PROLEGOMENA #0 a Theory of Language By Lovie MyRIMSEEY Translated by Francis J. Whisfld THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN PRESS Maiison, Miosubes, ond London, 2989105° Hs4 1969 beth stb 0 i es Wiad Seas ke, 19 ee a ston © iy te Fat he sly Went int int nt Se ae} | ‘Son naovod: tags PREFACE. ‘The erga version ofthe prevent work appetred in 1945 under the tte Ontringspepevon grandlggele® The pagiatin of that edton te given a the Ife mangn of thie volume, The English tatlatlon was St pablsd in 2955 se Memoir 7 of the Intraoral Journal of Ameria Linus (diana Un tery Prblication in Antrelgy ond Linguisn),The cond, fevled edllon Incorporate several minor coretons and ‘hange that have aggeted themselves nthe couse of ice Sons between the aathor and the translator, For the develop ‘ent of the theory in eeant your the retder nay be Teered parcalarly t the author's study Le sraication dw lengage replated in Me Exot linguistiques (Trovous du Cac ingei Niue de Copentogue, XU, Copenhagen, Nordisk Speog 0g Kolturfokg, 1983), which inde other ates on lngustle theory by te sae author snd complete bibliog LW. FW. Reine hee Va een of Uni fe ees in dey MoeCONTENTS s & ° ‘Tho study of language athe theory of language Lingus theory and human Lingua theory and empiiien Lingua theory and induction Lingus theory and realty ‘The sm of ing theory Perspectives of guitar. ‘Thesyatem of definite, rindi ofthe analyse Form af the analyse Panetions Sign and Sigare Expresion and conten Invuisats and vrints guise sebema and linguist use ‘Vaiats i the linge schema Fneton sd sum Catalysis) tities of the anasis Langage and aomlangsage CComnotative semiotic and mtasemiotie inal perspective Denis 8 5 Bs S 1 19Prlegomens to 6 Theory of LanguageSL The study of language andthe tery of loneoge pgysge—human specch—is an inehaustble abundance of lalald teaura. Language i inseparable fom ar ad fal Tow minal hi work Language i th intrest with which ‘man frm thought and feng, mood, aspiration, wil and act, the instrument by whode means he ienon ab ls nuanced, the ulate and deepest foundation gf ham soit, Bt i eats the ultimate, adapenabe ssid ofthe human ie dual, Ms et i hours oflenclines, when the mad wretes rth extonce aa the cont is resolved i the monaogae of he pat ai the thoes lore the fat saening of nt soa sciousness language was echoing about us, rudy to lot around ‘ur fist tender ed of thought and ta accompany or inseparably ‘rough fe, from the simple activites of every living to our ost subline sad intimate moments—these moments ton Which we borow warmth and steagth for or daly fe through hat hl of mer ht nna il ese at agenge gh neath of memoreinberel byte nda and the sal of Ne contnc ht led and wen And eco ditnctive mack ofthe personality, for good 3M tbe data tive mank of hone and of nation snanknd’s patent of by So inextricably has langeage grown ise personality, home, tation, mankind, and lle liself that we may someties be tempted toask wheter language a mere rein of or simply i mot all hase things—the very seed lea of tel growth For thse reasons language has arated an as objet for ‘wondensont and for description, in poetry a5dinacince. Sseace as been Ted to sein language sein of sounds and expensive6) estar amenable to exact physic! and phic! ‘ction, and ode ae sgn forthe phenomena of consinsnes. It hat sought in nape, egg, pel cal and loge interpretation, the eta of he Baan Pryche so he constancy of human thought—he former in the Csi lend change of angung, the ator tg of wih two kinds wee cog the mod and te satene, the lable symbse of concept and judgment repectvey Lan: vig, conceived sng sign system and tna eable ety, wan ‘rected to provide ha Key to he tam of hums thought ta thenaturof the hasan pays. Caneel ae superidial ‘och osttaton, ie was to emibate to &chuaceration of {he nation. Conde a. Bctiating and changing Bhenome ‘ont wae to open the door to an andetaing ato the diag tat ‘ple ofthe penalty and ofthe ditt Wanttadas of Sone generations, Language cae tobe looked pons key pasion ‘tom which vistas might be opened in many directions. (Considered ths, language, even when the objet af ae Lie investigation, becomes not aa end in sel, but © mean seins toa koowledge whose mal object ies ouside guage thi although it perhepe fly attainable only throegh lan ‘ge, and which canbe goed aly on other seemptions an "ose pled by language Here language i «means to tran ‘conen knoviege (athe properend yrsopel set he ‘word onscendo!), not the gol ofan immanent ksowledge Thy ‘he physi ond phystologial description of spsehsoundé asf * degenerates into pore physi und pe bysolgy, and fla py Chologiel snd lial dreripton of gas (words and sehences), Into pace paycholog, loi, and ontalogy, so that the ngs pot of deartare i los from view. Thief eonrmed by they Cxptience of tory. Bat even hace this ot deely the ‘se atl he physi, physiol, puychoogcal, andogc Dhenomens por sear not language ite, but aly disconect, eral facet of i alected au objets of stay, not for In tung’ sake, but or these ofthe phenomena toward whichly serupy Avo muzony oF tasovAor s language is oxentd. The same holds tue when language ie fucther considered on the basi ofthese veiptions, x 8 bey to the waderstanding of rca ondtins and othe reconstrac tion of prekistercrelstons among peoples and ations "This i not sai to miimine the vale ofall ese poles of iow aod all thee efforts, but to point ost «danger: the danger that in our selous hate towan he goal of or knowledge we ‘nay ovelol the mens of Kopnledge—languge alt. | 1] “The danger is ren! one bess tb in the natere of | snd it is only by artce thatthe searclpht can be directed om the mans of knowlege ita Thi seve im daly i, whore Isnavare novmlly dacs not come to coscoasoess but iti | equally tre i entiferewerch. Tt was long ago sodertood that in addition to pillogy—the sty of language and its tents as mes to litaary and historical isight—it must be pomible to havea tingunicy, «sty of asgaage ant texts ‘sun en in ts. But it was long way rom plan to exeestion. ‘Once mere language disappointed its scenic suitors. What qe to make op the stain content of conventional nuit Hinge history and the gensiecomparann of langseger ad tithe a am nora reme« Fnoledge ofthe mateo of language, but rather a kuowlege of historical and prebistovical socal conditions end contacts among peoples,» knowledge b= loed throogh language taken a8 t mean. But thi to, _Pilalagy 1 true tht inthe ines tebe ofthis Bnd of Comparative linguistics no oftn sm to bo tying Imgasgo = ‘el bt that fan illon, We are realy readying the deta smeniraf language, which do nt permit sto as the totality at language , Weare studying the physics and physiological, pytolopeal and logical, secilgial and historical precpta- tos of language, not language set = ‘To cabin a tue linguistics, which exmnot be # mere a] clary or derivative sence, something de must e doe. Lia- tustis mast attempt to grasp language, not asa conglomerate ]of nelinguisic (og phys, physnlagel, pechoogcl, Tegel sociological) penomen, bata e seesuticient totality, ‘jected oan lenient without again dappointing te Investigators and escaping thi ew {the ong ram it mst be ponble to measure che sgifance of doing this by the repercins thet such Hgts mst fave on the various transcendent pts of wwf the pl logs and on what has til now ben conser ings. In pti through the theory ofeach «tings i hoeld be posible to provide a wife bse of comparison between la feages by removing at provincial a the formation a coe pts thot is etal ofthe pilaoget and thor eventual to Cstalsh eal and gtlonal geet linguistics. Ta ts more i Imeint consequences, esc of euch anges 5)“ whther the sracture of language be equated wth tht of reaiy or be taken aa reo le distorted reflexion of it—mny alo be measured Ly ite contributions to genre (CHR ctsn ii hry at et der Irae he ame of ch ogy (Stith ml and adn ati Se ea te aenrasioca aiis eee ete te agg {ts purely immanent aim, few. In this connexion, the theory of, ec i tony ane Vie tc bans dine ay ttn ey i et ane oe mena lst eal os fen on hn Tara meatier ete ig et Jenene asec nd on hve bale Tau Situs weneed oumn ete Ace elie Gem upg) Ra by, Sp sein vr slo thatthe pecans of git isonhy ene sch spe ac lm hat hy ayer ‘Say onderaen om any large sce by invertor ith ‘tient reparation nh ing an epee. Most St then cn be oad ete algory a abject spel: tind tlre noeol hm as wen ach Pore erin tory, a tiny oper to of hon. Fortney engi thy cnt be wits td ia evlton cate efalbwed i too dace Sei hs sua, ane to frm gui iy Sve Bonded by any a np Plowing an te, sarc by apa, Ph conention trem ever htldy dace uth and upbtate pe hing hat reveled I thi ld och a xe female dealt dtingsih rom the ote, betwee he teat thea, A pute conto he rset eck Shou be fo ma ar that tae christine nt intereecay n any tempt at lingit theory Wes”) ‘eat acre hl by forging he ptt dee, nl by ataring om he aig al css hae the ak 1 sed nthng of postive nen To a age een ne ‘al bad onthe sae cpl sal ne Bat vee fie in prvi rath, att wih i reread {om coats ths of igi thy, We sal $1 ex acovldg oo nbn where we Bae] {hereto ve ee each by tesla Ong | Sng tea shuld be sgl ut oan obvi | pioneer: the Swiss, Ferdinand de Saussure? t Prpratory wok of etal Iprce tothe ng theory hare rented we done i elaboration with etaln tnember of te Ling Geof Copenageny nota with “Die Alona der Sadat” (ound XVI, 38, moar "eid Sec ti pl ah oC MyH, J. Ulli the years 1994-195 In the elaboration of some ‘ofthe base sumptions ofthe theory the ator proto from ‘icusions inthe Capeiingen Pilosphical ard Peychological Srcty and besides, fom a more detied exchange of thoaght vith Jogen Jorgensen and Rdgse Tranekjar Reston. The responeblty for the present work ithe ethors aloe. 2 Lingua thery ud aio Ainge Geory which seazces forthe specie wtrctare of Innguage through an excunivly formal system of prenicest ‘mus, while continually taking acount of the Butustons snd ‘changes of speech, necessarily refuse to rant exclave sigs ‘ence to thove changes; ant eek s eomlony, which iv not ‘chord in some “realty” ontsie languages constancy that rakes language lineage, whitever ange tay be, and that thes pastel lngoageidetia with tl inal tx ‘aoas manitstations. Wher this constancy bas been found td desried tay then be projected onthe “really” outside + Tanguage, of whatever sort that “eat” may be (phyla, + plysaogl,peycoloial, logis, ontological), 10 that, even Inthe conideraton of that “rely,” language asthe ental“ int of reference retin the chil objet—and not a a eam lomerte at sam organiad totality with ingle strwtare A the dotieating prince oi “The src for such an aggsogatng and ntgzating constancy, fs aur to be opporod by #sutain humana talon which {in varios dea til now profominated is Hague ence nie typical form this oman tradition danleso plat the! ‘xntance of he constancy andthe leitimaey of seeking Ae jening to this view, humanistic, as oppored to mats, phy strat phenomena, be subject to eact and gedfaling, W°" erntmet. Inthe Bld ofthe humanitie,cansedieny, © to] there would heve to bea dierent method namely, mer," Alesrption, whch woald be nearer to poetry han ty , i Jnomena are non-recurrent and for that very reason a Tike! awouistic suzony 4p ROWANISLE ° exact aclence—o, at any event, a method that rte taf § lcarsive form of presentation, in which the phenomena pass by, one by one, without being interpreted through = system. Tn the Bl of Rtory this tess bus boen eld ax doccine, andi min act to be the very bass of history in is cles! frm. ‘Accordingly, thowe dlcpnes that may perhaps be called most Dumanistiohe study of Hiteratare and the study of att—huve also been historically dascptve rather than sysematisig ds Ciplins In carta eld tendency to systematice may be ob served, bt bltory and, slong wth, the humanities ae a whole sem tobe fa from wing to eecogoie the leptimacy and poalty of any such eystemetzatio. “A prior would sem to be + generally Vall thas that for covery process there Is comespanding sion, by which the proces can be analyzed and decibed by means of United ‘numberof premises Te aust be asumed hat any proces can toe anslyoed fate lnted umber of cements sseurtng Vaslous combinations. Then, on the basis of ths anlyi, it ‘ould be pole to order eae elements int clases acording to thle poles of combination And it should be further ose to act up.a general nd exhaustive calculus ofthe pose ‘le combinations. Altory ap tablished shoud se above the level af eve primitive dseipton to that of a eytemati, nat, nd generalising scence, in he Chet of wich all vent (pot ‘le combinations of elements) are fresean andthe conlions for thee rellaation ctaned 1 seams Incontetable that, 20 long as the buries have not teste this the as « worlng hypothe, they have neg lected thle most important ta, hat of sekng to etal the Iumaakste studies a scene It shouldbe undertod thatthe “desciptas of humanist phesomena must choose between, 08 the one hand, pout treatment alone as the only pose eat- ‘mont and onthe oto bd, poetic and scot treatment as two coordinate orm of desertion; and should alo be under ‘ood thatthe eice Mages om tating the tess hat a processi ‘na an undetyng sytem, 13] Te would seem a prio’ that language isan objact os. hich this these might be tested with an expetation of ‘postive rere. A mere dicurive description of linge ‘vents cannot possibly arouse suficiantinteret, andthe ned for ‘supplementary, spstmatizing point of vew has theeore a- ‘rey oun fl: behind the fetal proves ave been soap & Phonetic system, «semantic system, a grammatical system. But Until now, linguists slnce elated by piolgit with transcendent objective snd under he tongntece obama Jam that has rected he ide of system has filed to carry the analysis through to the end, to make its premsss dear, oto Steve fora uniform peace of analysis, and it hus therefore remained vague an sbjetive netaphysicl and ethatiiing, 1 say nothing ofthese many occasions when thas entrenched [taf ina completdy anecdotal frm of presentation. ~ It's the sim of linge thr tots om what seems par tally inviting objet, the tess that a process hasan under Iying systema Suctustion an undelying constancy. Voie? led beoreband eal suck an attempt ithe fald of the humanities, peeing that we canna abject o seat analy” ‘man’s spltua ie nd the phenomena implies without ing ‘hatte and consequently allowing our objet to escape consider ‘ion, are monly sprorate and cannot resin seeds fo the attempt. Ifthe attempt fl—not in patcaarperfony noe, but in priniple—then thee objections are vali, a omni phan a be ated ol bjt a ssthtially. Tf, however, the attempt sacceeds—so Uhat Cp Palcipe shows tel pracicable~then these voice wl Mecomnp Sent of thle own aoe, and it would then remain te pa Cenrsponding experiments in the ctrl of the hypaiten 1 Lingus tery and empiriion RO 4 ‘theory wil attain is snp fom by Dulding o8 ho oth pram han thse neces seule By oj Monty i ves inode conform tots purpose theory must be capac] He ot yeting, in lt wpetons, reall hat apes with Gale (etal or presume) empreal dats | Ah i yah maga uot, host lor wl he be evenigntd by epi temdlogy. Sack an investigation may, we thnk, be omitted bere, We ble that the reqiroment we have vaguely frre ta] ated above the requirement of so-called emp, wll esatsed by the principle that follows. By this pence, which west above all ethers our theory i at once cle ie Tngoishable fom all provogs underskings of linguistic loopy The desertion shal be feof onrasiton uf.comssten, susie, and ot simple as pow, Th requirement of freien {rom conraiction takes precedence oer the rouireens of o Iwate deseiplon. The reir! of eakouatve decision lates pacdonce oer th reuirent of smi ‘We venture to cll this principle the ampiial print. But ‘we ae wing to abandon the name epistemological nvestgn- tion tows ito be inappropite Bem eu point of view thie rerey # quetion of terminology, whch does not afect the 4 pty on induction ‘Thelatlton of ot aocalledempcal pint sot the same san suction of nductiviem, understood asthe requirement ‘gradual sceit gom something poticolar to something [exer or-ftom somethig more lintel to romething les Tiled. Here again we are in the realm of tame that require isenological analy ad tefiement, tis se terme wich ‘We ous shal later have cesian to apply moe preity than ‘ve ca here. And here agin, both now and later, = teri Tngealreaning remains to be msde with estemlony. For the time beng we are interest in larifying oo postion a opposed ‘je\ fom — sti = tm shone inte Our oly ple proere ire wi to orders system to the procs of tat txt, wil be ansanalyi, ony snxoviente nok Ap nRAZTY 8 in which the teat regarded asa cls anelyzed ita components then tht components a clases anlyzd nto components, and son unt the analyse exhauated. Thi procolore may there- {ore be deed biel ws progrnion from clam to component, ‘ot frm component t das, a8 analytic and speiying, not ‘seyntheicand generalising, novernent athe post of inde tion Inthe tense established in ings In recent Hingis, ‘where the contr: ha boon actuated thie method of procedure for a3 approximation thereto as been designated by the word ee baleve we sal ater beable o demonstrate tat ‘he termincogeal opposition on tis point not onopeabe 5 Lipski theory ond reality With the teminclogy that we have chose, we have been abe to duignae the method of linguist thoory se nace em ‘seal and necesaiy deductive, qn we have thos bee able to {Sst light from ene direction onthe primitive and immediate ‘question of the elation of lngiae theory tothe raed em ‘cal data, ut ofl have to est Highton the sae 4] queton lm another dreton. ‘That eto wy, we st, Investigate to see whether the possible nfiences between ‘he theory ands abject (or objects) ae geiprocl or undiee tonal To fomuate the problem i a simple, tenden and dalbertely nave form-—doer the objet detrmine end alfect the theary, or does the theory determine and ast objec? ore oo, we must et aid the purely epatemologial prob Jom nts ene scope and rset oor attention tat axpet of Jn which sey concer aT clear hat the frequently mi sed and disparaged word tery can be taken in diferent senses. Theory can meas, among oer things, a ayem of hypothoes the word Is taken ts thir—now froquent-—snt, I ie ear that the tnencebetwean they and objet unidirectoal the object determines and acts the tary, not sie ssa tte |Hypotheses can be shown to be true or fase by a process of verliation, But it may have aveady been apparent hat we ‘te wing the word hry In nother ses, In thie connesion, two factor are of egal importance: 1. A thory nour sng, fn taf independent of any ex \petcace. in el it say nothing at all about the posit of Fs application and relation to empiric! dats. It laces no tslntence postulate. Ie cotter what has ees called purely Adve system, inthe ene thse t may be ed aloe ta com pte the pour that fll for Se premises, 2. A henry introduces certain premises oncening which the *heoretictan knows fom preceding experience tht they fell the |S. entitions for application octane] Seta, These rem ines re ofthe geotest pone generality and may’ therelare beable vss the condition for epliation tu large number of expiialdata “ie it of tfc we sh cl he eine a + “shor, the ane we tn salt oppor en ‘coy cometh tha ai nt patina {Sap btflow fam teen nda eee ‘stein seve npn eee ethene ny tata. ; “ty eet wt dle heen, ih ast five sium opens Geng ne) ate 1s) Seda hem er only ta fe condoned, thts phen opt alows ihe epeatin «the tnt wi coe anes este ston faites cy en tc an (ee at ny ser may is ype fang he seated fee tee ey Clary ton heey ol open encly To mein hs bet meh fos ot pos We’ an leave it to eistmology to decide whether the base ‘explelyintoduced by ur ngs theory need aay ferther {clonal fowndation, In any event, they ae traced ack so far ‘and they ae all oso general a mare tht none would soem > Despecicto Inge thary as oppoed to ater theories. Tit {sone because ou am i procely to make car oor preiaes ssfarback as we an without ging beyond what seems drety sppropriate to Tingle theory. We ace thereby forced in me degre to invade the domnin of epistemology, a has appeared In the preceding sections. Our procedure here i bse on the conviction thet i is impoale to elaborate the theory of Darius science wltbout an active callabartion with ep tenology Linguistic theory, then, sverelgly defines is object by an subitraryand appropiate statey of promis. The theory cone Sts of eseulaton frome te fewest and most geers! possible premises, of which nove that is see tothe tary arom 0 be of axiomatic nature. The eseuation permits the predieton of posttest says nothing about dhe reiation. Thus, ‘fing theory, taken in hi seae i ae in elation to the concept of realty, the answer to our questo, whether the by ject determines and allt the theory or wena, "oth tnd by virtue af its aritary nate the thoory is oe; by virtue ofits appropyiatenis tis realiaie (With the word realism taken hee in the oder, and not, a8 befor, fs the) rotinrl see) (6, Phe oi of igus tary A theory, thon nour see ofthe word, any be tld to i at ‘roving procadural method By ment of which objet f Dremlsed nature can be decibel sal-consently and exbause lively. Such a self-consistent and exhaustive description 16) lead to what is usualy called a knowledge ot compe enon ofthe object in question, In sate, then, we may sso sy, wiht rs of bung tisleading or obscure, that\ 6 "EoUEGOMENA To A EORY OF axoUAGR the si of theory i to dete a etd of prove for Inowing or comprebaing ten object Bat tthe ane tine 1 theay not only ment to Provide ov withthe mean af Towing oedfnte ject Isat bess rand an erable ‘sto brow all coedable bet othe sue prem nace the on under conlderten, A theory ma be geoe in the eset it mus provide with al for comptondng net cnlyn ven bjt or the eject Berto ere, bt al coneivabe bjt ow eatin preniedmitare By meat oa Chery me tm ouravesto et nt onl herent pe oxy reseed to but any vertu. ‘The objets of ater to lagu hry ar txt, The tm fling thay io prove procter method by ne which « den tort can be comprcbendedthoegh a ale Consistent end exhaustive devriptian. Bat Engi theory ‘must ls indicate how any other text ofthe same prem tere an beunertond Inte ane way, ant dost by furishing with al that can be wand on any wh ex. ar example ele of Ung tery tht enable * to abe sl-ontety and exbuaively st ont een Danish et, but al ter ven Dah teat, ad ot nly” All given, But alto al conctable or posible Dish et ne lading texte that wl not ent el omorrow o ltr, ong, fstheyarterts ofthe see bind, tesa hese oe ‘ator aston etfs conldred Linguists theory sain, {requirement By Bulag om the Danish tots tha pare} # ‘ied up tomo and snc thn lone ac serous ber \denteti¢ most ecotet ith bul o deta rom! them. Bt by wing the taf nga teary, we a rep from thi ection afters nd of owed ob sl aan om other texts. This howled concern, not mercy oye. * Uily the prs ort fom whieh abated tthe, ‘soon or lounge hl ets te ane ped sa} tre ae cooled ad wih the hap of ch we an contract new tert, With the linguistic infomation ey nw ov swousente sxsony ” we have thus obtained, we sal be ele to construct any con tcivableo theory poostble ets a the same language. ‘Bat lingultle theory mast be of ute for dsebing nnd pre~ icing nt only eny Dowdle text compoaed in a certain Ine nage but, on the base ofthe information that it ges ebout Tangunge in gene ny psa txtcompoed In any Iaguage whatsoever. The ingastiethenttcan mst ofcourse atempt to sty this requltement Likewise by starlag with certain ‘election of texts fn dierent lenguage. Obiouly, It would be hramanly inposibe to work though all exiting texts, and, moreover, the labor would be futile since the cheary amt wlso Cover teri as yet uavelled, Hence the Hague eoretclan, Tie ay other thera, mus take the precaution to freee tt coneivable pout even sich polis as he him tel hes not experienced or sen realidad to adit them into is theory ao that i wll be appiable evento ters and lan reer that have not appeared inhi prac, orto langeages that have peshape never been refined, and ame of which wil probably never be relied. Only thus ean be produce Tings Theory of eneued pleat. "th therfore necessary to ensue the applicability of the ‘Seory, and any epplistion necssriypreppess the theory. But it sof the gratetloprtance not to conse the theory ‘with is spplctone or with the pracial method (procedure) oF epplicalon, The theory wil Jud to a procure, but no (practic “aacoveryprocdare” wil eat forh inthe prevent ok, which doe ot, sry apentiog, even fer th theory in sysecue form, but only it prlegomens. 7 : ‘iy virtue of te apoeopiteness the woek of agustic theory is empickal, and by vite of ts aritarness Iti caleuative, yom certain expetienes, which must acesarly be Tmited™ ¥en hough they shouldbe as vated as pase he linge ‘hooreian ste up a calultion of all the consirable pont Tiles within cetin frames. Thee frames be constructs at relly: he lacovers certain properties een i all showe obJets that pope get cl language, a oner thn to gem eral thoe proper and tah ten by dentin. From that momen henge thea hen aster bat ap ropes decreed to wich cj theory can and aot be apple. He then 8 up, fr al objets ofthe nate ‘reised inthe dfston, «gener cla, wich ll com Cela css eeforacen This eal, wich dedaced fom the etalhed dainton independently all exon, pe. ‘es the ol for desing ocompreendng ge ex ‘the guage on which it scone, Ligue hry 438 canot bevel (oneal or invallsted) by erence / (to such exiting torts and language. 1 an be jged {ent with eterece tothe sel-consitency and exhaustive of Usiatele "trough hs geerl xclton, nguyen by conscutng seve pba ethos a prods all of which an provide a sltconstent and exhasivedxplon of ay fiven ext and hereby of any anguage mataee thet aon thot pone mths of procure ht one sal be cone * tint ress inthe sine pose description. 10 sever! nntbods yi equal simple derntos, that oe To be chun that leds to th ea though te singlet pect “his piney which Is dada from ou nal epic nl, we ca the vy ice ‘ ‘in byelrence tis nl, and oly by eae tot, hat we ca tach ay meaning toa easton that on plc} = consent and erative satin crest a nate ee fect. Tha elton node he core ne with cies [inthe night degree ith thesimpcy picnic fg We may thn jude Tinga har and is spain by testing whether the sition trodes, wie sting ‘qucements ol seléconsseny ed exhale deen, the simple pombe ‘ TE, they is own pina pins” and by ijn, shatter mo beta Conese i to imagine sever agli ther, in he sent of “appa: Inaios to the Heal setup and formated inte ‘empieal nce” One of hee must neem the deve on, toed anyconcretly developed ope theory hope o be pre Gant hat debstv ne ett follows hs gs Uory at odie i ot dfn by a conrte shape and bath ‘owl and dsl foc Rogie hry to pg by o> Wing wow cones developments thal yield ah ever one ap Pepe prlgomen othe cry, in the eli sid of the teary tha we hall be ntereted—in the et way eee ing the regiment of apicbity Tie wl be ade by a “tvetgton ofeach fn hat may be el abe Gon 1s] tute inthe struct of any language, and by an | trstgnion of the logical consequences of xing those festares with the ido desitions 7. Pesce of lings theory ‘Avoiog the iter dominant transcendent pont of view and tecking tn immement understanding of Inguage as 4s fulstet, specie stracture (p. 6, and seeking & consiancy ‘thin language sl ot outside (8) Hague hoary Bee is by creamaeabing th cope of ls abet, This reumscip- {lone neesy, but iis nly a temporary mescue and involves norton ef the he os no cman teeta {toi th oda ttly which tangge Teves oly lve tien gene teh fo he sae iste compen confrty wih Dare sed end tun It Wa ipl emerges af the ned fo ding hin trie a compas a othe inspec fan os) "he dramsspion an be comida jeder permis an erhunive and sont bendsing fe Sretve trough e pfeil ects on he Tenomens mrendng rv hat hey sre actoPisin fn the light of the stuctne that ie to sy, I after aly, the global totaliy—language Un fe and actuality may again be viewed sythoticly an whol, this Ue ot az ‘n saldental r merely de fac comgamerat, but sb eranized Sound leading principle, Inthe measure tht thls succeeds, Lngaise theory ay be designated a success, The test con ts Is iavenigating the extent to which linguistic theory ste fies the empl principe in is sequent of a exhative description. The tet may be made by drawing all posible feseal consequence from the choven statu pence Linguistic theory thus makes pole a widening of perpe. tive How thi is done in conart wll pend on what Kind of objects we aim at fist in ou conderations. We chove to take ‘ar aac from the premises of previous linguist fvestiation snd to consider socalled “tua language, and this alone, as point of departure fora linguistic theory, rom tis fist pre spective cre wil be extended unt the very lst comequences ‘sess to have been Grn. We shal then have to do with 0} forthe wideoings of perspective, vough which thowe sides of the global totally of humen speech which wore scladd from St consideration ae agin introduced aad ve sume thee pace na new whole “agua theory, whose man tk 0 make ep these, cif prensa nica fo backs pon, ets 6 or {iat pope a ystem of dftonn. I shoud be rele Ung theory that be ax nmap silos posse tat stom, lemon conti as few inp panne ple 1s concise thee be defined ato Pail, he denon must et on den concept The sin gt race define as muchas psi dnt Ppl {tne bore thaw hat remit "v “Te sespeint to gv mt oma anda the ai i, Sp choractr to lon ht the presi and we pe ey 4. The sue of daintons , nse by, other dalinitons. They difer from thera! dfitions for which nuit bas bthert tien inrfer at has steven for deintions a ll In the formal Sfnitions ofthe theory fis ota question of trying to exbaunt the intenionl nutore ofthe jects or eve of daiiting tham extensional on all sides, bt only of anchoring thera eelatively in respect to other objets, Sinilany defined or pamised as esi. Tn certain instances i acesary nthe cote of ngusle Asription, te Inoduce, ln addon to the formal detains, prative dein, whose eae Is only temporary. Under this {ri are need bth ch dfnins ax in later atge of the Dpocedure may be trandormed Jato formal denon, and putely operative definitions, whose deniends do nt enter into {he system of formal definitions "This extensive defining seams to bea contsbutory cause of the feed of ogustle unary from specie axioms (p15) As ‘matter of fact, seme tous that an appropiate atgy of Aeiniion in any aclnce wl be a sutable means for lowering the umber of wach aaloms or, in certain cass for redscing i 9 taro, A porpveal attempt ta eliniote ipl premises lends to eplaclng postulates pathy by dofnions end pally 2H] byrcondtonl proposition, thatthe postulates a auch te removed fromthe apparatus, Ths it seme posible in moa etanees to replace pte exntence postulates By these ema in the fom of contin Prine of he analyse See linguistic theory starts from the text as its dstum and tstempts to show the way to slscostent and exhaustive ‘Gecxipton of it through aa avayse—a deductive progres ‘som sass tocomponentandcomponeat fam poncat(pP.19,10) The danpest ssn of ite dentin system (. 2) must teat {Gis principle of analysis. They mnt establish ie nature of he thulgss and the concepts tat enter nt Thee deepest strata ti the dentin aysem wil alo be the vey fst we mest whensre begin to comer what made of progres ngisic theory tort chooe inorder to cay ut stash From comierations of eppropriatenes (from coniern- tio ofthe tte equrements entering int the mpc! pin ld the choice of basis of analyse may dil for dierent text. "Therefore it cannot be elated as universal but only ‘hough s genera cele tat takes nto consideration the con civable posites. What i uiveral, however, x the very ‘incl of anual, is which alone we are fatreted for “Ti oo mast be setup under the gaance ofthe empiric \ brine, and here it needy the egret ofexausive Aeseiton that has practi interest. We must conser what is nernty to ensire thatthe rol ofthe aly wl be ex huutve (in a vague, prtinnay sense of the er) and that vedo ot introduce beforehand a mctod that prevents from Testing factor which another nals wold reves a lo Belonging to the object fventignted by Hyun We enn ex ‘pres ths by saying that the pring of analyse hall be* Naive rol wos probably suppose tht sls comised” sec in dvdng given objet no pst gina ob | jess, then thos gain Into pat, into ll other jets, fed som But even nave elim woul be facdwith thoi Tenea sever! pablo mys of viding. Iason esome apparat Unt the important thing i not the dvistot ah Tobin pars but the conduct ofthe scaly 5} 22] |e centr tothe tl dependences bute thet fart, and permits ws to give an adequate doit of then thin way alne the skis becomes ada a {irom the pint of view of «metaphysical theory of kyfwledge) lean be sft eet the ature” ofthe object and ipsa, When we dae the fall enseiences fom this wereach 3 conchson whch mos inporant for un understand oft Pino ayes tht bjt wr ean a i vanvereix oF tar avanees % parts have existence only by virtue of these dependence the Ile ofthe object wader examistion can be dened only yy Chai am catalan cach of ts pats cam be dened only by the dependences Joining it to other coordinated parts, tothe hole, and tot parts of the next gre, aby the ram of he Akpendence et these pats ofthe next degre contact with ‘ath other Alter we have recognize this the “objat” of salve realism ae fram or point of vie, nothing bt intersections of ‘bundles of auch dependences Tati to an, objets ean be de ered eoly with their lp and can be defined and qrepod sete only In is way. The dependence, which naive | realism regards a xcondary,presupposing the objects, become from tht point of view primary, preapposed yeh nt, The spon hs that alt dont oie ot ‘Sine. The pon ef abet soneding et ot ‘Scan a nnndlin srs tm oar Cyst! yee om se ogee iinet tebe To bray int gt ce eo ome xen svg ean ngs wy ty Ye wg oe, | Sore nore Snussre It has often Been aserod that there ian inter eVEe lhe tk a enya our Tu pel ep ecuador Wk tnd te far thet male ea em 2 dopenece been se Tan tern, and het mat pn ew Sevret chess Gut) a ng on od ot piste ey eet swe gl he peng Eat pr och precedes nal aig a “ee deed elm enon ha we. T ng {7 Slomigwe nd apin ne pends Dats i ora or tmx anatene » called prs fr example or says et pode at tome age clo ad if we fd tos of lunes Coed Uys suc depndnc betwen nina dase and secondary cases al (eo lng so fue analy ‘tertates) lena dd the same depeeneetween spew Cia and «scary cae doenent oh, wherever he ‘ney opal avant Ctatonal demento Betwen the etl and maria pat of yt dee ‘opmnigly inal ta ne Weal make we of thier in th dfn that ais 2 eabaing and attling ant in metal Sambo way nai ec hen defo noi scion o anesthe ae depose tito Jt on aon cach t,he cj that eal alyssa ld Sd the other objets which are Feptrel by a parce shall us anlormly dependent on {Ges and on nkotb, we al element the cam ths tsa sof te dfn oma ing cory, the defen of component prs ie dbaton ofan andthe afin of dash eon fea The Seton of says pepo ont uch tems cng Sse not deed the seri defaton yen ing theory, bt ch we pot nab ero ot, “spencer 18) "Reno shal els oar and we ow tha we nea to dings beech ie sors of Ne seis prea ges We hl be sete agroch noe tocatomcy an cabin ene netic rep tnt dant fords and component rapt Yrocon ad ihn sytem Cane wins og pce ‘cl i, and components of chun wel pr Chases kin Inguinal oi, ano ‘ne oy iPr ee te r Peponents of «paradigm me cllita momar. Coresponding tothe \_ “icnsion betwee ors and memes, we sal, when es a>- propriate to speify, be able to call an sali of « proces & Dovon, ad an analysis of «aye an atiltion, "The fist tak ofthe ana, then, to undertake «pstiton othe tent procos The ext cn and al the parts (eg ‘Sauss, word, slab id a on) ae kei chaos xcept ‘snc event uta parts aa cannot be subjected to enti ‘the-reqiement ofan exhauative description wil make i Impontle to stop with a pact partion of the text the arts thet huve appered from such a pation must be again Dtitioned, tds on unt the patton i exhausted, We have (lined analy insu a way as otf invale the question of (ebether i i simple or continued; an soaysa (and thus alto = Datition), as 0 defined, may contain one, two, of mere, Snalyies Analyse, or partion, fa an “accordion concept." Furthermore i ct now be cosidered thatthe description of the given ject (text) i not exhausted by auch a continued (od ints exbausted) parton fom one bass of analysis, bt thatthe deeipion canbe eontined (new depandence as , be teitered) through other putiins fom other bass of tnalyss Inch ietances we shall peak of a anlyi complex (Goren comptes) alas of analyses (partons) of i ant theme cls (ha). , ‘The whole lexus! analysis wil thus take the form of «peg | cedure, consting of continued partition or a paris com ‘ler, in wiih a singe openion consists of singe isi) patton, Within this procedure each operation wl pease th preceding operations and be premsed by the fllowit ope Hoe Like, the procadore ea partition comple, ach of the exhaust partitions that enter Uuein wf be pee: * to) mised by and/or premise other exhausted prio Entering theen, Betwera the components ofthe pry cedure ther is dterminatio, such that the ucceoting comps ents lays premise the preceding but notice ers! jut Lick i on oF 9 santas * the deternination between the dfitons (p 2), #0 aso the ‘eteminaton berween the operations can be viewed a 9 seee= ton ot as «speciation. Sucka procedural whole we sal ell diction, and we formally debe © dections8« continued Sel oan toe atmo ben 1 edt thon el Kind of rocedae, whi duction athe speci Ket of poe Lat deine ‘pwatiovassderspion tats arexment ih empest ‘ic od pest a aca of operons wih etal Setermiain. By tae sonst eprati and prote tre"acaton ome onl aan). A ere, the, ang ote hing fiero of ayn aod efecto, fo th ote and, cna of tab Sriscin By apts ne det eet ta feta a conpoent of ce (nf yt te eo tron cane” ik ei, onl), aby anf Aston mesa undertand = contin eats ih dee iintin betwee the yatta eter hen a cere Sri of bath an sli ad seth, the tn tren the ants nd the wins ays bende into whieh the yas proms the eas bt at {et oo this snp sme of th fc a tee Selnts atom the oad whe ego tet). om titre ations that» py induce ower (occ ith innit deo) cold net ay te Thus «formal notvaon sven forthe deucve met Dette in scon «The tie method dosnt fer ht ‘ater, groveat the Kerchy fo beneath tere inthe ponte con, Nover reals beled, but ny few pit of vow which ay soetines eepritet adopt for the same resaltants, mere ‘Welhare wo ound any rel reason at tis point for changing teaminology which is gining ground in ings, The formal” PROLRCOMERA TO A TRRORY OP LANODAOE eae ae a Seg ae at 4H into delaitins: by the darter af clase we shall undertand its components and component-at-components within te and the sue dadactin; weal to thi thatthe clase eld tod dude its devas, and the deivtes to ene ino tele ass, By the dee ofthe derivates we ball be refering tothe number of the cases through which they ate dependent on thee lame common class. If this amber io, he deve ae sald 1] tobe ofthe st degree the number i , the deviates ae sid to be of the and depres; and so forth. In the czample we have conaracted above where gre of sylbles tre thought ofa analyedintoellabe, and thes into pats of syllable, the eylales wil thus be fs-degree derivate of the troupe of spas, while the parts of aplable wll be frst ‘egre dvivates ofthe lable and secomt- degree deivten of ‘he groupe of aylable.Firstdere derivate and component ae camseqeeatly equivalent tras, A dependnce tht fle the conditions for a anys we shall falls fnetion Thar we sy that thor ie fection between Clas and ita componente (a chun and ite pat, or pariigm anditamember) andbetweenthecmponents parts oraembees) ssutully. The terminals of funtion we sal cll i fonctives, Understanding by a functiean object cht has fneton to oe objets A fantive sani to conve ts Seton. Fro the ‘lenis i flows that function can be functve ine there an be « faction between fanetions, Thus there a function between the futon contracted by the parts of chain ith ch other and the function contact by the cain wth ts Drs. Aunetve that not faneion we shall el en ty. Tn the example we have constructed above the gro of ella- bles, the sybils, and he parte of allabls wil beens. Wiehave adopted the ter function sane that es midway between the loglcomathomatizal and the etyilogcal some (hich ater has alo played considerable rol i senceI voxcrtoss I fa PRCLECOMINA TO A THEORY OF LANCUAGE Fy ferent kinds of factions hate wae we ean freee a Hogue ‘theory and at the sae time, to give formal deitons of che functions at we Have been diacsng By a consont we shall understand a functive whore presence|] eluding ngustic scene), in formal espect none to the fst butot dential with Tie precisely such a intermediate and combining concept that we ned in lng. We sal beable resting, hat the enty fonctions in defiite way, fle a suppose certain nonspecite indenables (presence, mee, | sara eae cere acess sis fe Oa ea ‘condton) and the defnions of faction and of fancive 33] Tha way, we can say thatthe elymolopicl meaning of ths ai ec de rope ction be te word Jaman ks ca" deattion ich ne seoid.——|=~=~-UREENEWO coDstant,dlerminlion asa fneton between on } tomy that an ently with the ext within the system) has ‘evita futons and herby thin, Sat ofall with presi | isa necesetycmdition forthe presnce ofthe unctive to whic tonto thelogice-athematical meting, that th ety has de-|——_— has function by a sri we all onderstand font pendence wih other ete, uch thet certain etites premise shove presence isnot «necestry condition forthe presence ef } "ier tnd secondly. with ayproninetion foe etyectogeal | —_-the fanctve to which it has fanetion. These deans pe snaking capitan intraduelg into the detnition system, be «|= ARE and 8 arable, and considation as function Between] ‘rue ie based on more prema han the given forms define so vibes, , tion and turn ot tobe reduc ot, sa] certain instance it wil be fal fora to have By introducing the technical tere function we seek to avoid ‘common nase fer interdependence and determination she gy tht sn te cna deo (tv nctons aang eon apn not ee troy th it dsats th depends oes Conon) nee then en kee cata | {emt and os oh of ennai ar when” Since can nals ae accom delgusn or ter | tito url ald to bu fc oP he oe, The Sependene ndcvatlaon eto tons wth he om | introduction of the technical term fumclive serves to avoid this ‘mon feture that each of them bas functives of one snd only. Pe peeyeseee tc scien ceeeraterane Gren ierdpenene hig ol const scan nes eee cae seca eemon iy vain) wel them beth pect mame that withthe presclgy the ene fntve hr Jaton the Samos nf naturally bene hw yo fences | heparan pare eames istnction to determination, have no fed “orientation.” trod action reguenty served nthe ter ued dst (nthe basis af the ted orientation of «determination (4 ‘it coll Lisds of net at hon pres poion iy ‘on the basi ofthe distnctivenen oft Fanctives) ie two func oth polation and stat, Bath «fonction snd a fneive, tives mast be named dlerently The constnt in deternation | ‘his rbiguous concept is Ueind Uh wel” dents of thal Geletion or specication) we call the ditermived (et, | inde of fnetons, at precy beens of te ambiguity ii -specid funcive andthe variable in «determination the de sot sultable for use In tele formal definitions. Stil bother! * mining (etn, specifying) funetve. The fantive whose pres ‘eample of this ambigut is the ward meaning, which notes’ | fence a necesery condion for the presence ofthe othe unc tive in the determination iv esd tbe dotrined (sled specified) by te ter, and the fanetivewhowe presence Is ota necesary condtion forthe presnce of the oterfunctive inthe oth desigation and desgeutum (and whic, Incidentally, is + tunel in oter respects to). re We shal nw be abe to give a eystematic survey ofp dit# Psotncouana ro A EHEORY OF LAxOUAOE letrrination Is ald to delermine (ae, The force tives that contract recprociy ex, the other band, be named le: fanctves tat contact interdependence laity, com ‘lomentaity) are naturally called ntdependew (sldry, com ‘Hlometars), nd funtives tat content conseliton comb Eaton, sutonony) constalatioe (combined, entiomo). Pane ‘ives that contract seieolty are called cipro and fonctives ‘hat contract easton chee ‘We have formulate the dednitions of the thie kinds of func tions oa to take cate ofthe cae where there are two end only two Funcives contacting them. Tecan be foesen forall thes ‘lads af functions that they may be contracted by more than two fonctivn ut these malate funtons canbe conidred ‘fonctions Between biateal fanetions. Another inportat datneion for Unguiste ehony ithe one ‘between the otha function or “onjuntion,” and the eter for function, ot “dsjncton.” This is what i Behind the di tinction bene proves snd yen: nthe proces, in he text, | is present both-and, a conjnetion or coexistence between the ‘nein enteing than fn the aya fe present ab 44) either, a disjunction or alernation between the fan tives entering therein. ‘Consider the (arapemie) example a bet , men node iy interchanging p and me and ay especivly we oy tain diferent words namey, Pe es, Aa, fom, ma, ma ‘mon, Those entities are chuins that enter ita the Mepibale ‘proces (text); on the other band, P and m together, and topether, and together produce paradigms, which ener into the tings system, In pe! hee i conjuction, or coeptence Detwean p and e and we have "in face” blore ou eye f andy ‘ond fs inthe sine way Uhre conjunction or coeitdhce be tween m and ead win mo. But between p sad m tly is dis-f ronerione 2 untion alternation: what we “n fet” have before our eyes feel por mn the sare way thee i disjunction, or alter gallon, Batweee fond ' Tn certain see it adobe the tre ens that enter Inu the Lngultic procs (text nd ito the Hingustic stem considered component (daria) of the word pt, penterinto 1 proess and thus Into conjuction, and considered as com- Pent (viva) af the paradigm ’ > enter int system and thus ato dsunction Prom the pot ff ve ofthe proces, pea pst from the pot of view o the fystem, plea member Th two punts of view lad to therecop- don of two diferent objects, because the fenctinal dition Change; but by unling or mulling the two diferent fone- ‘onal definitions we can take a point of vew that justifies our saying that we hae del with the “sae, In way we ca 3 that ll fanctives of language ener nto bath & process and f system, contract both conjuction, ot coorsenc, and dee junction, o alteration, and that thelr definition In te pase tala Instance ae confunets or disjunct, coerstents or slter- nts, depends on the polat of vlew from which they are carveyed 3s] Talinguistctheory—in contrast to previous linguist science and in conacaus ection gas t—we sve for sn snambiguous terminology. But jn few place doe the in ti therein find himself in such eriologia! iiclion 5 here, We have tentatively called the both-ard function a ‘cnjaetion (with reference ta the terminology of loi) a 3 co- tistenc, andthe eitheror function « difetion (alo with reference to logics! terninclogy) ofan alternation. Buti wil bo certainly inexpedint to rtan those designations. Logan sre aezurtomed to understanding by & conjunction something ‘ite diferent, and we ae fred in agresment with tradition tos PROLEGOMENA TO A THEORY OF LANoUAGR ‘estentially in the same sense in which we use the word farilion..) functives that contract these functions we call raf * i els an rls, And on is ase we ca dine 300 ae x lin (if HJ Win, “On Raa Ree Tote end pate aac 4 roweriows » cerelationalhiarchy, end a process «relational eraschy. 8 me have sry sen (pp 979), process and system sre concept of reat generality, whith aot be retited ex ‘unlly to sate objets, We End converiont ead taditona evil designation for semiotic proces and semiati jtem respectively in the moe stagnate at fordigmatc. When Fenn question af language (nthe ory sear ofthe word), thick Indeed mone interes forthe preset, we can al Simpler designations: the proves can hee be calles ts, and aval 8 leuuape “A proces anda system that belong to it les bebind i together contest fonction, hich, depending onthe poit of Fnveaiation ofthis faretion oon ahowa ue that ita deter ination in which the system isthe costa: the freer dlr Imier th sytem, Te desive point it the apes eltion= ship corlating inthe fact that the procs the mare immed ely aceeble for obrervation, wile the system mutt be “onder to the procese—"dicvared” behind I by mesa of 3 ot peed to the bi of x previoulypeforéd pro fede. Thin supercinlrlatonship might make seem thatthe process can exist without aeystem but not wze wz. But the the two words Hey 3] ‘tree’ and ey “whether die in pronunciation aly by the fst’ having andthe second ; special principle of generalization. Morcover, the practical sig-| } sicanceof thi rocpe shows wp st many othe pln thin Tings theory, ant mst therefore be poe sone ofthe ‘eneral pins ofthe theory. We bieve pone to prove {hat this principe hae always impli layed» vole in aen| te retearh, although a0 fr as we know has net peeve en fermlatd. goes as fom Tf on eject obits of 0 ston wily, ond anther objet its ofthe same selaton opal, then the suo is genera fad te slid for the qual ebje ‘The ele that sples tothe redctans here dacused can a cordingly be frlated a flo Enis which om oppication ofthe pring of geveasation, "1 il, mgs, Non Ye, rp 9. Ge LT, le npn ttn pian ng gaa oe lh cn et sw i ey ine her an is nh nt cde mang eto ot‘may be unisecallyrepiterd 08 comple wie Sang ony dee ments rire inthe same eperation, mast nab railed os “hse thn toe apie nth content plane nut the sane way asin the exon ple. I, for exaple, mechan. Gal nventryng atm gen sage ofthe proadrslnds o fephraon ofthe ces of content “am “wom, yi alo’ mae sa ‘hl, hr, “he and se ‘wom’ hey? gallon dace’ mt be lina from the inventory of ents i thy can Be explained no cal a lao it that nce oly“ he’ on te one an, and see han big hao the other \ Mea ne epeon pane the een tthe ercunge \tet by whch reton fond between coats nach of Che to ple unt w cxhangesBetwen tt la) canta exchanges eveen te drat conten 9 J Getages between the contenant rans" and * {a cn ental exchanges nswen the dilcent ere, ‘Ran = heabap wl be dferetSrom ‘ewe = esheey jun wl Be cet fom, my, fd a ~ hosp wie dfeeat om alo’ ~ Rehr, ut an He a Keen fom, sy, mT exchange of ne snd ely eas dnent for mote sn bth ees uct to etl 8 exh ny ‘he ote lane the guage wt 1 thet xaos fo wich we ave Dad secu nthe forging (grton of vst nto cu, and cna! sorts; prton o groupe a spas fro ae fy intoparts of lal a ofthe inte sale igure weve in accord wih tational concept, pool pois i the tox ead ono an expen Ine, We ave Um ed inthe preceding eto (pe) to persv tiny ater pakton | {ng he tet nts erento esd content I, we me pt tan each of thee secrdog to «commen pice ome. nog foe ‘quently, this patton must be cried out equally fr (Le, the end) in both ines. Just a with a comined pation a the ‘apres line we sooner or Inter appronch boundary where ‘nrestitd inventories te rvlved into rvrcte, after which these eesticted invents constantly decreas a das through the urtor operations (p42), 60 the very same thing wil occ in an analy ofthe content ie. The analysis nt grain the ‘expression plane canbe sid to conf prc, nthe reso: lation of eis tat enter utente iventorit ( word ‘xpressos) into emtos that enter retried iavetor, and {his reslution Is eared om watt only the most rested in ‘etree remain, The sine wl bold trae ofthe analy into figure inthe content lane. While the inventory of ward ‘contents s unrestricted, in language of fear atrcture even the miinalsigos wil be dstibuted (on the Bais of relatonal Aderencs) into come (elected) inventories, which are une reseed (og, inventories of roocantenta), and other elet- Ing) inventories, which arerestrited (eg, eventres embracing contents of deivationa and infeional element, Le, dereatives ‘ud moxphemes). Thusin practice the procedure conten y= Ing to soniye teenies that eter the uarestectedinventorles rely ito entitles that enter the etited faventoi. Tn the ‘nanple we Rave wed above hi principle sen to be ready Carried oat in past: wile ‘sheep, human beng’ “he, tnd ‘horse’ renin fr the present in unrestricted inven ove, he’ and he’ in tei quality of pronouns stand na special category, elasonly deine, wth a vested num ter of members The tak wll thn condo In crying the stasis farther uni ll oventories have been rested, and tested a much a8 posible this reduction of eontentenides to “groupe” 9 sign content is equated with cain of siga-contents having certain ‘mutual rlaGons: The denitons with which words ate tear: Iated inn ulingaal dictionary are Sn principe of this kind, slthoogh toners have no biherto almed at s eduction and 6s” PROLRCOMEEA To A THEORY OF LaxouAce ‘hotfore do uot yield defitons chat canbe immediately taken ‘over by a consistently performed sonyss, But tht whlch is ‘sashes equlvalet co gven ent, when hat entity Ie so reduced, actually the dion ofthat ent, formulated Jn the sme language andi the same lanes that to whch the ‘enty itself belongs. Nex do we see anything at tis point to ‘prevent out applying the sume terminology tothe to planes ‘snd thus as callg its definition when, fr exemple, the word ‘expression fo ls analyzed a consisting ofthe consonant, the ‘owl e, and the consonant m. In this way we ate led to the efit of definition: by a defiton ie wodertod a pation of esign-conent or fa sigrenpreion. eduction of entities to groups of ements ca In sve cases be made more eectual bythe eistrasion of onmetier {5 Such By 2 comecine we mean a fartive that uader cesta ‘onions a aldary with complex uit of crtaln degree te expression plane, canectives are in practice afte (but by ro means allay) desieal with what i ode ings were called union vowel, bat difer rom them by being dined The voced that appears in English before the Sesional ending fn foes may be vegotered asa connective. To the content ple the conjunctions, fr example wl wey often be connective, fact that canbe of deve importance forthe all di ventory of sentences and late in Inngvage ofa cetin feu ture, Fr by veto af he fact we shal onda, ead a the, stage of analyang sentence, be abl to reach not merely eos!” Tuton of complex sentences into simple cases, But alps te action throagh the whale nventory of given primary anda ven secondary ate to one cnue with both futon | 66) possiblities. Primary (selected) cause and scapary (Geleting) clause wl then be, not two Kinds of bes but two kinds of “clause ssction” or two Kinds of lense“ variants, We ad for the se of completeness that «pectic, word oder in certaln kinds of secondary cates may be vex eed a ogra forthe clae-vacants and tho oes ie: nievannasns AND vantanTs 2 ‘vent the rdueten frm being cased out-—Morcover, the fate {hat ere overtake tno ofthe bas ils of convesionl syne that reduced to mere varanty—wl, i quite orepondieg manner, com to befall reveal other of its base pillar. Im familia linguistic stractres the subject and predicte ill be svarants of ane sad che sme noun (one andthe sae junction, forthe le). The objec, inn lengaage without object ease, wil ‘bea variant entry online with thee and, ina language with ject exe, whee this has other functions besides the eject ‘vl bea varant of «noun inthis case, In other word the die tribution of fnctive ints two cater invariants and variant that ve are undertaking elininstes the conventional bifrc-| tion of inguis nto morphcogy and ayn, ‘We mus, therfore, reise the relation between exprenion= ‘orclation and cantent-coreaton fr al entities ofthe text Saventoryng. A creation inane pane, whic i hi way as reltion to a corelation inthe other plane ofa Iengungey we shall call x gamutation. This isa practic! definition; in the eory, we sen, to be sue, x more sbaract and more general formtlation. Just at we ean imagine coreltin and an cx- change wth «paradigm that have relation toa erespoding in the other pane of language, salvo we en fag aration anda sift within a chain that have relation to creping ‘elation end to acorespondng hie within a chin the other plane a language; in rach sate we hal pele ermal on. A permutation is frequently Fund between ins of rela tively large extension; snd it seven pose to define wo a8 alain ermultble sigs, Asa common tem for commutation and pertation we chote mdlin, Deiates of the 67] same degre belonging to one and the sume proces of to fone and the mame stem are tid to canetitate a romh, ‘and we define mutation ora funtion existing betweun Gest.Aeqee deca of onan th ane ds ton ha as ‘Stites ncn tee ter fete dato ‘tess an sd lng foun te nh Go ‘unin oaton bate te meen sp Sermons maton een eh ay mito wt en suns of ton ban the ‘sono pgm; an In or swe herote cpt aman ls om nis hat ‘Shan smth eno nat nero ne ad Sinai pig nr xl vod ene oma, tr tang Jona emg gens ory en recat th mt coma, nd seat tr hate eatin, Th i uct an nin! agg he such ge gags in cnt 0 oy ak ‘Ades om ry take srt ote and that Stern pagal ao ech eg, eb Ike whan we spay sin tol dota con te Anusha ia er ia eter ech ‘hm Te ment sch eqn es thdby te commana weber ttc to Sco, Hops orm, he ier en tom nngings to agge lau why wna pt Sry cassie Althea we ae en 4 ae ply so many xsl ence hsb tun the number flr gon of sunt of tan sph vowel ey weet shay Cent sms tnd “wood ate) re a a anh Gee page 0) bt nvr In Gera od Pie oneness Ce ‘arin Deh but salsa Pech, Te cto “neve? a note fot rat ont ena sind age nverante in French bet vaciants (a Goma and ‘ + Listovtaric Sema AMP UEAGH % Danish, The oly citeion for extablshing this the commute 8} Tf the alder grammar blindly wansered the Latin categorie and memes of categories oto modern Eur pean langage a forename, Danis thi was beens he {elevane ofthe commutation tat or the ingitie content was hot elenlywndertond. Ifthe Hague coment ated wlth ‘out any consideration of commutation, th pact! resale wll be its treatment without coseration of itr reston Urowgh the sgn fantion tothe Hingis expression. The et hasbeen that in vecent tes, a ett, we have bees Ded to eegulze {grammatical med that take it ststng olnt the ex pression snd seks to go from there tothe content.” After the icovery of commutation sul extent, itaras oat hat this reuirement ir nacartely formulated, With the sae ght one night require thatthe study ef expression start from the contest ‘ind proced from the content othe expres, The portant things that, whether tte moment we ae intersted expecially in the expression or expecially In the content, we understand nothing of the stractre of language if we do not constantly fake into ft conseration the interpay betwen the planes. oth the study of expression and the rudy of content area slay of the relation between expression wr ante; these two ‘cies peeppose each otet, are interdependent, and ca ot thersore be elated fom ech other wiout serous harm "The analyls mus, a2 we have sendy aid (ellos 9-11), be so made Ut the functions ate pat at is bass. 15, Tings shee ond linguist woge ‘The lngltt mast be equally interested in the iaacty and in the dference between Tenguages, to complementary ses of this pea ang th LG, Win, Sr fr dah snags eatin ea ay ss pont wah (Khe, Pi de pups De RBs Pee Sata Mt Seve tenon 86 PROLEGOMRNA TO A TH8ORY OP LANGUAOE ‘Be sume thing. The smaty between language ia tee very ractural pend; the diference between languages it the crying out of hat picil ener Both the sir and the difereace between langusges le, then, In language and in languages themselves, In Ue iteaal struture; and no simi larly oF ditrenc between languages rts an any factor outside lnngtage. Both the simfarity and the dideence between Ian guages rst on what, lowing Sausur, we have called 9) ‘the for, not on the sbatance hat i fonmed, The pr ort that formed might perhape «fio be supposed to ‘long to that whichis commen tal languages, hd thst the sinlanity between language, but thi san Hon; the purport {aformed in space fashion in ach language, and tereloe no ‘universal formation is found, but only a universal plncple af formation. In itself purport unformed, not i sl subjected to formasion but simply sucepuble of fomution, and of any formation whatsoever; boundaries shoo be fad here hey ‘woud inthe formation, no a th parport, The parport ie therefor in el increible to knowledge, snc the peregule site for knowledge san analysis of sme Lind th purport can ‘be known ony through some formation, and thus has 30 scien- 7 tifcexistence apart fom it. Tis therefore imposible to take the porprt—expeesion purport or content purpot—as th bal for Tings dg tion If we wished todo that, it would have to be on the bass of 1 previous undertaking, « purpr-ormation et up once ap for a which, however strutted, would inevitably be incongeat' ‘wltmoe! languages Thi wy both the contraction of pram! sare ecto tens edhe ence tiven grammar on the gamma of anther Ingeage a neces sary foredoomed to micary. vy T's therefore inpoible to introduce atthe begin x de scription of saatance tthe bai forthe desertion of an riage. On the contrary, the desrnton of mabstance dppends,* 6 the dseiton ofthe ngite orm. Te ld dream ofa ui, 4 snouts seuna ax vsAoE ” ee aia gees ee eas ee 1) The desertion of porpor, fn respect of both te Tagua fxpecsion and the linguini content may in all eens be ‘hoaght of as belonging pari to the apbure of puis and* mwotzoourits 20 4 SuEORY OF LANoUAOE purl to that of Cecil) onbrepetog, (We sat this without {aking any sand wit regard to cettala ponte of contention fn ‘modern rlnophy) The substance of oth planes ca be ewe both ws phy ents (sounds inte expression plane, things fn the content pane) and asthe conception ofthese entites held by the wes of the language. Contequatly for both plane bth {physical and a phenomendopcal decision ofthe purport thou be required 1) An exbasstive dxripton of the Keguistc content purport sctnlly require cllaboratin of al he nontngutie ences, from ou pinto view, they al, without exeption, dea with = ng content that, just as the vatious special, non-linguistie aclencesfean and! ‘content-purport and the expression-purport must be vikwed as! snvownente sexta an veAoE » = etn ted hn ty ni be foresee ee nn psa) Ga. Tee fo tinny. Hane et errand i srt i Spun) a Sor Das (Org ft ua rand pao Pee een Cua, ‘ooo ca anon Ups ep 09 © Nr i en nn 3: ps0) by Red ogy each Sone rt ogre ‘eno sey pe yan ea, fst) on te Dani Sta fo fs Long 8-2, "3h ey ems ei »dFol Crom is fet foundation the preset lings theory as een nied hy thi conception, and ina opr ac jut sch an manent ager of language: To mak ts {teens fom Prevod of Hagen an bse nde fpundnc of won gently ded sun, we have gen It special name, hich has bees ued fn peparatry wos ice 190: we a senator bre gang), Sed we we getenes fo tran ie nna forms heh he theory lea us teach base ol explanation, the eda ‘i ovarnte,Sech «spec Gsgnaton wuld not have been csr pth et ee equ mised he Zhe for en unwefal vedy of language proteding fom tranendent end rev! pits lve) Sse datncton beteeen or” a “suaaac hs ower ely ete eseaton, name, rome pn ow of anguage. Bor” here ea ingore an > Sane" ws have renga ean, oper To themes th conor ora" otbtnc” nao ee Jute hee marge pete they cannot be ger, fae without rik ef terminlgl acu, Kem, feta, be esenly empha tht "aubtnce” doesnot eter in? ‘rycton with he concept of faction, tea oly designate. hole ta inl oneal aod that rated tp gen, “ton carta way, pasos ned to lige tov Bt the nosing aya othe perry which © isunderiaken by th nosing cnc, lo ead Dy very aatre ofthe ater to ssecogaon of orm” tly UF the sae ort ate Ingle “orm? lho ood Tegiesatare We thnk poe to repent ae ofthe gel icp which we ae le tot up nel Stages of lings theory are wld ot mero bet for al rnc, and ot at the icp of he Ely, 2g ee ei ro atte ie ' ‘ie re, ast 8). ich seve f fc for sys 23-Then win 1a) tom oe pub of ew enter Dalat ef ew “om” th eng anette et satan dts only aia pls enon fr func and ht oly th fecal et of dependence ns Toowoomba?” an extol ean rain «apy nee The nonge aay of pape rong Aeducon Gi uz eno the wad ad he cpio ‘rong Merry, wih a fein to age Hendy dovesd tough he ingle dedi, [es ea is agit ey he etic nd | Ahern of the toning Kerby, when they te cried tos Ung shen Hapte ge] We ca | fer ay What te Hoge wage mans ngs | seg a the fncon betwen the Inge cea and | the ngage we sh Cl enfin, The toe ‘ind pony sprtiv 16. Vario nthe ings schom Inthe linguistic schero a well a in he linge usage cettin atiis can be educed to speciens af etan ote (ef scton 1a) Any functive inte ings shes can, line chews tnd without reference fo the munilestatin, bo subjected to a9 stcalation into vaslnts. This follows com the very defaition of variant (. 74). Moreover the ariulaton is univer, not atc (p40), sac anyfancive can almays be arti fn untested numberof Une ito as arhtrry number of ‘avant. Vasant are therefore, as ral, virtual like the re hucible invaionts, acoring to the given defaons (p. 49), hile recible nvaiantsalooe ar elie, mn the modern phoneteallyerented science ofthe expreasan ) {ts the custom to dtlaguish between two Lids of varants— the s-alled Troe” vara which appeae dependently of the vironment, and the socaled “bound” or “conditioned”(oe—bet we sll sot recommend this exprssion—“combing- tory’) vaca which apenr only In extaln enviroments fx (Oe chain T the snags caried out thoroughy, any entity tf exprnton can Bead to have at any bound variants a Ins pole latins nthe chan. Aad the analyse cried ‘nany fe vinta as poole specimen snc ot 14) Sulicenlysniiveexpernenal- phonetic reistaon, tro specimens ofthe same seech-souad ae never com plealy the sme. The ee vacans wesbal ber cll seit, ted the “bund” variants lt. Varoions are dened Combined variants, snc thy are not preuppoed by, nd. do tot pensppost, ny defeats a coerting In he chain, ‘ston contrat Conblnation. Vertis are defined sslidey ‘sini, snc a glen vay always proposes and is pre- pone bya given variety of apatber invariant (oro another invaantapeines a the Can ito th sabe fener wo, etn ftw invariants, namely variety otha can appear Only togetier with and a vasety of a that can appear ony” ogee with between the hte a aida ‘The caution ofthe variant inte two categiie, which x the suggested by the modern scene ofthe expesio, i, a canbe stn, of fotinal importance and must be care out ‘ruryuhee In this connein, in view ofthe present sation ¢ In inguin is important to emphasize that an arlaign {nto vats jst a parle and oecesory in the cones’ the content ain the since ofthe expreon All s-cpled op textual meanings manifest vai, and spell casings be. ‘yond thse mani variations, Moreover, or bth pines of Innguagy, ie dlerence to the requlrment of the simp roby eseriptin, it important to Init that the atelaion Snte ‘araonspremppote the artictation into varieties fine Invariant must fet be arsated nc varieties and fer hat ‘the vrei nto variations the vacations spec the freien ‘Buti aces pone for a new ariaaion at vals to 0 ‘vanuoers 39 Lisortec sere % connected to an exhaustive articulation into vsiatons, ad 92 on; insolae a8 ei poarle, thre ia transitive specication, T the atculation of an inva int vats fcarsed vat to cach individual "postin," an fedacble vet reached, tnd the etclation into vareieexhasted. A vatety that thus cannot be farther atcnlated into vaieties we sal call localize vaiety. I he artiltion of x loalied variety into ‘aration is caried oat down tothe individu species, an Jnreducilevaiton i eached, andthe aticlation nto vasa tions exhausted, Avanti that thus conot be further ar sietatedinto vations we shal cll an indus, Now it wi sometimes be posible to artclate an individea apn inte ‘artes according to the diferent “potions” in which the indivdant can appear; in auch caren there is & tensive specication 1s) The act that an articalation into variants ean be ths feshnused at «given stage doesnot contract the vi tunity ofthe valants: Oa condition of tanaive speciation the arculation into variants in principe untested. Bat, ‘uses, she articulation ita variants also wnestscted within ‘tspartiulac stage despite ite exhaasibity,beense the number ofthe variants nan unrestricted text willalvays be unesteeted, tnd the numberof pouble articeltlone through whic the ace elton ito vavants, even a the parila sage, cn be asta wil therefor ls he unrestricted 1 the tantive speciation eanot be continued, and the ierachy ends a exhausted fm an articulation of eres in ‘aration that cannot again be aselated int vii, itil be posite to say ina certain epistemological seas hat the ob ject under considerate sno longer susceptible of farts ec {tle description, For the ai af acance aay to neler tohesions, and ifs objec nly presents the possi of rege ‘ering constellations or abtence of fuetin, ext teat fs no longer posi. To say that the object of sence the ree teaton of cobesons meat, if we divert this statement of the& PROLZOOMESA £0 A THEORY OF LANGUAGE terminologial wrapings introduced by us that a since ale troy nesks to comprehend objets as consequences of x reason tra flectsofw ctae, But if the object can bereaved nly {nse objects tht may all indfereatl Be xi tobe consequences for efiecte of al op none, x continued scent analyss becomes Me prot notuntinkable that any alece attempting to ‘ary out the points of view we have advocated for linguistic theory will tthe coacoson ofthe duction, come to face a foal tation where no consequences of reuons or eects of fuses are pecrved, There wll en remain as the only post bility a stanticeo-varinton tzeatment, atch as Bberhard “Zine has attemped to exey through systematically for the ‘phonetic expression of anguegen® Il however, thi experiment [sto be propsiy made, what i taken as object of this “pono ‘metic trahnent sould not be as inductively discovered cast of sounds, but» deductvely dicovered linguistic locaied ‘avey of the highest degre ‘We ave ad ocaion above. 72-75) observe that the em * ‘ite qoully registered by conventlonal aystax~peimary , flauses and secondary claus, member of lass, ke 16) sublet, predicate now, objet, are variants. With the farther teainlogy now stoduced, we can x to be preci, that they are vaneten, Conventional gatas (unde stood a the study ofthe eamneonsbetmeen words), inthe tua, study of varieties i the content plan of langage a Shon i eet ne, Ses ik ain ‘lane premippores rested variant, syntax clinat Thalataned as an autonomous dali. ag 17, Funcon ond sum roa, ‘A lass that has feeton to one or moe othe lanza ihn same rank we shal calla sum A syntagmatic sum we sl call, ‘the we, Rb or leo eT ony mit oN rowerion axa ate a si paradigmatic rum a caaig, Tho 3 anit es cin that ‘hu relation to one of mote other chains within the same rk, ‘and s category lea paradigm that han corration toon o ents ‘thee paradigms witinthe same rank By 2 elise we Understand ¢relton that ete between sum and a funtion entering ito tthe uncon nando etic thes, ad the Sum tobe eased bythe fantom. Ts, or example, within the paradigmatic (ingustic system) we can observe the exist- ence of dierent categories whch have mutoal eonreation sd ch of which in patel i extabliched by the corelation be teen ts members This carlin, nthe cae of the categorie of invariants, isa commutation inte ess of the categorie of ‘avant it substitution. Likewise in the yatapratic (the Tnguisteprocts the text) we can verve the exsence of di ferent units which have mutual ylation and each of which in partial i established by the ration between is pat follows fom the deans that fuseiona alway ae pre ent either between suns or between functions a ather word very entity is sum. A eontbutory factor in mang pole this pont of view i of cou the the number of the variants ‘b usretricted and tht the ation Into vacant cn be ontinue indefrtely, otha euch entity nay be considered ns ‘sum, namely, in every cas, a asm of varants, Te pat of ‘lew is mde necnary by the requverent ofan exhaustive escipton. 1 the theory this means that an entity nothing ele tan to or more ents with mutual fmetion esl hat fete lundesines the fact cht only the fetions have sient ee Intnce (p23) tr] Tapes ee epecily important in the nals to understand that relation is present Between categories only. The analysis musts proceed that fre the appropriate base analysis chosen with eeenc tothe empel principle and the principles deived throm. Leto imagine that election‘a chosen the bas of ana Then in the ist operation the ‘ven chains analyz into Sat degre selections the cate {ory that is obtained foe al Uae unite we cal the facto (tei. By this, the, fa uodertood th category ofthe fane- tives that are registered in singe analy wth given function taken a the bas of enlyi Within such fentiondl eatery our kinds of fnetives may be imagined 1 fumetves that can apps only as selected 2 fetes hat ean appear only a8 selecting 5 funetves that ean appear oth aa seleted snd aelectng; 4 fuetives Cat ean appear ether a sleted nora alecting (Gay functives tht contract ony salaries anor ombina tons or that dono contact elation ata tial secondary clause ast each particle primal laa 1 partial secondary clause doesnot veule the prfbnce of me, but only of some puiary #aute gf « 4 cert pray el exwonnmiet ® nother Thus tthe category of pnary clauses that 18) isstected by the catoory of secondary causes the le tion eins between the Tuncival catego, while the relation th exists ae conaquehce thereof batween& member ‘fone functival category and a mower ofthe other ey well be iferent~ combination or example Tee pat ofthe ask af nguitios to wet wp general calcul forthe tlations bee tween elements that coresond to given elation tween fue iva ateores. “the bass of analyse oat a combination, 9 tagmati eiprocity, the fontival eategore wil be: 1 Sntives tha can app only as elie: 5 fontivs that ean apps only ab combined 43 Tunes that can appear bath a solidary and as combined 4 fn ht can apa her aay cond contact any elation al. ere in ke manve, aiaety o combination willbe present between the functivaleatgores, while the elements ca have ‘other rations. We have seen an exaunple a this above (. 29) {in the disonsion ofthe Latin vominal torpheret the category of number and the category of cae have mutual slidarity, bat ‘here ls combination between any particular number and any partial ene, 28, Sgro ‘Wie shal now be able to consider that phenomenon which bs -ksowa in conventional graimar a8 syacratiom and In modern ‘phonemes a etalon, and which const he fact that the commtation between two lnvatants may be soepended tudar given conditions, Felse examples, which we may wall retain here, ae th sycrtin n Latin between notanatve and neater and in certain ther iste), ad theneutralisation that found in Danish between p and bin the final past of the ylable (co that a word Ike op may be pro nounced with a poe b nde), 1 "For such instancts ye sal ute the term surpension, and we | intoduce the fellowing general deton: given» fantve that | is present under certain conditions and shaent ander ceraia ‘other codons then, under the condition where the fnctive “present there ied tobe application of the fenetive, 49) enue these contions te functve fad to ap, hile under the condos where the funtive ie abaent ‘here i sid tobe snrpnson or abn ofthe fanctve, ro that the fetive in ald to be ruponded or vent under these ‘suspended mation been two fenties we el an oer upping on te category that eatablished by an ovelaping ‘we call Gn both panes of logusge) a syretiom. Thos, for Cramp, we aay that nominative and acute in Lat, oF {Sn bin Danis, have mata oveslpping, or contract ov ‘ng, andthe thew entities together with tele ovelapping con Site a ynereti, or that each ofthe ene enters into 8, syretisn. Tt follows from the definitions that when two enties under certain conliton ace registered at nvarants onthe Bost of he Commutation te, and under ether conltons costa over Tapping, then under these eter condltlons they wile yaa ‘nl ony teiesyneretim wl be a avait To both stance © the conlton ein the rlatons which the given ene comp tract nthe chain: the commutation between nominative and sccustvein Latin (which appl, nthe ist desion) B pended when, for example, aomietlve and/or aécuatiog ‘onrect() relation with meter; and the commatatonbetween. * ip ond in Danish (which ale, in nl pon: pave ‘peat bare ‘cary nsurpended when, fr example, pando b contrac) ration with «precoding centr! part of aya, Tes neceary to understand that the relation that fgelevacle venertne & fn thee instances fs a elation to sarin, Th ently whore presence i a necessary contin for th eveslaping between ‘nominative and accustve i the variety of meter that al dary with nominative accnative; andthe entity whose pesence is necesary condition for the overapping Between and 6 isthe viet of enrl part of slab that ie soidary with a folowing 7 Such a slaty between a vasant on the one hand and an overlapping on the other hand we cl a dominance; we sy that ‘the gen vciantdowinae the overlapping, ad that the over. Tapping és dominated By the given varant® 8] The special advantage of seting up the formal tions inthis way Isat wo may frter dltnguleh be tween obligstory and optional dominance without Raving to have recourse tothe sallogialpesuppsitins thatthe “eal” Aenivon of tes terms would necesaly Involve, and which told at best meena complication ofthe apparetis of puennes inthe theory and thus confict with the principe of shally, and nt worst woud pethape evn involve metaphyseal prises fad thar in further semis cole wth the epi! pence fad expecially wih the requirement of giving completly xx pli defition, Concept ke obligatory and optional wos cording to their hither adopted, expt or impli, “real” Aletniars, necenarly premsppore concept of soilogial orm, which proves to be dlpenmable troughoxt nguste theory We en now simply dene an eligelory dominance as & dominance in which the domisunt in rxpet tothe tyne ‘voi, and an plone! damiance ano dominance in which the dominant in reapect ofthe nyeretin i aration wha, under ceiain circumstances, the overlapping is obligatory, there os sldasty between the dofaant on the one hand sd fon the other hand the syncrtin, the category ofthe ents sg tle lms dntoc pnd atome eeayig one, re contain e ‘ete Jutta he eet Syren cor tel iro Cn way: a uss opoen,By fen wets atin ot ‘emcuom hy om te po vw he sabe Tsocanos oo ton fh nce ner he yt. Te {dan and toms seep aso ot ‘infant ot th nist nr {atu Tus the serene sd sree as terete hve oa ett pe Sinan these ay pan ae ay peered Go trl cesynto we eaten bot ne ithe mention ny et evs ot * tn aoa mew te reson pm By 2 oe Piatin we en ums pct wi etefty fon mel mei it ne ay {Retin tnt wa fe geg o Ten! tt consent th co Sc yremmced ee it ed oman er font Ofte fans a on! pnt {hoe nhs man bx si ato fee crm yt i rh sete ne mdf ya 8 hs) ‘yeu, Th ie eal han el tha ence nr etn ein ed ‘consonant, or that voiced consaaunt under these conditon Is Implied by & wocelew. Ifthe synereti between voled and ‘ojos comonant takes place In such away (is common, for example, inthe Slavonic language) hat nt only a vole. Tess consonant has a voeed pronunciation beloe a vleed con- ‘before «wielss consonant, the ipcation not latea but ‘mulitatrat (bate), voiced implies veltlee, and volodaes Inplies voiced, under mutually excasve conditions "We daw attention tothe fact thatthe wie of the tem ae ication ages with Vat of lina is oly & pel be tance off, Iplicsion i a then fanetlon, en entallient, ith the only diferene that incur examen not between ropostions ut between eniir of sale exteation; if we have the glosseratcexpreion-enity in ata elation to other such eniy, ton we get ¢. Lia entallnentbatreen ‘toponiionssoems Cour merely another spe ease of ngustic Iplcaion®| ‘Aayncetam canbe reve oes, To resale a sy cetinm means to fntrodace the apacratan-aity which 5) doce not contract the overlapping that estas the ‘yncotnm. If, despite the ayneretiam, we ean explain template in one contest as nominative ad in anater conte scene, thats became the Latin sycretio o otinative td sceuatve in there instances eae; we perfor the reson within the eategory af nominative and accusative, ‘has within te ayacrelin, by aecting a valety tha does not contract overlapping (ey the nominative vanity from domus tnd thesocmative variety frm dam) aby artical into dhcing this contntentity into lp instead of the case ent that eaters theea; ths done onthe sength ofan talaga inference hates onthe applction ofthe genera ation principle, Aaynertiem i eanubl aly if such analogical ccm ne} ss bie See V9{nfecences are posible on the basi ofthe reults which the aay sis of the Inguistc schema provides. Such gevealiing ana lagi inferences are nt pole inthe ease ep, and conse- quay we mint here desaethe synereti 9/0 isle ‘A chain with untesevedreoublesycretims may be called sctulsed sd x chain with rovlved rele syria ‘his dntcton in zlevant tothe distinction between 8 narow sand «broad notation of the expreion, end bth thes kinds of rotation are thus posible on the bass af the analysis of the Tieguistc schema, ‘When we eave asyncetom and make en el notation the noting (ting down or pronaciton) af the syncretism, repre= tented wait ia by one ofits members, il in sl bean ipien- to, in whch the syncretism imps the given member Te seems tousthat thie wll berelevant to sn analyss foil conclusion, nbch efter ln the conception of moder ollansa purely Tingistc operation and therfore also might be able to expect. ‘latdation fom linguistic premises, Inte oeging (p99) We hve thought it ponuble to dane a loge conclusion as an" ttals of premied propaition, We can now add the ore ‘recae statement thatthe pried proposition may obviously beviewed ara reticle eyeretiam af ts eonsequenes geal coolaion, thes, inn atelation of the premised propson, ‘articulation inating in a elution ofthe given synéetiem Shick appear a an implication. Tn geerel sce to tht the concept of ynereiapwbicl as been reached fon Intra Ingle premises igh with sdvantage be wed to cast light on vaslous sppowedy, nome Tngultc phenomena Zn this way, perhaps i wl be pani o cst a cert ight on the gover problem oft relay 83] opatip between clas and component. Inaarafs paras ign considered not a re aditon of ite ember (caesar many in Rus’ terminology), but a8 something dit, erwnt fom ts members (ts aon) sx syne a tg saber; by the reson of the ayer w elas y nei transformed nto arr or may. It shoald consequently be dear ‘that osfar a we ay try to attach a sclnte meaning tthe word one, we ust understand by a coset a nyse be: {heen objets (oamely, the objets hat the coeeptsabaunes). Tt aynerete may enter, besides explicit ents, the 220 ent, which has quite pei slgacance for ingusti naly- Hh, The necesty has often been noted of recognizing the exit- face of latent and foal linguistic enti, apeilly “phonemes. The, on the bass of crtin analytical ress, one ean mints the enlstence of latent dt in Pench grond, four becuse dota ppests in these exronions when the ‘ondions are hanged: gronde,surde; grond homme. Likewise ‘ne wll beable co malntaln the facltatviy of im Danish ter and w (yi gl). A moments retexin is enough t2 how that Istevey and Taclatvity cannot be dened as nse ‘ended aaofettion; the functions im question are grounded Jn the Tnguiste schema, since the condilons under which iatency and facataivty appear are Sued by rdatlons bs the ‘hain and rst on dominane, tency and faclatviy must Tapping with svn which the dominance oligatory (ce the domina n respect othe syne is a vst), anda fance tive tht contracts latency is called lat. cals isan ‘overeping with atria which the dominance is optional (nce ‘the dominant in respect ofthe syncretism fa vazation), and & untive that contracts facltatviy baled fotatie, 9. Callie ‘As wehave sen (ctlonsg-12), the analysis cons in a ese ‘raton af functions, When thle pint ofvew sadopced, the pose iigy must be foreseen that the repntration of eae 4) functions may, hy virtue of the aaliarity between fane- jm Conny, PaaS (Dantes ‘rnc le i Seg Por XX 359.201tion and fuzctive, oblige us to Sntrplateextan furtive ‘which would in no ater way be accosble to Anowledge. This Snterpolatin we call eta Th practic, catalyse ea neeatay contin for crying out the analysis, ‘The alps of Latin for example, mut leads to the result that the preposition sine select (gover) the tao (p 0), that it say, according to he deiniions, tat the preence of an ablative inthe txt fe necary canton forthe pretence of ie (bt not ie versa) Tes dea ha auch result cannot be reached by «more mechanical observation of the ent that enter into the actual texts, We can very cally Smagine an actu extn which sie appent without an accom panying ablative, «tet, fr example, which for one reson or | Soother ie intrrapted of incomplete (a damaged iseiption, a fregment an untae weiten er orl utterace). In general, the restrain of sy cobeen mut presuppose tat such falelable sceldents nthe exer of hngunge(ecdens def perl) ae ist cliinated. Azd tho phenomens in actin texts tht would prevent a mechanical relation of comerions ate ot Hed to this srt of unintentional dintrbances Tes well, [knows that both aposioess and abrevition enter as cone sant ad exentil pst int the economy of insite wage (one ‘nay thin of uterances ke: How wie Tony had! Bech, te). Hin the analysis one were rode to reitering rela tions on this basi one would end up in all kathood (contrary || 1 cf an ethauative deacription, hewever, cblgs am whe we reir Grae apps sd thes {o meow them seh ne te tapas sot rae teier the ota ies which hotly observe a {Eatoveth coin that pt bye ihe ene and“ trodig one wee ac th ata to cat Bret of ase aml ptr obestn with ablative, fe he pete fore may be pepe lated, and coresondingy In al ote instances. This interpol tion of a reason behied a conseuence is made in acoedance withthe genesintion principe (On the other hand, in catalysis we must tke care not 5) to supply inven the Gxt eham what thee Is leat ev dence fon the cao sin we know with eta that tan ablative is equred; ad we farther know that wYatn able- tive too has its prerequisites: it requires the corssence of ee ‘ain other morphumes inthe cain; and we Inow concerning the rorphene chain tht spprars with the elativ that i pres poses the coesstnce of Uhme Since, however, the ablative SS not sldary with any pasalar morpbeme in each eategny, ‘ut only with cata eatguisof morph (9. 8), and since ‘8 morphemechain including a ease, a number, and’ geod, together, in some instances, with 2 mnorphere of compatison, as no cohesion wih any particular nomial theme but with {he etegory ofall nominal termes we ae no uted In nto cing by catalyse any particle noun Inthe ablative wth the tiven sie, What i introdsced by catalysis, then, a mos io Sumces not some purcaarenty but an eslube syncretism beeen ll the entities tat might be consgred pos inthe sven “place in the cain. Ts the cose sine we aes fortunate fo know that it ean ablative and oly en ablative that ean be conered a presequlte; but as to the ents that the sbiative isl requires, we know only that they ere some number or other, some gender orale, some morphane of comparison or other (of course, witht the posits ofthe Eatin lnven- tory, and sme theme or other. In etl fc it presuppotes say ‘ne ofthese entities nderetly, and he catalysis must there- forego no father than to observe the fact. Calais we dene a «registration of cheson trough the | replacement of one entity by anther towhich thas ubetation, | nour example sneisthe replaced ety, sae ablative the | cohesive sycretsns) the replacing entity. The repacing entity 1s ths always equal to the replaced (ase) entity + an /* protrcoueia 20 A suponY OF zanovA0E interpolate or upped (enaaled) entity As we have sen, iin tru ofthe eneatalyzed ety chat itis often, ut ot nace. sasiy, «syncretim, and, farther hat often, but not nace ‘sy ten tent etn abe regteed only by satay, ‘on application ofthe prin of generalisation), and faaly, tha ie alway and ncn, ts an entity of content, hak ‘the expression aeto and, i i [an entity of exprosio, han the cent eo: this lst consequence of the reqirement, come tained nthe dation, of subutuion between the replaced and the eplacog ent. 86} 20, Baie of te analyie ‘Busestally on the basis ofthe considerations and defsitions that have been sated inthe preceding sections ofthe present ‘essay, made predee and roppemented hy the necssry number of rls of a more technical sort, linguist theory prescribes lesa onates, which lado to recoaize angst form be- bind the “eobrtance” immediately acrnable to observation By * the senses, and behind the txt a language (stom) conting * features from whose defriton ean be deduced the poste tai ofthe language, The kere) of the procedate ie eatalyis ‘hough which the form ix enestalyzed othe substance and the Innguageencatalyzed tothe tet The procedure purely form ‘this enae tha conden the ult of language es enti of «number of fig for which certain ules of traeformation hold Then role are act up without consideration ofthe saby. + stance in which the Gur snd unite are mnaifented: he flit leratchy a, consequently, the linguini dedton a el dependent the yal nd phyla ene, of the nonlngulte Mrarchies and deductions that Fight lead to deerption of the “substance” rf onal y must not expec from this dedactive procedure any semdbtes ‘ny phonetic, but bot forthe expression of a anguageind fr the content of language only "ngs alsa,” wep." vides the feral ba for an edeig of debictnnof non 4 errs ov rue ANALYSIS o Hngiste “substance.” The “alge ents with which the procedure operates have no natural desigation, but must of fourse be named in one way o another; hs naming I abieary tnd appropriate harmony withthe whole character of Ungu te theory. Inthe arbitrariness af the name ies the fact that ‘hey donot a al invave the manestaton in hele prop nes ies the fact that heya chosen so that becomes ple ta order the information conersng the tanesttion tn the simplest pssibe way: On the bas ofthe abirary elation be tween form and substance, on and the same entity of logue form may’ be misifeted hy que diferent substance frm 8 fone pass from ane language to mother; the proton of the form-herarchy onthe substance earchy can dir easeatily from language lange “The procefur is governed by the basi principe (pp 1,18, 613 69-70) fom which wecan further deduce, especial for usin testa analysis the folowing principe, which we cal the Principle of thous decom 47) "Any onayris (or onsyiecomple) sn wick functae oe registred with ose funetion a brs of ovals al bet ade tha ade nf comity to he rein of lhe highest posible mumbarof rained fuctnel ealeorie win be ihe! nie umber of ction cleo. Ta prectce it flows frm thi peinciple that fa analyse a tort wo must not omit ay sage of analyals that might be ox pected ove fastinal return (fp 9} and that the aaalsie ‘must move fom the svat that hae the gent extension onceivale to the Savant that have the It extenson coe eivable, go that between thse two extzeme points s many de- rlvative dees ae wavered a psi ‘Already on this point the analyses esenally rom the traitonal one. For the later fv concetned either with those parts ofthe est that have very grat extension noe with those has Stat the work of the gust bins with ving con8 PROLEGOMEHA T0 4 THKORY OF LANOUAGE ences nt dauss, wl ie vhoght posible oreler the trent- sent of larger parts ofthe text, proups of sentences andthe ke, fo other acences—pincplly lope and paychlony. Accurding to this view the lingust or the grammaian shoud when faced with an unenalyze tent, afer example, the on tha provided yall hat wten and sid in Danis, be able o plunge hed Jong down to stage where te resolve ito castes; theoreti. cally he must suppeudly premise that login peycologcal ays of the larger pare of the text hasbeen undertaken, but {eb nevertals Beeved that in practice he dats nat have > wory about whether cr not such am analysis actually has been Cndertaken, or whether i he been made ina way that may be called salsfacory fom the linguist’ pnt cf ew "The question we aze asin here la ol question a race Avion of labor bt af the placing of objects by thal deitions rom ths point of view the analysis of the text falls tothe Ling a inevitabe day, icing the texan parte that Ihave lage extosion A partition ofthe tet is attempted it selection and repro as bane of divin, abd at each stage ‘ofthe analyse howe prt ball be sought that have the pretest festson, And It ls ey to zee that a ingultietat of very Tange or unvtriced extension offers the pony of patton into pars of are extension defined by metal eletin, 88) solidly, or combination. The very fiat of thee parte tons is the patton nt conte line ad expresion ine, hich ate slday, When thew are each further pathioned, i rll be pase abd necensary, ir ais, to analyze the potent line ito Tteray genes and then to ealyae the scenes into! renin (eting) and penis (ete). The syematicg of the study of Iterator and of general sence thas Sd thei tral pln within the framework of llngubtle ther! and? ‘under the analy ofthe since lingustl thoory mull ome, to contain within ts ts own defiiton. At mare adhanced stage ofthe peocedre the larger textual pats mun be farther," ‘arioned into productions of single authors, works, cupters | + reritins oF rue amALES 5 paragraph, and he lke, onthe bass of premaon, ad then ia th same way Into stance and clase At ths pint ler lia, sllogans will be analysed into premises snd concn obviously sage of the linguistic analysis in which formal logic mast place as important part ofS problems nal this it sen a sgnicat brotdening ofthe perspective, frames and apis of guste ory, and a basis fr a matlated and organized collaboration betwen Lingle in he narrower seme suds number of ober dsiplines which tll ow, ebviwsly more fr less wrongly, have usualy ben considered as Ing outede the sphere of gust ene. Tn the al operations of the analysis guste theory wil lead to partition descending to enies of umaller extension {han thoe which until now have been viewed athe edule Savatints, Tiss tru not merely fa the content plas, where we Have sen that conventional Unguis Is very far fom having ctsie the analysis to the end, but als inthe expeesion pla. In both planes the partion Based on ration wil reach ‘stoge in which seetion Sued for chelsea the ase of ‘ays The analyse at thi stge wl ead Co a Snventorying ‘of tazmes, which wil be virtel elements; forthe exptstion line the txemes wil ost modo be the ngustie forms that te manifested by phonetes, but In this eaexion the reserva ‘Son mint be made that an aalyicatred ont sel according to the simplicity principle often leads to essentially dierent rests fom the phonemic analyses hitherto attempted. Iti are ordered on the bai of epeil tle into rates of fo) to thre, or more dimensions We cxanoe her eter Inte thee spec rules, which rat on the fuel thatthe Aingutle element In one and the sume calgory are ot nly sar bt (ds Poca iad De) Ceesurerclly but alan qualitatively diferent.” We must be con feat with Lndeating merely in pli the fat tl now nob served by linguist, that wen a taxeme Inventory fs "et up Into a system" the lapel coneequece i farther partition of {he indvidal tame, Let ws fo example, agloe that xt sory a epstered wth an inventory of 9 taxon, and tt, fom ‘the special rules fr qualitative division, these sy be tp inte ‘two-dimenslonal sytem with thre members in ach dtnenon So that the may be decd as a product of 3X 3. The ‘members of the dimension wil then themselves be pate cluding ae mersber ofthe one dimension and abe meiner of the other dimension, The 9 taxemes may accordingly be de- scbe as products of 3 + 5 ~ 6 ivarans, namely the mem ‘ets ofthe dimensions, and we thus reach x simpler deseipton and satiny toa higher dre the ened principle of retin (50. The two dimensions wil, a atone, be aidry, and ‘each member inthe one dimension wil have combination with” ‘each member i the other dimension. The members ofthe diten-* ‘loos wil thus appear as faxeme-pasts and ae the ineducbe, Inesants Whether such a “etn up Ito a ays” of xt come inventory may be cred out depends ently on the fis ofthe inventory. When may be aid out it le te spambers ofthe dimensions and not the taxes at re the dipole ofthe soni thee endpoints we call stom, td if we amare that on tase of exponen. {eed by one phoneme, thon x hore exreson wi nel be mileated by a prt of «phoneme. 4 Water the systagmatic deduction of the sexual ada ‘brought to an end, paradigmatic deduction fs underjakeny ator op 0 8. oy Bt Se a ty einen Cn pe ig Coins Cea on lero the Inguage is atetaed int ele, into which the ighesi-degreetaxeme categoris ofthe textual analyis go} sce dntibated and fom whic, through «synthe, a be deduced the possible wail f the languege. Te turns cout thatthe to sides (Uh planes) of language have completly ttslogos categorical structar,w covery tba sears fous of faeveachingsgefcance lor an undertanding of the stractral palcple ofa Language orn general of the “eens” of se ‘ig also appears that auc conten cari out deep ‘ion af language on the bal ofthe empl pein doesnot entain the posi of ayntx or ofa science of pats of speech; as we have sue, the ets of stax are for the gest ‘0 part vate and the parts of speech” ofenlet grammar ‘re eosin which wl be redicoveed fn redefined form i far serene places within the Blrarchy of te wits, ‘The aclence of extogores, however, pasuppines sich cin prehensive and such a closely coherent apparatas of tems nd ‘efnition that ts details eat be described withoat it elag ‘presented completely; it cant therefor, any more than the {ence of nite which determine i be treated in the pol omens of the theory. ; at, Language and nom longue 1 erect ofthe choles and dlinitation of objets we have in the preceding sections (fp 20) allowed the prevalent concept of Lngusties and conldeed ear” lanpuage a the unique ‘objeto ngs theory. But at Ue same time (p 2) we bave eld out a prospect of widening our plnt of view, and it snow tine to undertake this inthe following thon (2-29). In doing this we stes that theve farther perspectives do not come at sxbitrry end diensble appendages, bt that, on the cone trary, and precy ene rei criloth ae considera iow of “satura!” language, they spring with neeeity fom natural” lnguage and obtrade Themis with fnevtable loge eaneequence. Ifthe linguist wishes to ake dea oiese the object fis own ain e a imal fred ato Spbees which acordg to tbe dona view re hse Meas ie way, abel mon ot pretation et far wth, star tom ec promis, hs ben fred Dy th eh ang ofthe pole nom mre iste og eng ‘aly tat once echt nat only he uit eee con hatin we hve teen ed fo rake, bt ope sx} ely more tec ere we hav inde te apple Bie both snatuaargaage and langnee in fr toner ste, Presely beste the Deary bso eousected thatiingufom sed wot equ fer" staan” pero, i il be yobs to spy so sopra to ay scare wove fermi anges fo tat 2 sma irnguge. Our exams have bmn tan fm sich gage, tnd we camel have procede em i tot what we teed 1 ‘cop and what we uve eempied edly not seit “Steal” lnguage bot has oer ange Aas ava” soplliy to sgn estene (ort Ages tome ih i iran) whole found the tayo fence and ee [Subs (ection 9-17) fig (tay) of expen 5 content, fry sabtane and purport Goons 219 of commation end ahatttn, vars and wate ind {he elaienon a aint ects 1), of ae ah Feat (actos so 18, and of cays (econ 19), In ete ‘rors nara” langage may be died onthe bey ot Shon nhs minal pets hh rth conquers ee We have end ben ohige to show this on exile. WG ‘av heuptkpote fo mn the eee eater, {he concepts “pace” ad Sayan?” and Cee ppl (pe) and eu ew of “atral anguage ba d Cf inthe tory of angage portant apes of Herag nce fever iloophy ef cnc oral log 98-bs a Toile oad mading ome set pat EaWoUAGK AND Nost-LaNoUACR = remarks about the nature of logel concuson (pp. 32992). ‘A the sane te we have been Je to view » pret member of peck! slons outa Lnguintes at providing the sence of Hngsiste content port and we have been led to draw a ne between language and norlanguage (p. 78), whose provonal haracter we have, however, sree “The linguini theory we have set up stands or Ll with he princpleon which ts based, which we have called the empeeal Principe (p22. Thi lends we tn aceept s logial necaty (ith the necenry reservations concerning the terminology se, of ps 18) Saumure's dtntion between form nd “ubetance” (parport, from which ferther flows that" ane” cnol ne be eine fer a lonuage, We must be ble to imagine a ordered o one and the same Hinge frm, fubtances which, from the point of view of the substance- Herre, areesetaly deren; he arbitary ration between gate form and purpt makes this opel newest. "Toe long supremacy of conventional phonetics has, moreover, hn the eect of reeling the linguist com ‘ception even of antaral”Ingsage na way that sdemonsteably ubempial 2, inappeopeate because non-exhaustive Te hag been supposed tat the exprenionaubstance of «spoken Iam rage must const exlsely of “sounds.” Thus as has been Pte aut by the Zvi n parte, the fact hasbeen oer looked that speech ie accompanied by, and that certain com-| ponents of speech can be replaced by eta, and that ney, 8 the Zwimers say, not only the so-alled organs of speech (thront, mouth, sod now), vt very measly athe state ae ulatue, cooperate in the exercise of natural” ange.” Further is posible to rplace the usa sound-and-getare substance with way ober that fers tel appropiate under ‘hanged external crcmstances Ths the sce Lagu form ‘may ako be manifested in writing, as happens with 2 phoaetle ean ee act ZA toned on pin 9 8cr phonemic notation and wth the so-cled phone xchoge: Pies a8 for example the Frosh Hees rp nance” Sho addrmed excite to the eye sn wich ed at be Trampwed into a poo aetence” in certo be raped fer aoderstowd And he graphic “subane”cn, prey fom the pint of view ofthe mbstanc, be of ute vio sor “here can be other “slate” too; we need oly think he savy fg codes, wh can very well be tied to net “satura langage, of Engi or of te gn language of ‘Two oon aren msistalnd io opposition to ty one here preted One that ll hee bance are "ed in reion othe sundandetare stance and “artic jn contr to the "utr of the ater there cen ee, iid be many ders fac "evan" an whe ag code ot sin innguge seed rom wring which in te Served ro the natural” po langage, he eter opinion is that deen “staan” accompanied anny tence by « changed linguite fy this at all thoes a * ‘phonet but woul on analy lad ot ferent ‘useme investor and phage ply ferent categorie rom” thee fe pen gue a] "Thetis ofthese opinions ilove, aca th ct that a menieation idee” forest of dott doesnot alter the fact that i = manifestation of te ven linguistic or. Moreover tint alayscertan what dered» fn what nts we mam not fre tet the scey ofl: Dede tings en a pein a0 hat te wrt ha? itr ont pont aay oly one of he poe dary chronic ype mayan hve ted on formal sg guide scare But ln any se a recog byt ent en atte at at ee Trp nh an at nn snodenn Ings, diachronic conirstion are ielevant for synchronic deserption, "The other opinion fe inslevant because St dots zt ltr the era fact that lngiste form is mesifted in the given Svbetance, The oblevation is intersting, however, showing {hat diferent syste of expen can soreapond tome and the sane aytem of contest. Accordingly, the task of henge tie theoetician isnot merely that of Gvesing the actly present expression system, but of ealecating what expen "ystems in general ace ponies expreion fr given content, ‘System, ond ir wz, Dot it ean experimentally demonstrable fact tht any ings expression rete maybe manifested in “Thus various phoneie wages and varios Welton usages can ‘be onde tothe expression rate of one and the sare lings: tie achems. A language can ser «change of «purely phonetic ratare without having the expression system ofthe linguistic schema nested, and imal ean aller a cange ofa purely ‘romantic nate thout having the content stom, of) fected: Only i ti way iit pone to datinguish be- tween nose and semantic its on tbe one ba, sd formal hr on the other ‘rom our whole base point of wow there is rely nothing urs in al this, The ents ingle form are of lge= Tale” nature and have no natural designation; they ean there fore be designated rt in many diferent ays Tene diferent posable designations bythe rebtance donot ‘da V, tu po. 28 B08 US i Cm arial er ‘She lp sre secon, ‘Src ptt ws Dado Se Cum, end ‘th ma Bro ap, Resor nd dn rr ‘Cried Sawada ps fo rl hs eet er beta tar Uy Tite Zw raion er een Set rae Col ‘eV yo 8) Asam ing iaPy PROLRCOMESA 10 A THEORY OF LANGUAGE fect the theory ofthe ings chem ts tite does not ‘depend on them, The therein mai ask sto determin by etniion the structural ripe of ange from which cen be ledced a ganeal eaten the form of ypaiogy whose cate fies are the Indvideal Iangunges, or rather, the individu Fenguage type All poets st Bere be foresee, icling hove that ar vital i the wor of experience, or rein wits Tn thie general clef there is no question of whether the Individual stroctural types are manisted, bat oly whether thy are manlestable and, ta fore, anfetable in any ab stance whataoever. Substances thus not = nese prepa tn for inguin form, bot inguin form i = aecenary pre apposition for sutance. Menifetation, in ether word, is & telecon fn which che igus form i the constant and the tutlance the viable; we formally dei manifestations 3 felction between Meare Hierarchies. The constant ina ranlestation (lhe manfred) rd baleen derivater of diferent , a wth elrence to Sasa, be ale he fr the frm i * ‘Tonguage we ell tthe Knute eha The variable ina rmanfesttion (the maven) ca, in agrement with Sauer, Beale he sdsone;a substance tht mans «lagu schema we cll Knut eee rom thee premises we art led othe formal dtd o omic ns a birrch, any of hose components at of farthey, nals na clases deed by mul ration thoy 3 eed laser ats of on onayas tat derivates df 3 ua "This deinition, which i nothing ethan the formal conse quence of everything we hve developed up this oi the linguist to consider as hs abject, not merely “nf, aie net pr Caos Pound Seton Tip Ba” aaouAes Ano Non-taKcuAcr “1 very language, but any semfotle—anystuctre that 93) Bannogous to «language and stisies the given dein on. A Tangunge (ithe ordinary ates) may be viewed sex special cae of thir more general object, and tsp char teri, which concern ely Ingulsteuoge, do ot afc the Here ain we wish to add ht not so much «question sf he predic dion of shor a ofthe fing of the ot Aefinison. Theingit can and shuld concentrate on “natural eter reparation then he, many to logicons, the investigation of other semiotic sratares Bt the Hnguist cannot with in punitysady lsgaage without the wider hviaon that ences tis proper oventatlon towards (hee soalogus stratus. He can even drive a practical advantage theron, benuse some f thse structures are simple i tei eosraction than la tung, and they ae Uerefore sable ne deen peeperatry Scudy. Besides, on paey Ingeltie premiae, it hae become ‘dea that perc ium elaboration i eed hore ‘etwoun logit and agus ‘Since the sme of Sasi has heen known fom the gue tic ride that Iangoage cannot be studied ia lation, Sauce required as asia linguists in the narrower sense, adsline that be cstened tomilry (Kom equtn' ign) Therfore, fn the year before the second world wa, ning linguist corlngustically oriented circles that were intrested inthe sty of foundations (partialsiy in Canchodvaki), signet at- {enpis wee made to study othersign systems than Inge ln paral, e-cortume, at an Kteratize—o 8 more gi eral semieogcl base int PD, pt el apes (Sus ‘hres ry Sen ad lr, a0 hy Pm ge st ‘tales Sine Spy nope ary Mae d's ‘oxen, ents pe), ater ean941 esr in Sua’ Cosh entices | sis of Hut ery. Th mh ight pws be | tbo of enced ons cain lpn | caton thei od ey pt ee citi regal aA thn ye tres sone,_ | exan Tn in ay tag a masa ating ck tg te can ny be ands tp ts | bn it ke pie to oe ee ye Coit fgg aces tne tases : popes Tune caniomain nce, | pen ‘ih ecu cariolantopsscn “iis Senora compres ert pois ‘hsb ws that an ental tatu ey mena | ew pr gst ae ec nero a | {aap ce enol nese | momen Fas Wht ce tty nit "Secale gmc expe nc owt dena | seems can thought ofa ied Yo gs? Se | erat stent show cnr: me tonie | Wise d th Dunit even vita 3 | tee iw atenp tet gush cae ‘eae? — eilgy” ont fman Sad tthe son tage may te dnd a pntigmte ww} cident oh pot and he nea ee tae ya prs = trie ‘of an ite calliornton tee fps sa cone ga apt se ay ended ii ts rea sgn oon ed geet ht Shay, rst by purer yur wes iar gan ae ben te cn tj ne se ck mat ho aah el thomat abracanormain cn anti ee se ee ce ager ee hn me ‘einen retire dyafegegeesvlim’ | agaunde me tn one prtgnse ops ana ‘hese points of view. . eartotc Int whch all other somitis may be translated Tea nr ath me tnd cet Sete a er smal etic lish common point of view for a targe number of dicplaes, seactuves This trapaataty rests on the fact thot languages, int eyes wn eo Se oie pti te nan ny pep win {ewe lpr and atom stat oe na re egg ny snug can mehr fnen pol vow thew sina coemtcd ond cs, [eines cpeset™ cay hat ‘ay ened ent ptoe h cay, sang one stn pn i tribute in its own way to the genera scence of semistke bf. Tatton in any sfvntion, There is no doobe that it rests on & investigating to what exten andin what manner tobe ay verre pecalaiy on which we might be able cast better Stebel oan asap sspement ih tee SE iat tay mo tate pete sn of 2m teu enc Sete i iy Oc tat io A ed poy ong a de {at coe, Ph oe oad a a J See Man ga se syne ert my oe Ph in Tym Ee an ey bee San ree To ae “ . ‘ ene ries dvi 4 den wyere id (Pesbrit wdg. af Kfbenbones Unibet ie nna at Camp att dre min soe At ott ped |vey eft ring nt rat exten (tne lide ththaretteal sn igual sors Sn nt oil rng alo ae diay gy, nd vel ean ‘he game sa ange ldgent a) soe uy pe nee eae pn True linpnn of any scp wes twloeps tony tr smi nd ovens Rive ta erat err ee ta tana Indiv eb Stay, peu sr bey ‘ommpr he roy ia poeancure are tla yptesor tom Gung toto opel Si tne ef ec ro ell ae, pone tive ausind lus mat ees cons om hates cmaer ae gna gl na, {Sra reste ot tele fran + gsi yt ayn enn hf ht pe resi el les sale enonf leas SSERERE eras emg etre cont cee te ml hd © Ina bas sachs fs ee fier the sytem of matbemateal sms aan sptem oespeed Soar wih cpa ght tc aS Sie eign hn cme pt! prewtons. This method is cried oer by the Pali icing, Into their “metalogic” and is brought to its concallon by (Camap ine sign-theary wher, a principe any semiotic" sidered asa mere expression system without regard fr foe con, c % i | tent rom this point of view ie shoud be pope in any met semiotic in any deseepion of remit, for an ile Redenese to be replaced by a formate Release The sign ‘theory of agus, onthe other hand, baa deep root in the ‘ration according to which sgn defined by its meaning. Ik Ss within this adion that Saurestraglen wit the prbles, ‘He makes it precise end justin i by introducing the concept fain, consequence of whichis the recognition of he content form and of the blteral nature of the sgn leading to thoary ofthe sg that bulds onthe intel between expression orn and content-frm in the pracpe af commataton rom the loge sd, wher the debate abot the nature of the sign continues, the problem seems tobe tought ft ee tilly n question of nomial or realism. For the linguee theory of langutge 0 which the present enay is mde a twoducton, this snot the queton eis rather « question of eter or not the cone purgort ned be inva inthe ig theory itself, Since the caatet-papor proves to e dispensable in the definition and decription of a smote scher «fn {cman and « nominal atitude are neces snd ste {Een on the ote hand, the formal and nominaistic des ‘lon in linguistic theory ie nat Limited to the expresionors, but eet object nthe interplay between the expression: 8] form and conetorm. Sausstre’s dtnction between form and substance appets to be extrsordiniyrlerant forthe prevent posing ofthe pale a lopstic, ‘mths bass ois lo may beled to ee both derences an snares between games ad snitis hat are not games ‘The decsve point forthe question of wheter o nota sgn is resent snot whether its interpreted, fe, whether a content mundane dna ey JS, oh i Mal "Ene a” Xi ty ad Sa a Ws, et opine Seberg ere to. Jn vow of th secon baton ‘Sn sem td ete sg tee i oh ese ‘tings thoy nnn, toy ree tenn sec re ee en Gian pss ono ha na ging bruh ewe oa a oat other qusatghyston spr sgs, ce ora ata i,m fed nt wht n reve dsp of ‘he Acta gerne waa he ‘Spy pin con ald rt operon wth one Paes he rr cy opening ih wo ls sat thatthe to pe, whe thy east, Soot sown shaw tee ete tenn Snesoce tin ten tthe pe and theo fhe ter We sal op hb ying at th to lnc mst not be aura fot ald tab cneal sy prr te ft oe fee Wheat extn ane th sme Toson ot das Ueto cv ede. Weeas werdlagy ‘sup th rl tat to nity ened component testa these ca lb eed ne pen {Sey econo and ot commute. Tete ch ie ‘5 ity dh a th oie a ppd i ings thy Yor uch India sage o he tea trap cnt ih coment ee tition rnc fo dre wheter eet» re objet inn sea, lotta hewn pion ied ot aig steer ote ee (roe lc ny th Some dere ‘ow of th sles Ts se ot emote tt ‘tcl ener yh nee fet oe ie with cach be (nwt ce he oeniy clout the ven he crn) ire ly ‘tery ona an Ide ep gen aNowsex ano soH-LaNovAoE ns ht fora ithe obcoe agg the Gate et soo] las negative rely od wil dovtioe have nee result for sever ther strates which til ow have cn considered semis or wich show by the diate tt tint they mo be coniered sent, Butt sen Jatt Sar tht te desat tts pate sot for munya he st Wich nod ty see ig mnie Thsiseay tree th cae of pe gen he nerpeteon ot which thee oy of eet coepdlng to ch fatty eerie Chemport) ether panes te tenate'y pte the fect ne ley te fat fn both, Such astra then, et setae the sene lvn to th tem yng teary, We mat eve ts theopeclisin the vans Edo dee whether ont or exam the no-aled rymbae syste af athena ond Ing or crtan Ki fre mae eo be deandat semiodsfom (spit of view. The pony ems nt to feenduded that he logit eonsption of enol at mone dla there af bevng ake a pa of departed Ssheoquualy sechng 4 penatun geerlintn thectom) ates which, scrtng tour dfn, are ot neice fd which Vere diverge fundamental fom tee emote Struct. fs proposed t tee sume gle sons or ‘chs ob ae inet osha tet pe Tor maybe ordered) but ot Ups (ek wich the i ily proce does ot pent eto ena comes farm). From th gust sid the kav born ome ogngs about appiying thee sb teats tat stand ne ate tity relation tothe Iteration Pom the ptt of view oy shoul be wed only fetes ta ce oom ‘th iteration enter tn ae decom orembons, lke Thor's Chri wa symbalfor cmpston the h rer and cle aa symbol for Consoles tbafoe justice othe onotnatapontin in the epee of langage. But nog it customary toute the word symbol in afr broader ‘pplication, andi acer advantageous tobe able to apply the Word. precy to interpretable norserioue entitles, ‘There seems tobe an een anity betweun the interpretable pieces ‘fa game ond fpmerphisnybel a that nelle erie tos] the faster analy Into fig thats characteristic of Sign. Tn the discuson that ba taken place among uss in reent years consenting the mature ofthe igo, ttn tion hs gly buen drawn tothe sgrammticl charter of isomorphic symbol this the rae thought in tational foxmalaon, 22, Comoltve renter ond matounioies 1 tee naa senate cnt topes ob Dayne Actin ora 8 1 ‘connorATIVE seaovtee ano merasearonice ns that the nga thar fares Wn sels as 3 pou typeof scr. On the other han, we fave nt yet onaeed how hele eran mage to Pecan fd ietity the inv emit as sch nh etal aul ‘Im prepaing the analy we ave proceeded onthe tact ‘compton that the datum im cet composed in oe defate femioti, ot n a mitre af to or more sents In other wordy In order teas single ol uation wre have worked withthe penis thatthe ven tent dopa $rocturl iment, tint we seated fn ectalying one fndonlyonseotcaytem fo the ext Tis prema, however, doesnt hl goon practic Othe cont, ay et soa] hat nt of so smal extension tet It floyd a tuficent bal for deducing » astm gentle to other ets uly clan erates tat est on ieee te Vato or parts of ports of text can be composed 1 in diferent sine forms (characte by was restr tions: verse, pat, erious bende af the t¥0) in diterent aes (creative style ad the pal native 0 called normal, tye the erative and atthe sn tn ini tative syle tat called archalsing) in diferent slaestr (higher vaste and the lone, tiled vulgar, vale al; here also «neutral values hat is consdeot ultra higher nota lowe; 4 in diferent mali (speech, writing, este, fig coe es $n dierent tne (any, yale), 6 in diferent idioms, under which mat be distngashed 1 ferent sacar (the common lngoage of «comme ity, jngone of varius cligaes or professions), Aiferent notional lnguags, iferen regional lapuage (standard language, local dn let ee), Aitcrent plyiognomies (as concerns te expen, ierSofistic form, tye, valuestyle, medium, tone, vernaculs, rational language, eeional language, and physiognomy are Soldny catego, so that any fanetive of devoalive language mast be defined In cespect of them all atthe same time, By Combination ofa tember of oe category with a member ofa ‘ther eategony ace hybrid, which ofan have or ean ally be ‘provided wth pei dsigeatons ballets sple— creative yl that sa bighervaluesiley slang creative style thats but higher and a lower values; argon and code—creative Se tnt ae na ight nor loner vest alll Inngesge bora syle ht ner higher “wets tue syloe Neher values thats seg) Sperchatd cominon inguege; pat syle higher {hep ta pone ad ego chancery sea. Alper ates that tan achat wring, and Jaen “he pe of thee enmerains nt text aloe toemly det, ee penne, ba only te demons hig "The nunl metbes of ach fhe ses nd the wits sein tom tn combiaion we allel coma Sone SX thse comeatrs may be eary wih cea tems of Senfoe schematay athe with cen staf Femi ‘ne, andes oh oth, Tis impose oka’ piri Sic be suation change, To nme oly posite hat yy, Spent eens is inpontbe to Bow Dlredand whet 0” Ppcogomy (one penn’ trace ab oped to hoe) Teper ony soci ge and nota a speci she {Ghtering pert ony sight bata, but ie, 4 Armin heen can acted art ay sce ei si sy gcse av ralwe SMa nie Ce if pte i Gre den, wan Cece tro ewes anaes ea ep. dipmi nur igs ed eee or whether «national Inguage sprees specie Ungusie schema or in comparison wi another astonal language, only eprosnts spel Hnguisticusge wile the schemata othe too national guage are dential. ‘To ensre a self-consistent ad exhaustive doxciption, le ute theory mae thtelorepreibe such » procedure for textual analyse an wit eouble us to Kep thes caves part Suangsly enough, n previous linguist atestion bas ben ald tothisrequlremen only toa vry light degree. The explanation 5s pardy to be aught in the fact that transcendent pints of ‘view have been sssmed. For example tha been thought pss- ‘le to eatablc from a vague scogil starting pont the i all reasonable probability false) postulate thatthe exten of 1 socal nora Emples that natonl language falso norm ‘nd spel nt foternal tacture and tha, on te other hand, linguistic hyiognomy aphyiognomyisaguantitnégliaole tnd canbe take indaciminately without further ado as repre: fentatve of sation language, Only the Londen school has ‘een emu exstous on this pot; Daniel Jones” defniton ofthe phoueme expremiy rer to "the proncaton of one Individual speaking in dit sje 04) Given unzeatictednens (productivity of te text, there vl always be “tandatabiiy,” which hee means ore presionsstiution, between two ign each baanying to sign-cas of ts own, thir sn-lse in ie ten being soliary vith its respective connate, This terion i expecially obvi us and easly applicable to the Signs of great extension which textual analyse encounters nts eaes pertions ay ex ervate (6g chapter) ca be ranaatd fo ane tlt frm, styl, vauesipe, mer, tne ermal, atonal of relana Tangaage, phyiognomy to another. Ae we have sen hl tana lataiiy isnot aay zero! if any ster seo cone ened than a language, but if language is incladed, «un Dey rea Cr sited Page 1, gueIntra tanalatablty is ways posible. Inthe textual analysis, Consequently, connate wil appear a8 parts that enter into funetives uch sway that the fanetives have mutal sb: tion when thew pacts ae defacted; and under certain endtions onotaters ar found in al the fanedves of agen degree. But ‘bis slant to define a connotaor. We ell an ety ‘hat ae the given property an aia, and we mest dtngssh between two Kinds of indicator: sige (Gee p72) and con tines. The difesence between them trom an operative paint ‘ot vow ie Chat signal may always be refered ambiguavsly to one definite plane of the semiatl, while this is never oof 8 Connotatoe, A conoltr, then, tam Indicator which s found, “ner cetaln condilons fa both plane of the seit Tn the textual azalyss the connotators mast be disengaged from the deduction In this way thou signs whic wre dierent ony by being saliday each with it oven connetator appear as ‘setts, These vase contras ondary variants (p81), te pacticule and must be handled dieenty im the further” toayae In thi may we protect cuslves aginst mixing to iether diferent snore achumath (and wage) chere sould, Inter prove tobe dent, thir easly app from a mapping ‘ut it clear that the cmnotatorsterseves also provide nhject whose treatment belong to smote. Ther etme: fos not fal othe dcpline hat anlyoe enatative solos; ‘he only task of hat dsipline i to srt ot th cnnotatrs a lee the collected for later teatnnt. This treatment boi * to special dscpline which determines the study of ohlotanp "Now it seems cbvius thet the sldety wie 105)_betwcen certain sgn clases end certain connotes is sign feton, sac te gn asus ae expres foe the * onnotators a cml, hut fi the sama schomg(a) ax fogs) which we desigate as the Danish Inguago that a9 ‘chression for the connotator "Danis." Likes ise se + 4 ‘ofc schema) and usgo() which we dasgate asthe linguistic hysiognony N-N that are expression fr he real physiognomy IN. (tat penn), and conespondngly i all ter eases, Not thing des the national language stnd as “symbol forthe ration, the local dale symbol” fr the ean "Thea seems appropriate to view Ge connotntor as content for which the denotative semiotics are expaion, and to desig: nate ths content and this expresion as a semi, namely 8 connsatve semi. In oter words ater the aoayin of the

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