INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEC 2820 – MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

LAB MANUAL
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
MODULE

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 EXPERIMENT 1: TENSILE TEST

Introduction:
The most fundamental strengths of a material are the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
Therefore, the relation between stress and strain become an important characteristic of a material.
The stress-strain diagram is obtained by conducting a tensile test on the material. Whenever a
material is loaded in tension, elongation of the material takes place. This elongation is
proportional to the applied load. As the load is increased, it reaches a certain limit where it causes
the material to break. Within the elastic limit, the strain induced in the specimen is proportional to
stress according to Hooke's law as
σ = Eεε
where σ = stress (Load/Area), and ε = strain (Change in length/Orginal length)
and E = Young's modulus of the material.
In this experiment, INSTRON Universal Testing Machine is used to measure this properties.

Objective:
• To understand the concept of elastic and plastic deformation
• To quantitatively measure modulus of elasticity (E), elastic limit (Se), yield strength (Sy),
ultimate tensile strength (Sut), fracture strength (Sf)
• To identify the above properties on the engineering curve

Equipment:
• 2 pieces of standard aluminum and steel specimens,
• Calipers
• Universal Testing Machine
• One empty 3½ diskket

Experimental Procedure:
Please refer to ASTM standards for any clarifications.

Figure 1: Dimensions of the test specimens

1. Measure the dimensions (thickness, width and gage length) of the test specimen to the
nearest 0.02nn using calipers.

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 2. Mark gage length of 50 mm as shown in Figure 1.
3. Mark the section to be gripped 62.6mm from both ends of the specimen. The section areas
show the portion to be gripped.
4. Switch ON the Universal Testing Machine and activate the INSTRON programme. Warm
up the machine to normal operating temperature to avoid errors that might arise from
transient condition.
5. Select Tensile Test under the test option. Set the working unit to S.I.
6. Under the test menu enter the following information
a. Control Mode: Extension
b. Extension speed : 2mm/min
c. Stop criteria: Load threshold 40% sensitivity
d. Stop method: Stop
7. Under the Specimen submenu, enter the measured dimensions of the specimen (width,
thickness and gage length)
8. Load the test specimen to the grips of the test specimen.
9. Zero the gage length extension and load.
10. Select the run option to begin the test. Wait for the machine to prompt you for further
actions. Save the necessary information to a diskette.

Required (To be included in the results and discussion section):

1. Plot of the engineering and true stress-strain curve for all the specimens
2. If the yield point of a particular specimen is not well defined describe the method use to
identify the yield strength.
3. Make a table and list down the experimental values of Modulus of Elasticity, Yield
Strength, Ultimate Tensile strength and also the Fracture Strength of all the test specimen.
4. Compare the experimental data with theoretical results (refer to materials hand book) and
comment on the accuracy of your results.
5. Fit end of the fractured specimens together and measure the distance between the gage
marks to the nearest 0.25 mm and determine the percentage of the elongation of all the test
specimens. Compare and discuss the percentage of elongation of the specimen
accordingly.

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 EXPERIMENT 2: COMPRESSION TEST

Introduction:
A compression test determines behaviour of materials under crushing loads. An
axial compression testing is useful procedure for measuring the plastic flow
behaviour and ductile fracture limits of materials. Measuring the plastic flow
behaviour requires frictionless (homogenous compression) test conditions, while
measuring ductile fracture limits take advantage of the barrel formation and
controlled stress-strain conditions at the equator of the barreled surface when
compression is carried out with friction. Axial compression testing is also useful for
measurement of elastic and compressive fracture properties of brittle or low ductility
materials.
Compressive stress and strain can be calculated and plotted as a stress-strain
diagram, which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point,
yield strength and for some material compressive strength.

Objective:
• To measure compressive modulus of elasticity and yield strength
• To observe the difference between compressive failure and tensile failure.

Equipment:
• 3 different length of aluminum rods
• Calipers
• Universal Testing Machine
• One empty 3½ in disk

Experimental Procedure:
Please refer to ASTM standards for any clarifications.

Specimens preparation

Specimen A:
Dia = 12.5 ± 0.5 mm
Height =45 ± 0.5 mm

Specimen B:
Dia = 12.5 ± 0.5 mm
Height = 30 ± 0.5 mm

Specimen C:
Dia = 12.5 ± 0.5 mm
Height = 15 ± 0.5 mm Specimen A Specimen B Specimen C

Figure 1: Dimensions of the test specimens

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 1. Prepare three type of test specimens as in Figure 1
2. The ends of the specimens shall be smooth and flat.
3. Record the final dimensions and cross sectional area of the prepared
specimens.

Testing procedure

1. Switch ON the Universal Testing Machine and activate the INSTRON

programme. Warm up the machine to normal operating temperature to avoid
errors that might arise from transient condition.
2. Change the jaws of the test machine to accommodate for compression test.
Place the specimen at the center of the bottom plate. Lower the upper plate
close to the specimen.
3. Ensure that there is no gap between the specimen and the upper plate.
4. Set the machine's working unit to S.I. Enter the necessary information about
the specimens. Use the following values.
i. Compressive range about half of the original le
ii. Speed 5 mm/min
iii. Stop criteria Stop and return
5. Reset the load and extension to zero and start the experiment and wait for the
machine to prompt you for further action..
6. Save the necessary information to a diskette.
7. Return the borrowed tools to their proper places and make sure the machined
is TURNED OFF before you leave the laboratory.

Required (To be included in the results and discussion sections):

1. Plot of necessary curves required to identify the important parameters that
controlled material behaviour under compression as stress-strain diagram.
2. Report the modulus elasticity, yield strength, compressive strength and
method of determination.
3. Compare the experimental data with theoretical results (refer to materials
handbook) and comment on the accuracy of your results.
4. Describe the type of specimens failure and comments on relationship of
deformation modes with the ratio of length over diameter (l/d) of the test
specimens.
5. States any anomalities that occurred during the test that may have had an
effect on the test results.

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 EXPERIMENT 3: THREE POINT BEND TEST

Introduction:
Bending tests are carried out to ensure that a metal has sufficient ductility to stand bending
without fracturing. A bend test produces tensile strength in the convex side of the specimen and
compression stress in the concave side. This creates an area of shear stress along the midline. To
ensure the primary failure comes from tensile or compression stress, their shear stress must be
minimized. This is done by controlling the span to depth ratio; the length of the outer span
divided by the height (depth) of the specimen. For most materials S/D =16 is acceptable.
The 3 point bend test is made by supporting the specimens on pins, rollers, or radiused flats
near each end and applying a force through a pin, mandrel or plunger between two supports, as
shown schematically in Figure 1, until the desired bend is formed. No force is applied directly to
the outer face of the bend.

Objective:
• To measure bending strength and flexural modulus
• To observe the difference between compressive failure, tensile failure and
flexural failure.

Equipment:
• 2 types of test specimens; Steel and Aluminum
• Calipers
• Universal Testing Machine
• One empty 3½ in disk

Experimental Procedure:
Please refer to ASTM standards for any clarifications.

Specimens preparation

Note:
C= distance between lower supports,
r = radius of the end of the mandrel or plunger
t = sheet specimen thickness
d = round specimen diameter
w = sheet specimen width

Figure 1: Dimensions of the test specimens

1. Prepare the test specimens as in Figure 1

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 2. The surface of the specimens shall be smooth and flat.
3. Record the final dimensions and cross sectional area of the prepared
specimens.

Testing procedure
1. Switch ON the Universal Testing Machine and activate the INSTRON
programme. Warm up the machine to normal operating temperature to avoid
errors that might arise from transient condition.
2. Change the jaws of the test machine to accommodate for three point bend test.
3. Select 3 point bend test under the test option.
4. Set the machine 's working unit to S.I. Enter the necessary information about
the specimens. Use the following values.
iv. Speed 2 mm/min
v. Stop criteria Select appropriate test stop criteria. The test
is considered complete when significant
cracks appear on the specimen,
vi. Stop method Stop and return
5. Under the Specimen submenu, enter the dimensions of the specimen.
6. Place the specimen onto the test machine as shown in Figure 2
7. Reset the load and extension to zero and start the experiment. Apply the
bending load smoothly until failure occurs.
8. Save the necessary information to a diskette.
9. Return the borrowed tools to their proper places and make sure the machined
is TURNED OFF before you leave the laboratory.

Required (To be included in the results and discussion sections):

1. Plot the stress-strain diagram.
2. Report the flexural strength of all the materials.
3. Compare the experimental data with theoretical results (refer to materials
handbook) and comment on the accuracy of your results.
4. Calculate the maximum bending stress and strain.
5. Describe the bending moment of inertia and explain on how the stress and
strain would change if the cross section of the beam is:
a. Solid triangle
b. Hollow triangle with specified thickness
c. Solid cylinder
d. Hollow cylinder with specified thickness
Which of the above cross-section will give the maximum bending resistance,
give the reason.
6. States any anomalities that occurred during the test that may have had an
effect on the test results.

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 EXPERIMENT 4: DEFLECTION OF CANTILEVER BEAM TEST

Introduction:
The cantilever beam is a widely used structural element, for example in airplane wings, supports
for overhanging roofs, the front spindles of automobiles etc. A cantilever is commonly defined as
a beam which is built-in and supported at only one point , and loaded by one or more point loads
or distributed loads acting perpendicular to the beam axis.

In this experiment the deflection of a cantilever subjected to an increasing point load. This test
will be repeated for two different materials to see if their deflection properties vary.

Objective:
• To determine the shear force, bending moment of a cantilever beam, loaded in bending.
• To compute the deflection of different materials and shapes.
• To understand how engineers compare different materials.
• To understand why cross-sectional shape is important in design
• To determine the reaction at beam supports.

Equipment:
• 3 types of test beams; steel, aluminum and brass
• Calipers
• Cantilever Beam Machine

Experimental Procedure:
Please refer to ASTM standards for any clarifications.

Figure 1: Cantilever set-up and schematic

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Equipment set up
Before setting up and using the equipment, always:
• Visually inspect all parts, including electrical leads, damage or wear.
• Check electrical connections are correct and secure
• Check all components are secure and fastenings are sufficiently tight.
• Position the equipment safely. Make sure it is on a solid, level surface, is
steady and easily accessible.

Testing procedure
10. Using a vernier gauge, measure the width and depth of the aluminum,
brass and steel test beams. Record the values in the results tables as in
example in Appendix A. Record this results for each material and use them
to calculate the second moment of area, I. Formula of deflection is given in
Appendix B.
11. Remove any clamps and knife edges from the backboard. Set up one of the
cantilevers as shown in Figure 1.
12. Slide the digital dial test indicator to the position on the beam shown in
Figure 1, and lock it using the thumbnut at the rear. Slide a knife-edge
hanger to the position shown.
13. Tap the frame lightly and zero the digital dial test indicator using the
'origin' button.
14. Apply masses to the knife-edge hanger in the increment as shown in Table
1 in the Appendix A. Tap the frame lightly each time you add the masses.
Record the digital dial test indicator reading for each increment of mass.
15. Repeat the procedure for the other materials and fill a new table.
.

Required (To be included in the results and discussion sections):

1. On the same axis, plot a graph of Deflection versus Mass for all three beams.
Comment on the relationship between the mass and the beam deflection. Is
there a relation ship between the gradient of the line for each graph and the
modulus of the material?
2. Calculate the theoretical deflection for each beam and add the results to your
table and graph. Does the equation accurately predict the behaviuor of the
beam?
3. Why is it good idea to tap the frame each time we take reading from the
digital test indicator?
4. States any anomalities that occurred during the test that may have had an
effect on the test results.
5. Name at least three practical applications of a cantilever structure.

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 APPENDIX A

MATERIAL
E Value:___________Nm-2 Width
b:____________mm
I:_________________m4 Depth
d:____________mm

Mass Actual deflection Theoretical deflection

(g) (mm) (mm)
0
100
200
300
400
500

Table 1: Results for Experiment 1

APPENDIX B

As well as the information given on the backboard you will need the following
formula:

WL3
Deflection =
3EI

Where:
W = Load (N)
L = Distance from support to position of loading (m);
E = Young's modulus for cantilever material (Nm-2)
I = Second moment area of the cantilver (m4)

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 EXPERIMENT 5: DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Introduction:
There are two types which may be used for the determination of the properties of a material in
shear. One is based on the application of a torque to cylindrical sample, causing the test piece to
twist, while the other involves direct shear. In this experiment, a simple direct shear test will be
conducted. This test method covers the determination of shear modulus of a given materials.
Shear modulus is given by :

τ
G= (1)
γ
where:
G = shear modulus of the specimen, τ = shear stress and γ = shear strain

F
τ= (2)
A

δ
γ = (3)
W
where:
F = force applied, A = cross section area, δ = displacement and
W = length of the specimens

Figure 1: Shear test set up

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Setting up the equipment
Before setting up and using the equipment, always:
• Visually inspect all parts, including damage or wear.
• Check all components are secure and fastenings are sufficiently tight.
• Position the equipment safely. Make sure it is on a solid, level surface, is
steady and easily accessible.

Testing procedure
16. Using a vernier calipers measure the surface area, A.
17. Measure the length, W.
18. Set-up the test equipment as in Figure 1
19. Apply masses to the hanger in the increment as shown in Table 1 in the
Appendix A.. Record the deflection for each increment of mass.
20. Repeat the procedure for the other materials and fill a new table.
.

Required (To be included in the results and discussion sections):

1. Plot a graph of shear strain versus shear stress. Comment on the relationship
between the mass and the specimen deflection.?
2. Calculate the slope of the graph.
3. States any anomalities that occurred during the test that may have had an
effect on the test results.

APPENDIX A

Table 1: Results for Experiment

Mass Shear Deflection, Shear strain,

(g) stress δ (mm) τ
σ (MPa)
0
200
400
600
800
1000

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 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
MODULE

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 EXPERIMENT 1:
STUDY AND OPERATION OF THE METALLURGICAL/OPTICAL
MICROSCOPE AND STUDY OF THE MICROSTRUCTURES OF
STANDARD SAMPLES

Objective: An understanding of the working principle of the metallurgical microscope and the
microstructure of different ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys.
Introduction:
A metallurgical/optical microscope is a vital tool for the engineers to determine the
microstructure of the investigated material. Some optical microscopes are equipped with
accessories for photomicrography and measurement of micro (Vickers) hardness. On the other
hand an understanding of the microstructure of different materials and alloys is very important
due to the fact that it would help in identifying an unknown material from its microstructure. It
is a very lengthy method to determine the exact composition of a material. But from the
microstructure a first hand idea may be formed about the material, its approximate
composition, type of heat treatment operation performed on it and presence of any plastic
deformation in the structure.
Methodology:
1.Samples
a) Mild Steel
b) Al alloy
c)

2.Sample preparation

a. Cutting and Grinding: Samples of 1/2 inch diameter (or 1/2 x % inch cross section) and
3/4 inch height are to be parted using a hack saw. The specimens are then ground on
different grades of emery paper in order of increasing fineness. Care is taken during
grinding so that the end surface of the specimen remains perpendicular to axis of the
specimen. During grinding on each successive paper, the specimen is rotated to produce
free scratches at 90° to those formed earlier.
b. Polishing: The samples are then polished on a polishing machine using aluminum oxide or
silicon carbide powders in order to remove all the scratch marks formed during grinding.
c. Washing and drying: After polishing the specimens are washed in running water,
swabbed with wet cotton and finally rinsed in alcohol before drying.
d. Etching: Etching of the polished specimens are then performed to reveal the micro
structure. Different types of etching reagents such as dilute solutions of sulfuric,
hydrochloric or nitric acid are used. The etching time is 10-20 seconds. After etching the
samples are to be first washed with water then with alcohol to stop further etching action
of the reagent.

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3.Microstructure observation

The students are next required to go through the operating procedure of the
metallurgical microscope. The operation manual of the microscope may be referred to for this
purpose. After bringing the microscope to operating condition the specimen is placed on the
stage of the microscope. Then the nosepiece is revolved to engage the 10X objective. Then the
stage is raised first with help of the coarse adjustment knob and then with the fine adjustment
knob. Then the nosepiece is revolved again to engage the 20X objective and focusing is done
using the fine adjustment knob and the diopter adjustment ring located on the left eye piece
(see the general view of the microscope in Fig 1.1). In similar manner the magnification of
X50 and X100 may be selected. For observation of the microstructure magnification of X20 or
X 50 may be finally selected.

Results and Discussion:

The students are required to make sketches of the observed structures and to determine the
materials of the specimens. Later on these findings are to be compared with the standard chart
values.

Report:
The students are required to submit reports containing the following:
1. Introduction.
2. Methodology.
3. Sketches of the microstructures with comments on the materials.
4. Discussion.
5. Individual assignment.

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 Fig 1.1 : General view of the Metallurgical Microscope of the Olympus Optical Company.

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 EXPERIMENT 2:
STUDY AND OPERATION OF SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(SEM) AND STUDY OF THE MICROSTRUCTURES OF STANDARD
SAMPLES

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 EXPERIMENT 3:
HEAT TREATMENT AND HARDENABILITY TEST OF CARBON
STEELS AND THE EFFECTS ON THEIR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.

Objective :
• An understanding of the effects of heat treatment on the properties like hardness,
strength and microstructure of hypo-eutectoid carbon steels.

Introduction:

Heat Treatment
The properties of carbon steels are greatly influenced by heat treatment operations. Heat
treatment is a general term referring to a cycle of heating, soaking and cooling that alters the
internal structure of a metal and thereby alters its properties. The primary purpose of heat
treatment is to give a metal alloy a combination of hardness, strength, toughness, or ductility,
that it will need for a specific purpose.
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and
mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes done
inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding
or forming.
Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can also
be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining, improve
formability, restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very enabling
manufacturing process that can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve
product performance by increasing strength or other desirable characteristics.

Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat
treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any other material. Steels are heat
treated for one of the following reasons:
1. Softening
2. Hardening
3. Material modification

Softening: Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, improve
toughnesss, restore ductility, refine grain size or change the electromagnetic properties of the
steel. Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is a necessary operation when a large
amount of cold working is to be performed, such as in a cold-rolling operation or wire drawing.
Annealing - full process, spheroidizing, normalizing and tempering - austempering, martempering
are the principal ways by which steel is softened.

Hardening: Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength and wear properties. One of the
pre-requisites for hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy content. If there is sufficient carbon

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content then the steel can be directly hardened. Otherwise the surface of the part has to be carbon
enriched using some diffusion treatment hardening techniques.

Material Modification: Heat treatment is used to modify properties of materials in addition to

hardening and softening. These processes modify the behavior of the steels in a beneficial
manner to maximize service life, e.g., stress relieving, or strength properties, e.g., cryogenic treatment,
or some other desirable properties, e.g., spring aging.

Heat treatment operations which are generally performed on carbon steels are:
i) annealing
ii) normalizing
iii) quenching
iv) tempering

Annealing is performed to revive a neutral structure, improve ductility, reduce hardness

and improve machinability. Normalizing is also employed to improve the metal structure to
some extent and it also to improve machinability of work materials.

For both operations the metal is heated above the recrystallization temperature and then
cooled slowly. In the case of annealing the cooling process is performed in the furnace but in
the case of normalizing cooling is performed in air resulting in a higher rate of cooling than
annealing. After annealing, ferrite and pearlite structure is formed, but after normalizing an
intermediate structure like sorbite or troostite along with ferrite and pearlite is formed. For
purpose of hardening, the metal is heated above the critical temperature and held at that
temperature for recrystallization and then cooled rapidly in a quenching medium which ensures
a cooling rate higher than the critical cooling rate. This results in a hardened structure called
martensite, which is at the same time quite brittle. To remove internal stresses and also to
revive ductility of martensite to some extent, the metal is tempered after hardening. Figure 3.1
shows schematic summary of simple heat treatment for hyper and hypo-eutectoid steels.

Effect of Alloying Elements

Alloying elements are added to steels to (a) provide solid solution strengthening of
ferrite, (b) cause the precipitation of alloy carbides rather than that of Fe3C, (c) improve
corrosion resistance and other special characteristics of the steels, and (d) improve
hardenability. The term hardenability describes the ease with which steel can form martensite.
This relates to how easily we can form martensite in a thick section of steel that is quenched.
With a more hardenable steel we can “get away” with relatively slow cooling rate and still
form martensite. Improving hardenability is most important in alloy and tool steels.

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 Fig 3.1 : Schematic summary of the simple heat treatment for (a) hypoeutectoid steels and (b)
hypereutectoid steels.

In plain carbon steels, the nose of TTT and CCT curves occurs at very short times,
hence very fast cooling rates are required to produce all martensite. In thin sections of steel, the
rapid quench produce distortion and cracking. In thick steels, we are unable to produce
martensite. All common alloying elements in steel shift the TTT and CCT diagrams to longer
times, permitting us to obtain all martensite even in thick sections at slow cooling rates. Figure
3.2 shows the TTT and CCT curves for a 4340 steel. Plain carbon steel have low hardenability
– only very high cooling rates produce martensite. Alloy steels have high hardenability – even
cooling in air may produce martensite. Hardenability does not refer to the hardness of the steel.
A low carbon, high alloy steel may easily form martensite, but because of the low carbon
content, the martensite is not hard.

Fig 3.2 :
(a) TTT and (b) CCT curves for a 4340 steels.

When alloying elements are added to steel, the binary Fe-Fe3C stability is affected and
the phase diagram is altered as shown in figure 3.3. Alloying elements reduce the carbon
content at which the eutectoid reaction occurs and change the A1, A3 and Acm temperatures. A

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steel containing only 0.6% C is hypo-eutectoid and would operate at 700oC without forming
austenite, the otherwise same steel containing 6%Mn is hypereutectoid and austenite form at
700oC.

Fig 3.3 : The effect of 6% manganese on the stability ranges of the phases in the eutectoid portion of
the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram.

Alloying elements may introduce a “bay” region into the TTT diagram, as in case of
4340 steel shown in figure 3.2. The bay region is used as the basis for a thermomechanical heat
treatment known as ausforming. A steel can be austenized, quenched to the bay region,
plastically deformed, and finally quenched to produce martensite (fig 3.4)

Fig 3.4 : When alloying elements introduce a bay region into the TTT diagram, the steel can be
ausformed.
A Jominy test is used to compare hardenabilities of steels. In the test one end of the steel
is sprayed with water, as a result this particular point will at the highest rate. Martensite itself has
a body centered tetragonal lattice supersaturated with carbon, and is extremely hard and brittle.
However to from martensite the specimen must cool at a rate that exceeds the critical cooling

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rate on the continuous cooling transformation diagram. See figure 3.5 below. If the cooling rate
is just below the critical cooling rate, martensite can still form in addition to other phases. At
very low cooling rates martensite is absent. Since the cooling rate along the length of the
specimen will vary, different phases will form resulting in a hardness profile.

Fig 3.5 : Schematic TTT phase diagram of eutectoid steels.

Methodology:

For these experiments medium carbon steel is to be chosen as the work material. Five
different pairs of samples are to prepared. Each of the four pairs of samples would undergo
different types of heat treatment operation. The fifth pair of samples is not be heat treated
and would represent the initial properties of the metal. Four different types of heat
treatment (i) annealing (ii) normalizing (iii) quenching in water and (iv) quenching in oil
are to be performed on the different pairs of samples. One of the samples of each pair is to
prepared for impact testing while the other is to be prepared for microstructure study and
hardness test. The samples for these tests should be 1/2 inch in diameter (or 1/2 x 1/2 inch
in cross section) and 3/4 inch in height. The samples for the impact test should be as per
final dimensions shown in figure 3.6 below. The dimension of the samples which would
undergo heat treatment operation before the impact test are to include the a clearance of
0.01 inch on all dimensions for grinding to be performed after heat treatment.

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Heat t reat ment procedure
( i) Annealing :
1) Sample is pre- heat ed to 300 ˚C and ho lds for 30 minut es.
2) The sample t emperat ure is increased t o 800 ˚C wit hin 30
minut es (rat e : 0.27˚C/sec).
3) The sample is ho lds at 800 ˚C for 15 minut es.
4) Swit ch o ff t he fur nace and cool down t he sample ins ide t he
fur nace.

( ii) Normalizing :
1) Sample is pre- heat ed to 300 ˚C and ho lds for 30 minut es.
2) The sample t emperat ure is increased t o 800 ˚C wit hin 30
minut es (rat e : 0.27˚C/sec).
3) The sample is ho lds at 800 ˚C for 15 minut es.
4) Swit ch o ff t he fur nace and cool down t he sample in t he air.

(iii) Quenching in water :

1) Sample is pre- heat ed to 300 ˚C and ho lds for 30 minut es.
2) The sample t emperat ure is increased t o 800 ˚C wit hin 30
minut es (rat e : 0.27˚C/sec).
3) The sample is ho lds at 800 ˚C for 15 minut es.
4) Take out t he sa mple and immediat ely quench it int o wat er.

(iv) Quenching in oil

1) Sample is pre- heat ed to 300 ˚C and ho lds for 30 minut es.
2) The sample t emperat ure is increased t o 800 ˚C wit hin 30
minut es (rat e : 0.27˚C/sec).
3) The sample is ho lds at 800 ˚C for 15 minut es.
4) Take out t he sa mple and immediat ely quench it int o oil.

Fig 3.6 : Char py t est sp ecimen.

Samples for microstructure study are to be prepared using the methodology described
in other section in this manual.
After sample preparation impact test is to performed on the Universal Impact Tester for
Metals Model 84. Microstructure is studied on the prepared samples on a metallurgical /
optical microscope. Then the Rockwell hardness of the above samples are measured.

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REPORT

1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Sketch of the microstructures
5. Hardness values of the different samples
6. Impact strength of the different samples
7. Hardenability curves.
8. Discussion and conclusion.

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 EXPERIMENT 4: JOMINY END QUENCH TEST

Objective :
• To measure the hardenablity of mild steel using Jominy End Quench test

Jominy End Quench Test

Using the Jominy End Quench Test System the steel specimen is austentized in its
furnace for 30 minutes. Dimensions given in Figure 4.1. After heating, the specimen is removed
from the furnace and placed in the quenching chamber using a pair of tongs. This should not take
more than 5 seconds. See Figure 4.2.
To prevent oxidation and decarburization the specimen in the quenching chamber is
surrounded by a SS mould with the placement of graphite powder or cast iron chips in the base
of the mould. See Figure 4.3. The sample should remain here for at least 10 minutes.

Water from a reservoir, (temp 20-30 deg C), passing through a flow valve is used to
quench the specimen at the non fixed end, Figure 4.4.
Once quenching is completed the surface of the specimen should be ground flat and the
Rockwell hardness determined, (C scale) at intervals, 1.5, 3, 5, 9 and 11, 13, 15mm and then
after every 5mm intervals. The measurements should begin at the quenched end.

Results and Discussion

The students are required to sketch the microstructure observed under the microscope
and estimate the carbon content of the steel in the case of the sample which has
undergone annealing.

The Rockwell hardness of the samples are to be measured and listed in a tabular form.

The correlations between heat treatment, microstructures and its mechanical properties are
to be properly discussed.

A plot should be made of distance of hardness measurement from quenched end versus
hardness. An explanation should be given of the results.

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Report:
The students are required to submit reports containing the following:
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Sketch of the microstructures
4. Hardenability curves.
5. Discussion and conclusion.
6. Assigned question.

Fig 4.1 : The dimension of the specimen.

Fig 4.2 : Experimental equipment details.

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 Fig 4.3 : Specimen surrounded by SS mould to prevent oxidation and decarburization.

Fig 4.4 : Specimen at cooling chamber.

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 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
MODULE

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 EXPERIMENT 1: FRICTION WELDING

Objective: To join two materials or same material using friction welding.

Equipment: Turning machine, Vertical Mill, Grinding machine, Sand paper.

Materials: Polycarbonate rod 25 mm diameter, Polymethylmethacrylate Acrylic rod 25 mm
diameter, PVC rod 25 mm diameter.

Procedure
1. Prepare two cylindrical rods of two different materials each of 100 mm in length and 25
mm diameter by cutting pieces from given material rods.
2. Using turning machine perform facing for all rods to be used for experiments and reduce
the diameter of one cylindrical rod to 15 mm for a 40 mm length.
3. Wipe any oil or wet material from the rod ends and make them dry.
4. Fix the reduced diameter of one cylindrical rod into the tailstock of turning machine.
5. Clamp the other cylinder into the turning machine chuck.
6. Turn on the turning machine with chuck spinning at the maximum speed and slowly push
the cylinder held in the tail stock against the cylinder in the chuck.
7. Make sure the material in touch heats up and starts melting due to friction.
8. Continue the process for about 40 seconds and then stop the turning process but keep
pressing the tailstock cylinder against the material piece in the chuck for about 5 minutes.
9. Unclamp the joined specimen and remove the burs using turning process or grinding.
10. Firmly hold the joined specimen in a vertical milling machine and machine the specimen
into a square or rectangular cross section of 20 mm.
11. Using sand paper shine the specimen surfaces for presentation showing the bi-material
interface clearly.

Precaution: Do not use any coolant during joining process.

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Fig.1 Few examples of the bi-material specimens produced by using friction welding.

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 EXPERIMENT 2: SPRING BACK

Objective: To study the spring back phenomena in metallic parts produced during a
manufacturing process.

Equipment: Vertical saw, Bending machine, Angle measuring device.

Materials: Steel plate, Aluminum Plate.

Procedure
1. Prepare a steel plate of 4 mm thickness.
2. Using vertical saw cut the plate into 100 length and 50 mm width.
3. Using bending machine perform the bending operation on the plate until the bend angle is
90o.
4. Remove the bent plate from the bending machine.
5. Measure the angle again.
6. The bending angle is no more 90o.
7. Repeat step 1 to 6 on an aluminum plate.
8. Compare the difference in the plate bending angle for both materials.
9. Make a literature survey to find out regarding the negative influence of “spring back”.
10. Answer the following questions

Q.1 What is spring back.

Q.2 What are the undesirable effects of spring back on manufactured products.
Q.3 How spring back can be avoided in the industry. Provide details.

An example of spring back is shown in Fig.1 for reference.

Fig.1 Spring back example

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