The Science and Mathematics Curricula in Malaysia:

From Independence Into the Twenty-first Century

Prof. Dr. Chuah Chong Cheng

Universiti Sains Malaysia

and

Cheah Ui Hock
Maktab Perguruan Sri Pinang

Published by
The Association for Science and Mathematics Education, Penang, 1996

Abstract

The school science and mathematics curricula have been generally recognised
to be shaped by a host of variables; among them the historical, institutional and
cultural factors. This article written in conjunction with the thirtieth anniversary
of ASMEP, will attempt to trace how global and local events have affected the
development of the science and mathematics curricula in Malaysia. Since the
coming of the British, the development of the Malaysian science and mathemat-
ics curricula have been very much influenced by western theories. Other global
events have also influenced the development of science and mathematics edu-
cation in Malaysia. The launching of the Sputnik I in 1957 which sparked off
the first global educational reforms in science and mathematics further strength-
ened western influence. Even though western theories in education continue to
influence the science and mathematics curriculum in Malaysia, the last twenty
years has seen a gradual shift from its dependence on the west to looking else-
where in procuring the best for its education. In particular, the growing role of
Islam in the Malaysian education has been observed. Discussions on how some
of these factors have influenced the development of the Malaysian science and
mathematics curricula are included

1
 The Science and Mathematics Curricula in Malaysia:
From Independence Into the Twenty-first Century

The British first arrived in Malaysia in 1786, with the setting up of the settlement of
Penang. Although the primary interest of the British then was the control of the spice
trade in the Far East, British influence was soon extended to other areas of Malaysian
life. By 1895, the British had begun to intervene in the political and administrative af-
fairs of four Malay states in the peninsula and by 1909 Malaya had become another
colony of the British Empire. British influence was eventually extended to the field of
education. Together with the Malay, Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools, the English
schools became part of the Malaysia's education system during the years leading up to
Malaysia's independence. Though no formal written curriculum existed during this pe-
riod, arithmetic and science were already taught as subjects in Malaysian schools (Abu
Zahari, 1980). The first primary mathematics syllabus was only gazetted in 1965, thus
prior to this the teaching of mathematics was much dependent on pamphlet guides, e.g.
the Kitab Hisab bagi Murid-Murid (Asiah, 1982). Secondary mathematics was taught
following the Cambridge "Alternative A" syllabus. After the war, there was a switch to
the "Alternative B" syllabus. Arithmetic, trigonometry and algebra formed the three
major components of these syllabi.

The First Reform

The Anglo-American Connection

The year 1957 has been seen to be the watershed in the development of science and
mathematics education. Two events that took place that year would change the nature
of science and mathematics teaching in years to come.

Malaysia's independence from the British colonial rule in 1957 was to signal the begin-
ning of her decreasing dependence on the British in charting the course of new
directions for education in Malaysia. Yet, when the first international wave of reforms
in science and mathematics education came, Malaysia had still to attain enough ma-
turity to set up its own curriculum.

The backdrop to Malaysia's independence was provided by the intense post-World War
II cold war between the United States of America and the Soviet Union. The effect of
this cold war was the struggle for military, ideological and intellectual supremacy. In
1957, the Soviets successfully launched the Sputnik I, the world's first satellite. Sput-
nik I was probably a symbol of the times; thus its launching caused the West, the United
States in particular to see themselves as losing out in the race for supremacy. There
arose then a belief that science and mathematics education had to be reviewed in order
to produce better scientists and engineers but more importantly it triggered a release of
funds that would be so much needed in any educational reform (Pittman, 1989).

Two years later the first international conference on New Mathematics was held in
Royaumant, France. Thus, began the New Science and Mathematics movement. This
resulted in the development of new science and mathematics education projects both in
the United States and Britain. Of the better known projects in this movement were the
School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) and the University of Illinois Center for the
Study of Mathematics (UICSM) in the United States, and the Scottish Mathematics

2
Group (SMG), the School Mathematics Project (SMP) and the Nuffield projects in Brit-
ain (Clements, Grimison & Ellerton, 1989).

By the late 1960's, Malaysia too had caught the fever for change and the influence of
the new reforms in science and mathematics education spilled into Malaysia. Not sur-
prisingly, much of the new science and mathematics curricula were borrowed from the
British. Zainal (1988) noted several reasons for this choice. Historically, the Malaysian
curriculum prior to this was basically British and the examinations were based on the
Cambridge syllabi. Thus, the SMP and the Nuffield Science were thought to provide a
smoother continuity to the changes in the curriculum. Being a newly independent na-
tion, Malaysia had not the expertise to formulate a totally new curriculum on its own
then. Thus, the availability of British advisors and expertise also helped to make this
transition feasible.

Table 1 summarizes this connection between the Malaysian curriculum and that of its
British counterpart. It could be noted that new reforms affected mainly the secondary
curriculum. While there was Modern Mathematics, Modern Science, Modern Physics,
Modern Chemistry and Modern Biology for the secondary schools, there was none for
the primary schools (Lee, 1982). Instead changes to the primary curriculum were based
on the Projek Khas (Special Project) which was developed with the help of American
Peace Corps Volunteers (Lee, 1982). The main aim of this project was basically to im-
prove the teaching of science and mathematics in primary schools, particularly for
schools in the rural areas (Asiah, 1982). Asiah (1982) also noted that although the Pro-
jek Khas was not directly borrowed from the wave of the new reforms, it could have
been influenced by the launching of Sputnik I.

Of Piaget, Bruner and the Bourbakists

In order to create a new curriculum which would be able to achieve its goal of producing
better scientists, there was a search for new content and a psychological basis for the
curriculum. And it was in the works and learning theories of Jean Piaget, Jerome
Bruner and Zolton Dienes that provided the psychological bases of the new reforms
(Pittman, 1989). Consequently the new science and new mathematics saw greater em-
phases being placed on the understanding of concepts, enquiry skills and discovery
learning.

Content-wise, the new mathematics borrowed from the works of the Bourbakists in
France. The content of this new mathematics was much a reflection of The Fundamen-
tal Structures of Analysis, attributed to N. Bourbaki (Moon, 1986). The new
mathematics syllabus, therefore, saw the inclusion of topics such as the set theory,
transformational geometry, matrices and vector space in its curriculum. Lee (1982)
noted that Euclidean geometry was de-emphasized with preference for transformation
geometry using concrete and inductive methods with practical activities. Similarly the
new science curriculum underwent a reorganization of the syllabus featuring integrative
approaches, relevance and process skills (Nielsen, 1985). Thus, the learning of science
saw the integration of the three major sciences physics, biology and chemistry with the
emphasis being placed on practical work.

3
 These new approaches, it was thought, would instill greater interest in students, thereby
helping them better understand in the learning of science and mathematics.

Table 1: The Science and Mathematics Projects of the First Reform in Malaysia

Name of Project Level Basis of the Project

Projek Khas (for mathematics & science) Primary I - VI
Integrated Science Secondary I - III Scottish Integrated Science Syllabus
Modern Mathematics Secondary I - III Scottish Mathematics Group
Modern Science for Malaysian Schools Secondary IV - V Nuffield Secondary Science
(Arts stream)
Modern Biology/Chemistry/Physics Secondary IV - V Nuffield Biology/Chemistry/Physics
(Science stream)
Modern Mathematics Secondary IV - V School Mathematics Project

Adapted from Lee (1992) p.254.and Lim (1995)

The Malaysian Factor

The birth of a new nation in 1957 and its will to succeed in its struggle towards maturity
saw major changes being affected in Malaysia's educational system. Both the Razak
Report (1956) and the Rahman Talib Report (1960) paved the way for the rationaliza-
tion of educational policies and the introduction of the Educational Act in 1961 (Abu
Zahari, 1980). In an effort to unify the multiracial groups and the need for a national
unifying factor saw Bahasa Malaysia being introduced in stages as the main medium of
instruction beginning 1970. Its effect was the gradual use of Bahasa Malaysia in the
teaching of science and mathematics. This was to be one of the teething problems that
was to affect the teaching of science and mathematics in the 1970's (Lee, 1982). Even-
tually the problem in the use of Bahasa Malaysia in the teaching of science and
mathematics was to be resolved as the future years saw the development of a better and
more consistent terminology in science and mathematics and the grooming of teachers
who were more proficient in the language.

The Second Reform

Towards the end of the 1970's, there was growing dissatisfaction about the effectiveness
of the new science and mathematics movement. The single major factor that was to
trigger changes in the curriculum in Malaysia was the Cabinet Committee Report (Ma-
hathir, 1979). The report voiced concern over the inability of school children in
acquiring the three basic skills in the 3R's namely reading, writing and arithmetic. Thus,
began the second major reform in science and mathematics education which formed
part of a bigger curricular change involving the whole curriculum in Malaysia. Two
phases in this reform could be identified; the implementation of the New Primary
School Curriculum (Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah - KBSR) beginning 1983 and the

4
implementation of the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum (Kurikulum Bersepadu
Sekolah Menengah - KBSM) beginning 1988. This second reform had at least seven
distinguishable characteristics.

1. It occurred during a period of global concern that children following school

programmes especially in science and mathematics were not able to master the
basic skills.
2. Much of this concern came from the public. The Cabinet Committee Report was
basically a ministerial committee set up to look into the effectiveness of imple-
menting educational policies.
3. Infused in the new reforms in Malaysia were influences characterised by the resur-
gence of Islam.
4. The mathematics curriculum saw greater emphasis being placed on problem-solv-
ing.
5. Teachers were encouraged to use remediation and enrichment involving work
groups.
6. Primary science was no longer taught as a single subject but was integrated with
history and geography and taught as Man and Its Environment.
7. The teaching of science placed emphasis on the acquiring of scientific process
skills.

Global Influences

The western influence. It should be noted that the Cabinet Committee Report was re-
leased earlier than other similar reports in the west, in particular the Cockroft Report
(Cockroft, 1982 ) in Britain and the Agenda For Action (National Council of Teach-
ers of Mathematics, 1980) in the United States. While there is this evidence that the
main inertia to change came from within Malaysia, there were however many similari-
ties between the KBSR and the other reforms in other parts of the world. Lee (1992)
noted that the learning of the 3R's in the KBSR may have been influenced by the `back-
to basics' movement that was sweeping through the western world. For instance, in
mathematics, focus on problem-solving was prominent. It was thought that this focus
on problem-solving would make mathematics learning more meaningful and also facil-
itate the pupil's application of mathematics in their daily routine. Pupils working in
groups was also strongly encouraged although there were differences between the
KBSR's recommendation and the approach that was used in the west. Slavin's (1982)
idea of the use of varying-ability cooperative groups gained global acceptance
whereas the KBSR encouraged the use of same-ability groups during the teaching
of the 3R's (Ministry of Education, 1982). The 1980's also saw a growing awareness
towards the environment which culminated in the Rio Summit in 1992. This global
awareness and concern for the environment too had its influence on Malaysian educa-
tion and was entwined in the objectives of the secondary science curriculum in the
KBSM (Ministry of Education, 1988a).

The Islamic influence. The 1980's saw the resurgence of the Islam especially in the
third world Islamic countries. Chandra (1986) observed that this resurgence included
the belief that society could be organised on the basis of the Islamic religion. Conse-
quently, Malaysia like many other third world Islamic countries was caught up in this
Islamic revival and this was to inspire changes in the Malaysian curriculum (Lee, 1992).

5
This influence on Malaysian education manifested itself in more ways than one. The
national education philosophy (Ministry of Education, 1988b) calling for a holistic de-
velopment of the individual; intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically quite
clearly showed elements of Islam. The Malaysian secondary school curriculum too
showed indications of the Islamic influence. The teaching of moral values based on
Islam was introduced in 1988 and was infused into all subjects throughout the whole
curriculum including science and mathematics (Ministry of Education, 1988c). The Is-
lamic view of science was also very much evident in influencing the contents of science
in the curriculum. One example is the classification of living things into three catego-
ries: man, animals and plants (Ministry of Education, 1993) which is very much
congruent to the Islamic thought that views man as distinctly different from that of an
animal.

Moving Into the New Millennium

Vision 2020

On 28 February 1991, the Prime Minister of Malaysia addressed the first conference of
the Malaysian Council of Commerce. His address, now commonly referred to as Vision
2020, has become the cornerstone and guide that will steer Malaysia into the twenty-
first century. In it was a statement of the nation's agenda in her strive towards becoming
a developed country by the year 2020 (Mahathir, 1991). This statement of the Vision
2020 was to induce changes in the teaching of science and mathematics. The most ob-
vious and direct consequence of these changes was the re-emphasis on the teaching of
science and the re-introduction of science as a single subject in the primary school cur-
riculum. There were also recommendations to allow the use of English as an alternative
medium of instruction in the teaching of the sciences at institutions of higher learning.

The Challenges Ahead: Some Factors to Consider

Western influence. The last half century has seen a strong western influence in the
development of science and mathematics education in Malaysia. In the 1960's and
1970's this western influence was particularly distinct. Continuity, feasibility and eco-
nomically Malaysia was very much dependent on the west especially Britain for
expertise in developing its science and mathematics curricula. The 1980's in contrast
saw the beginning of a gradual change of ideology in many third world Islamic coun-
tries. The success of the Iranian Revolution of 1979 gave confidence to these countries
including Malaysia to decrease its reliance on the western powers. Consequently many
Islamic influences began creeping into the educational curriculum. However, western
educational philosophies and theories continue to dominate the science and mathe-
matics curriculum in Malaysia. One clear reason for this is the accessibility of western
literature and expertise. Literature on western educational research and theories is easily
available in educational institutions in Malaysia. The language factor too has made it
more feasible and convenient to employ western consultants in Malaysian educational
projects. Moreover, Britain, Australia, the United States and Canada continue to be the
main destinations for Malaysian scholars who on their return would bring with them
western ideas and influences.

6
Some of the trends in science and mathematics education in the 1990's from the west
are evident in the Malaysian educational scene. Constructivism (von Glaserfeld, 1987)
is currently one major theoretical orientation in the mathematics community of the west.
There has already been efforts in introducing constructivism into Malaysia, especially
in the teacher colleges (Ibrahim, 1994, 1995). The NCTM standards (NCTM, 1989)
also one of the major buzzwords in the west on mathematics education in the early
1990's have found its way into Malaysian mathematical pedagogy. A series of modular
guides based on the NCTM standards have been developed (Chuah & Tham, 1994).
However, Bishop (1990) quoting examples from some third world countries has warned
of the danger that western mathematics has been used as a secret weapon in the impo-
sition of western culture. Further, there has been a greater awareness about the cultural
and social construction of mathematical knowledge (Harris, 1989; Leung,1995; Appel-
baum, 1995). Moreover, many cross-cultural studies have shown that Asian students
have outperformed their Caucasian peers in mathematics (Hsiao, 1992; Turner, 1993;
Stevenson, Lummis, Lee & Stigler, 1990). Should we then continue to let western ed-
ucation theories and principles dominate our science and mathematics curriculum? It is
perhaps pertinent to call for a development of a science and mathematics curriculum
that is more suitable and sensitive to the Malaysian culture. This will then pose as one
of the major challenges to the development of science and mathematics education in
Malaysia.

The economic factor. The last decade has seen major changes in the world economics.
Gone is the cold war of the post World War II era. Asia is becoming a more prominent
economic power and this can be seen to be an economic threat to the west. In fact, Asia's
rise as an economic power has been cited as one reason for the back-to-basics reform
in the west (Pittman, 1989). Already there exists two western trading blocs, the Euro-
pean Union and the North America Free Trade Area. It has been noted that much of the
political and educational agenda of third world countries had been decided by the west
primarily because of a need for financial funds from institutions such as the World Bank
which in turn is controlled by the western economic powers (Thomas, 1989). Thus,
much of the science and mathematics were `reformed' by expertise from the west. As
Asia and Malaysia develop and perhaps gain affluence in the future, less and less finan-
cial aid will then be sourced from the western powers. Will then western educational
philosophies and theories continue to exert as much influence on Malaysian science and
mathematics education? Will then Malaysia look elsewhere to procure the best for its
education? Coupled with the evidence that Asian students outperform Caucasian stu-
dents from the west, will then Malaysia look east? Already there are indications of some
eastern influences. The use of the abacus which is widely used in east Asia is now
included in the mathematics curriculum for the upper primary schools. There have been
recent reports that a new format for the teaching of the abacus will be introduced with
the help of experts from China (Sun, 1996). Mental calculation which has its roots in
China and Taiwan has also made its way into the Malaysian scene. Though not formally
included in the Malaysian mathematics curriculum, the last few years has seen the set-
ting up of many such private centres in Malaysia.

The role of the private sector, non-governmental organisations and quasi-govern-

ment institutions. Mindful that Vision 2020 has called for the careful privatisation of
the public sector, the role of the private sector, the non-governmental organisations and
the quasi-government institutions will become increasingly important. Not withstand-
ing the fact that these agencies have played significant roles in the past, the new

7
millennium will pose further challenges in the course of improving the learning of sci-
ence and mathematics.

The Association for Science and Mathematics Education, Penang (ASMEP) is one
such prominent non-governmental agency which has been active in its efforts to foster
interest in science and mathematics education. The association regularly organises talks
and seminars for teachers and key personnel primarily aimed at improving the teaching
of science and mathematics. To promote interest and the appreciation of science and
mathematics, the science and technology competition and exhibition for secondary
schools is held biannually.

One quasi-government institution in Malaysia that has played a major role in the im-
provement of science and mathematics education is the Regional Centre for Education
in Science and Mathematics (RECSAM), Penang. Established under the umbrella of
the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), it focuses on the
training of key educators from its member nations in science and mathematics, covering
major areas of pedagogy, computers in education, educational technology, remediation
and enrichment, as well as research.

The private sector too has played an important role in promoting science and mathe-
matics. The Toray Science Foundation for example, offers awards for creative and
innovative contributions to effective science education in secondary schools and pre-
university colleges. Many of the local corporate bodies in the free trade zone in Penang
too have provided financial assistance in the organisation of the science and technology
exhibition.

As the process of privatisation continues as part of Malaysia's development and national

efficiency strategy, the role of ASMEP, RECSAM and the private sector will therefore
become increasingly more important.

The information age. Ever since the introduction of the world's first microprocessor in
1969 and the first personal computer in 1981, there has been an ever increasing use of
the computer especially in the business world (Gibbs, 1995). This increasing demand
has led to the intense competition in the manufacture of microprocessors and the as-
sembly of personal computers. The personal computer has as a result become
increasingly affordable. Combined with the latest development in networking, the use
of computers in the teaching of science and mathematics will surely become more con-
spicuous. However, the use of computer-aided instruction will not come by without
posing any problems. A recent study in neighbouring Singapore has identified some
inhibiting factors in the use of computer-aided instruction (Wang & Chan, 1995). These
include the lack of time, too few computers, and the lack of teachers' experience and
skills in educational technology. Malaysia too will face similar problems and this will
pose as a challenge if computers are to become part and parcel of science and mathe-
matics education in the strive towards Vision 2020.

Conclusion

The last 40 years have seen major changes in the teaching of science and mathematics
in Malaysia. Table 2 traces the major changes that have taken place. In the beginning
much of the curricular changes were borrowed from the west, from Britain and the

8
 United States in particular. Even though western theories in education continue to in-
fluence the science and mathematics curriculum in Malaysia, the last twenty years has
seen a gradual shift from its dependence on the west to looking elsewhere in procuring
the best for its education. In particular, the growing role of Islam in the Malaysian ed-
ucation has been observed. Islamic influences have been incorporated into the
Malaysian education system. Two examples of note are the national education philos-
ophy and the infusion of the teaching of Islamic values in the curriculum. Further
Malaysia's strive towards becoming a developed industrialised country by 2020 and the
growing economies in Asia, will see Malaysia being less influenced by the west. The
challenge then is for Malaysia to develop its own science and mathematics curricula,
unique and sensitive to its own culture, that will serve as a platform to drive the country
towards the year 2020.

Table 2: Curricular Changes in Science and Mathematics Education in Malaysia, 1957-1996

Year 1957 1970 1979 1982 1988 1991 1994

Inertia to change Launching of Sputnik I Cabinet Committee Report Vision 2020
Science and Math Modern Math KBSR KBSM
curricula in Integrated Science Primary science
Malaysia Modern Biology Primary science reintroduced as a
Modern Chemistry integrated with single subject
Modern Physics geography & history
Western influences Scottish Maths Group Back-to-basics movement Constructivism
School Math Project NCTM standards
Nuffield Science

Pedagogical Basis Educational theories of Piaget,

Bruner and Dienes.

Suggested teaching Stress on 3R's, remediation and

methods enrichment, and group teaching

Mathematics: Set theory, Transfor- Mathematics: stress on

Content changes mational problem-solving.
geometry, Vector space.

Science: Reorganisation Science: Environmental

of content awareness, Stress
on scientific process
skills
Islamic influence - teaching of
values
-
National Education

Philosophy

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