functions to connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
• Consists of the nerves and the sense organs

NERVES

• Multiple nerve fibres bound together by connective tissue to form peripheral nerves
• Nerves = Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – 2% of nervous system.
• The human body has:
Ø spinal nerves - which leave the spinal cord and
Ø cranial nerves - which leave the brain.
Nerves are classified for:
1. the direction in which signals are transmitted (afferent and efferent)
2. the types of organs they innervate (somatic and visceral)
3. for how widespread or local the distribution of innervated organs (general or special)

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 4

• Mixed nerves contain both motor and sensory fibers
• PNS also contains cell bodies & axons of sensory & motor neurones of autonomic NS

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The ANS controls the body’s activities that you don’t think about.
• The ANS controls activities in your small intestine, your breathing, and your heartbeat.

• Controls the motor supply of visceral tissues (cardiac m., smooth m., glands)
• Has two branches - sympathetic and parasympathetic.
• Adjust the balance of contraction & relaxation of smooth m., the rate & force of contraction of
cardiac m., the rate of secretion of glands.
• Control over the ANS is, for the most part, involuntary.
• The ANS differs structurally from the somatic nervous system in that there are two neurons
leading from the ANS to the effector: a preganglionic neuron and a postganglionic neuron.

Sympathetic: arouses:
• Accelerated heart beat, increased blood pressure,
• slow digestion, raise blood sugar, sweat, prepare for action
• Can prepare for aggressive action (fight or flight) or protective action (tend and befriend)
Parasympathetic:
Calms & conserves energy
• Undoes what the sympathetic system does

BIOL2275

Lecture 2 - ORGANISATION THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

I. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
• Originates from a simple disc which rolls into a tube.
• Bending & ballooning, thinning & thickening è complex adult structure
• By 4 WG, neural tube is evident
• Lumen forms ventricles of brain & central canal of spinal cord
• At 4 WG, neural tube shows 3 primary vesicles rostrally, a forebrain, midbrain, & hindbrain
• Forebrain and hindbrain divide again: results in 5 secondary vesicles:
Ø Forebrain = telencephalon & diencephalon
Ø Midbrain = mesencephalon
Ø Hindbrain = metencephalon & myelencephalon
• Most common congenital malformations of NS - due to neural tube defects, from improper
closure of neural tube

B. MAJOR LANDMARKS

• It is divided into 3 portions; the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum

• These divisions sit in the anterior, middle & posterior cranial fossae

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 5

• The brainstem is at the base of the brain = midbrain, pons, & medulla oblongata
• Much of the CNS is hollow; ventricles are cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid

C. THE HINDBRAIN

a) The Myelencephalon
• Medulla oblongata
• Pyramids & olives containing relay centers to cerebellum
• Nuclei of the medulla oblongata control coughing, sneezing, hiccuping, sweating, vomiting &
other functions. In addition, cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory centers are located there.

b) The Metencephalon
• The pons and cerebellum
• gray matter of pons contains nuclei concerned with sleep, posture, respiration, swallowing,
and bladder control. Signals from the cerebrum to the cerebellum pass through the pons
• Cerebellum is the largest part of the hindbrain. Right & left cerebellar hemispheres connected
by a vermis. Three paired cerebellar peduncles connect cerebellum to brainstem
• Cerebellum modulates & coordinates voluntary movement of limbs, maintains muscle tone &
posture, coordinated eye movements, and helps in learning motor skills

D. THE MIDBRAIN (MESENCEPHALON)

• Connects hindbrain to forebrain. Contains cerebral peduncles, substantia nigra & tegmentum
with red nucleus
• The tectum = 4 nuclei called superior & inferior colliculi. Function in visual attention, tracking
objects, and visual reflexes
• Mammillary bodies - between cerebral peduncles of midbrain

E. THE RETICULAR FORMATION

• A group of 100 nuclei scattered throughout medulla, midbrain, & pons that function in somatic
motor control, autonomic control, arousal, & pain modulation

F. THE FOREBRAIN

a) The Diencephalon - in midline

• Thalamus = 2 oval masses of gray matter, underneath each cerebral hemisphere
• The "gateway to the cerebral cortex"; nearly all information heading to cerebrum passes
through, except for sensory input from smell

• The Hypothalamus
• Forms portions of walls of third ventricle
• A narrow stalk connects it to pituitary gland (hypophysis) which sits in hypophyseal fossa on
sella turcica
• Major control center of autonomic NS & endocrine system, plus plays a role in homeostasis
• Nuclei of hypothalamus regulate food & water intake, thermoregulation, cardiovascular
regulation, sleep & waking, & emotional behavior

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 6

• The Epithalamus
• Consists of pineal gland, the habenula, and a roof over the third ventricle.

b) The Telencephalon (Cerebrum)

The Cerebral White Matter

• White matter of cerebrum does not make decisions, makes up most of volume of cerebrum
• Houses projection tracts, commissural tracts, & association tracts

Gross Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex

• The telencephalon contains three areas of integration - the cortex, basal nuclei, & limbic
system
• Cerebral cortex (40% of brain mass) is a layer of gray matter, 2-3 mm thick, covering
cerebral hemispheres
• Divided into following lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
• Separated by median longitudinal fissure, central sulcus, lateral sulcus, calcarine sulcus,
parieto-occipital sulcus

The Basal Nuclei

• Masses of gray matter buried deep in cerebral hemispheres.
• Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, amygdala, & claustrum
• Involved in motor control & thought process

The Limbic System

• A loop of cortical structures surrounding corpus callosum & thalamus
• Many important facets of an individual's personality depend on an intact limbic system
• Important for emotions, such as fear, anger, love, & others

c) Motor Control
• Voluntary muscle contractions are initiated in the motor association (premotor) area of the
frontal lobes. The impulse is then sent to the precentral gyrus (primary motor area), which
exhibits a somatotopy

• d) Somatic Sensation
The postcentral gyrus functions as the primary sensory area. Neurons receive sensory
information. This gyrus also exhibits somatotopy.

e) Special Senses
• Input from the special senses travels to other specialized areas of brain

f) Association Areas
• Somatosensory association area, the visual association area, the auditory association area,
& frontal association area
• Connected to sensory and motor regions.
• Interpret data and co-ordinate a response

g) Cerebral Lateralization
• Cerebral lateralization = assignment of different tasks to different hemispheres, & is
correlated with “handedness.” Most Americans are right-handed, most have left hemisphere
as categorical one

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 7

h) Language
• Language includes several abilities & is assigned to different regions of cerebral cortex.
Areas involved are Wernicke's area, the angular gyrus, Broca's area,

i) Memory
• The storage and retrieval of acquired information or skills. Memory is established in phases
• Declarative memory is long-term memory in which facts & numbers are stored. Hippocampus
involved (this is what we are doing in anatomy!)
• Procedural memory is long-term memory involving conditioned reflexes

G. VENTRICLES AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

• Brain & spinal cord are hollow - internal cavities filled with CSF
• Central canal within spinal cord
• Brain has a central passageway which expands to form 4 chambers = ventricles
• Largest - 2 lateral ventricles, in each cerebral hemisphere
• Each communicates with third ventricle of diencephalon via interventricular foramen
• Midbrain contains a slender canal = mesencephalic aqueduct which connects third
ventricle with fourth ventricle of hindbrain
• Fourth ventricle narrows, becomes continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord
• CSF is a clear, colorless liquid that functions to lend buoyancy, for protection, in waste
removal, and in providing a stable chemical environment
• CSF originates in choroid plexuses of each ventricle, circulates throughout ventricles, &
makes its way into central canal of spinal cord. It exits fourth ventricle through two apertures
& enters subarachnoid space
• Hydrocephalus results from blockage of route of CSF & its absorption

BIOL2275

Lecture 3 – MENINGES & SPINAL CORD

A. MENINGES

• Protect & support neural tissue: skull, vertebral column & meninges
• Brain meninges are continuous with those of the spinal cord
• In vertebral canal, the periosteal layer of the dura is absent. Between the sheath and
surrounding bone lies the epidural space.
• The dura & arachnoid are separated by a subdural space
• Arachnoid & pia mater are separated by subarachnoid space

a) Dura mater (L. dura, hard; mater, mother)

• Outermost covering; dense, firm, collagenous connective tissue
• 2 layers, space between them contains tissue fluids & blood vessels = dural sinuses
• Sends septa inwards, which divide cranial cavity into space that lodge parts of the brain
• Limit excessive movements of the brain within the skull, when head moves
Falx cerebri
• In midline between cerebral hemispheres; from crista galli anteriorly

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 8

Tentorium cerebelli
• Forms a roof over the posterior cranial fossa
• Between occipital lobes of cerebral hemispheres & cerebellum
Falx cerebelli
• Small fold in posterior cranial fossa between cerebellar hemispheres

b) Arachnoid (G, arachne, spider)

• Delicate, forms a loose brain covering
• Bridges over the sulci on the brain surface
• Adheres to dura and sends spiderlike extensions to pia mater
• Projects into venous sinuses to form arachnoid villi (most along superior sagittal sinus)
• Sites where CSF diffuses into bloodstream

c) Pia mater (L pia, delicate; mater, mother)

• Thin membrane, firmly bound to neural tissue
• Highly vascular layer that closely follows the contours of the brain

B. THE SPINAL CORD

• Sends messages to the brain

• Connects the brain to the rest of the nervous system
• Lies in vertebral canal of vertebral column.
• Gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each connected to a segment of the spinal cord
• Conus medullaris - thin, conical spinal cord below lumbar enlargement
• Filum terminale: - thin thread of fibrous tissue at end of conus medullaris, attaches to coccyx
• Cauda equina - nerve roots extending below conus medullaris

• 31 Spinal Cord Segments

• Based on vertebrae where spinal nerves originate
• Positions of spinal segment and vertebrae change with age

Grey matter – found centrally

White matter – found peripherally
Central canal – continuation of 4th ventricle

SPINAL MENINGES:

• Dura mater - Takes the form of a tube, pierced by roots of the spinal nerves
• Epidural space - Between dura mater of spinal cord & walls of the vertebral canal
• “Epidural block” - injecting an anesthetic into the epidural space produces sensory &
motor paralysis - affects only spinal nerves in immediate area of injection. Lower lumbar
or sacral - to control pain during childbirth

C. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. THE CRANIAL NERVES

• Emerge from the base of the brain and lead to muscles and sense organs located in the head
and neck for the most part. There are twelve pairs (I - XII).

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 9

Functional groups:
• 1 – olfaction
• 2 – vision
• 3, 4 & 6 - eye movement
• 5 & 7 - facial sensation and motor innervation
• 8 - balance and hearing
• 9, 10 & 11 - swallowing, pharyngeal/laryngeal sensation
• 12 - tongue movement
We will cover these next week.

2. THE SPINAL NERVES

• Mixed spinal nerves - combination/mixture of an afferent (sensory) dorsal & efferent (motor)
ventral root.
• Spinal cord has segments which correspond to the areas of attachment of its spinal nerve
roots. They take their names & numbers from the regions of the vertebral column through
which they emerge.
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal.

a) Proximal Branches
• Each spinal nerve branches into a dorsal root & ventral root. The dorsal root ganglion is
occupied by cell bodies from afferent neurons. The convergence of dorsal and ventral roots
forms the spinal nerve.

b) Distal Branches
• After emerging from the vertebral column, the spinal nerve divides into a dorsal ramus, and
ventral ramus, and a small meningeal branch that leads to the meninges and vertebral
column.
• The dorsal ramus innervates the muscles and joints of the spine and the skin of the back.
• The ventral ramus innervates the ventral and lateral skin and muscles of the trunk, plus gives
rise to nerves leading to the extremities.
• The ventral rami merge to form nerve plexuses in all areas except the thoracic region.

Lecture 4 – BLOOD SUPPLY TO BRAIN

Brain is about 2% 0f body weight but receives 15-20% of blood supply.

Brain has top priority for blood, brain cells die without oxygen.

Blood supply via 2 sets of arteries:

1. Internal carotid arteries – branches of common carotid arteries.

Anterior & middle cerebral arteries – form anterior circulation - supplies forebrain.
Anterior cerebral arteries – supply frontal lobes, involved in higher level cognition,
reasoning, judgement – Cerebral Dementia and confused language - from blockages.
Middle cerebral arteries – supply blood to cortical areas involved in speech, language and
swallowing. Blockages cause numerous disorders as these supply so many areas.
2 internal carotids – joined together by anterior communicating artery.
Posterior communicating artery – links internal carotids with basilar artery.
Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 10
Communicating arteries = collateral circulation, safety mechanism.
Some people may lack 1 or 2 of these communicating arteries.
Therefore, blockage will cause a stroke.

2. Vertebral arteries – from subclavian arteries, enter brain through foramen magnum.
both joint to form basilar artery at base of brain.
Vertebral arteries and medullary arteries = supply spinal cord.
Medullary arteries form anterior and posterior spinal arteries.
Damage to these as in surgery can compromise blood supply to spinal cord.
Loss of posterior supply generally leads to loss of sensory functions.
Loss of anterior supply more often causes motor defects.

Basilar artery joins internal carotid arteries in a ring at base of the brain = Circle of Willis
Provides a safety mechanism, if one artery is blocked, the “Circle” supplies brain.
Basilar divides to form 2 posterior cerebral arteries.
Also gives off anterior, inferior and posterior cerebellar arteries.
Posterior cerebral arteries – supply occipital lobes, temporal lobes, thalamus, brainstem,
cerebellum.
Damage can cause visual problems, effects are contralateral.

Vertebral, basilar, posterior cerebral – posterior circulation, supplies posterior cortex,

midbrain, brainstem

STROKE = brain attack.

Blood supply to brain is stopped.
If long enough, neurons will die.
Consequences of a stroke = paralysis or aphasia – loss of speech.
Two major causes:
1. blockage of a blood vessel in brain or neck caused by:
a) blood clot = in brain or neck = thrombosis
b) blood clot from somewhere else that has moved = embolism
c) Constriction/narrowing of an artery in head or neck = stenosis
2. bleeding of a blood vessel = hemorrhagic stroke

Warning signs:
• Weakness/numbness of face, arm, leg on one side of body
• Dimness or loss of vision
• Difficulty speaking or understanding speech
• Severe headache
• Unexplained dizziness, unsteadiness, sudden falls

Ischemia = brief loss of blood supply to brain, can cause cellular changes & cell death.

THE CIRCLE OF WILLIS (CIRCULUS ARTERIOSUS)

• Where internal carotid and basilar arteries meet.

VENOUS SINUSES

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 11

 • Dural venous sinuses
• Between layers of dura mater
• No muscular coat, endothelium, no valves
• Receive blood from brain veins
• Drain to internal jugular vein
• Brachiocephalic vein è superior vena cava è heart
• Receive CSF from subarachnoid space

Dr. Claudia M. Diaz Brain Lectures Summary 12