Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Yonggang Meng
Tianmin Shao
Qian Zhao
Advanced Tribology
Advanced Tribology
Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008
ISBN 978-7-302-20422-0
Tsinghua University Press, Beijing
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Advanced Tribology
̣Proceedings of CIST2008 &
ITS-IFToMM2008
Edited by:
Jianbin LUO, Yonggang MENG,
Tianmin SHAO, Qian ZHAO
Preface
The 5th China International Symposium on Tribology (CIST 2008), conjugated with the 1st International
Tribology Symposium of IFToMM (ITS - IFToMM 2008), was held from September 24 to 27, 2008 in Beijing,
China. The symposium was jointly organized by the State Key Laboratory of Tribology (Tsinghua University), the
State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication (Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences), and the Tribology Institution of Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society. Increasing activities in the
area of tribology of academia and industry in recent years were discussed during the symposium. Overall, a total of
463 abstracts were accepted for presentation and 378 participants took part in 41 oral sessions or in the poster area.
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support for the symposium from the National Natural Science
Foundation of China, International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science (IFToMM),
STLE (USA), the State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics (China),
China University of Mining and Technology, SAE Magnetics (H.K.) Ltd. (Hongkong, China), NSK Ltd. (Japan),
ETT (Eureka Think Tank) (Japan) and Quaker Chemical (China) Co. Ltd. (USA).
The symposium brought tribologists together from industry to academia all over the world for the purpose of
sharing their research information and viewpoints. The topics of the symposium included:
Subjects Organizers
Prof. Yuanzhong Hu (China)
Lubrication
Prof. Jane Wang (USA)
Prof. Zhongrong Zhou (China)
Friction and wear
Prof. Valentin L. Popov (Germany)
Prof. Yonggang Meng (China)
Micro/Nano-tribology
Prof. Dae-Eun Kim (R. Korea)
Prof. Tianmin Shao (China)
Tribology of coatings, surface and interface
Prof. A. Erdemir (USA)
Prof. Shirong Ge (China)
Biotribology
Prof. Zhongming Jin (UK)
Prof. Weimin Liu (China)
Tribo-chemistry
Prof. S. Mori (Japan)
Prof. Xinchun Lu (China)
Industry tribology
Prof. Yongzheng Zhang (China)
We would like to thank all the organizers of the above subjects and the session chairs in the symposium. We
also would like to express our great gratitude to Profs. Siwei Zhang, Qunji Xue, Jianbin Luo, Hugh Spikes, and
Stven Granick, for their excellent plenary talks, to Profs. Y. Kimura, S. M. Hsu, W. M. Liu, Y. G. Meng, A.
Erdemir, and A.G. Wang, for their keynote speeches, to all of the invited presenters and all the participants in the
symposium.
In the social programme on Sep. 27, 2008, some participants took a short tour of the Beijing city, which just
successfully hosted the 29th Olympic Games and the Paralympics in August and September of 2008. Although the
I
Preface
games ended in a splendor of fireworks a few days before the symposium, many participants met the joy, the
warm, and the passion of Beijing in their journey. In the afternoon of Sep. 26, more than 100 participants visited
the State Key Laboratory of Tribology (SKLT), Tsinghua University, as the first state key laboratory in the field of
tribology in China and was established in 1988. Now there are more than 20 full-time staffs, about 20 part-time
research assistants, and 70 postgraduate students working on tribology in the laboratory.
The success of the symposium depends heavily on the colleagues and students in SKLT, and many friends
who played a role in organization. We would like to thank Profs. Yonggang Meng, Tianmin Shao, Hui Wang,
Xinchun Lu, Drs. Xiangjun Zhang, Yu Tian, Qian Zhao, Chenhui Zhang, Haosheng Chen, Jiadao Wang, Dan Guo,
Tianbao Ma, and Ms. Yuhua Qi, Ms. Xiaochen Chen, as well as Dr. Aiyang Zhang, Dr. Jingyun Fan, for their great
contribution to the symposium. We would also like to thank our student volunteers for their excellent works.
We now look forward to the 6th China International Symposium on Tribology to be held in 2011 in Lanzhou,
China.
Shizhu Wen
Jianbin Luo
II
Content
Content
Plenary Lectures
Current Industrial Activities of Tribology in China ........................................................................................... Siwei Zhang 3
The Fullerene-Like Nanostructure Hydrogenated Carbon Films with Super-Low Friction .... Qunji Xue, Junyan Zhang 4
Tribology in Nanomanufacturing—Interaction between Nanoparticles and a Solid Surface .......... J. B. Luo, D. Guo 5
Tribology at Small Scales .....................................................................................................................................Steve Granick 11
Frontiers of Research in Liquid Lubrication ................................................................................................. Hugh A. Spikes 12
Keynote Talks
EHL with Grease at Low Speeds ..............................................................Yoshitsugu Kimura, Toshiaki Endo, Daming Dong 15
The Nature of Adhesion and Friction .............................................................................................................Stephen M. Hsu 20
Space Tribology of China ........................................................................................................................................ Weimin Liu 21
Active Control of Sliding Friction ...................................................................................................Yonggang Meng, Yu Tian 22
Superhard and Low Friction Nanocomposite Coatings: Design, Synthesis, and Applications
.............................................................................................A. Erdemir, O. L. Eryilmaz, M. Urgen, K. Kazmanli, V. Ezirmik 23
Tribology of Metal-on-Metal Bearings at High Inclination Angles
............................................................................................................ Reginald Lee, Aaron Essner, Aiguo Wang, Shirong Ge 24
Technical Sessions
ĉ. Lubrication
Key Factors to Induce Cavitation-Erosion (Invited) .................................... Darong Chen, Jiadao Wang, Haosheng Chen 31
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of TiC-Reinforced HSS-Based Composites with an Interpenetrating
Network for High Temperature Self-Lubrication Applications ...................................... Yanjun Wang, Zuomin Liu 32
Friction and Wear Characteristics of Advanced Space Lubricants (Invited)
................................................................................................Nobuyoshi Ohno, Sobahan Mia, Shigeki Morita, Shingo Obara 38
Lubrication Analysis of Journal Bearing and Rotor System Using CFD and FSI Techniques
................................................................................................................... Huiping Liu, Hua Xu, Peter Ellison, Zhongmin Jin 40
Oil Film Behavior under Minute Vibrating Conditions in EHL Point Contacts
........................................................................................................................Chen Feng, Taisuke Maruyama, Tsuyoshi Saito 42
Different Loading and Motion Applied on Hip Simulators Affects the Lubrication of
Metal-on-Metal Hip Implants...................................................Leiming Gao, Fengcai Wang, Peiran Yang, Zhongmin Jin 44
EHD Lubrication of Different Types of Gears ............................................................................................... Vilmos Simon 46
The Role of Heat Partition in Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication (Invited)
.......................................................................................................................H. P. Evans, A. Clarke, K.J. Sharif, R.W. Snidle 48
Influence of Surface Roughness on Elastohydrodynamic Journal Bearings with Non-Newtonian Lubricants
................................................................................................................ Chatchai Aiumpornsin, Mongkol Mongkolwongrojn 50
Theoretical Investigation of Journal Bearings with Non-Newtonian Fluids Included Thermal Effects
................................................................................................................ Mongkol Mongkolwongrojn, Chatchai Aiumpornsin 52
Magnetic Fluid Based Squeeze Film Behavior between Transversely Rough Curved Plates
...........................................................................................................G.M.Deheri, Rakesh M. Patel, Nikhilkumar D. Abhangi 54
III
Content
Engine Lubrication System Analysis and Oil Pump Design Optimization..............................................Quanbao Zhou 56
Temperature-Dependent Rheology and Tribology of Lubrication Greases Investigated with New Flexible
Platform for Tribological Measurements on a Rheometer ............................................... Jörg Läuger, Patrick Heyer 61
Study on Characteristic Parameters of Wear Particle Boundary ...................................................Guobin Li, Delin Guan 64
Viscosity Variation Model and Its Application in Micro/Nano-Scale Clearance
.............................................................................................................................Dong Chun-liu, Zhang Chao-hui, Wang Yan 70
Numerical Solving Method for the Structural Stiffness of Gas Foil Bearings.........Geng Haipeng, Qi Shemiao, Yu Lie 75
Biotribological Properties of Natural Swine Joint Cartilage ...................................................Cui Tao, Xiong Dangsheng 81
Effect of Surface Texturing on Lubrication Film Formation within Non-Conformal Contacts
.....................................................................................I. Kupka, M. Hartl, R. Polišuk, M. Vaverka, M. Vrbka, O. Šamánek 84
Experimental Investigation of Time-Dependent Oil Film Pressure in a Dynamically Loaded Journal Bearing
.............................................................................................................................Sun Meili, Xia Chengyong, Wang Xiangang 86
Experimental Research and Numerical Simulation of LY12 and HPb62-2 Ring Compression
......................................................................................................................Bin Guo, Feng Gong, Chunju Wang, Debin Shan 94
Application of Metal Self-Repairing Additives on Cylinder-Piston Ring Rubbing Pairs
....................................................................................... Lei Wang, X. C. Zhou, Q. Q. Li, C. Q. Yuan, X. P. Yan, Y. H. Chen 98
Wettability Study of Multiply-Alkylated Cyclopentanes (MACs) on Silicon Substrates ..... Ying Wang, Mingwu Bai 102
Numerical Analysis on Hydrodynamics of Circular Translational Polishing under Mixed Lubrication
...................................................................................................................................................................... W. Zhai, P. Feng 104
Micro-Tribological Analysis of POM-MoS2-Compounds ......................................... R. Stengler, S. Schraube, X. G. Hu 109
On Lubrication Characteristics of Dual Tori Double-Enveloping Toroidal Worm Drive
................................................................................................... Yaping Zhao, Wenjun Wei, Xuezhu Dong, Jiancheng Zhou 110
Thermoelastohydrodynamic Lubrication Analysis of Crankshaft Bearing Considering Crankshaft
Deformation under Load .......................................................................................... Jun Sun, Jianglin Liu, Changlin Gui 112
Transient Behavior of Elasto-Metal-Plastic Journal Bearing during the Stage of Stop
................................................................................................................................ Jian Jin, Guoxian Zhang, Xiaojing Wang 116
Analyses on the Splashing Parameters of High-Speed Oil Impacted a Wall in Jet Lubrications
.................................................................................................................. Le Gu, Zhenghuan Ye, Liqin Wang, Dezhi Zheng 120
Interferometry Measurement of Spinning Effect on Sliding EHL ........................................... F. Guo, X. M. Li, B. Fan 122
Effect of Wide Dimples on Planar Contact Lubrication ..... Jiadao Wang, Zhongling Han, Haosheng Chen, Darong Chen 125
Friction Properties and Microstructure of Al-Cu-Fe Nano Films ........................ Zhou Xi-ying, Liu Yan-hui, Xu Zhou 127
Tribological Properties of Ti6Al4V Alloy by FOTS Self-Assembled Monolayers Modification Treatment
............................................................................................................................................... Sun Changguo, Zhang Huichen 130
Influence of Spinning Effect on the Rolling EHL Films ............................................................ X. M. Li, F. Guo, B. Fan 134
A Study on Lubrication Characteristics between Piston Ring and Cylinder Bore of Bent-Axis Type Piston Pump
............................................................Jae-Youn Jung, Ihn-Sung Cho, Il-Hyun Beak, Hyun-Il Shin, Jae-Cheon Jo, Lu Hong 136
The Fabrication and Lubricant Performance of MoS2 Nanotubes Arrays .......................Caihong Sun, Changsheng Li 140
The Research on the Lubricant Aging under Durability Test of the Porous Sliding Bearings
.................................................................................................................. Giemza Boleslaw, Kaldonski Tadeusz, Krol Artur 142
Models for Predicting Friction Coefficient and Parameters with Influence in Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
................................................. P. Lafont Morgado, J. Echávarri Otero, J. B. Sánchez-Peñuela Lejarraga, J. L. Muñoz Sanz,
A. Díaz Lantada, J. M. Muñoz-Guijosa, H. Lorenzo Yustos, P. Leal Wiña 144
Elastohydrodynamic Film Thickness in Elliptical Contacts with Rolling and Spinning ........................ Tae-Jo Park 146
Experimental Study on the Tribological Properties of Pure Powder Lubrication under Plane Contact
......................................................................................................................Wang Wei, Liu Xiaojun, Liu Kun, Li Hongxian 151
IV
Content
Hydrodynamic Analysis and Experiment Verification of the High-Pressure Small-Flow Centrifugal Pump
................................................................................................................................ Li Bao-liang, Jiang Qin-Yu, Pan Xing-he 153
Effect of Liquid Surface Tension and Viscosity on Micro-Bubble Induced by External Electric Field
.......................................................................................................................................................... Xie Guoxin, Luo Jianbin 155
Study of Water Lubrication in Sliding Point Contact Friction Pairs with Hydrophobic Surfaces
............................................................................................................ Zhizuo Ma, Chenhui Zhang, Shuhai Liu, Wenshi Zhu 157
A Simplified Numerical Elastic-Plastic Contact Model for Rough Surfaces
............................................................................................. Zhanjiang Wang, Wenzhong Wang, Yuanzhong Hu, Hui Wang 159
Film Characteristics of Grease in Point Contact under Micro-Swaying Motion
.............................................................................................Li Gang, Zhang Chenhui, Luo Jianbin, Liu Shuhai, Lu Xinchun 167
Effects of Solid Body Temperature on the Non-Newtonian Thermal EHL Behavior in Point Contacts (Invited)
....................................................................................................................................................... Xiaoling Liu, Peiran Yang 169
Numerical Analysis on Dynamic Characteristics of Flying Magnetic Head with Ultra Thin Spacing
...................................................................................................................................................... Yao Hua-ping, Huang Ping 171
The Analysis of Higher Guide Bearing Pad Temperature and Its Fault Diagnosis
........................................................................................................................... Mei Gui, Gao Zhi, Liu Ying, Liu Xiangfeng 175
Pitting Life Prediction Based on a 3-D Line Contact Mixed EHL Analysis and Subsurface von Mises Stress
Calculation (Invited) ................................................................................................Dong Zhu, Ning Ren, Q. Jane Wang 178
Numerical Lubrication Simulation of Metal-on-Metal Hip Joints: Ball-in-Socket Model and Ball-on-Plane Model
.......................................................................Wenzhong Wang, Fengcai Wang, Zhongmin Jin, D. Dowson, Yuanzhong Hu 180
Deterministic Simulation of Surfaces in Conformal-Contact Lubrication (Invited)
.....................................................................................................Shangwu Xiong, Chih Lin, Jane Q. Wang, Yansong Wang 182
Simulation and Experimental Validation of the Effect of Surface Texture on Fluid Film Formation
............................................................................................. Zhang Jinyu, Meng Yonggang, Le Chengning, Hideki OGATA 184
Marangoni Stress and Its Effects on the Flow in an Evaporating Sessile Droplet .............. Xuefeng Xu, Jianbin Luo 186
Film Forming Characteristics of Oil-in-Water Emulsion with Super-Low Oil Concentration
................................................................................................................................... Ma Liran, Luo Jianbin, Zhang Chenhui 188
A Piston Lubrication Model Considering the Coupling between the Piston Secondary Motion and the
System Inertia Variation in an IC Engine ......................... Xiaoxiang Zhang, Zhinan Zhang, Ping Wang, Youbai Xie 191
Analysis of the Combined Effect of the Surface Roughness and Inertia on the Performance of High-Speed
Hydrostatic Thrust Bearing .......................................................... Yang Xuebing, Xiong Wanli, Lü Lang, Hou Zhiquan 197
Study on the Efficiency of the New-Style Reducer with the Green Lubricant
...............................................................................................Hu Junhong, Jin Yingli, Guo Dan, Ding Jinyuan, He Weidong 202
Pressure Dependence of the Limiting Shear Stress Coefficient of Liquid Lubricants ......G. T. Y. Wan, P. L. Wong 206
A Method of Dual Number for the Aerodynamic Property Analysis of Gas-Lubricated Mechanism:
Self-Pressurizing Thrust Bearings and Non-Contacting Face Seals ...............Wanfu Xu, Bin Geng, Chunjing Shi 211
A Model for the Calculation of the Micro-Pores Number of Compressively Molded Polyimide Porous
Materials ................................................................................................. Yuping Pu, Jianmin Chen, Peng Zhao, Qunji Xue 216
Frictional Dynamics in a Two Dimensional Frenkel-Kontorova Model with Square Lattice Symmetry
............................................................................................... Ju-na Wei, Cang-long Wang, Wen-shan Duan, Jian-min Chen 220
Advances in investigation of Elasto-Aerodynamic Lubrication in Compliant Foil Bearings (Invited)
.........................................................................................................................................Lie Yu, Shemiao Qi, Haipeng Geng 225
Normal Stress Effects in Journal Bearing Lubrication with Maxwell Fluid
......................................................................................................... Li Xiaodi, Chen Haosheng, Chen Darong, Wang Jiadao 231
V
Content
VI
Content
Experimental Study on Running-in of Steel Fiction Pair of Block on Disk in Oil with Micro-and-Nano
Diamond Powder .......................................................................................................... X. P. Xie, Z. G. Wang, S. L. Chen 315
Thermomechanical Properties and Tribological Behavior of CaCO3 Whisker Reinforced
Polyetheretherketone Composites ................................................................. Lin Youxi, Gao Chenghui, Chen Minghui 319
Corrosive Fretting Wear Behavior of a Titanium Alloy TC11 in Artificial Seawater
..........................................................................................................................H. Y. Ding, Z. D. Dai, Y. Zhang, G. H. Zhou 322
Investigation on Rolling Contact Fatigue and Wear Properties of Railway Rail
................................................................................................................... Wenjian Wang, Wen Zhong, Jun Guo, Qiyue Liu 327
Superlubricity Characteristics Using Ceramic Composite Mineral Powder as Lubricating Oil Additive
........................................................................................................................ Yuzhou Gao, Wengang Chen, Huichen Zhang 329
On the Wear-Resistance of Zinc-Based Composites Reinforced by Modified Silicon Phase
........................ Zhao Haofeng, Wang Ling, Wang Wei, Tan Xingxuan, Huang Tingli, Xia Zhengjun, Liu Yanling, Liu Bin 333
On the Wear-Resistance of Low-Alloyed Steel Modified by Inoculants
............................................ Wang Ling, Zhao Haofeng, Yan Kai, Liu Bin, Wang Wei, Chen Xi, Qin Qing, Wang Zhigang,
He Jun, Liu Mengyin, Liu Zhigang, Wu Hongyan 336
Research on Worn Mechanism of Disc-Brake Pair Materials for Drilling Rig
.......................................................................................................................X. H. Wang, S. W. Zhang, D. G. Wang, N. Wu 338
Modelling of Self-Lubrication in Frictional Interaction ......................................................................... I. G. Goryacheva 344
An Asperity-Contact Based Oxidation Model for Fretting Wear with the Presence of Debris
..................................................................................................................J. Ding, S. B. Leen, E. J. Williams, P. H. Shipway 346
Rolling Contact Fatigue of Silicon Nitride Balls under Pure Rolling Condition
..............................................................................................Zhou Jing-ling, Chen Xiao-yang, Zhang Pei-zhi, Wu Guo-qing 348
Influence of Different External Pressure on the Thermo-Mechanical Coupling of the Rough Surface
during Sliding Contact ......................................................................................................J. M. Huang, C. H. Gao, Z. Liu 350
Effect of Transverse Surface Topography on Cavitation Erosion.................. Y. Li, Z. Xu, H. Chen, J. Wang, D. Chen 356
The Theory of Debris Group in Ferrographic Analysis ................................ Tonggang Liu, Xiaohang Tang, Zhiyi Yang 361
A Method to Monitor Nonferrous Debris in Ferrographic Analysis .................Liu Tonggang, Liu Shujin, Yang Zhiyi 366
Interaction between Micro-Particales and Bubbles in Cavitation-Erosion of Hydro-Machinery
........................................................................ Wang Jiadao, Chen Haosheng, Xu Yanji, Qin Li, Li Yongjian, Chen Darong 368
Magnetization of Friction Surfaces and Wear Particles under Tribological Processes ..... Alan Hase, Hiroshi Mishina 370
Wear Progress Prediction of Carbide Tool in Turning of AISI1045 by Using FEM
.................................................................................................... Xie L.-J., Schmidt C., Biesinger F., Schmidt J., Pang S.-Q. 372
Friction and Wear Properties of Fe7Mo6-Based Alloy under the Lubrication of Ethyl-Alcohol
.............................................................................................................................. T. Murakami, H. Mano, Y. Hibi, S. Sasaki 376
Seizure of PEEK and Its Composite at High Sliding Velocity in Oil Lubrication ............. T. Akagaki, M. Kawabata 378
Tribological Behavior of Chromium Alloyed Layer Prepared on Surface of TiAl
................................................................Zhiyong He, Xiaofeng Wang, Ying Fan, Zhenxia Wang, Xiaoping Liu, Zhong Xu 384
Wear Characteristics under Boundary Lubrication Contacts in Phosphorated Starch Based
Electrorheological Fluids ....................................... Chul-Hee Lee, Young-Min Han, Jung Woo Sohn , Seung-Bok Choi 386
Abrasive Wear Mechanisms of Multi Component Ferrous Alloys Abraded by Soft, Fine Abrasive
Particles (Invited) ....................................................................................................De Mello, J. D. B., Polycarpou, A. A. 388
The Analyzes of Mutual Influence of Contact Spots in Sliding Contact of a Periodic Surface and
a Viscoelastic Foundation ..................................................................................................................... Lyubicheva A. N. 390
Different Nano-Fillers on the Tribological Properties of PTFE Nanocomposites
............................................................................................................... Huaiyuan Wang, Xin Feng, Liwen Mu, Xiaohua Lu 392
VII
Content
Study on Surface Passivation Treatment and Tribological Properties of 1Cr18Ni9Ti Stainless Steel in
Hydrogen Peroxide ............... Wang Jihui, Gu Kali, Yuan Chengqing, Sun Xianming, Hu Sheng, Hu Xiaozhong, Li Jian 396
High Speed Tribology: Some Developments on Thermal Behaviors (Invited) ..............Zhang Yongzhen, Qiu Ming 402
Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Cu-Graphite Composite within a Wide Range of Sliding Velocity
.............................................................................................................................................................. Wenlin Ma, Jinjun Lu 404
Tribological Aspects of Control over Frictional Interaction between Solids in the Presence of Liquid Crystals
...............................................................................................................................................S. F. Ermakov, A.V. Mikelionis 406
Effects of the Concentration of Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Solution and NaCl Additive on the
Potential-Controlled Friction ................................................................................Siqing He, Yonggang Meng, Yu Tian 408
Study of Wear and Corrosion Properties of Coated Ionic Liquid
..... Zhang Xiaohao, Zhang Xiangjun, Liu Yonghe, Mikhail Kosinsky, Imad Ahmed, Stefan Krischok, Juergen A. Schaefer 413
Deformation Behavior of Al-4Cu-2Mg Alloy during Cold Upset Forging
..................................................................J Babu Rao, Syed Kamaluddin, J Appa Rao, M M M Sarcar, N R M R Bhargava 417
Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Pure Aluminium and Al-Cu Alloys ........ A Narendra Kumar, R Srinivasu, J Babu Rao 422
Tribological Properties of Spark-Plasma-Sintered Al2O3-SrSO4 Self-Lubricating Nanocomposites at Elevated
Temperatures ............................. Yufeng Li, Jiahu Ouyang, Yaming Wang, Yu Zhou, Takashi Murakami, Shinya Sasaki 426
Tribological Behaviors of Some Materials in Sea Water ............................ Jianzhang Wang, Fengyuan Yan, Qunji Xue 430
Nanofretting Wear of Monocrystalline Silicon (100) against Spherical SiO2 Tip in Vacuum
..........................................................................................................Jiaxin Yu, Linmao Qian, Bingjun Yu, Zhongrong Zhou 433
Influence of Surface Finishing Operations on the Reciprocating Sliding Friction and Wear Response of
WC Based Cemented Carbides
..............................................K. Bonny, P. De Baets, W. Ost, S. Huang, J. Vleugels, O. Van der Biest, W. Liu, B. Lauwers 435
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Titanium Reinforced Polybenzimidazole Composites
...................................................................................................................................Lu Yanhua, Chen Jianmin, Zhou Huida 437
Friction and Wear Behavior of Laser Cladding NiAl/hBN Self-Lubricating Composite Coating
.......................................................... Shitang Zhang, Jiansong Zhou, Baogang Guo, Huidi Zhou, Yuping Pu, Jianmin Chen 442
Research on the Wear-Resisting Material Produced by Vacuum Evaporation Pattern Casting
........................................................................................................ Jianxiu Liu, Yongjun Liu, Minxin Zheng, Xiangke Ning 443
Effect of Surface Topography on Friction and Wear of Cast Iron for Cylinder Liners
............................................................................................................................J. Keller, V. Fridrici, Ph. Kapsa, J. F. Huard 447
Wear Resistance Analysis of Hardening Materials for Engine Cylinder .......Jianmin Sun, Qinghui Zhou, Gequn Shu 449
Effects of Speed Sequence on Friction Properties of Sintered Cu-SiO2
..................................................................................................................... Fei Gao, Rong Fu, Baoyun Song, Yves Berthier 454
The Fluid Dynamic Lubrication between Tooth Surfaces of High Order Contact........................................ L. Huran 457
Study on Friction and Wear Behavior of Glass Fiber and Fly Ash Reinforced MC Nylon Composites
.......................................................................................................................... S. H. Zhang, G. Chen, C. Cui, C. Mi, F. Tian 460
Experimental Study of Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Chemical Mechanical Polishing for Sapphire Substrate
.....................................................................................Wenhu Xu, Xinchun Lu, Guoshun Pan, Jianbin Luo, Chenhui Zhang 464
Friction and Wear of the Ceramic Coating Formed on Magnesium Alloy
....................................................................................................................Fei Chen, Hai Zhou, Qingfeng Zhang, Fanxiu Lv 467
Thermal-Mechanical Couple Simulation of Solid Brake Disc in Repeated Braking Cycles
........................................................................Pyung Hwang, Xuan Wu, Young-Bae Jeon, Qi-Cheng Peng, Hee-Chang Seo 471
Preliminary Applications of King’s ART Technology in Industry ..................Ling Chen, Yayue Zhao, Yuansheng Jin 473
Wear Properties of Potassium Titanate Whiskers Reinforced ZL109 Alloy Composites
..................................................................................................................................................Wei Zhongshan,Wu Shenqing 475
VIII
Content
ċ. Micro/Nano-tribology
Nano and Micro Indentation and Scratch Tests of Mechanical Properties of Thin Films
.............................................................................................................Norm V. Gitis, Ilja Hermann, Suresh Kuiry, Jun Xiao 489
Synthesis of Nano-MoS2 Particles and Its Role in the Self-Lubrication of Polyacetal-Based Composite
..............................................................................................................Xianguo Hu, Kunhong Hu, Yufu Xu, Ralph Stengler 491
Analysis of a Three-Body Contacting Model with the Adhesive Effect ...............Jeng-Haur Horng, Chin-Chung Wei 493
Analysis of Three-Body Contacting Model with Scale Effect.................................Chin-Chung Wei, Jeng-Haur Horng 495
Adhesion, Friction and Wear Measurements at Microscale
.............................................................................................N. Myshkin, A. Grigoriev, A. Kovalev, W. Scharff, E. Kovalev 497
Fabrication and Nano-Tribological Behaviors of PDDA/Ag NPs Composite Molecular Deposition Films
..................................................................................Xiao Yu-qi, Wang De-guo, Zhang Si-wei, Guo Yanbao, Gao Mang-lai 499
Frequency Shift of Single Walled Carbon Nanotube under Axial Load
.............................................................Kan Biao, Ding Jianning, Cheng Guanggui, Wang Xiuqin, Fan Zhen, Ling Zhiyong 503
Effect of Heat Treatment on the Nano-Tribological Properties of Ionic Liquid Films
............................................................................................................Wenjie Zhao, Deming Huang, Jibing Pu, Mingwu Bai 505
Analysis on Wafer Tilt Effects in CMP Process ..........................................Chao-hui Zhang, Zi-cheng Wang, Yan Wang 507
Size Effects on Friction of C3602 in Cylinder Compression ..............Bin Guo, Feng Gong, Chunju Wang, Debin Shan 509
Investigation on the Tribological Characteristics of Nano/Micro Solid Anti-Wear Additives
in Engine Lubricants ........................................................ Zhang Kejin, Wang Dan, Pan Yanchun, Lu Yun, Han Zhiyong 511
The Influence of Carbon Nanotubes on the Tribological Behavior and Wear Resistance of a Polyamide
Nanocomposite ......................................................................................... B. May, M. R. Hartwich, R. Stengler, X. G. Hu 515
Experimental Investigation of the Frictional Behaviors at Particle-Surface Interfaces in CMP Application
Using an Atomic Force Microscope .............................................................In-Ha Sung, Hung-Gu Han, Hosung Kong 516
Finite Element Simulation and Analysis of Nano-Scale Adhesive Contacts..................... Liu Yuan, Zhang Xiangjun 518
Nano/Micro-Tribological Properties of Ultrathin Functionalized Imidazolium Ionic Liquid Films
on Silicon Wafer ............................................................................................................................. Yufei Mo, Mingwu Bai 520
Micro Asperity Type Induced in Electrostatic Resistance of MEMS ....... Xuejin Shen, Licheng Hou, Xiaoyang Chen 522
Experimental Analysis and Numerical Simulation of the Recess Slider in Magnetic Recording System
with Ultra-Thin Spacing .....................................................................................Rongjun Niu, Hongbin Liu, Ping Huang 528
Effect of Solvents on Frictional Properties of Monolayer Lubricant Films Coated on Magnetic Disk
Surfaces (Invited).............................................. Hedong Zhang, Yasunaga Mitsuya, Yosuke Fujikawa, Kenji Fukuzawa 531
Fly-Ability and Durability Test of Dynamic Fly Height Heads at 1 nm Clearance
.......................................................................................................Ning Li, David B. Bogy, Lanshi Zheng, Yonggang Meng 533
Cavitation Erosion Characteristics of Titanium Alloy Thin Film Prepared by Ion Beam
Enhanced Deposition ...................................................................................... Zhang Huichen, Gao Yuzhou, Zhou Rixue 536
Measurements of Vertical Elongation and Adhesive Force of Nanometers-Thick Lubricant Films
on Magnetic Disks Using Micro Probe for SPM
........................ Yasuji Ohshima, Hedong Zhang, Yasunaga Mitsuya, Masayuki Watanabe, Takashi Sumi, Kenji Fukuzawa 540
IX
Content
Experimental Research on Boundary Slip of Confined Liquids at Micro/Nano Scale and Effect of
Shear Rate and Viscosity .................................................... Wang Xin, Zhang Xiangjun, Meng Yonggang, Wen Shizhu 542
Study on Micro-Scale Gas Slider Bearing with Direct Simulation Monte Carlo Method
...............................................................................................................................................Yanrui Zhang, Yonggang Meng 544
Tribological Behaviors of Self-Assembled Dual-Layer Films in Atmosphere and in Vacuum
...........................................................................................Bingjun Yu, Linmao Qian, Jiaxin Yu, Jun Luo, Zhongrong Zhou 546
Research on Fractal Contact Model of Cylinders’ Surface.......................................... Huang Kang, Zhao Han, Chen Qi 548
Friction between Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) Films—a Molecular Dynamics Study
..................................................................................................................................Tianbao Ma, Yuanzhong Hu, Hui Wang 554
Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic-Scale Friction in Diamond-Silver Sliding System
................................................................................................................................ Pengzhe Zhu, Hui Wang, Yuanzhong Hu 556
Molecular Dynamics Study on Carbon Nanotubes Sandwiched between Si Surface
...........................................................................................................................................Li Rui, Hu Yuanzhong, Wang Hui 558
Tribological Aspects of Nanoimprint Process (Invited) .......................................................................Zygmunt Rymuza 560
Molecular Dynamic Simulation of Effect of Crystallographic Orientation on Nano-Indentation/Scratching
Behaviors of BCC Iron .............. Cheng Lu, Yuan Gao, Guillaume Michal, Hongtao Zhu, Nam N. Huynh, A. Kiet Tieu 562
3D Misorientation of Cantilevers and Its Impact in Friction Force Microscopy
.............................................................................................................................Guillaume Michal, Cheng Lu, A. Kiet Tieu 564
Coupled Simulative Analysis for Drive Characteristic of Micro-Comb Structure..............................D. Guo, Y. Zhu 566
Relating Friction and Processes Development during Chemical-Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
.............................................................................................................................. Filip Ilie, Tiberiu Laurian, Constantin Tita 571
An Irreversible Thermodynamics Theory for Friction and Wear (Invited) ...........................................Zhendong Dai 576
Fabrication and Flying Test of Silicon Sliders .................................................... Jing Lin, Yonggang Meng, Nanhai Song 579
Surface Damages on Silicon Surfaces Created by Large Silica Cluster Impacts:
Molecular Dynamics Simulation....................................................... Ruling Chen, Jianbin Luo, Dan Guo, Xinchun Lu 582
Silicon Oxide Surface Chemistry and Nano-Tribology (Invited) ............................................................Seong H. Kim 584
Dynamic Testing for Evaluation of HDI Robustness
.............................................................................Zhi Sheng Deng, Li Zhi Su, Eric Lap Pang Lam, Eric Cheuk Wing Leung 586
Effect of Wall Roughness on Electroosmotic Flow in Microchannels .................................................Y. Liu, D. Yang 588
Nanopositioning and Nanomeasuring System: Friction and Its Control (Invited) .................................. Yonghe Liu 592
X
Content
XI
Content
XII
Content
XIII
Content
č. Biotribology
The Biotribological Behavior Researches on the -Tocopherol Doped and Gamma-Irradiated UHMWPE
..............................................................................................................................................................Ni Zifeng, Ge Shirong 823
The Effects of Protein and pH on the Tribo-Corrosion Performance of Cast CoCrMo —A Combined
Electrochemical and Tribological Study ............................................................D. Sun, J. A. Wharton, R. J. K. Wood 825
Biotribological Properties of Carburized Titanium Alloys ...............Yong Luo, Shirong Ge, Zhongmin Jin, John Fisher 827
Effect of Corrosion and Biofilm on Friction Behavior in Biotribocorrosion System for Metal-on-Metal
Hip Prosthesis ......................................................Yu Yan, Anne Neville, Duncan Dowson, John Fisher, Sophie Williams 829
A Microscopic Model for Pedestrian Slips Caused by Particle Contamination
................................................................................ Hung-Jung Tsai, Hung-Cheng Tsai, Pay-Yau Huang, Chih-Hsiang Liao 831
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Aspherical Metal-on-Metal Artificial Hip Joints
.................................................................. Qingen Meng, Leiming Gao, Feng Liu, Peiran Yang, Fisher John, Zhongmin Jin 833
Long-Term Contact-Coupled Wear Prediction for Total Metal-on-Metal Hip Joint Replacement
...................................................................................... Muhamad Noor Harun, Zhongmin Jin, Fengchai Wang, John Fisher 835
The Molecular Orientation Induced by Multi-Directional Sliding in the UHMWPE Used for the Artificial
Joint Replacements ........Lu Kang, Eric Lewis, Jagan Mohanraj, Tom Brown, David Barton, Zhongmin Jin, John Fisher 837
Radial Displacements in a Thin Semi-Spherical Layer of Biphasic Articular Cartilage for Use in EHL
Models of Natural Hip Joints .................................................................................. A Félix Quiñonez, J Fisher, Z M Jin 839
Investigations of the Sliding Friction Behaviors of Locusts on Slippery Trapping Plate
...................................................................................................................................... Wang Lixin, Zhang Xin, Zhou Qiang 841
Tribology of Sequentially Irradiated and Annealed UHMWPE with and without Impingement
.......................................................................... Aaron Essner, Lizeth Herrera, Reginald Lee, Jason Longaray, Aiguo Wang 843
Study on UHMWPE Carrying Estradiol to Treat the Particle-Induced Osteolysis
....................................................................... Shuxin Qu, Aiqin Liu, Xiaomin Liu, Shengfu Li, Jie Weng, Zhongrong Zhou 845
Friction and Wear Characteristics of UHMWPE Studied by Orthogonal Method
.................................................................................................................................... Wu Gang, Zhao Chunhua, Zhao Xinze 847
Wear Mechanism of Sliding Tracks between Femoral Head and Acetabular Cup of Artificial Joint
......................................................................................................Wang Shibo, Wang Qingliang, Ge Shirong, Zhang Dekun 851
Dynamic Contacting Characteristic of Natural Articular Cartilage under Reciprocating Sliding
....................................................................................................................................................... Qian Shanhua, Ge Shirong 853
Application of Principal Component Analysis and Fuzzy C-Means Clustering Algorithm to
the Classification of UHMWPE Wear Debris from Artificial Joints
.............................................................................................J. P. Wu, X. P. Yan, C. Q. Yuan, X. C. Zhou, Z. Jin, J. L. Tipper 855
Numerical Surface Characterization of Wear Debris from Artificial Joints Using Atomic Force Microscopy
.............................................................................................................................. C. Q. Yuan, X. P. Yan, Z. Jin, J. L. Tipper 857
A Novel Propelling Mechanism Based on Frictional Interaction for Endoscope Robot
............................................................................................................................................... Young-Tae Kim, Dae-Eun Kim 859
Study on the Release of Estradiol form UHMWPE Loading Estradiol Wear Debris in vitro
...............................................................Xiaomin Liu, Aiqin Liu, Shuxin Qu, Xiaohong Li, Linmao Qian, Zhongrong Zhou 861
A New Method to Simulate Wear within the Patellofemoral Joint of TKR
............................................................................................................................P. Ellison, D. C. Barton, Z. M. Jin, J. Fisher 863
Modification and Tribological Study on Implant Polymers of Hip Prosthesis ......................................Maoquan Xue 865
Dynamic Contact Model of Bio-Adhesive Pads of Animals: Simulation Experiments
..........................................................Xiong Yi, Xiangjun Zhang, Imad Ahmed, Michael Kosinsky, Yonghe Liu, J Schaefer 867
Examination of Biolox®delta from Serum Lubricated Reciprocating Sliding Wear ........... L. Ma, W. M. Rainforth 869
Lubrication of Synovial Joints (Invited) ........................................................................................................ Zhongmin Jin 871
XIV
Content
Ď. Tribo-chemistry
Mechanism and Applications of Chemical and Mechanical Polishing (Invited)
.................................................................................................................................. Xinchun Lu, Guoshun Pan, Jianbin Luo 875
Tribological Performance of Biomass-Oil from Straw Product
............................................................................................................... Xianguo Hu, Qiongjie Wang, Yufu Xu, Xifeng Zhu 876
Extreme Pressure Properties and Mechnism of Bismuth Naphthenate with Sulfur Containing Additives
........................................................................................................ Huanqin Zhu, Jianqiang Hu, Yongguo Zhang, Yiwei Fei 878
Synthesis and Tribology Properties of Stearate Coated Ag Nanoparticles
............................................................................................................... Lei Sun, Xiaojun Tao, Pingyu Zhang, Zhijun Zhang 880
Filtrate Reducer Activity and Antiwear Behavior of Drilling Fluid Doped with an Non-Conventional Additive
.................................................................................. Wei Danping, Geng Zhiyong, Liu Xiaoyu, Yan Lili, Wang Chengbiao 882
Utilization of Industrial and Agricultural Wastes as a Source of Lubricants, Additives and Fuels ....... Wei Danping 884
Effect of Tribochemical Reaction on Friction and Wear of DLC under Lubrication with Ionic Liquids at
High-Vacuum Condition (Invited)
........................................................ Shinya Sasaki, Tsutomu Yagi, Hiroki Mano, Koji Miyake, Miki Nakano, Takao Ishida 886
Tribochemical Reaction of Ionic Liquids on Sliding Metal Surfaces
........................................................ Tsutomu Yagi, Shinya Sasaki, Hiroki Mano, Koji Miyake, Miki Nakano, Takao Ishida 888
The Tribological Properties of Oil-Soluble Nano-Copper and Nano-Silica Particles as Additives of
Lubricating Oils............................................................................................. Jingjing Huang, Xiaohong Li, Zhijun Zhang 890
Preparation and Tribological Properties of Monodispersed Metallic Cu-Sn Alloy Nanoclusters with
Modified Surface .................................................................... Tao Zhao, Rong Sun, Shuhui Yu, Ruxu Du, Zhijun Zhang 892
Tribological Studies on a Novel Borate Ester Containing Benzothiazol-2-yl and Disulfide Groups as EP
and Multifunctional Additive ...................................................................... Yonggang Wang, Jiusheng Li, Tianhui Ren 894
Tribological Behavior of AZ91D Magnesium Alloy against SAE52100 Steel under Ionic Liquid
Lubricated Conditions ........................................................................................Yanqiu Xia, Zhengfeng Jia, Junhong Jia 896
Tribological Characteristics of Magnesium Alloy Using BN-Containing Additives under Boundary
Lubricating Condition ............................................................................ Zhengfeng Jia, Yanqiu Xia, Weimin Liu, Bin Li 899
Synthesis of YPO4 Nanoparticals vis Microemulsion Method and Its Friction Properties of
Lubricating Oils........................................................................................... Limin Zhao, Xin Shao, Yibin Yin, Wenzhi Li 903
A Protective Coating Formed in-situ on the Cylinder Bore in Presence of Mg6Si4O10(OH)8
.............................................................................................................................................. Zhongxue Yang, Yuansheng Jin 905
Chemical Mechanical Polishing of Copper in Organic Phosphonic Acid System Slurry
..........................................................................................Zhang Wei, Lu Xinchun, Liu Yuhong, Pan Guoshun, Luo Jianbin 906
Chemical Mechanical Planarization of Copper Using Ethylenediamine and Hydrogen Peroxide
Based Slurry ..................................................................... Ping Liu, Xinchun Lu, Yuhong Liu, Jianbin Luo, Guoshun Pan 908
Rheological and Tribological Characteristics of Chemically Modified Rapeseed Oil
.............................................................................................................. Li Qinghua, Tao Dehua, Zhang Jianhua, Mo Yunhui 912
Research on Friction-Coatings with Activated Ultra-Thick Tin-Base
................................................................................................................. Mo Yunhui, Tao Dehua,Wei Xicheng, Li Qinghua 915
Surfactants Lubricating Oil Additives (Invited) ........................................................................ S. Plaza, L. Margielewski 920
ď. Industry Tribology
Efficient Tribology Testing of Lubricating Oils with Nano-Additives................................... Norm V. Gitis, Jun Xiao 925
Manufacture and Characterization of C/C-SiC Fabricated by Warm Compacted-in situ Reacted Process
..........................................................................................................................................Li Zhuan, Xiao Peng, Xiong Xiang 926
XV
Content
Experimental Investigations on Relationship between Sorptive Properties, Surface Tension, Contact Angle
and Lubricity of Engine and Gear Oils ...................................................... Tomasz Jan Kaldonski, Tadeusz Kaldonski 928
The Latest Technology of Traction Drive Half-Toroidal CVT ........................................Daping Liu, Takashi Imanishi 930
Long Life Bearing Technologies on Material Aspect ................ Peng Xiangduo, Yasuyuki Shimizu, Nobuaki Mitamura 932
Fault Diagnosis of Gear Using Oil Monitoring Samples and Vibration Data
.................................................................................................................. Cao Yibo, Xie Xiaopeng, Liu Yan, Ding Tianhuai 934
Prediction of Static Performance of Bump-Type Foil Bearings and Validation............ Kai Feng, Shigehiko Kaneko 940
Study on Condition Monitoring in Petrochemical Equipment Using Oil Analysis Technology
...............................................................................................................................Xiaopeng Xie, Wei Feng, Qiansheng Liao 942
Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Polymer-Lining and Their Effect on Coefficient of Friction
.................................................................................................................................Yuxing Peng, Zhencai Zhu, Guoan Chen 947
Machine Condition Monitoring and Remaining Life Prediction Using Integrated Approach
............................................................................................. S. Ebersbach, Zhongxiao Peng, Chengqing Yuan, Xinping Yan 949
Study on Condition Characteristics of Tribo-System and Its Description Method
....................................................................................................Xinping Yan, Chengqing Yuan, Xincong Zhou, Xiuqin Bai 957
Study of Tribological Faults and Their Prevention Approaches in Dredger
.......................................................................................................................... X. P. Yan, Y. H. Chen, A. N. Li, C. Q. Yuan 961
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication and Asperity Contact Simulation of Engine Main Bearing with Flexible
Rotating Crankshaft and Flexible Engine Block ............... Liang Chen, Xigeng Song, Dongxin Xue, Zhangjie Ming 967
Tribology Extenics Condition Evaluation Based on Case Reasoning
.............................................................................................................. Zhao Chunhua, Yu Zhiqiang, Zhao Xinze, Wu Gang 973
Effect of Surface Material on the Cavitation Erosion Noise: Experimental Investigation
............................................................................................................... Ge Han, Chen Haosheng, Chen Darong, Yan Dayun 977
Research on Mechanism of Casing Wear in Sliding-Impact Wear Condition
........................................................................................................Fan Jianchun, Zhang Laibin, Chun Shengli, Yu Huiyuan 980
Durability of Phosphorated Starch Based ER Fluid under Damper........ C. H. Lee, J. W. Sohn, Y. M. Han, S. B. Choi 983
Effect of Different Atmosphere on Dry Friction Behavior of Steel Sliding against Brass at High Speed
...................................................................................................Qiu Ming, Zhang Yongzhen, Du Sanming , Shangguan Bao 989
A Study on the Application of a Mineral Additive in Lubricating Oil for Cylinder Liner
......................................................Yue Wen, Wang Chengbiao, Huang Haipeng, Wen Qingfeng, Liu Yuandong, Liu Jiajun 991
Effect of Ingredients in Slurry Containing Alumina on Polishing of Hard Disk Substrate
.....................................................Jiazhen Sun, Guoshun Pan, Yan Zhou, Yonghua Zhu, Jianbin Luo, Xinchun Lu, Yan Liu 993
Study on Dispersion Stability and Self-Repair Principle of Ultrafine-Tungsten Disulfide Particulates
............................................................................................................................................................ Shi Chen, Mao Daheng 995
Research on Micro-Abrasion Performances of TiN Coating in Simulated Body Fluid
................................................................................................................................ Weijiu Huang, Guo Wang, Zhaofeng Li 1000
Micro-Abrasion-Corrosion of Ti6Al4V Alloy in Simulated Artificial Hip Joint Environments
................................................................................................................................ Weijiu Huang, Guo Wang, Ziqin Zheng 1005
Chemical-Mechanical Polishing of NiP Alloy for Hard Disk Drive Substrates
.............................................................................................................. Weiming Lee, Zuqiang Qi, Wanjia Lu, Jianbin Luo 1011
The Material Removal Rate of Metal Polishing Process ..............................................Yeau-Ren Jeng, Pay-Yau Huang 1013
Tool Life Modelling for High-Speed Milling ...............................................................................Wu Delin, Zhou Yunfei 1015
Nano-Scratching-Induced Damages and Their Effect on Fracture Properties of a Single Crystal Sapphire
...........................................................................................................................................Yufu Liu, Y. Kagawa, K. Shiraki 1017
Interfacial Forces in Chemical-Mechanical Polishing (Invited) ................................................ Dedy Ng, Hong Liang 1019
Influence of Water on the Tribological Behavior of Collector Materials against Railway Contact Wires at
High Sliding Speeds ........................................................................... L. M. Sun, D. C. Hu, B. Shangguan, Y. Z. Zhang 1020
Index of Authors ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1025
XVI
Proceedings of CIST2008 &
ITS-IFToMM2008
Plenary Lectures
Current Industrial Activities of Tribology in China
Siwei Zhang
Chinese Tribology Institution (CTI), CMES
China Petroleum University, Beijing, China
Abstract: A recent investigation of the industrial China in 2006, the Chinese industrial enterprises can save
application of tribology in China is presented. This work 414.8 hundred million USD per year, namely, 1.55% of
is aimed mainly at finding out the current situation of gross national product (GNP) in 2006.
industrial activities of tribology and proposing some On the basis of the investigation, a general view of the
recommendations with the emphasis on the energy and current industrial activities of tribology in China was
material savings in the process of manufacture and obtained which has a practical significance for the
operation of machinery. Eight representative industries international community of tribology, and some
were selected as the investigated objects, namely recommendations dealing with industrial application,
metallurgical industry, energy (coal, electric power) and research and education were made and delivered to the
petrochemical industries, railway transport, automotive government departments concerned.
industry, agriculture machinery, shipping industry, aerospace Finally, the author highlights the green tribology from the
industry and military equipment. view point of ecological balance and sustained development.
It was found that owing to application of tribology, the Green tribology is considered as an important way to
sum total of the estimated potential savings of the first 6 propel the society forward sustainedly. It might be one of
investigated objects above mentioned is 103.61 hundred the key directions of technological progress of tribology in
million USD (according to the exchange rates in November striding forward towards the new century.
2006) per year. The first three contributors of savings are
automotive industry, metallurgical industry and railway (The whole paper will be supplied by the author if reader
transport. Based on the above figure and the statistical data needs it.)
of value-added of industry of all industrial enterprises in
3
Plenary Lectures—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Abstract: Carbon-based thin films have been subject of and the lattice spacing of 3.34±0.02 Å of the bulk graphite
extensive research over the last decade due to their are observed by HRTEM. Nanoindentation is an attractive
excellent properties, such as low friction coefficient, technique for analyzing the mechanical properties of thin
chemical inertness, infrared transparency, and high films independently of the substrate. The significant finding
hardness. The hardness of carbon-based films is usually for the nanoparticles hydrogenated carbon films with
linked to the presence of sp3 C–C bonds and these films are thickness of 1500 nm is the elastic recovery which is as
called diamond-like carbon. Recently, it was shown that high as 85%. The friction coefficient as a function of the
some nonhydrogenated carbon and carbon nitride films sliding time of the fullerene-like hydrogenated carbon films
containing a high number of sp2 bonds exhibit very against Si3N4 ball was assessed on a reciprocating
interesting properties, such as high hardness (up to 55 GPa) ball-on-disk tribotester. We found that the fullerene-like
combined with an extreme elasticity (elastic recovery of hydrogenated carbon films exhibited not only high hardness
85%). The combination of a hard and at the same time an and high elasticity concurrently, but also super-low friction
elastic material has been attributed to a ‘‘fullerene-like’’ coefficient (μ=0.009) in ambient atmosphere with 20%
microstructure. The fullerene-like materials composed of relative humidity. The low-temperature deposition process
graphene multilayers, onions and nanotubes together with allows the fullerene-like structure carbon films to be
amorphous structures have been already synthesized by deposited atop hard or magnetic thin films to supply a
different physical vapor deposition techniques. Here, we super-low friction protective layer. Moreover, the finding
reported that fullerene-like nanostructure hydrogenated of the fullerene-like structure carbon films in this study will
carbon films can also be fabricated by plasma chemical definitely open a new avenue of carbon films’ research and
vapor deposition—pulsed glow discharge. The fabricated applications.
fullerene-like nanostructure hydrogenated carbon films
possess high hardness and high elasticity, more importantly, (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
the films exhibit ultra-low friction under ambient condition needs it.)
with 20% relative humidity.
The fullerene-like nanostructure characterized by
curved graphite planes with interval of approximately 3.4 Å
4
Tribology in Nanomanufacturing—Interaction between Nanoparticles and a Solid Surface
5
Plenary Lectures—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Velocities of particles
800 Velocities of liquid
500
400
300
200
100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 Fig. 5 Collision, adsorption, and desorption of a nanoparticle
X (um)
on a solid surface [ 6]
Fig.3 Velocity distributions of solid phase in a micro channels
6
Tribology in Nanomanufacturing—Interaction between Nanoparticles and a Solid Surface
deionized water and SiO2 nanoparticles impacting obliquely on atom pileup also can be found on the surface and its maximum
a surface of a single crystal silicon wafer at a speed of 50 m/s height is approximately 15 Å. In addition, there are a few
with an incidence angle of 45º was performed as shown in Fig. crystal grain packets in which the lattice is distorted, and the
7 and Fig. 8 which is a picture captured by a high speed video orientations of the lattice fringes in the packets deviate from
camera. that of the matrix of the Si wafer.
7
Plenary Lectures—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
grains. With the increase of the exposure time, many pits and
scratches on the surface, an amorphous layer in the surface
layer, and an atom pileup in the outlet region of the scratch can
be found.
8
Tribology in Nanomanufacturing—Interaction between Nanoparticles and a Solid Surface
9
Plenary Lectures—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
modification of nanopartilces will reduce the agglomeration of [7] Xu J., Luo J.B., Lu X.C. et al., 2005, “Atomic scale
nanoparticles, the number of micro/nanoscratch, and the deformation in the solid surface induced by nanoparticle
number of adhesive particles on the solid surface. Smaller size impacts”, Nanotechnology, 16, pp.1-6.
and soft surface of particles, and a lower friction coefficient are [8] Duan F.L., Luo J.B., Wen S.Z., Wang J.X., 2005,
in favor of getting a smoother surface in CMP process. It also “Atomistic structural change of silicon surface under a
indicates that tribology is very important in the nanoparticle collision”, Chinese Science Bulletin, 50(15),
nanomanufacturing. pp. 1661-1665.
[9] Chen R.L, Luo J.B, Guo D., Lu X.C, 2008, “Extrusion
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS formation mechanism on silicon surface under the silica
cluster impact studied by molecular dynamics
The work is financially supported by the International Science
simulation”, Journal of Applied Physics, 104(10),
& Technology Cooperation Project and NSFC with the Grant
pp.104907.
No. 50721004.
[10] Chen R.L., Luo J.B., Guo D., Lu X.C., 2008, “Phase
transformation during silica cluster impact on crystal
silicon substrate studied by molecular dynamics
REFERENCES simulation”, Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics
[1] Yang M.C., Luo J.B., Wen S.Z. et al., 2001, Research Section B-Beam Interactions with Materials
“Investigation of X-1P coating on magnetic head to and Atoms, 266(14), pp.3231-3240.
enhance the stability of head/disk interface”, Science in [11] Chen R.L., Luo J.B., Guo D., Lu X.C., 2009, “Energy
China, 44 (Supp.), pp. 400-406. transfer under impact load studied by molrcular dynamic
[2] Shen M.W., Luo J.B., Wen S.Z. et al., 2001, “Nano- simulation”, Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 11, pp.
tribological properties and mechanisms of the liquid 589-600.
crystal as an additive”, Chinese Science Bulletin, 46(14), [12] Chen R.L., 2008, “The collision mechanism between the
pp.1227-1232. silica cluster and the silicon surface studied by molecular
[3] Wang H., Hu Y.Z., and Guo Y., 2004, “Molecular dynamics simulation”, PHD Disertation of Tsinghua
dynamics study of the interfacial slip phenomenon in University, China.
ultrathin lubricating film”, Lubrication Science, 16(3), [13] Luo J.B., Hu Y.Z., and Wen S.Z., 2008, Physics and
pp.303-314. Chemistry of Micro-/Nanotribology, ASTM International,
[4] Xu X.F., Luo J.B., and Yan J., 2008, “A PIV system for Maryland in USA.
two-phase flow with nanoparticles”, Int. J. Surface [14] Wang Y.G., Zhao Y.W., 2007, “Modeling the effects of
Science and Engineering, 2(1/2), pp.168-175. cohesive energy for single particle on the material
[5] Xu X.F., Luo J.B., 2007, “Marangoni flow in an removal in chemical mechanical polishing at atomic
evaporating water droplet”, Applied Physics Letters, scale.”, Appl Surf Sci, 253, pp9137-9141.
91(12), pp.124102.
[6] Xu X.F., Luo J.B., Lu X.C., Zhang C.H., Guo D., 2008, .
“Effect of nanoparticle impact on material removal”,
Tribology Transactions, 51(6), pp718-722.
10
Tribology at Small Scales
Steve Granick
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA
Abstract: The design of tribological interfaces is often the prominent two-dimensional fluids known as
motivated by a quest to minimize friction and wear. Many phospholipid bilayers. The issues discussed in this talk
of the most important advances of recent years come from point the way to possible new strategies for energy-saving
new techniques capable of characterization at small scales during fluid transport and have relevance to filtration,
and even at the level of individual molecules. This talk will colloidal dynamics, and microfluidic devices.
tests of the Stokes-Einstein equation in molecularly-thin
films, of modifying the boundary conditions of fluid flow, (The whole paper will be supplied by the author if reader
from stick to slip, and of extending tribology research to needs it.)
11
Plenary Lectures — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Hugh A. Spikes
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, UK
Abstract: The level activity in tribology research areas of very active current research will then be discussed,
worldwide is currently higher than it have ever been, including the texturing of surfaces to reduce friction,
largely due to three linked drivers, the need to save energy research in thin film, boundary lubrication and the
and reduce CO2 emissions, demand for improved quality of application of high performance computing to simulate
life and rapid progress in machine minaturisation. This lubricated systems.
presentation will explore how these drivers are influencing
current research in tribology, with a particular focus on (The whole paper will be supplied by the author if reader
their impact on liquid lubrication. A number of specific needs it.)
12
Proceedings of CIST2008 &
ITS-IFToMM2008
Keynote Talks
EHL with Grease at Low Speeds
Yoshitsugu Kimura*
The Univ. of Tokyo/Kagawa Univ., 5-21-10-4 Nagayama, Tama-shi, Tokyo, 206-0025 Japan
“SLIM” EXPERIMENT
INTRODUCTION
It may be a simple interpretation of elastohydrodynamic Apparatus
lubrication (EHL) with grease that the base oil alone performs The spacer layer imaging technique (SLIM) [1] was
lubrication and the thickener serves as its retainer. This is employed to observe grease film between a glass disk and a
almost true at high speeds where the apparent viscosity of steel ball in pure rolling contact. The glass disk had a
grease decreases to a low value comparable to that of the base chromium coating and a silica spacer layer on it. As shown in
oil. At low speeds, on the other hand, the thickener causes Fig.1, two ways of image processing were used. One was to
the apparent viscosity of grease to increase until it behaves like determine the central film thickness from the wavelength of
a solid, and some lubrication mechanism particular to grease is the maximum constructive interference on an intensity vs
expected to prevail. Since low-speed rolling contact bearings wavelength curve, while the other was to determine the general
with grease lubrication are widely used in practice, film shape over the contact from the interference image.
understanding the particular lubrication mechanism of grease
is of considerable importance for optimum selection of its Sample Greases
constituents. Five sample greases marked A to E are listed in detail in
Today, we have an excellent means to study this Table 1. All these greases were prepared with synthetic
mechanism, namely ultrathin-film optical interferometry, hydrocarbon as the base oils. Greases A to C were made with
which has made it possible to determine the thickness of EHL base oils of different viscosity 25, 81 and 741 mPa᱅s at 25°C,
film at very low speeds [1]. On log-log plots of the central film respectively, and with the common thickener, lithium stearate.
thickness vs entrainment speed, most fluids showed linearity Greases D and E were made with the same base oil as B and
General film
shape
CCD camera
Spectrometer
Microscope
Film thickness
Steel ball Glass disk measurement
Cr/SiO2
Load
Fig.1 Schematic of the interferometry setup
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
15
Keynote Talks—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
16
EHL with Grease at Low Speeds
apex angle and a plate was filled with the sample grease. The 1Hz 2Hz
5Hz 10Hz
cone was driven in a sinusoidal angular oscillation manner to 104 20HzǂǂƸ 50Hz
give a uniform shear strain in the sample and the average torque 3
over 5s transmitted to the plate was recorded to determine the 10
shear stress. The frequency of the oscillation was set to a 102
constant and the amplitude of the shear strain was increased
from 0.01 to 1000% in 25 steps, and this series of measurement 101
was repeated for different frequencies from 1 to 50Hz with new Grease A
100
grease samples. In the cases of high frequencies, 20 and 50Hz,
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
the maximum shear strain was 100% because of the capacity of -1
Shear rate/s
the rheometer. All measurement was conducted at 25°C.
Fig.8 The generalized viscosity of grease B
0.5
5 W0 J0 Figure 8 gives thus determined generalized viscosity of
WˈkPa
Jˈ
0 0
grease A in a function of the shear rate and the oscillation
0 1 2 3 4 5
frequency; the arrays of symbols represent its measured values
-5 and a chain curve is the apparent viscosity Ka approximated by
-0.5
the Bauer model to give the best-fit envelope.
(a) J0 = 4.6%, G = 0.43 In the low shear rate region, K* becomes smaller than Ka
1 showing the effect of viscoelasticity and, with decreasing shear
50
rate, K* tends to level off. In this region, K* is dependent on
WˈkPa
both the shear rate and the oscillation frequency, and the higher
Jˈ
0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 the frequency the broader the region. In the medium shear rates,
K* asymptotically approaches Ka with increasing shear rate,
-50
-1 where K* depends on shear rate but becomes irrelevant to the
frequency. At much higher shear rates, say 105s-1 or higher,K*
(b) J0 = 46%, G = 0.85 is expected to approach a low viscosity of the base oil which is
1.5 independent of the shear rate or the frequency. These features
500
have commonly been found for all the sample greases.
WˈkPa
Jˈ
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
REPRESENTATION OF RHEOLOGY
-500
-1.5
Carreau-Yasuda Equation
(c) J0 = 460%, G = 1.30 For incorporating such non-Newtonian behavior into a
simplified EHL formulation, the Carreau-Yasuda equation [4]
Fig.7 Examples of the records of the rheometry K * ( P1 P2 ) 1 (OJ )a
( n 1) / a
>
P2 (4) @
17
Keynote Talks—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
is employed to represent the atmospheric viscosity, and the has to be determined. For this purpose, the “time scale of
above-determined values of the generalized viscosity are used observation” tp is introduced to compare those two conditions.
for K*. This is an empirical equation used for describing In the rheometry, tp is defined by the reciprocal of the oscillation
rheology of polymer melts or polymer solutions, and depicts a frequency, while for the EHL contact it is defined by the passing
transition of a generalized viscosity K* from the first, high time of the ball/disk surface across the Hertzian area.
Newtonian viscosity P at low shear rates to the second, low Then the procedure of the EHL calculation at a specific
Newtonian viscosity P at high shear rates. The three entrainment speed is as follows:
parameters are used to characterize the transition: it occurs at (1) Determine tp for the entrainment speed.
lower shear rate for larger O and becomes smoother for smaller (2) Assume a tentative film thickness and determine the
a and more gradual for smaller n values. average shear rate in the EHL contact by assuming a
parabolic speed distribution across the film.
Rheological Parameters (3) Determine the generalized viscosity by eq. (4) for the
given tp and the average shear rate.
105 101 (4) Determine the film shape by eq. (5) for a load which gives
Grease A the half width of the two-dimensional Hertzian contact b
being equal to the radius of the Hertzian contact a in the
104 100 experiment.
/Pas /s
(5) Solve the Reynolds equation with the generalized
P1
O viscosity K* with the pressure dependent viscosities
103 10-1 Pand Pgiven by eq. (6).
(6) Adjust the parallel film thickness h1 and repeat the step (5)
until the established reduced pressure q=(1-e-Dp)/D at the
102 10-2 inlet to the Hertzian zone sufficiently approaches 1/D.
10-1 100 101 102 103 The resultant value h1 gives the estimate of the central film
Frequency / Hz thickness.
ELASTOHYDRODYNAMICS
1000
The Ertel-Grubin Theory
The possibility of predicting the thick EHL film formation 100
at low speeds is then examined by the two-dimensional Er
tel-Grubin theory. 10
It assumes that the film shape is given by the sum of the Grease A
parallel film thickness h1 and elastic deformation following the 1
Hertz theory h2, 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
2 ° x x2 § x2 x2 ·½° Entrainment speed/ms-1
h2 bpmax ® 1 ln¨ 2 1 ¸¾ (5)
E °̄ b b2 ¨b b 2 ¸°
© ¹¿
Fig.10 EHL film thickness calculated with K*
where E is Young’ modulus of the solid, b the half width of a
two-dimensional Hertzian contact, pmax the maximum Hertzian The valley characterizing the V-curve is caused by a feature
pressure, and x the coordinate along the contact surface. The of the curves in Fig.8. At medium shear rates, the increase in the
dependence of two viscosities of the lubricant Pand Pon frequency implies the decrease in tp, and the decrease in tp
pressure is assumed to be given by causes the decrease in K*. In EHL, the increase in the
P PEp) (6-1) entrainment speed means the increase in the mean shear rate to
P Pexp(Dp) (6-2) increase the film thickness, but it also decreases tp so that the
with the viscosity-pressure coefficients DandE. Then the decreased K* causes the decrease in the film thickness. The
Reynolds equation is solved as described below. imbalance of these opposing effects results in the V-curve.
18
EHL with Grease at Low Speeds
increase depending on the base oil viscosity and the thickeners. [2] Cann, P. M. E., 1996, “Understanding grease lubrication,”
Analysis based on the Carreau-Yasuda viscosity equation Proc. 22nd Leeds-Lyon Symp. on Tribology, pp.573-581.
employing the generalized viscosity of grease determined by [3] Hurley, S., Cann, P. M., 1999, “IR spectroscopic analysis of
rheometry shows the feature of the change in the EHL film grease lubricant films in rolling contacts,” Proc. 25th
thickness. Leeds-Lyon Symp. on Tribology, pp.589-600.
[4] Bair, S., 2002, “The shear rheology of thin compressed
REFERENCES liquid films,” Proc. IMechE, 216, pt.J, pp.1-17.
[1] Spikes, H. A., Cann, P. M., 2001, “The development and
application of the spacer layer imaging method for
measuring lubricant film thickness,” Proc. IMechE, 215,
pp.261-277.
19
Keynote Talks—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Stephen M. Hsu
City University of Hong Kong, Hong kong, China
Abstract: When the scale shrinks to nanometer, one of the on the contact area. This paper will describe the interplay
key issue is that the surface forces begin to exert of these factors in our measurement of adhesion and
considerable influence on the very nature of adhesion and friction under various conditions using AFM and
friction in a nanoscale contact. There is also an interplay Nanoindenter. Results suggest that we need to define our
between adhesion and friction since both of these processes terms very carefully and deconvolute the basic processes to
involve energy dissipation. At the same time, the nature of gain an insight into the true nature of the adhesion and
contact also may change from single scale contact to friction processes.
multiscale sequential contacts. Since adhesion is a function
of real contact area, and Amoton's Law suggests that (The whole paper will be supplied by the author if reader
needs it.)
friction is independent of contact area, the two separate
processes when combined may present results dependent
20
Space Tribology of China
Weimin Liu
Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, CAS, China
Abstract: In recent years, China’s exploration on outer (MACs), ionic liquids etc. The physical properties,
space has been advanced, putting forwards a lot of new including the thermal stability, low temperature fluidity and
challenges to Chinese tribology society. Stable and extremely low saturated vapour pressure, were optimized to
Efficient lubrication is one of the key issues to guarantee meet the requirement for space applications. For the solid
the operation of components under motion in spacecrafts. lubrication, a number of self-lubricating composites or
The complexity of lubrication arises from the harsh alloys, multilayer films with special nanostructures and
environment conditions in space, including the ultra-high compositions, diamond-like carbon film etc were prepared
vacuum, UV and atomic oxygen irradiation, large and the properties were investigated. These lubrication
temperature gap etc. State Key Laboratory of Solid techniques can render ultra-low friction and low friction
Lubrication (LSL) has been actively involved in the noise, prevention of cold welding in intermittent operating
China’s aerospace exploration for decades and provided a conditions, and extend lubricant endurance life. Simulated
variety of lubrication solutions to rockets, satellites and labs and facilities were built up in LSL, allowing for
spacecrafts. A brief review was given on the state-of-art on-ground evaluation of their performance inclusive of the
space tribology research in LSL. In the aspect of fluid service life and the failure mechanism.
lubrication, a number of liquid lubricants was developed or
under developed, including the synthetic silicon oil, (The whole paper will be supplied by the author if reader
polyalphaolefin (PAO), multiple substituted cyclopentanes needs it.)
21
Keynote Talks—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
INTRODUCTION
Friction is an archaic phenomenon that occurs everywhere
between two relatively moved and contacted objects.
During the last decades, fundamental studies of friction
have been developed down to molecular and atomic level Fig. 2 Average friction coefficient applied different
that has been called nanotribology. Micro/nano-tribology voltages under the same load and sliding speed.
has been widely investigated with modern apparatuses as
atomic force microscopy, atomic-force microscope, surface Experiments wth many other friction pairs of steel/steel,
force apparatus, and quartz crystal microbalance to reveal ceramics/steel and ceramics/silicon sliding contacts and
tribological origins at molecular and atomic level. Self solutions have been done. They showed similar results and
assembled molecularly thin film adsorbed on surfaces have verified the feasibility of the active friction control method
been found could change friction by orders of magnitude in aqueous lubrication.
while remain other conditions the same. We have verified
the feasibility of this active friction control through tuning REFERENCES
the adsorption and removing of the thin films on metal. 1. Y. Meng, B. Hu, Q. Chang, control of local friction of
metal/ceramic couples in aqueous solutions with an
TYPICAL RESULTS electrochemical method, Wear 260 (2006) 305-309.
Results of a typical metal/ceramic couples lubricated with 2. H. Jiang, P.L. Wong, Y. Meng, S. Wen, An indirect
aqueous solutions of sodium lauryl sulfate, and controlled electric field effect on the friction of boundary-lubricated
by applying a voltage are shown in Fig. 1. Upon the couples, Lubr. Sci. 15 (3) (2003) 275-292.
applying of a negative external electric potential on the 3. Q. Chang, Y. Meng, S. Wen, Influence of interfacial
metal part, the anionic surfactant film adsorbed are potential on the tribological behavior of brass/silicon dioxide
removed from the metal surface, and results in a worse friction couple, Appl. Surf. Sci. 202 (2002) 120-125.
22
Superhard and Low Friction Nanocomposite Coatings: Design, Synthesis, and Applications
Superhard and Low Friction Nanocomposite Coatings: Design, Synthesis, and Applications
A. Erdemir, O. L. Eryilmaz
Argonne National Laboratory, Energy Systems Division, Argonne, IL 60439-USA
Abstract: During last decade, there has been an dry and lubricated sliding conditions. Employing advanced
overwhelming interest in the design and development of analytical tools (such as time-of-flight secondary ions mass
superhard and low-friction nanocomposite coatings for a spectrometry, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and
wide range of engineering applications. During the same Raman spectroscopy) we ascertained the chemical nature of
period, great strides have been made in both the physical tribofilms forming on sliding surfaces of these
and chemical vapor deposition technologies, and as a result, nano-composite films and correlated these findings with
numerous coating architectures based on nano-composite their superior friction and wear properties. Overall, crystal
and/or –layered morphologies are have become readily chemical model used in this study seems to provide a new
available in recent years. In this paper, we introduce a scientific insight into the design and production of next
fundamental approache to the design and development of generation nanocomposite coatings that are ideal for harsh
such coatings. Specifically, we introduce a crystal-chemical tribological conditions. Some of the recent field test results
model that can help indentify the kinds of coating will be presented in support of the very unique mechanical
ingredients that are needed in such nano-composite and tribological properties of these designer coatings.
coatings for achieving ultra-low friction and wear on
sliding surfaces. Using this model, we recently designed (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
and synthesized a series of nano-composite coatings and needs it.)
confirmed their superior tribological properties under both
23
Keynote Talks—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Reginald Lee, Stryker Orthopaedics, Mahwah, NJ, USA Aaron Essner, Stryker Orthopaedics, Mahwah, NJ, USA
Aiguo Wang, Stryker Orthopaedics, Mahwah, NJ, USA Shirong Ge, China University of Mining & Technology,
Xuzhou, China
ABSTRACT
Although metal-on-metal hip bearings generally experience (bedding-in wear) followed by low steady state wear.
low wear in vivo and in simulator testing, high cup inclination High inclination angles result in rim loading of the bearing.
angle has been shown to dramatically increase wear. A recent As the area of conformance reaches the rim of the acetabular
study has shown that metal-on-metal (MoM) bearings cup, asymmetrical contact occurs which may result in higher
converge to a specific contact area regardless of bearing size, contact pressures. These high pressures prevent the bearing
clearance, or even contact mode. This evidence points to a from reaching low steady state wear. The hypothesis is that
relationship between contact pressure and wear rate such that run-away wear will occur if this conformance area reaches the
as the contact pressure is reduced (due to the formation of a rim of the cup resulting in rim loading.
conforming surface contact, aka. the wear scar) the wear rate Run-Away Wear
will approach a low-steady state value. This research suggested
that the run-away wear that leads to extremely high MoM wear
may be due to the inability of the specific bearing to reach a Steady-State Wear
low contact pressure. Total Wear
Rim loading prevents the formation of the conformance
area in a symmetrical manner which may lead to high contact Bedding-In Wear
pressures. Building on previous research which proposes the Wear Cycles
interdependencies of the wear rate, total wear, and contact
pressures of bearings at proper inclination angles, this study
will determine the effect of high inclination angle on the wear
rate, total wear, and contact pressure behavior of MoM bearings.
Finite element analysis (FEA) was used to determine the
contact pressures of MoM bearings with increasingly larger
wear patches simulating increasing wear volume. This analysis
was performed with various cup angles to determine the effect
of inclination angle on the contact pressure of the MoM
bearing through its wear process.
This study confirms the hypothesis that high cup
inclination angle leads to run-away wear. Additionally, large Steady-State Wear Run-Away Wear
diameters reduced the effect of high inclination angles. Low Fig. 1 Run-Away wear occurs when the conformance area
bearing clearance does not affect the ability of the bearing to reaches the rim of the acetabular cup
reach low contact pressures but reduced the amount of wear
volume required to reach low contact pressures. The results of METHODS
this study agrees with the clinical results regarding high
inclination angles for MoM bearings and illustrates a method Generic MoM bearings were created in ProEngineer
to engineer MoM bearings for good tribological performance. Wildfire 2.0 for FEA analysis in this study. Acetabular cups are
similar to commercially available bearings with 40mm or
Keywords: Tribology, Lubrication, Wear, Pressure, Contact
56mm internal diameter (ID) and a 46mm or 62mm outer
INTRODUCTION diameter (OD). Material properties for the acetabular cup were
taken for generic Cobalt Chromium Molybdenum alloy with
Metal-on-metal (MoM) bearings have experienced a 220GPa modulus and 0.3 Poisson’s ratio. Femoral heads are
resurgence in recent years due to good wear performance and spherical with a small flat for loading and a diameter slightly
the availability as a large diameter resurfacing bearing. Despite smaller than its respective acetabular cup resulting in a head to
its generally good wear performance [1-2], high cup cup diametric clearance of 150um or 400um. To ensure perfect
inclination angles have been shown to cause extremely high conformance between the femoral head and the acetabular cup
wear in vitro and in hip simulator testing due to rim loading wear scar, a nearly incompressible head was used (220,000GPa
[3-4]. This run-away wear phenomenon is not currently well modulus).
understood and is not explained by traditional FEA was performed using Mechanica with at least 330
elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) theories that are often solid element (up to 9th order edges) preferentially located at
applied to these bearings [5]. A recent study suggests that the the contact area. A half model with symmetry was used for
wear performance of MoM bearings relies heavily on the contact analysis between the components to reduce analysis
contact pressures generated by the bearing through the wear time. The acetabular cup was oriented at 35°, 50°, and 65°
process [6]. As wear occurs, an area of conformance (wear area) respective to the horizontal with the femoral head oriented
is formed which reduces contact pressures and therefore vertically. Loading of 1250N (simulating 2450N full model
reduces wear. This mechanism explains the biphasic wear loading) was applied superiorly through the femoral head. This
pattern of MoM bearings starting with a period of high wear model simulates implantation angles of approximately 45°, 60°,
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. and 75° due to the 10-15° medial orientation of the load path in
Aiguo.wang@Stryker.com
24
Tribology of Metal-on-Metal Bearings at High Inclination Angles
40mm at 35 Degrees
by removing spherical sections from the superior point of the 45 = Inclination Angle
= Wear Area Angle
acetabular cup. The radius of curvature of this section matched 30
the corresponding femoral head. The size of the wear scar was 15
edge from the superior point. This size was varied from 15° to Wear Area Angle (Degrees)
35°. This encompasses the contact area sizes that are found in a Fig. 3 Contact pressure behavior of 40mm bearing at 35º, 50º,
5 million cycle wear study. and 65º and 56mm at 65° with increasing wear scar size
Wear simulation data for 40mm bearings with 400um 5
40mm Diameter Bearing
Technical Sessions
Technical Sessions:
ĉ. Lubrication
Key Factors to Induce Cavitation-Erosion
˄Extended Abstract˅
31
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
32
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of TiC-Reinforced HSS-based Composites with an Interpenetrating Network for
High Temperature Self-lubrication Applications
The matrix powders (chemical composition of the matrix of pins (I12×10 mm) were allowed to slide against a rotating
powders were listed in Table 2) were thoroughly mixed with 8 disc (I50×10 mm). The pin specimens were rounded to have 8
Vol.% of complex PFA powder in a ball mill for two hours. mm diameter radius at one end with a surface roughness of 1.6
These milled powder mixture were then uniaxially die-pressed μmcenter-line average (CLA).The counter discs were Ti-Al
with 600 MPa to reach the desired form. After compaction, the coated materials with a hardness of HV 19.42 GPa. The disc
green compacts were sintered at temperatures of 1250 ć during surface was polished to produce a final surface roughness of
1 hour in a pilot vacuum furnace at a heating rate of 5 ć/min. 0.32 μm. The friction and wear tests were conducted at room
A vacuum of 10 1 10 2 mbar was used in lower temperature temperature, 300, 500, 600, 700 and 800 ć in the laboratory air
range (up to 900 ć) and the vacuum of 10 2 10 3 mbar was environment. A normal load of 50 N, a sliding speed of 0.139
used in higher temperatures range (above 900 ć). The m/s and a sliding duration of 2 hours were used in each test.
TiC-reinforced HSS-based self-lubrication composites were An optical microscope was used for measuring the
then produced by infiltrating molten Pb-Sn-15Ag-0.7RE diameter of wear scar on pin samples. The wear volume was
compound into above preforms at 800 ć, using a self-made calculated using the following procedure [10]:
vacuum high pressure infiltration furnace. Sd 4
V ( 2)
Table 2 The chemical compositions of the matrix powders 64r
A B C D E F G H I Where d is the wear scar diameter (mm) and V is the worn
volume (mm3).
TiC, Vol.% 0 5 10 15 15 15 15 15 20
A scanning electron microscope (SEM, HITACHI X-650,
HSS M3/2, Vol.% 100 95 90 85 85 85 85 85 80 Japan) equipped with an energy dispersive spectroscope (EDS,
Kevex Super Quantum) was used to characterize the pin and disc
Cu 3 P, % wt 0 0 0 0 5 6 7 8 0
wear surfaces to clarify wear mechanisms.
3.2. FRICTION MEASUREMENTS The reference materials, the composite ‘D’ and composite
Fig. 1 shows the friction coefficient (μ) versus temperature ‘B’ showed almost the same average friction coefficient of 0.36
for self-mated couples, respectively, of preform D, composite with the composite ‘G’ exhibiting the lowest average friction
‘D’, composite ‘G’, and composite ‘B’ specimens. At room coefficient of 0.28 in a range temperature of 300 °C to 600 °C.
temperature, the observed values of μ for composites were 3.3. MEAN WEAR VALUES
slightly lower than that of the preform. However, at higher Fig. 2 shows the mean wear rate obtained under
temperatures, the three composites showed significantly low experimental conditions similar to those recorded in Fig. 1. It
values of the friction coefficient compared to the preform. The can be seen that The small, approximately linear increase in
advantages of a lower friction were maintained at all wear rate over the test temperature range of 300–800 °C for the
temperatures above room temperature.
33
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Composite G
In Fig. 3, the typical variations of the friction coefficient with
0.6
Composite B sliding duration are presented for the preform and composites.
It can be seen that the friction coefficients of composites
0.4
infiltrated with Pb-Sn-Ag based solid lubricants were much
lower than that of the preform, which had no solid lubricant
0.2
infiltrated. The lowest and most stable friction coefficient was
obtained for composite with additives of 15 vol.% TiC and 7
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 80 wt.% Cu3P (composite G), which showed very stable friction
Temperature ć)
(
Temperature (ć) coefficient, with an average value of 0.28. For the preform, at
Fig. 1 Friction coefficients in a range of temperatures up high temperature, the galling seizure occurred eventually. The
seizure event was accompanied by a sudden increase in wear
to 800 ćfor the composites D and G and preform D
rate, heavy noise and vibration. Therefore, the test was stopped
after 90 minutes.
0.1 1.2 1–Preform D
Preform D 2–Composite D
0.01 Composite D 1.0 3–Composite G
Friction coefficient
Composite G
0.001 Composite B 0.8
Wear rate (mm 3/Nm)
IE-04 0.6
1
2
IE-05 0.4
IE-06 0.2 3
IE-07 0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 80
ć)
Temperature(ć)
Temperature ( 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
Time (min)
Fig. 2 Wear rate in a range of temperatures up to 800 ć Fig. 3 Friction coefficient of the preform and the
for the composites D and G and preform D composites versus sliding duration under a normal load of
50 N and a sliding speed of about 0.139 m/s at 600 ć
composite materials results in very small differences in wear
behaviour between 300 °C and 800 °C , whereas the increase of
about two order of magnitude in the wear rate of preform at
300 °C–700 °C. This suggested differences in wear
mechanisms in these two conditions. The trend was shown that
the wear rate of the composites was lower by two orders of
Fig. 4 SEM topographies of worn surface of (a) the preform D, (b) the composite D and (c) the composites G sliding against
TI-Al ceramic coated materials at 600 ć
3.5. MORPHOLOGY OF THE WORN SURFACE any lubricating film had been founded (as shown in Fig. 4 a).
Typical features of the worn surfaces of the preform and the While on the worn surface of the composite D and G infiltrated
composites at 600 0C under a load of 50 N for 2 hours sliding with Pb-Sn-Ag based solid lubricants, a thin lubricating film
duration are shown in Fig. 4. existed. Comparing the topographies of the two composites, it
It can be seen that there were obvious furrow marks and can be observed that the worn surface of the composite G with
adhesive traces on the worn surface of the preform D, but no additives of 7 wt.% Cu3P was smooth along the sliding
34
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of TiC-Reinforced HSS-based Composites with an Interpenetrating Network for
High Temperature Self-lubrication Applications
direction: no plastic deformation or fatigue cracks could be reinforced with TiC was mainly composed of Fe2O3, (Fe,Cr)7C3,
found (as shown in Fig. 4 c). Whereas the worn surface of the Ti8C5, Cr3Ti3O, Cr2Ti and Al2O3, and no elemental Pb, Sn and
composite D with no additives of Cu3P was much rougher (as Ag phases were found (Fig. 5). On the wear surface layer of the
shown in Fig. 4 b). composites infiltrated with Pb-Sn-Ag based lubricants, the
The XRD patterns of the worn surface of preform D, composite elemental Pb, Sn, Ag and Cu intermetallic compounds and
D and composite G were shown in Fig. 5, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.It oxides were formed (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7).
can be seen that the wear surface layer of high-speed steel
35
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1-Fe2O3 2-PbWO4 3-CuO 4-SnO2 5-SnW4 6-Ag3P11 7-Ag2WO4 8-Ag5Pb2O6 9-Cu3Sn 10-Ag3Sn 11-PbO
Fig.7 XRD spectra of the worn surface of composites G sliding against TI-Al ceramic coated materials at 600 ć
36
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of TiC-Reinforced HSS-based Composites with an Interpenetrating Network for
High Temperature Self-lubrication Applications
infiltrated with Pb-Sn-Ag based lubricants, the formation of [5] Sun X. L., Liu Y., Lu Y., 2001, “P/M metal-matrix
lubricating film on the contacting interface reduces the value of high-temperature solid self-lubricating materials,” Powder
the friction coefficient to 0.28 and the wear rate to 6.3×10-6 Metallurgy Technology 19, PP. 86–92.
mm3/Nm at high temperature (600 C). In contrast, for preform [6] Liu Z. M., 2007, “Elevated temperature diffusion
without infiltrated solid lubricants, the observed value of self-lubricating mechanisms of a novel cermet sinter with
friction coefficient is 1.10 and the wear rate 5.3×10-3 mm3/Nm. orderly micro-pores”, Wear, 262, PP. 600-606.
[7]Mattern A., Huchler B., Staudenecker D., et al., 2004,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “Preparation of interpenetrating ceramic–metal composites”,
The authors would like to thank National Natural Science Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 24, PP. 3399-3408.
Foundation of P.R. China for the financial support (ID: [8] Sang K. Z., Lu Z. L., Jin Z. H., 2002, “A Study of the SiC
50275110 and 50775168). Composite Ceramics for Self-lubrication,” Wear 253, PP.
1188-1193.
REFERENCES [9] Michalski J., Wejrzanowski T., Gierlotka S. et al., 2007,
[1] Sustarsic B., Kosec L., Dolinsek S. et al., 2003, “The “The preparation and structural characterization of
characteristics of vacuum sintered M3/2 type HSSs with Al2O3/Ni–P composites with an interpenetrating network,”
MoS2 addition,” Journal of Materials Processing Journal of the European Ceramic Society 27, PP.831-836.
Technology, 143-144, pp. 98-104. [10] Bushe N. A., Goryacheva I. G., Makhovskaya Y. Y., 2003,
[2] Zsidai L., De Baets P., Samyn P., et al., 2002, “The “Effect of aluminum-alloy composition on self-lubrication of
tribological behavior of engineering plastics during sliding frictional surfaces,” Wear 254, PP.1276-1280.
friction investigated with small-scale specimens,” Wear 253, [11] Zalisz Z., Watts A., Mitchell S.C., et al., 2005, “Wronski,
pp. 673–688. Friction and wear of lubricated M3 Class 2 sintered high
[3] Xiang D. H., Shan K. L., 2006, “Friction and wear behavior speed steel with and without TiC and MnS additives”, Wear
of self-lubricating and heavily loaded metal–PTFE 258, pp701–711.
composites”,Wear 260, pp.1112-1118. [12] Sang K. Z., Lü Z. L., Jin Z. H., 2002, “A study of the
[4] Liu Z. M., Childs T.H.C., 2004, “The study of wear SiC-L composite ceramics for self-lubrication”, Wear 253,
characteristics of sintered high speed steels containing pp1188-1193.
CaF2, MnS and TiC additives at elevated temperature”,
Wear 257, PP.435–440.
37
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
*Nobuyoshi Ohno, Saga University, Mechanical Sobahan Mia, Saga University, Mechanical Engineering,
Engineering, 1, Honjo, Saga, 840-8502 JAPAN 1, Honjo, Saga, 840-8502 JAPAN
Shigeki Morita, Saga University, Mechanical Shingo Obara, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency,
Engineering, 1, Honjo, Saga, 840-8502 JAPAN 2-1-1, Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8505 JAPAN
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT EXPERIMENTAL
Synthetic oils and greases are used for space lubricant. So, it SAMPLE OIL AND GREASES
is important to know the performances of these lubricants. The Two kinds of base oil and four kinds of greases using these
base oil 815Z and 2001A and the greases 600EF, 601EF and base oils were used as sample. PFPE 815Z and MAC 2001A
602EF with base oil 815Z and grease R2000 with base oil are the base oil where as 600EF, 601EF, 602EF and R2000 are
2001A were considered as the test lubricants in this study. The the tested greases. Properties of the base oils and greases are
highest wear scar has found for base oil 815Z but it showed the given in Table1 and Table 2 where ρ is the density, ν is the
lowest coefficient of friction, whereas greases 600EF, 601EF kinematic viscosity, VI is viscosity index, α is pressure-
and 602EF showed lower wear scar and considerable friction viscosity coefficient and M is the molecular weight.
coefficient. Investigating these phenomena, authors found that
the base oil 815Z contains the acetal group (-OCF2O-). At high
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND METHOD
shear rate in EHL conjunction the viscosity was decreased by
Friction and wear experiments were carried out using a
mechanical shear. Hydrogen fluoride occurred with the
conventional 4-ball wear tester. The balls arrangement of the
decomposition of acetal group. It increases the wear rate of the
test is shown in Fig.1. The steel balls of 19.05 mm in diameter
contact surfaces. But that decomposition does not occurred in
and 5.7nm in mean surface roughness was used in the
the greases with base oil 815Z and showed better result as
experiments. All experiments were conducted at constant load
space lubricant.
for each ball of w=564N (corresponding mean Hertzian
Keywords: Tribology, Space Lubricant, Friction, Wear
pressure of 2.6GPa and Hertzian diameter of dH=0.521mm),
upper rotating ball speed of 60rpm, test duration of 60min and
INTRODUCTION
at room temperature of 22~25°C. Friction was measured by
Liquid lubricants are frequently used in space mechanisms means of a torsion bar to which the bottom of oil container was
because they are associated with low mechanical noise, no clamped.
wear in the elastohydrodynamic regime, ease of replenishment,
ability to remove wear debris and insensitivity to environ- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
mental factors [1]. Friction and wear behavior of space
lubricants are vital under boundary lubrication condition for The photograph of wear scar area of all tested
longevity of space mechanisms. Now a days perfluoropoly- samples has shown in Fig.2 mentioning base oil as O
ether (PFPE) and multiply alkylated cyclopentane (MAC) are and grease as G. Higher wear scar has found for base oil
well known liquid lubricant for space appliances. Also some 815Z, investigating the causes used 815Z oil at 85.5
greases of these base oils are used. In this study, authors’ hour bearing life test [4] was also tested. On the other
considered two kinds of base oils and four kinds of greases. hand wear scar area and friction coefficient is plotted in
PFPE 815Z is one of the base oil and the greases using this base Fig.3. Results shown low wear scar has found except for
oil are 600EF, 601EF and 602EF. Another base oil is MAC
815Z oil but comparatively low friction coefficient has
2001A and grease R2000 is produced using this base oil. Mainly
friction and wear behavior of these oils are examined using found for 815Z oil where as friction coefficient for other
4-ball wear testing machine. It has found that the wear scar area samples are lies on normal value of 0.1~0.12. The low
of base oil 815Z increased extremely compared with greases. wear scar area of greases 600EF, 601EF and 602EF has
Investigation found the permanent viscosity loss occurred in the found which are made using base oil 815Z. The
fresh 815Z oil and hydrogen fluoride (HF) generated with the chemical decomposition and permanent viscosity loss
decomposition of acetal group (-OCF2O-) [2][3]. occurred during the test of 815Z fresh base oil, which
Table㧝 Properties of base oil has not occurred in greases or used 815Z oil [4].
Fluid ρ, g/mL ν, mm2/s α,GPa-1 M Rotating ball
VI
name 288 K 313 K 373 K 313K g/mol
815Z 1.8580 139.1 42.7 343 11.9 9200
2001A 0.8513 103.2 14.4 137 10.7 910
liquid
(D) (C) (B) (H)(G) (I) (A)
300 (F)
(E)
Phase line for 815Z
T, K
solid
Phase line for 2001A
200
815Z
2001A
Hertzian
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
− GPa
p,
Fig.2 Wear scars of fixed steel ball
(A): Hertz pressure, (B): 5 min, (C): 10 min, (D): 20 min
(E): 40 min and (F): 60 min wear test for 815Z oil
(G): 20 min, (H): 40 min, (I): 60 min wear test 2001A oil
Wear behavior of the base oils are again investigated using the
applied average pressure on it. Figure 4 has shown the time
dependants wear scar for the base oils mentioning the average
pressure of each point. These points are plotted on the phase
diagram as shown in Fig.5. This graph has shown that the base
oil 815Z was on liquid phase on the test conditions and
permanent viscosity loss occurred as a result, large wear scar
has found at the contact region. It has reported that the
permanent viscosity loss decreases from liquid phase to solid
phase [3]. In case of 2001A, at the applied average contact
pressure the oil stayed at solid region and reduced the wear.
REFERENCES
[1] Jones, W.R., Jr. at el., 1994, “The preliminary Evaluation
of Liquid Lubricants for Space Applications by Vacuum
Triobometry,” 28th Aerospace Mech. Symp., NASA Lewis
Research Center, Cleveland, OH.
[2] Ohno, N., 2007, “EHL behavior of liquid lubricants for
space application,” Journal of Japan Society for Design
Engineering, 42, 1, pp.9-14.
[3] Mia, S., Komiya, H., Hayashi, S., Morita, S., Ohno, N.,
Obara, S., 2007, “Viscosity loss in PFPE lubricant for
space applications under EHL conditions,” Tribology
Online, 2(2), pp. 54-58.
[4] Ohno, N., Komiya, H., Morita, S., Mia, S., Satoh, N.,
Obara, S., 2007, “Bearing Fatigue Life Tests in Advanced
Base Oil and Grease for Space Application,” Proc. STLE
Fig. 4 Time dependants wear scar for 815Z and 2001A oil Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, CD-ROM, pp.1-24.
39
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Lubrication Analysis of Journal Bearing and Rotor System Using CFD and FSI Techniques
Huiping Liu*/Theory of Lubrication and Bearing Institute, Hua Xu/Theory of Lubrication and Bearing Institute,
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an Shannxi, 710049, China Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an Shannxi, 710049, China
Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering,
University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
Peter Ellison/ Institute of Medical and Biological Zhongmin Jin/ Institute of Medical and Biological
Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Along the development of software and hardware, more using ADINA 8.4.4 (ADINA R&D Inc, Watertown, USA) [3].
and more complex engineering problems can be predicted Firstly, a pure fluid bearing simulation was conducted to
using a computational approach. For a complex bearing-rotor analyze the hydrodynamic lubrication to check the suitability
system, several lubrication models have been developed based of CFD for a given bearing gap. Then, a squeeze-film
on the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technique where lubrication model was built to validate the method of FSI.
a general Navier-Stokes equation is usually considered. In this Finally, a fully coupled bearing-rotor FSI model was analysed
paper, three different journal bearing models were simulated to study the interaction of the bearing and rotor. The
using a CFD and Fluid Structure Interaction (FSI) technique to parameters for the lubrication model of a finite length journal
investigate the interaction of the lubrication of the journal bearing are listed in Table 1.
bearing and the dynamics of the shaft: a pure fluid bearing
model, an FSI squeeze-film model and a bearing-rotor FSI Table 1 Parameters of the models
model. The first two models were built to compare the CFD Parameters Value
and FSI methods with the solution predicted from the classical Diameter D=0.03 m
Reynolds equation and two different boundary conditions
Radial clearance C=30 μm
were adopted, Sommerfeld and Gumbel. The results of both of
these models were compared with the analytical solutions and Length L=0.015 m
good agreements were found. The combined CFD and FSI Viscosity 0.04 Pa.s
method was subsequently used to study the lubrication
performance of the rotor-bearing system. An elastic shaft was In all models, the fluid was assumed to be incompressible
used in the full coupled bearing-rotor FSI model, as well as and laminar. Non-slip condition was set between fluid-solid
the Gumbel boundary condition. The load applied on the interfaces. Zero pressure was set on the two ends of the
model included a vertical load and a rotation, representative of bearing. Sommerfeld and Gumbel boundary conditions were
real working conditions of an experiment of marine journal applied in the simulations. Sommerfeld boundary condition
bearing. Future more complex models will be developed to allowed subambient pressure, while the Gumbel boundary
investigate more realistic rheological properties of the condition was implemented by setting pressures as zero in the
lubricant and the complex interactions between the lubrication divergent region.
of the journal bearing and the dynamics of the shaft using the A typical case was considered for the pure fluid bearing
CFD and FSI method. simulation, with an eccentricity ratio of 0.789 away from the
Keywords: Journal bearing; Computational Fluid Dynamics outer wall centre and 30.887 degrees from the vertical
(CFD); Fluid Structure Interaction(FSI); Lubrication direction in the pure fluid bearing simulation. And its outer
wall was stationary and the inner wall had a rotational speed
1. INTRODUCTION (2750 rpm) along its shaft axis.
As the important parts of rotary machines, a large number In the two FSI models, the material of the shaft was
of journal bearings and rotors are required. Therefore, it is assumed to be isotropic linear elastic with a Young’s modulus
important to investigate the performance of the rotor bearing of 210 GPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The mesh density
system. Numerical methods such as the finite difference and adopted depended on the load of each model, and mesh
the finite element are usually used to solve the Reynolds sensitivity was checked to ensure the accuracy of the results.
equation to predict the lubrication performance. However, Two fluid structure interface pairs were used in the models to
many studies have been recently conducted with a general connect the fluid and solid structure together.
CFD approach. Guo et al. [1] developed some models for In the squeeze model, the length of bearing was 0.15 m,
bearings and squeeze film damper with CFD and calculated five times its diameter (i.e. L/D=5) to reduce the influence of
the static and dynamic characteristics. Almqvist and Larsson the axial flow. The load applied on the shaft was 200 N and
[2] investigated the thermal transient rough EHL line contact the shaft was assumed to fall from the center line of the
problem with CFD and found that the commercial CFD code cylinder. In the bearing-rotor FSI model, the load applied was
could be modified to solve their lubrication model. However, 2212.25 N and a rotational speed of 2750 rpm along its shaft
there has been no study where an FSI approach is used to axis was applied to the shaft, representative of the working
analyze the combined effect of hydrodynamics and elasticity conditions in an experiment of marine journal bearing.
and dynamics of bearing surfaces. The aim of this study was to
apply a CFD and FSI method to the lubrication of a 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
bearing-rotor system. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 show the pressure distribution within the
fluid under an eccentric rotational motion according to various
2. ANALYSIS
boundary conditions. For these typical pure fluid bearings, the
Three different models were developed in this study by analytical load capacity of oil film were 2212.25 N.
*Corresponding author: E-mail address: menlhu@leeds.ac.uk, No negative pressure was allowed with the Gümbel
Tel㧦+44 113 343 2179. boundary condition as shown in Fig. 2. To obtain the load
40
Lubrication Analysis of Journal Bearing and Rotor System Using CFD and FSI Techniques
capacity, the inner surface pressure within the convergent Small differences were observed on the predicted
region (Fig. 1) and the whole inner surface pressure of Fig. 2 squeeze-film velocity. In the analytical solution, no
were integrated respectively. The load capacities from side-leakage was allowed and therefore the drop distance was
integration are compared with the given value of 2212.25 N, expected to be smallest at a given time as shown in Fig. 4.
in Table 2. Fig. 5 shows the fluid pressure distribution according to the
Gumbel boundary condition for the CFD FSI bearing-rotor
model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was supported by China scholarship council.
The funding source is gratefully acknowledged.
Fig. 3 Fluid pressure distribution of FSI squeeze-film
model according to Gümbel boundary condition REFERENCES
Fig. 4 shows the comparison of the non-dimensional drop [1] Guo, Z.L., T. Hirano, and R.G. Kirk,
distance between the CFD-FSI models and the analytical 2005,"Application of CFD analysis for rotating
solution (based on hydrodynamic lubrication where the machinery - Part I: Hydrodynamic, hydrostatic bearings
hydrodynamic pressure was not expected to cause appreciable and squeeze film damper," Journal of Engineering for
deformation) [4]. Gas Turbines and Power-Transactions of the Asme.
1.2
127(2): pp. 445-451.
1
[2] Almqvist, T. and R. Larsson, 2008,"Thermal transient
rough EHL line contact simulations by aid of
Non-dimensinal drop distance
41
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Oil Film Behavior under Minute Vibrating Conditions in EHL Point Contacts
Taisuke Maruyama/Basic Technology R&D Center Tsuyoshi Saito/Basic Technology R&D Center
( NSK Ltd. , 1-5-50, Kugenuma-Shinmei, Fujisawa, ( NSK Ltd. , 1-5-50, Kugenuma-Shinmei, Fujisawa,
Kanagawa Prefecture 251-8501, JAPAN) Kanagawa Prefecture 251-8501, JAPAN)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
We expressed the degree of amplitude as a AC servomotor
non-dimensional parameter of amplitude ratio and found that Thrust bearing
we could restrain fretting wear by setting the amplitude ratio to 51305
more than 1.6 and by using a high viscosity lubricating oil.
Therefore, as a result of measuring oil film thickness under
conditions of minute oscillations with a ball-on-disk EHL test
rig, we can understand that an oil film is formed if the Minute vibrating
amplitude ratio is set to more than 1.6.
Keywords: Tribology, Fretting, Wear, EHL, oil
INTRODUCTION
Rolling bearings, which can be found in any machine with
a moving part, may suffer from fretting wear on the rolling
element or raceway surface as a result of two metallic surfaces Load
that contact each other under conditions of cyclic motion
Fig. 2 Fretting test equipment
(oscillatory tangential displacement) of small amplitude. We
know that minute oscillations produce fretting wear, but much
remains unknown about exactly how much oscillation is
Table 1 Test conditions
required to generate fretting damage.
In this study, we converted experimental data, such as Temperature 25 °C
degree of oscillation into specific amplitude and degree of Test bearing Thrust ball bearing 51305
damage into specific damage. We discovered a condition Poly-alpha-olefin oil (PAO)
where fretting was inhibited. We measured the thickness of oil Oil 30 mm2/s @ 40 °C
film at the point of minute oscillation using a ball-on-disk test 411 mm2/s @ 40 °C
machine, and investigated the relationship between specific Maximum vibrating speed 20 mm/s
amplitude and minimum oil film thickness under oil-bath Maximum contact pressure 3.2 Gpa
lubrication. Amplitude ratio 0.5 to 1.9
Cycle number 104
EXAMINATION OF FRETTING WEAR
Amplitude ratio [1] can be expressed as A/D, where A is
Fretting wear is one kind of adhesion wear, and there are a
amplitude, and D is Hertz contact diameter (see figure 1). This
lot of protrusions that are higher than those of a non-damaged
parameter expresses the degree of minute oscillations.
area. Therefore, we measured the maximum height Ry of the
damage trace and evaluated the degree of damage. Then, we
Hertz contact area adopted a flat disk specimen made of SUJ2 steel with the
A/D䋾1
A/D䋽1 mirror-finished side being used as the lower race of the thrust
D A/D䋼1 bearings. Unevenness of the abrasion trace was restricted to the
maximum height of Ry through the use of a light interference
Minute microscope, and measured the area including the entire
vibrating A damage trace. Furthermore, we determined the ratio of the
maximum height Ry before examination (almost 0.1 um) and
after examination as the damage ratio, and quantified the
damage. Figure 3 shows the relation between amplitude ratio
Fig. 1 Example of amplitude ratio and damage ratio. Figure 4 illustrates damage trace results.
We tested the thrust bearing assuming that the ability to
Using proprietary fretting test equipment (see figure 2), we form an oil film remains constant under uniform load and
conducted a fretting wear test on a thrust bearing. An AC maximum vibrating speed. In this case, we assumed that oil
servomotor was used to create minute vibrations that acted film thickness is affected by viscosity in a steady state. Figure
upon the race of a thrust bearing under oil lubrication. Table 1 3 supports this theory because the damage ratio decreases if we
list the test conditions. In this test, we used two kinds of set the amplitude ratio to more than 1.6 and use high-viscosity
lubricating oil of differing viscosities. lubricating oil.
42
Oil Film Behavior under Minute Vibrating Conditions in EHL Point Contacts
PAO䇭30
PAO䇭 mm2/s
30mm PAO䇭30
PAO䇭 mm2/s
30mm
Amplitude ratio 䋽0.5 Amplitude ratio 䋽2.0
㪍㪇 㪧㪘㪦㩷㪊㪇㩷㫄㫄㪉㪆㫊
30mm2/s
㪤㫀㫅㫀㫄㫌㫄㩷㫆㫀㫃㩷㪽㫀㫃㫄㩷㫋㪿㫀㪺㫂㫅㪼㫊㫊䋬㫅㫄
㪧㪘㪦㩷㪋㪈㪈㫄㫄㪉㪆㫊
411mm2/s
㪌㪇
㪋㪇
㪊㪇
㪉㪇
㪈㪇
PAO䇭411mm2/s
PAO䇭 PAO䇭411mm2/s
PAO䇭
Amplitude ratio 䋽0.5 Amplitude ratio 䋽2.0 㪇
㪇 㪇㪅㪌 㪈 㪈㪅㪌 㪉 㪉㪅㪌 㪊 㪊㪅㪌 㪋 㪋㪅㪌
㪘㫄㫇㫃㫀㫋㫌㪻㪼㩷㫉㪸㫋㫀㫆
Fig. 5 Comparison of minimum oil film thickness and
amplitude ratio
CONCLUSION
Fig. 4 Trace damage and direction of oscillation
1. Whereas an oil film is not formed when the amplitude
However, the damage ratio is not affected by the viscosity of ratio less than 1, there is no difference in damage ratio
the lubricating oil when amplitude ratio less than 1. In this case, even if oil viscosity is changed.
we determined that this damage form is Mindlin slip [2] as 2. Fretting wear can be restrained by setting the amplitude
shown in figure 4 because there is no damage in the center of ratio to more than 1.6 and by using high viscosity oil
the trace. In other words, there is an area of adherence where because a thick oil film is formed.
sliding does not occur in the contact area. Therefore, we
assume that an oil film is not formed. REFERENCES
[1] Sakagami, Proceeding of JAST Tribology Conference
MEASUREMENT OF MINIMUM OIL FILM THICKNESS Tottori, Nov 2004, 69.(Japanese)
We studied the relation between minimum oil film [2] R.D.Mindlin, Trans.ASME, J.Appl.Mech., 71, 3(1949)259.
thickness and amplitude ratio under minute vibrating [3] Westlake, F.J., PhD thesis,University of London(1970).
43
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Different Loading and Motion Applied on Hip Simulators Affects the Lubrication of
Metal-on-Metal Hip Implants
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
assumed to be Newtonian, iso-viscous and incompressible [7],
The transient elastohydrodynamic lubrication for
and the corresponding viscosity of 0.001 Pa s was used in this
metal-on-metal (MOM) total hip replacement was numerically
study. The cup inclination angle to a horizontal position (x
solved under three gait loading and motion patterns, according
axis) for the three hip simulators is shown in Table 2.
to Leeds Mk I hip simulator, Leeds ProSim and ISO standard,
respectively. The Reynolds equation for pressure calculation
was solved in spherical coordinate system using the multi-grid
method and the elastic deformation of both acetabular cup and
femoral head was obtained by spherical FFT technique. Full
numerical solutions of EHL were obtained including the
pressure and film thickness distribution, for MOM hip
replacement under the three gait patterns. Large variations in
the film thickness were observed for different patterns,
especially when the three dimensional load applied on. For
example, the film thickness was significantly increased using
Leeds Mk I pattern. This may result in large difference of hip
simulator wear testing.
Keywords: Transient, Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication, Metal-
Fig. 1 The anatomic configuration of a MOM hip joint
on-Metal Hip Joint, Hip Simulator, Loading and Motion
replacement under three dimensional load and motion
INTRODUCTION
Table 1 Typical parameters for MOM hip implants
Total hip replacement has been the most successful surgical
treatment for hip joint diseases for almost fifty years. The Radius of femoral head 14 mm
requirement of long term survival of these artificial hip joints Radius of acetabular cup 14.03 mm
has led to alternative materials for the bearing surfaces, such as Elastic modulus of metal 210 GPa
metal-on-metal (MOM) total hip replacement, and the demand Elastic modulus of fixation 2.27 GPa
of hip simulator testing in terms of wear has also been Cup wall thickness 9.5 mm
increased. For MOM hip bearings, large variations in wear Equivalent fixation thickness 2 mm
have been observed in both different hip simulator studies [1, Poisson’s ratio 0.3
2], and clinical studies [3]. Since the wear resistance is
significantly affected by lubrication for MOM articulation, it is
Table 2 Cup inclination angle for the three patterns (deg)
necessary to investigate the influence of different patterns of
hip simulators on the lubrication in order to understand the Leeds Mk I Leeds ProSim ISO 14242-1
wear of MOM hip bearings. 45 35 30
Gait studies [4] have shown that human hip joints are subjected A general ball-in-socket model was adopted to solve the
to three-dimensional load and motion: a vertical load applied transient lubrication for the above MOM hip replacement. The
in the superior-inferior (S-I) direction, two horizontal loads Reynolds equation combined with the force balance equations
imposed in the anterior-posterior (A-P) and medium-lateral were solved using the multi-grid method with three levels and
(M-L) directions respectively; and the flexion-extension (FE), 257 by 257 nodes in the finest level. The elastic deformation of
the abduction-adduction (AA) movement, and the the contact surfaces of both the acetabular cup and the femoral
internal-external rotation (IER). In this study three gait patterns head was obtained by a spherical FFT technique. Details of
from Leeds Mk I hip simulator, Leeds ProSim and ISO equations, numerical methods and convergent criterion can be
standard 14242-1 were concerned [5], including both found in [8, 9]. The loading and angular motion curves in a
simplified and three dimensional loading and motions. walking cycle are shown in Figure 2. The cycle time of 1
second was divided into 100 time steps for Leeds Mk I and
MATERIALS AND METHOD ISO, 127 time steps for Leeds ProSim hip simulator. The
program codes were written in Campaq Visual Fortran and run
A typical MOM total hip replacement was employed with a
on an AMD Athlon 64 (3800+) PC with CPU of 2.4GHz
femoral head diameter of 28 mm, made from Cobalt
frequency. It cost 1-3 hours to calculate one walking cycle and
Chromium alloy [6], as shown in Figure 1. The material and
after 3-4 cycles the converged results were obtained.
geometrical properties are listed in Table 1. The lubricant was
44
Different Loading and Motion Applied on Hip Simulators Affects the Lubrication of Metal-on-Metal Hip Implants
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by EPSRC (UK).
REFERENCES
Fig.2 Loading and motion gait curves used for lubrication [1] Smith, S.L., Dowson, D., Goldsmith, A.A.J., 2001, “The
analysis: (a) Leeds Mk I (b) Leeds ProSim and (c) ISO effect of diametral clearance, motion and loading cycles
upon lubrication of metal-on-metal total hip replacements,”
RESULTS Proceedings of I Mech E, Part C, 215 (1), pp.1-5.
The maximum pressure and minimum, centre film thickness [2] Firkins, P.J., Tipper, J.L., Ingham, E., 2001, “Influence of
variations in a converged walking cycle are shown in Figure 3. simulator kinematics on the wear of metal-on-metal hip
prostheses,” Proceedings of I Mech E, Part H, 215 (H1),
pp.119-121.
[3] Fisher, J, Jin, Z.M., Tipper, J., Stone, M., Ingham, E., Stone,
M.H., Farrar, R., Fisher, J., 2006, “Tribology of alternative
bearings,” Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research, 453,
pp.25-34.
[4] Paul, J. P., 1967, “Forces transmitted by joints in the human
body,” Proceedings of I Mech E, 181(3J), pp.8-15.
[5] Barbour, P.S., Stone, M.H., Fisher, J., 1999, “A hipjoint
simulator study using simplified loading and motion cycles
generating physiological wear paths and rates,” J of Eng. in
Med, 213, pp.455̄467.
[6] Jagatia, M., Jin, Z.M., 2001, “Elastohydrodynamic
lubrication analysis of metal-on-metal hip prostheses under
steady state entraining motion,” Proceedings of I Mech E, Part
H, 215 (H6), pp.531-541.
[7] Cooke, A.V., Dowson, D., Wright, V., 1978, “The rheology
of synovial fluid and some potential synthetic lubricants for
degenerate synovial joints,” Engineering in Medicine, 7,
pp.66-72.
[8]Wang, F.C., Jin, Z.M., 2008, “Transient elastohydrodynamic
lubrication of hip joint implants,” J of Tribology-Transactions,
ASME, 130, 011007.
[9] Gao, L.M., Meng, Q.E., Wang, F.C., Yang, P.R., Jin, Z.M.,
2007, “Comparison of Numerical Methods for EHL Analysis
of Metal-on-Metal Hip Implant: Multi-grid verses
Newton-Raphson,” Proceedings of I Mech E, Part J, 221,
pp.133-140.
Fig. 3 Maximum pressure, minimum and centre film
thickness variations against time in a converged walking (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
cycle: (a) Leeds Mk I (b) Leeds ProSim and (c) ISO needs it.)
45
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
∂ ⎛ ∂p ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂p ⎞ ∂ ⎡F ⎤
⎜⎜ F2 ⎟⎟ = − ⎢ 3 (U1 − U 2 )⎥ −
The full thermal elastohydrodynamic analysis of lubrication
of spur, helical, hypoid, and different types of cylindrical and ⎜ F2 ⎟+
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂x ⎣ F0 ⎦
double enveloping worm gears is performed. The theory is
implemented by computer programs. By using these programs
∂ ⎡ F3 ⎤
⎢ (V1 − V2 )⎥ + ρ(W1 − W2 )
the influence of gear design, operating conditions and lubricant
− (1)
characteristics on maximum pressure and temperature in the oil ∂y ⎣ F0 ⎦
film, on EHD load carrying capacity of the gear pair and on
energy losses in the oil film in different types of gears is inves-
The full energy equation is applied
tigated. Part of the obtained results is presented and discussed.
Keywords: EHD Lubrication, Gears, Load Capacity, Friction
⎛ ∂T ∂T ∂T ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞
ρc p ⎜⎜ u +v +w ⎟⎟ − k 0 ⎜ + + ⎟
⎜ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ⎟
INTRODUCTION ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
During the last decades many theoretical and experimental ⎡⎛ ∂u ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂v ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎛ ∂p ∂p ⎞
works have been directed towards the analysis of elastohydro- = α T T⎜⎜ u + v ⎟⎟ + η⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
dynamic lubrication in line and point contacts, but only a few ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎥⎦
paper is published on EHD lubrication analysis of gears. The (2)
papers are written by Sato and Takanashi [1], Wu and Huang
[2], Huang et al. [3], Yu et al. [4], He and Wei [5], Kong et al. The equation governing the heat transfer in gear teeth is
[6] and by Simon [7-9]. Laplace's equation
Recently, some of the main topics in lubrication analysis are
the effect of surface roughness on EHD lubrication and the
∂ 2 Tm ∂ 2 Tm ∂ 2 Tm
nanoscale oil films. Valuable experimental results are pre- + + =0 (3)
sented by Luo et al. [10] and Luo and Li [11]. ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
The full thermal elastohydrodynamic analysis of lubrication
of spur, helical, hypoid, and different types of cylindrical and where m=1 for the driving and m=2 for the driven gear tooth.
double enveloping worm gears is performed. The EHD lubri- The composite normal elastic displacement of the contact-
cation analysis is based on the simultaneous solution of the ing surfaces in point (x,y), caused by the pressure distribution
Reynolds, elasticity, energy, and Laplace's equations. The oil p(X,Y), is given by
viscosity variation with respect to pressure and temperature
and the oil density variation with respect to pressure are in-
p(X, Y )
x max y max
cluded. The real geometry and kinematics of the different types d (x , y ) = K d ∫ ∫ dXdY (4)
of gears is applied, thus the exact geometrical separation of the x min y min (x − X ) 2 + ( y − Y ) 2
mating surfaces is included into the oil film shape and the real
relative velocities of these surfaces are used in the Reynolds
The viscosity variation with respect to pressure and tem-
and energy equations. As the governing equations represent a
perature and the density variation with respect to pressure are
highly nonlinear integrodifferential system, the finite differ-
included:
ence method and numerical integration are used to attain the
pressure and temperature distributions in the oil film, the tem- α p −β (T − T0 ) ⎛ α 1p ⎞
η = η0e η η ; ρ = ρ0 ⎜ 1 + ⎟ (5)
perature distribution in the gear teeth, and the elastic displace- ⎝ 1 + β1p ⎠
ments of the contacting surfaces.
The corresponding computer programs are developed. By
In the viscosity-pressure relationship the exponent α η is
using these programs the influence of design parameters, oper-
ating conditions and lubricant characteristics on maximum constant in the case of Barus equation and it is pressure de-
pressure and temperature in the oil film, on EHD load carrying pendent in the Roeland’s expression.
capacity of the gear pair, and on energy losses in the oil film in The EHD load carrying capacity of the oil film is calculated
different types of gears is investigated. from the pressure by simple integration
x max y max
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The pertinent equations governing the pressure and tem-
W= ∫ ∫ p ⋅ dx ⋅ dy (6)
x min y min
perature distributions and the oil film shape are the Reynolds,
elasticity, energy, and Laplace's equations. Point contact EHD
lubrication analysis is applied because of the theoretical point The friction factor is defined by the ratio of the frictional
contact of mismatched (modified) gears. force to the load and it can be written as
The following general Reynolds equation is used FT
fT = ( 7)
W
46
EHD Lubrication of Different Types of Gears
1,5
The details of the presented theoretical background are de-
scribed in Refs. [7-9].
k T max
kf T
RESULTS
Factors k T max ; k W ; k f T
kW kW
1,0
By using the corresponding computer programs the influ-
k T max
ence of design and operating parameters of helical, hypoid and
worm gears on EHD lubrication characteristics is investigated. kf T
A small part of the obtained results, namely, the influence of 0,5
speed on EHD load carrying capacity (W), friction factor (fT),
maximum pressure (pmax) and temperature (Tmax) in the oil film
is shown in Figs. 1 – 3. It can be concluded that the speed has a
significant influence on all these parameters, especially in the
region of its lower values. 0
0 2500 5000 7500 10000
N W [rpm]
REFERENCES
[1] Sato, M., Takanashi, S., 1981, “On the
Thermo-elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of the Involute
Gear”, Proceedings, International Symposium on Gearing
and Power Transmissions, Tokyo, I., , pp. 307-312.
[2] Wu, H., Huang, W., 1988, “Full Thermal EHD Analysis on
the Cylindrical Worm Gearing with Cylindrical Worm
Gearing with Double Circle Arc Profile”, Proceedings of
International Conference on Gearing, Zhengzhou, pp.
489-494.
[3] Huang, C., Wen, S., Huang, P., 1993, “Multilevel Solution
of the Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Concentrated
Contacts in Spiroid Gears”, ASME Journal of Tribology,
115, pp. 481-486.
[4] Yu, T., Zhang, S., Li, J., 1997, “A New Numerical Method
for the Solution of Helical Gear Thermal EHL Problem”,
Proceedings of MTM'97 International Conference on Me-
chanical Transmissions and Mechanisms, Tianjin, pp.
840-842.
[5] He, H., Wei, Y., 1997, “Analysis of Elastohydrodynamic
Lubrication of Plane Re-Enveloping Hourglass Worm
Gearing”, Proceedings of MTM'97 International Confer-
ence on Mechanical Transmissions and Mechanisms, Tian-
jin, pp. 660-663.
[6] Kong, S., Sharif, K., Evans, H.P., Snidle, R.W., 2001,
“Elastohydrodynamics of a Worm Gear Contact”, ASME
Journal of Tribology, 123, pp. 268-275.
[7] Simon, V., 1981, “Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Hy-
poid Gears”, ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, 103 pp.
195-203.
[8] Simon, V., 1988, “Thermo-EHD Analysis of Lubrication of
Helical Gears”, ASME Journal of Mechanisms, Transmis-
sions and Automation in Design, 110, pp. 330-336.
[9] Simon, V., 1997, “EHD Lubrication Characteristics of a
New Type of Ground Cylindrical Worm Gear Drive”,
ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, 119, pp. 101-107.
[10] Luo, J., Wen, S., Huang, P., 1996, “Thin Film Lubrication,
Part I: Study on the Transition Between EHL and Thin Film
Lubrication Using Relative Optical Interference Intensity
Technique”, Wear, 194, pp. 107-115.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [11] Luo, J.B., Liu, S., 2006, “The Investigation of Contact
The author would like to thank the Hungarian Scientific Ratio in Mixed Lubrication”, Tribology International, 39,
Research Fund (OTKA) for their financial support of the re- pp. 409-416.
search under Contract No. K62722. (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
needs it.)
47
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
H.P. Evans* Cardiff School of Engineering, Cardiff A. Clarke Cardiff School of Engineering
University, Newport Road, Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK.
K.J. Sharif Cardiff School of Engineering R.W. Snidle Cardiff School of Engineering
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The paper discusses the difficulties in distinguishing and the way in which heat passes to the surfaces depends on
between non-Newtonian lubricant models of the shear thinning dissipation and conduction in the film, which must be
and the limiting shear stress types commonly used for rolling considered in any study of thermal behaviour of lubricated
sliding contacts in elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL). It contacts as recognised in [3].
is shown that the ability of the lubricant rheological model to More recently sophisticated numerical analyses of EHL have
replicate experimental heat partition behaviour is a much more been developed [e.g. 4,5] and such models have generally been
discriminating test in determining the correct rheological used to predict traction behaviour and component flash
behaviour than the ability to reproduce traction curves temperatures. Recent work has seen the thermal
observed in experiment. non-Newtonian EHL models extended to cover variable ratio
Keywords: Heat Partition, non-Newtonian, Traction, EHL traction drive transmissions [6], starved contacts [7], rough
surfaces [8], and mixed lubrication conditions [9]. However
there is little published work on heat partition between the
INTRODUCTION
contacting components. The problem has been considered for
Analysis of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) is Newtonian [3] and non-Newtonian [10] lubricant models, and
commonly carried out for situations where there is inherent the differences between predicted and measured heat partition
sliding between the contacting surfaces as well as the behaviour has been addressed by the current authors [11,12].
entrainment action that gives rise to lubricant film formation.
Examples of this kind of contact are those occurring between
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
the teeth of power transmission gears, between cams and
tappets, and between the power transmission elements in This paper compares the results of heat partition calculated
toroidal traction drives. It is well known that the using EHL models with those determined experimentally [13].
conventional exponential dependence of viscosity with In these experiments the load and friction is measured, along
pressure in such models is capable of predicting film formation with the temperature at thermocouples located 3 mm below the
with a high degree of accuracy. On the other hand the surface of the disk. A conduction analysis of the test disk and
prediction of friction is inaccurate unless some form of shaft combination has been carried out [12] to find the
non-Newtonian lubricant behaviour is adopted. temperature variation in the disk by solving the following
When sliding occurs in EHL contacts, heat is dissipated in the equation,
lubricant film and is conducted into the contacting components, ∂T ⎧ ∂ 2T 1 ∂T ∂ 2T ⎫ (1)
which are consequently heated and attain higher temperatures. = α⎨ 2 + + ⎬
∂t ⎩ ∂r r ∂r ∂z 2 ⎭
The way in which the total heat generated is shared between
the two surfaces is referred to as the heat partition behaviour of subject to appropriate boundary conditions. This determines
the contact and the paper reviews the difficulties of correctly the temperature, T, averaged in the circumferential sense. The
predicting this partition in EHL contacts over a range of temperature at the thermocouple position of the two disks was
operating conditions. matched with experiment by adjustment of the heat partition
Different non-Newtonian models can match the measured factor, ß, defined as the proportion of the total heat dissipated
friction characteristics reasonably well, but this property of the passing into the faster moving disk. Values of ß were
contact is not a discerning measure as far as distinguishing obtained as shown in Figure 1 for a number of experiments
between different non-Newtonian models is concerned. In carried out over a range of kinematic conditions using a gas
contrast, the ability of different models to replicate turbine lubricant and both transverse ground and superfinished
experimental heat partition measurements is a sensitive disks.
distinguishing factor between shear thinning and limiting shear
stress models, which are the two main rheological formulations
used for these calculations. This observation is advanced as
evidence that the predominant non-Newtonian mechanism in
high shear rate conditions, such as those in gear tooth contacts, ß
is that of limiting shear stress with associated lubricant slip.
Furthermore, measurement of heat partition behaviour is
proposed as a discriminating property of the lubricant that can
be measured experimentally and used to justify selection of the
lubricant model to be used in EHL analysis situations. ΔTus / °C ms-1
Many workers [e.g. 1,2] have developed methods to calculate
flash temperatures and heat partition in dry contact. However, Fig. 1 Variation of ß with ΔTus from experiment
their approaches do not consider the EHL film where the heat
The values of ß were found to follow a trend curve expressed
is dissipated. If heat is generated throughout the thickness of
in terms of the product of the temperature difference between
the film the highest temperatures occur within the film itself,
the surfaces, ΔT, and the sliding velocity, us.
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
48
The Role of Heat Partition in Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
THERMAL EHL ANALYSIS plane and the results shown in Figure 3 are obtained by
A thermal EHL point contact analysis was carried out for locating this slip plane at the highest temperature surface in the
all the smooth surface test conditions for which experimental oil film which for these experiments is at, or close to the faster
data were available. Three lubricant viscosity formulations moving surface.
were adopted and each was combined with two non-Newtonian
rheological models. These were an Eyring shear thinning CONCLUSIONS
model Thermal EHL models are unable to predict heat partition
ηγ& = τ 0 sinh(τ τ 0 ) (2) correctly for the conditions analysed unless the heat is
relating the resultant shear rate, γ& , and the resultant shear dissipated in a slip plane. All the models run have the correct
friction characteristic and heat partition is thus a discerning test
stress, τ, where η is the viscosity and τ0 is a model constant; of the applicability of a rheological model in these
and the Bair and Winer limiting shear stress model circumstances.
ηγ& = −τ L ln(1 − τ τ L ) (3)
where τL is the limiting shear stress which is proportional to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
pressure. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
These analyses were carried out with temperature boundary of EPSRC (GR/T05059) for this work.
conditions corresponding to those observed and calculated for
the experiments, and parameters τ0 and τL were selected to give REFERENCES
the measured friction values. In each case the heat flux
passing into the solid surfaces was integrated in order to [1] Blok, H., 1937, “Theoretical study of temperature rise of
determine ß. The values of ß obtained are shown in Figure 2 surfaces of actual contact under oiliness lubricating
for five of the rheological combinations adopted together with conditions.” In Proceedings of General Discussion on
the trend line for the experimental values taken from Figure 1. Lubrication, Part 2, pp 222-235 (IMechE, London).
[2] Tian, X. and Kennedy, F.E., 1994, “Maximum and average
flash temperatures in sliding contacts”, Trans. ASME Jn of
Tribology, 116, pp 167-174.
[3] Manton, S.M., O'Donoghue, J.P. and Cameron, A., 1967,
“Temperatures at lubricated rolling / sliding contacts”,
Proc Instn. Mech. Engrs, 182, pp 813-823.
[4] Cheng, H.S., 1965, “A refined solution to the thermal
ß elastohydrodynamic lubrication of rolling and sliding
cylinders”, Trans ASLE, 8, pp 397-410.
[5] Sui, P.C., & Sadeghi, F., 1991, “Non-Newtonian thermal
elastohydrodynamic lubrication”, Trans ASME Jn of
Tribology, 113, pp 390-397.
[6] Sharif, K.J., Evans, H.P., Snidle, R.W., Newall, J.P., 2004,
Modelling of film thickness and traction in a variable ratio
ΔTus / °C ms-1 traction drive rig, Trans. ASME, Jn of Tribology, 126,
Fig. 2 Variation of ß with ΔT.us determined from EHL pp 92-104.
analysis with five rheological models [7] Yang, P, Wang, J., & Kaneta, M., 2006, “Thermal and
non-Newtonian numerical analyses for starved EHL line
contacts”, Trans. ASME Jn of Tribology, 128, pp 282-290.
[8] Chang, L., 1992, “Traction in thermal elastohydrodynamic
lubrication of rough surfaces”, Trans. ASME Jn of
Tribology, 114, pp 186-191.
[9] Zhu, D. and Hu, Y.-Z., 2001 “A computer program package
for the prediction of EHL and mixed lubrication
ß characteristics, friction, subsurface stresses and flash
temperatures based on measured 3-D surface roughness”,
Tribology Transactions, 44, pp 383-390.
[10] Johnson, K.L. and Greenwood, J.A., “Thermal analysis
of an Eyring fluid in elastohydrodynamic traction”, 1980,
Wear, 61, pp 353-374.
[11] Clarke, A,. Sharif, K.J., Evans, H.P. Snidle, R.W., 2006,
ΔTus / °C ms-1 “Heat partition in rolling/sliding EHL contacts” Trans
Fig. 3 Variation of ß obtained with slip plane model ASME Jn of Tribology, 128, pp 67-78.
[12] Clarke, A,. Sharif, K.J., Evans, H.P. Snidle, R.W., 2007,
Comparison of Figures 1 and 2 shows that the EHL analyses “Elastohydrodynamic modelling of heat partition in
lead to a completely incorrect evaluation of the heat partition rolling-sliding point contacts” Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs
factor. This is because all of these models result in the heat Part J, Jn of Engng Tribology, 221, pp 223-235.
being dissipated throughout the lubricant film. The only [13] Patching, M.J., Kweh, C.C. Evans, H.P. and Snidle, R.W.,
model that leads to values of ß that correspond approximately 1995 “Conditions for scuffing failure of ground and
to the experimental data is the model that uses a Barus superfinished steel disks at high sliding speeds using a gas
viscosity formula combined with the limiting shear stress turbine engine oil.” Trans ASME Jn. of Tribology Vol 117,
model. For this model most of the heat is dissipated in a slip pp 482-489, 1995.
49
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
⎦⎭
method to show the effects of surface rough parameter
and surface pattern parameter with different L/D ratio. Density – Pressure Relation. The fluid density ρ is
Turaga and Majumdar [2] studied the influence of the ⎛ 0.6 * 10 −9 p ⎞⎟
roughness parameter on bearing characteristic. ρ = ρ 0 ⎜1 + (6)
⎜ 1 + 1.7 * 10 −9 p ⎟
The performance characteristic of hydrodynamic journal ⎝ ⎠
bearing is affected by the non-Newtonian lubricants. Load capacity . The force due to the hydrodynamic
Raghunandana and Majumdar [3] studied the stability of pressure on the journal in the x − y coordinate system are
journal bearing. Weng and Chen [4] combined effects of L 2π L 2π
non-Newtonian Lubricant and surface roughness on the Fx = − ∫ ∫ pr cos θdθ dz and F y = − ∫ ∫ pr sin θdθ dz (7)
stability of dynamically loaded short length journal 0 0 0 0
bearing. The non-Newtonian lubricants having higher Journal bearing stability. The solutions for
power-law index give better stability, and the effect of dimensionless critical mass and the whirl ratio are
surface roughness are significant especially in the range Bxx K yy + K xx B yy − B yx K xy − Bxy K yx
of high eccentricity ratio. MΩ 2 = (8)
For bearing under severe operating conditions, the Bxx + B yy
elastic deformation of the bearing liner and the variation
of lubricant viscosity varies with pressure have significant Ω2 =
(K xx )( )
− Ω 2 M K yy − Ω 2 M − K xy K yx
(9)
influence on the performance of journal bearings system. Bxx B yy − Bxy B yx
Singh et al.[5] studied the effects of bearing liner flexibility
on the static and dynamic performance characteristics of RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
an elliptical journal bearing. Konsari and Wang [6] found The elastohydrodynamic lubrication problems of
that material properties and boundary conditions play an journal bearing require solution of the coupled Reynolds
important role on the thermoelastohydrodynamic equation and elasticity equations. The simultaneous
c
characteristics of journal bearing. solution were solved numerically using finite difference
f
50
Influence of Surface Roughness on Elastohydrodynamic Journal Bearings with Non-Newtonian Lubricants
method combined with multi-grid multi-level techniques for parameter increase. Load capacity of EHL increases
length to diameter ratio and the radial clearance to radius when speed increases. Figure 2 shows that the transverse
ratio of the journal bearing at 1.0 and 0.0015 respectively. roughness pattern improve the stability region specially at
The speed of the smooth surface journal are 8000 and surface roughness parameter more than 0.4.
10,000 rpm respectively and the bearing liner surface are Figure 3 and 4 show the effects of power-law index
rough with various roughness parameters for transverse on load capacity and mass parameter. The journal operate
surface roughness pattern and longitudinal surface at speed 5000 rpm and eccentricity ratio equal to 0.75.
roughness pattern. The characteristics of elasto- The power-law index are 0.95, 1.0 and 1.05. The liner
hydrodynamic journal bearings in this work are compared surface is transverse pattern. Figure 4 shows mass
with the characteristics of hydrodynamic journal bearing. parameter of EHL increase when power-law index increases.
CONCLUSIONS
270
The influence of surface roughness on the static and
Load Capacity (kN)
γ = 9, 8000 rpm
0.0
t = time, (s)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 U = tangential velocity of surface, (m/s)
Roughness Parameter z = coordinate axis in axial direction
Fig. 2 Effect of surface roughness on mass ε = eccentricity ratio of journal bearing
parameter θ = circumferential angle, (rad)
Ω = whirl ratio
550 γ = surface pattern parameter
Load Capacity (kN)
500
450
n = 0.95, γ = 1/9, 5000 rpm
n = 1.0, γ = 1/9, 5000 rpm
Λ = roughness parameter = σ / hmin
400 n = 1.05, γ = 1/9, 5000 rpm
350 HD, n = 1.0, γ = 1/9, 5000 rpm REFERENCES
300
250 [1] Ramesh, J., and Majumdar, B.C., 1995, “Stability
200 of Rough Journal Bearings Using Nonlinear
150 Transient Method”, ASME Journal of Tribology,
100
Vol. 117, pp. 691-695.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
[2] Turaga, R., Sekhar, A.S., and Majumdar, B.C., 1999,
Roughness Parameter
“The Effect of Roughness Parameter on the
Fig. 3 Effect of power-law index and surface Performance of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings
roughness parameter on load capacity With Rough Surfaces”, Tribology International, Vol.
32, pp. 231-236.
0.30 [3] Raghunandana, K., and Majumdar, B.C., 1999,
“Stability of Journal Bearing Systems Using Non-
Mass Parameter
51
Technical Sessions-Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing , China
(Extended Abstract)
characteristics of journal bearing in thermohydrodynamic where flo and floo are limiting viscosity at very low and very
lubrication regime. The simultaneous system of modified high shear rates respectively. n is the power-law exponent
Reynolds and non-adiabatic energy equations included the
which describes the slope of viscosity as a function of shear
heat conduction in the bearing bush were solved numerically
rate in the shear thiuning regime and a is time constant. 1 is
with initial conditions and boundary conditions using finite
the second invariant of the strain rate tensor.
difference technique. The linearized bearing reaction enables
the journal motion can be approximated to obtain the spring
and damping coefficient. Simulation results are presented for (3)
pressure distribution, temperature distribution, load carrying
Adopting the perturbation method and using the continuity
capacity and friction force with varying eccentricity ratio.
equation, we obtain the modified Reynolds equation for
The stability of the journal bearing with non-Newtonian
finite journal bearing using Carreau law lubricants.
Carreau fluid was examined and. compared with the results
I
t oA 12fl Ir 2
3 3
obtained for journal bearing with non-Newtonian Power-law o
(h op 0 ( h op U J oh oh (4)
fluid. l
roB 121J roB * oy roB + at
Keywords: Hydrodynamic journal bearing, Non-Newtonian n-1
Carreau fluids, thermal effect, static and dynamic characteristics fl * = floo + (flo - floo )(1 + a21* 0 (5)
INTRODUCTION
* 2[Ou*J2(OflJ
1J=fl+ - - (6)
OZ 01 1=1'
The performance characteristics of journal bearing with
non-Newtonian behavior have been studied by a number of Under the non-adiabatic assumption and neglecting the
investigators. Williams [lJ analyzed the lubrication equation temperature variation across the film thickness, the energy
by using the Rabinowitsh model. Knight [2J and lang [3J equation for an incompressible fluid with laminar flow can be
analyzed the non-adiabatic solution of journal bearings. written as
Based on the Power-law model, the journal bearing for a
,ocJ[UJh -~~J aTm -[~ apJ aTml
given eccentricity ratio, shear-thinning effects tend to l 2 121) rae rae 121' 3y 3y J (7)
decrease the pressure , load capacity , friction force , and
increase attitude angle. However, the relationships between 6kl
= - ( TJ-2Tm+TBI)+fl - + - -
,uj h (ap)2 +h- - ,aPJ
3
-
23
(
h h 121' rae 121' 3y
shear rate and shear stress of the pseudo-plastic fluids
frequently appears to be a Newtonian fluid with very high RESULT & DISCUSSION
viscosity at low shear rates and then to be a Newtonian fluid The numerical results on the performance characteristics
with lower viscosity at higher shear rates, and so the power- of journal bearings lubricated with non-Newtonian lubricants
law or cubic equation model can't predict this non-linear based on Carreau viscosity model are calculated. The journal
behaviors accurately. bearings have length to diameter ratio equal to 1.0 and radial
The aims of this paper are to investigate the static and clearance ratio equal to 2XlO- 5 .
dynamic characteristics of journal bearing when the
lubricants are in transition state from non-Newtonian fluid to -v;- 1-000- r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Newtonian fluid behavior as increasing journal speed. "
C
;>,
Carreau viscosity model is proposed in this work to formulate .:;; 0-100
o Carrcau model
the Reynolds and non-adiabatic energy equations for a finite o
.~
width hydrodynamic journal bearing by using perturbation
:: 0.010 -
technique. Both equations were simultaneously solved using
~
finite difference method. §: Power- law
< 0-001 -1-------.,....-----~----!
52
Theoretical Investigation of Journal Bearings with Non-Newtonian Fluids Included Therrnal Effects
2 • 6000 rpm
--1000 rpm
60 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
c;- --10000 rpm
c.. - - - ,10000 rpm,
~ 1.5
50
X 1000 rpm, Power-law • 6000 rpm
e Z 40 --1000 rpm
:::l
1/1
~ - - - ·10000 rpm, Power-law
~ 30
1/1
e
c..
X 1000 rpm, Power-law
0.5 ~ 20
10
325 .------------------~
16 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
11l
--10000 rpm 11l
III --10000 rpm
• 6000 rpm :iE • 6000 rpm
~ --1000 rpm
~ 12 --1000 rpm
~ 320
e - - - ·10000 rpm, Power-law
oS! - - - ,10000 rpm, Power-law
.a X 1000 rpm, Power-law c:
o X 1000 rpm, Power-law
e
Q) 11l
c.. c: 8
Q)
E 315
Q)
I-
E
Cl
310 -1---,...---,.-----,-----,------,------1
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
53
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ABSTRAT
An endeavor has been made to analyze the They concluded that the application of magnetic fluid
magnetic fluid based squeeze film behavior between lubricant enhanced the performance of the squeeze film
two transversely rough curved plates, when the curved bearing system. However, they assumed that the plates
upper plate approaches the stationary curved lower were flat. But in actual practice, the flatness of the plate
plate. The lubricant used is a magnetic fluid in the does not endure owing to elastic, thermal and uneven
presence of an external magnetic field oblique to the wear effects. With this end in view Bhat and Deheri [8]
radial axis. The roughness of the bearing surface is discussed the effect of magnetic fluid lubricant on the
modeled by a stochastic random variable with nonzero configuration of Ajwaliya [4], considering the two
mean, variance and skewness. The associated Reynolds plates determined by exponential functions. They found
equation is solved with appropriate boundary that magnetic fluid lubricant improved the performance
conditions to obtain the pressure distribution, which is, of the bearing. Further, Bhat and Deheri [9]
then used to get the expression for load carrying investigated the magnetic fluid based squeeze film
capacity. To present a comparative study we consider behavior in curved porous circular disks. Patel and
the curvature of exponential form, hyperbolic form and Deheri [10] analyzed the performance of magnetic fluid
secant form to represent the film thickness. The results based squeeze film between two curved plates lying
are presented graphically. It is found that the load along the surfaces determined by secant functions. In
carrying capacity increases with increasing addition, Patel and Deheri [11] studied the magnetic
magnetization. It is seen that the bearing suffers in fluid based squeeze film between curved plates along
general, owing to the surface roughness. It is observed the surfaces governed by hyperbolic functions. In the
that negatively skewed roughness increases the load above three studies it was found that the magnetic fluid
carrying capacity. The adverse effect induced by the lubricant enhanced the performance of the bearing
standard deviation, positive variance and positive system.
skewness can be compensated up to certain extent by By now, it is well-known that bearing
the magnetization parameter taking an appropriate surfaces particularly after having some run in and wear
choice of curvature parameters. develop roughness. In order to study and analyze the
Keywords: Magnetic Fluid, Squeeze film, Transverse effect of roughness of the bearing surfaces on the
roughness, Reynolds equation, Load carrying capacity. performance of the squeeze film bearings various
Introduction methods have been resorted to. Several investigators
The performance of squeeze film behavior have proposed a stochastic approach to mathematically
between various geometrical configurations of flat model the random character of the roughness (Tzeng
surfaces was discussed by Archibald [1]. Murti [2] and Seibel [12], Christensen and Tonder [13, 14, 15]).
analyzed the behavior of squeeze film trapped between Christensen and Tonder [13, 14, 15] presented a
curved circular pates describing the film thickness by comprehensive general analysis for surface roughness
an expression of an exponential function. Modifying (both transverse as well as longitudinal) based on a
the approach of Murti [2], Gupta and Vora [3] analyzed general probability density function by developing the
the performance of squeeze film behavior between approach if Tzeng and Seibel [12]. Subsequently, this
curved annular plates. In all the above cases the lower method of Christensen and Tonder [13, 14 and 15]
plate was taken to be flat. Ajwaliya [4] considered the formed the basis of the analysis to study the effect of
problem of squeeze film behavior taking the lower plate surface roughness on the performance of the bearing
also to be curved. He also studied the squeeze film system in a number of investigations (Ting [16],
between curved annular plates choosing the curvature Prakash and Tiwari [17], Prajapati [18], Guha [19],
of an exponential form to represent the film thickness. Gupta and Deheri [20]). Also, Andharia, Gupta and
All the above studies conventional lubricant. Verma [5] Deheri [21- 22] dealt with the analysis of the effect of
and Agrwal [6] investigated the squeeze film surface roughness on the performance of a squeeze film
performance by taking a magnetic fluid as a lubricant. bearing using the general stochastic analysis for
Subsequently, Bhat and Deheri [7] analyzed the describing the random roughness. However, in these
squeeze film between porous annular disks using a discussions conventional lubricants were used.
magnetic fluid lubricant with the external magnetic Efforts have been directed to present a
field oblique to the lower disk. comparative study on the behavior of magnetic fluid
3* Corresponding Author based squeeze film between transversely rough curved
nikhil.abhangi@gmail.com
54
Magnetic Fluid Based Squeeze Film Behavior between Transversely Rough Curved Plates
circular plates lying along the surfaces determined by curvature parameters. The load carrying capacity
different trigonometric functions and exponential decreases and then increases with respect to the lower
function. plate curvature parameter while exactly the opposite
Main Equation The associated Reynolds equation for happens with respect to the upper plate curvature
the film pressure p is obtained as parameter. The upper plate curvature parameter
( )
1 d ⎡ d ⎤ . increases the load carrying capacity while the lower
⎢ rg ( h) p − 0.5μ 0 μ H 2 ⎥ = 12 μ h0 , plate curvature parameter decreases the load carrying
r dr ⎣ dr ⎦ capacity in the hyperbolic case and exponential case.
g ( h ) = h + 3h α + 3h (σ + α ) + ε + 3σ α + ε + α
3 2 2 2 2 3 Comparatively this effect is less for exponential shape,
as can be seen from Figure 16 in the respective cases.
Key-References
Some of the figures tend to suggest that the
¾ Verma, P.D.S., Magnetic fluid based squeeze
adverse effect induced by the standard deviation,
film, International Journal of Engineering
positive variance and positive skewness can be
Sciences, Vol. 24(3), (1986), pp. 395-401.
compensated upto some extent by the magnetization
¾ Bhat, M.V. and Deheri, G.M., Squeeze film
parameter by considering an appropriate choice of
behavior in porous annular disks lubricated with
curvature parameters. However, this compensation is
magnetic fluid, Wear, Vol. 151, (1991), pp.
upto a considerably large extent in the case of
123-128.
negatively skewed roughness especially, when negative
¾ Christensen, H. and Tonder, K.C., Tribology of
variance is involved. The decreased load carrying
rough surfaces: Stochastic models of
capacity due to the lower plate curvature parameter gets
hydrodynamic lubrication. SINTEF report no.
further decreased owing to the standard deviation of the
10/69 – 18, 1969.
roughness. The increased load carrying capacity
¾ Christensen, H. and Tonder, K.C., Tribology of
introduced by the upper plate curvature parameter gets
rough surfaces: Parametric study and
substantially increased by the positive effect of
comparison of lubrication models. SINTEF
magnetization in the case of negatively skewed
report no. 22/69 -18, 1969.
roughness.
¾ Christensen, H. and Tonder, K.C., The
Therefore, this article makes it clear that the
hydrodynamic lubrication of rough bearing
roughness must be given due consideration while
surfaces of finite width. ASME-ASLE
designing such magnetic fluid based bearing system,
Lubrication conference, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1970,
albeit a proper choice of curvature parameter has been
paper no. 70-Lub-7.
taken into consideration. Even if a strong magnetic
¾ Gupta, J.L. and Deheri, G.M., Effect of
field is brought in and an appropriate choice for
roughness on the behavior of squeeze film in a
curvature parameters is made, roughness needs to be
spherical bearing, Tribology Transactions,
accounted for from longevity point of view.
(1996), 39, pp. 99-102.
Key-Figures
Results and Discussion
It is found that load carrying capacity
2.07
W increases significantly in all the cases with respect 2.02
1.97
to the magnetization. Further, it is clearly seen that the W 1.92
effect of magnetization is most sharp in the hyperbolic 1.87
1.82
case. The five figures Figure 2-6 indicate that the effect 1.77
of μ ∗ is almost negligible upto the value of 0.01 for 1.72
the exponential case and hyperbolic case while in the 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
case of secant function the effect of μ ∗ is negligible μ∗
upto 0.001. ε∗=−0.02 ε∗=−0.01 ε∗=0
The bearing suffers in general owing to the ε∗=0.01 ε∗=0.02
surface roughness. The load carrying capacity
decreases with respect to the standard deviation 2.02
associated with roughness for all the cases which can 1.92
be seen from Figure 7-10. This negative effect is more
in the case of the surface determined by the hyperbolic W 1.82
functions. The negatively skewed roughness increases 1.72
the load carrying capacity for all the shapes, while
1.62
positive ε * decreases the load carrying capacity (cf. -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01
Figure 11-13). This effect of ε * is comparatively α∗
sharp in the hyperbolic case. Almost similar are the ε∗=−0.02 ε∗=−0.01 ε∗=0
trends for the variance (cf. Figure 14-16). ε∗=0.01 ε∗=0.02
A symmetric nature (Figure 16) is observed
in the case of the secant function with respect to the (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if the
reader needs it.)
55
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Quanbao Zhou
Jaguar and Land Rover, Engineering Centre, W/4/031, Whitley, Coventry, CV3 4LF, UK
2.5
In an engine's lubrication system, the most critical
component is the oil pump. Usually component design 2.0
engineers find it difficult to specify two important parameters PRV pressure
associated with the oil pump, i.e. the pump size (capacity) and 1.5 setting point
the pressure relief valve setting, especially at the concept 1.0
design stage of the new engine when no representative
hardware is available to test. Clearly undersized and/or 0.5 pump sizing point
under-pressurised pump is undesirable as it can cause engine
0.0
failure or degraded performance. If this is found in the middle 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
stage of the engine development, engineers have to fight for a Engine speed (rpm)
bigger package space for the oil pump and often find
Engine demand Pump delivery
themselves unpopular due to the effect on other systems and
extra cost to the programme. On the other hand, oversized Fig.1 Engine lubrication system demand and pump delivery
and/or over-pressurised oil pump may work properly without
any problem but the penalty is the hidden high power loss. More oil delivery to engine than what it needs will generate
Usually, engineers tend to size a bigger pump to protect the higher oil pressure than what engine requires. The energy used
engine and try to downsize it later if the tests prove so. to generate the higher oil pressure is just wasted. There is a
Although this route is safer, it could waste the precious clear trend in the next 3 to 5 years to increase the use of variable
packaging space and also be expensive. flow oil pump in the automotive engine. However, this topic is
Several researchers tried to address the above issue by beyond the scope of this paper.
To limit the excess oil pressure to the engine, most pumps
using various CAE (computer aided engineering) tools [1-5].
use a simple pressure relief valve (PRV). Figure 2 shows three
However, due to the complexity, many only focused on the
typical PRV designs. Figure 2a is a commonly used pump exit
pump only or the lubrication circuit only. Very little has been
pressure regulated PRV (called conventional PRV or standard
done to combine these two sub-systems (pump and lubrication
PRV in this paper). It uses the pump exit pressure to determine
circuit) together. In this paper, the commercial 3D CFD codes
the PRV position. When the pump exit pressure force is
were used for both the oil pump and the lubrication circuit. The higher than the pre-setting spring force, the PRV will open
3D CFD pump model enabled the pump internal geometry, so the excess oil will flow back from the discharge side to
including suction and discharge side porting, to be optimised, the suction side, leaving less oil for engine. In this case, the
therefore, the filling to be improved and the cavitation damage pre-load spring force has to be determined to accommodate the
to be eliminated. The lubrication circuit 3D CFD model pressure loss from the pump exit, via various pipes, junctions,
enabled the accurate pressure loss at the complex casting bends oil cooler and filter etc. to the final main oil gallery. It also
and junctions to be predicted. These pressure loss data were needs to consider the bearing clearance change and PRV
then fed into a 1D CFD lubrication circuit model to determine spring relaxation at the end of engine life. The alternative to
the right oil pump size and pressure relief valve setting. Figure 2a is called a smart PRV, as shown in
56
Engine Lubrication System Analysis and Oil Pump Design Optimization
a) b) c)
Fig. 2 a) Conventional PRV; b) Smart PRV; c) Hybrid PRV.
Figure 2b. In this case, the pump exit pressure has no influence notorious headache for both conventional and smart PRV
on the PRV position. Instead, the main gallery oil pressure P2 systems.
determines when to open the PRV to re-circulate the excess oil
back to the suction side. 7
The pumps equipped with the conventional PRV always
6800 rpm and 140 ºC oil temperature, the PRV open pressure 3
has to be set at >4.8 bar when the minimum required main
2
gallery oil pressure is 2.5 bar. However, at normal operating
condition, say 2000 rpm and 100 ºC oil temperature, the 1
pressure loss from the pump exit to the main gallery could be as 0
little as 1.0 bar. That means the pressure setting catered for the 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
condition of high speed and high oil temperature is a penalty for Main oil gallery pressure P2 (bar)
the lower speed and lower oil temperature. STD PRV Smart PRV Hybrid PRV P1=P2 as boundary
With the smart PRV shown in Figure 2b, the pressure loss
variation from the pump exit to the main oil gallery under Fig. 3 Three PRV systems and their working boundaries
different oil temperature doesn't affect the PRV pressure setting
anymore. This enables the PRV to be operated with a lower OIL PUMP SIZING
pressure setting. At the worst engine operating condition, i.e.
As described earlier, the size of the oil pump is usually
the high speed and high oil temperature, both conventional and
determined by the low speed (such as 1000 rpm) hydraulic
smart PRV systems should meet the minimum required main
requirement (such as the minimum pressure of 1.0 bar to drive a
gallery pressure and therefore the pump exit pressure should be
VCT unit etc.) at the highest possible oil temperature (such as
same. The oil flow and drive torque on the pump should be
140 ºC). This requires the oil pump to deliver a given amount of
same as well. Under the lower speed and/or lower oil
oil to the engine. The 1D CFD lubrication circuit analysis codes
temperature, however, the conventional PRV system will suffer
such as AMESim and Flowmaster are commonly used to define
from higher pump exit (and main gallery) pressure than that
the minimum oil flow rate required.
with the smart PRV, therefore higher power consumption.
Figure 4 shows a typical Flowmaster lubrication circuit
Typically 0.2 to 0.4% fuel economy benefit can be achieved
model. Pipes, standard T junctions and 90 degree bends etc. can
using the smart PRV.
be pulled out from Flowmaster's build-in library. However,
However, the smart PRV has its own problem. The long
complex junctions, bearings, oil filter and cooler etc., have to
distance between the pump exit and the gallery sensing point
be defined using customer specific model to get the acceptable
and the partially empty oil circuit at the engine start means
accuracy. Often a localised 3D CFD analysis is needed to
there will be a significant time delay between the pump exit
quantify the local pressure loss for complex casting geometries.
pressure signal and the main gallery pressure signal. For
For oil pump sizing exercise, the oil pump can be represented
example, at the cold start, the pump exit pressure could reach
by a proper pump model or a simple flow source or pressure
>15 bar before the main gallery being pressurised. Since the
source. When the model is ready, to tune the pump capacity or
pump exit pressure has no influence on the smart PRV position,
the flow rate from the flow source (or the pressure if the pump
the PRV will remain closed. This could cause pressure spikes to
is represented by a pressure source) until the required oil
the lubrication system. This problem could not be easily solved
pressure to drive the VCT unit is reached under the specified
using the over-pressure relief valve (OPRV) unless there is
engine speed and oil temperature. The oil flow rate and the
enough package space to allow a big open orifice for the OPRV.
pressure at the pump exit, together with the engine speed and
To address this issue, the author of this paper invented a hybrid
oil temperature, are the parameters for the oil pump sizing.
PRV (patent pending), as shown in Figure 2c. In this design,
both the pump exit pressure and main gallery pressure have
influence on the PRV position. Figure 3 shows the operating PRESSURE SETTING FOR PRV
boundaries of all three PRV designs. Contrary to the pump sizing point, the PRV pressure setting
The other advantage of the hybrid PRV is that it is not has to be done at the maximum engine speed. In this example,
sensitive to the system oil pressure pulsation which is a the setting point is to guarantee a minimum 2.5 bar
57
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
oil pressure at the main gallery at 6800 rpm engine speed with the next big task is the pump design. Here we focus on the most
5W30 oil at 140 ºC in the whole engine life. Again this can be commonly used oil pump for engines - fixed flow gerotor oil
modelled using the 1D CFD codes. The oil flow rate and the pump. The principle should be applicable to other type of oil
pump exit oil pressure (or the pressure loss from the pump exit pump. Nowadays, few engine OEMs do the internal oil pump
to the main gallery) are needed to determine to the PRV spring design. In most cases, engineers will send the pump sizing point,
stiffness and pre-load for the conventional PRV and hybrid PRV. PRV setting and packaging space out to oil pump suppliers and
For the smart PRV, this information is not needed. let them design the pump.
Figure 5 shows an example of the gerotor oil pump and the
Small sealing
land computational mesh. The pump rotates anti-clockwise and is
divided into two main domains: suction side (left) and
discharge side (right). The suction side is connected to a
pick-up pipe, picking oil from a sump. The discharge side
connects to the engine block so feeds to the oil cooler and filter,
and then to bearings and other lubrication points. The suction
side is always under vacuum while the discharge side above the
ambient pressure. Normally, there is no direct flow path (except
small clearance leakage) between the suction side and the
discharge side. However, when the PRV is open, the oil in the
discharge side can flow directly back to the suction side,
Big sealing
leaving less oil to engine hence less pressure.
land
Oil return Each gerotor pump has an inner rotor and an outer rotor.
channel Pump exit
The eccentricity between two rotors is the key to enable the
to engine
pump to pump fluid. In the suction side, when the pump rotates
(anti-clockwise), the pockets formed by the inner and outer
Pick-up pipe rotor gradually open up (i.e. volume of each pocket increases).
This generates the local vacuum which sucks the oil in. When
Fig. 5 A gerotor oil pump and computational mesh the pocket volume reaches the maximum, two big sealing lands
on housing and cover (or back plate) seal the oil so it can not
OIL PUMP DESIGN AND ANALYSIS connect to both suction and discharge sides. Further rotation,
When the pump size and PRV pressure setting are known, the pocket volume will decrease (compressing oil) and also
58
Engine Lubrication System Analysis and Oil Pump Design Optimization
connect to the discharge side. When this pocket reaches the A full 3D CFD transient analysis was done with the pump
small sealing lands, its volume decreases to the minimum so rotating at 6800 rpm with oil temperature at 140 ºC and 10%
most oil is squeezed out. When it passes the small sealing lands, aeration. Several issues were identified from the analysis. The
its volume will increase and start to suck oil again. It is not first one is the poor filling on the suction side. The oil flow from
difficult to understand from the pocket motion described here the pick up pipe has to battle against the shear direction
that the filling into the pockets at the suction side affects the generated from the high speed rotor rotation before entering the
volumetric efficiency and cavitation. pockets formed between inner and outer rotors. The second
Nearly all gerotor oil pumps suffer from cavitation at high problem was due to the poor porting design on the discharge
speed: some above 6000 rpm when well designed, some >3000 side. The high shearing velocity forced the oil to the small dead
rpm if badly designed. Cavitation in a gerotor oil pump is end and the oil has to turn 180 degree back to exit (Figure 7).
always associated with poor filling to those pockets in the This caused huge pressure pulsation in that region. Figure 8
suction side, especially when the pocket volume is small but shows the pressure contours of the whole pump at two different
expands quickly. When the oil can not fill the whole pocket time steps. The pressure at the dead end varied from 2 to 20 bar.
(due to high resistance or poor flow etc.), the vacuum inside the The third problem was that the oil return channel for the PRV
pocket will make the trapped air bubbles in oil bigger or didn't help the filling at all. Instead, the highly accelerated
vaporise the local oil. These bubbles and/or vapour will make return oil flow has a tendency to go into the pick up pipe
the filling even more difficult so when the pocket reaches its (caused NVH problems). The combined consequence was that
maximum volume, a significant part of it may be occupied by the pump suffered severe cavitation damage on the durability
bubbles and vapour. When the pocket moves into the discharge cycle test. The high oil pressure pulsation near the dead end
side, high pressure will collapse the bubbles, causing caused fixing break and back plate crack.
cavitation.
Figure 6 shows the outer rotor after 180 rig durability test.
The cavitation damage is clear and severe. To help to
understand the root cause and provide the guidance to the new
design, a 3D CFD oil pump transient analysis was requested. At (a)
that time, the internal research showed that the best gerotor oil
pump 3D CFD transient model was to use CFD-ACE+.
(b)
Dead end
59
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
CONCLUSION
Engine lubrication system requirement and three pressure
regulation methods, including the newly invented hybrid PRV
system, were discussed in the paper. Steps from pump sizing,
PRV presetting to oil pump design and optimisation, and their
associated analytical tools were described. The example given
in this paper showed that, by adopting the right tool at each
design stage, it is possible to reduce the design and
development time by offering the 'right first time' concept
design. There is no doubt that individual's knowledge and
experience and team work, including working with supplier, are
Fig. 10 New pump geometry the keys to the delivery of a robust oil pump and lubrication
system.
Pocket 3
Pocket 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Pocket 2
Thanks are given to Jaguar Cars Ltd for permitting the
Pocket 5 publication of this paper.
Pocket 1
REFERENCES
[1] Jiang, Y. and Perng, C-Y., “An efficient 3D transient
computational model for vane oil pump and gerotor oil pump
7
simulations”, SAE paper 970841.
6 Old pump [2] Manco, S. et al, “Gerotor lubrication oil pump for IC
New pump
engines”, SAE paper 98268.
Flow rate (g/s/mm2)
5
[3] Neyrat, S. et al, “Modeling and analysis of an automatic
4
transmission internal gear oil pump with cavitation”, SAE
3 2005-01-2448.
[4] Senatore, A. et al, “Fluid-dynamic analysis of a high
2
performance engine lubricant circuit”, JSAE 20077289 or SAE
1 2007-01-1963.
0
[5] Tao, W. et al, “Robust Optimization of engine lubrication
Pocket 1 Pocket 2 Pocket 3 Pocket 4 Pocket 5 system”, SAE paper 2007-01-1568.
Fig. 11 Filling rate on the suction side at 6800 rpm, 140 C oil
temperature
60
Temperature-Dependent Rheology and Tribology of Lubrication Greases Investigated with
New Flexible Platform for Tribological Measurements on A Rheometer
61
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
62
Temperature-Dependent Rheology and Tribology of Lubrication Greases Investigated with
New Flexible Platform for Tribological Measurements on A Rheometer
63
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
64
Study on Characteristic Parameters of Wear Particle Boundary
65
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Where
Pj = L j L (11)
(c) Step 3
j +m1
Lj = z
i= j
i (12)
N
Fig. 3 The first three steps in constructing the Koch curve
L = zi (13)
According to fractal method, the level of complexity of
i =1
the Koch curve is increasing as the growth of the number of
Based on the Shannon entropy, the singular entropy of
steps. We extract the boundary waves of the previous
boundary wave is defined as
m 1 step Koch curve as shown in Figure 4, its large
H = ΔH k p = ( ΔH k p ) p (14) Lyapunov exponent and singular entropy are
k =1 calculated, as shown in Table 1.
Here • p is the p-norm operation. The complexity of the
boundary wave is described by using the singular entropy. 6
4 APPLICATIONS 4
z(×102)
66
Study on Characteristic Parameters of Wear Particle Boundary
10
z(×10 )
2
0
0 5 10 15 2
N(×103)
(b) Cutting particle
(c) Step 3
Fig. 4 Boundary wave of Koch curve
Table 1
The chaos parameters of boundary wave of koch cure
Large Lyapunov
Parameter Singular entropy
exponent
k=1 0.041 73.4010
k=2 0.039 76.9916
(c) Laminar particle
k=3 0.046 79.6781
67
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Table 2
2 Large Lyapunov exponent of wear particle boundary wave
Particle Large Lyapunov exponent
Spherical 0.025
0 Cutting 0.032
0 5 10 15
3 Laminar 0.028
N(×10 )
(a) Spherical particle
Fatigue chunk 0.034
Grave-slippage 0.037
4
68
Study on Characteristic Parameters of Wear Particle Boundary
Education of China (200801511018). [10] Podsiadlo P. and Stachowiak G.W., 1998, “Evaluation
of boundary fractal methods for the characterization of
REFERENCES wear particles”, Wear, 217, pp. 24-34.
[1] Raadnui, S., 2005, “Wear particle analysis-utilization of [11] Hamblin M.G. and Stachowiak G.W., 1993,
quantitative computer image analysis:A review”, “Comparison of boundary fractal dimension from
Tribology International, 38, pp. 871-878. projected and sectioned particle images: Part II.
[2] Bahadur S. and Badruddin R., 1990, “Erodent particle Dimension changes”, J. Comput. Assisted Microsc.,
characterization and the effect of particle size and shape 54, pp. 301-308.
on erosion”, Wear, 138, pp. 189-208. [12] Hamblin M.G. and Stachowiak G.W., 1993,
[3] Raadnui S. and Roylance B.J., 1995, “The classification “Comparison of boundary fractal dimension from
of wear particle shape”, Lubr. Eng., 51, pp. 432-437. projected and sectioned particle images: Part I.
[4] Winte R.E. and Hutchings I.M., 1974, “Solid particle Technique evaluation”, J. Comput. Assisted Microsc.,
erosion studies using single angular particles”, Wear, 29, 54, pp. 291–300.
pp. 181-194. [13] Stachowiak G.W., 1998, “Numerical characterisation of
[5] Stachowiak G.W., 1998, “Numerical characterization of wear particle morphology and angularity of particles
wear particles morphology and angularity of particles and surfaces”, Tribology , 31, pp 139 - 157.
[14] Peng Z. and Kirk T.B., 1997, “Two-dimensional fast
and surfaces”, Tribol. Int., 31, pp. 139-157.
Fourier transform and power spectrum for wear particle
[6] Allen M., Brown G.J. and Miles N.J., 1995,
analysis”, Tribology Int, 30, pp. 583-590.
“Measurement of boundary fractal dimensions: review
[15] Rosenstein M.T., Collins J.J., Carlo C.J.De, 1993, “A
of current techniques”, Powder Technol., 84, pp. 1-14.
practical method for calculating largest Lyapunovs
[7] Meloy T.P., 1977, “Fast Fourier transforms applied to
exponents for small data sets”, Physica D, 65, pp.
shape analysis of particle silhouettes to obtain
117-134.
morphological data”, Powder Technol., 17, pp. 27-35. [16] Grassberg P. and Procaccia I., 1983, “Characterization
[8] Hawkins A.E, 1993, “The shape of powder-particle of the strange attractors”, Phys. Rev. Lett., 5, pp.
outlines”, John Wiley, New York. 346-349.
[9] Verspui M.A., Vander Velden P., Slikkerveer P.J., 1996, [17] Shannon C.E., 1948, “A mathematical theory of
“Angularity determination of abrasive particles”, Wear, communication,” Bell Sys. Tech. Journ., 27, pp.
199, pp. 122-126. 379-423 and 623-656.
69
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
School of Mechanical, Electronic and Control Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
70
Viscosity Variation Model and Its Application in Micro/Nano-Scale Clearance
wp w§ wu · (5)
¨ eff ¸
wx wz © wz ¹
Similarly, we can get the y-direction and z-direction
Fig. 2 Viscosity transition layer model equations:
wp w wv (6)
(Keff )
wy wz wz
The effective viscosity of the lubricant in the whole gap wp (7)
can be modified as follows: 0
wz
eff 0M z (1) where u is the velocity in x-direction, and v is the velocity in
where eff is the effective viscosity , 0 the viscosity of the y-direction.
Velocities in the x and y directions are obtained by
conventional fluid layer respectively. M(z) the modified integrating equation (5) and (6):
wp z z z 1
equation which can be described as follows: u ³
wx Keff
0
dz c1 ³
0
c
Keff 2
(8)
M1 z d z d 1 wp z z z 1
°
M z ® 11 d z d h 2 (2)
v ³
wy Keff
0
dz c3 ³
0
c
Keff 4
(9)
respectively, which are decided by the properties of the fluid Further, fluxes in x and y directions are listed as follows:
and the solid walls, 0 the viscosity of the bulk fluid layer. For 1 wp F2 F
qx ( F2 1 ) (u2 u1 ) 1 u2 h (10)
simplicity, linear variation (eqs (3) and (4)) is adopted to Keff wx F0 F0
describe viscosity variation in the transition layer as the height 1 wp F2 F
qy ( F2 1 ) (v2 v1 ) 1 v2 h (11)
of transition layer is very small. It is noted that eff can be Keff wy F0 F0
Finally, continuity equation for incompressible fluids
either greater than or less than 0 , depending on practical
reads: w (q ) w (q ) 0 , the modified 3D Reynolds
situations. In addition, M(z) can vary with respect to wx
x y
wy
coordinates x and y for heterogeneity solid surfaces. equation is obtained as follows:
w ª§ F12 · wp º w ª§ F12 · wp º
2. REYNOLDS EQUATIONS FOR TRANSITION LAYER «¨ F2 ¸ » «¨ F2 ¸ »
wx ¬© F0 ¹ wx ¼ wy ¬© F0 ¹ wy ¼ (12)
MODEL
wh w §F ·
Based on the force balance condition of micro cell as u2 u2 u1 ¨ 1 ¸
wx wx © F0 ¹
shown in Fig.3, we can get the x-direction force balanced
h z2
equation: where F
2 ³ 0 Keff
dz
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
3. CALCULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION is improved with the viscosity of the solid walls increasing. It
3.1 Lubrication properties predicted with the transition proves that the transition layer model can reflect the variation
layer model of viscosity in real time.
The modified 3D Reynolds equation can be solved by Velocity contribution to lubrication performances is plotted
using multi-grid method [15]. For all computations, we set in Fig.5. Other parameters are adopted as follows: hin =100m,
u 2 0 , 0 = 0.02 Pa s , 1 K2 K , 1 = E2 = E . hout = 50N m, I1 = I 2 = 0.06Pa s, E1 h = E2 h = 0.1 . Fig.5
Pressure vs. ratio of /0 is plotted in Fig.4. Other (a) shows 3D pressure distribution for velocity of 0.1m/s. Fig.5
parameters used in the computation process are adopted as (b) shows the pressure distribution in z-y plane at center in x
follows: hin = 100 Nm , hout = 50Nm , u1 = 0.4m / s , direction under various u1 .The largest pressure increases
from 4.11KPa to 16.46KPa. Fig.5 (c) gives the pressure
1 /h = 2 /h =0.1. Fig.4 (a) shows 3D pressure distribution for distribution in z-x plane at center in y direction. The largest
viscosity of 0.03 Pa s . Fig.4 (b) shows the relationship pressure increases from 9.84KPa to 39.37KPa .It can be seen
between pressure and ratio of /0 in z-y plane at center in x that the larger the velocity is, the greater the pressure becomes,
which is due to the wedge effects.
direction under variousK. The largest pressure increases from
14.05KPa to 16.46KPa. Fig.4 (c) gives the pressure
distribution z-x plane at center in y direction. The largest
pressure increases from 33.60KPa to 39.37KPa. Increment in
viscosity of the transition layer will give rise to increase of
pressure.
72
Viscosity Variation Model and Its Application in Micro/Nano-Scale Clearance
viscosity of the whole clearance thereby it makes the pressure 0.1. Fig.7 (b) gives pressure distribution in z-y plane at center
increase in addition to the wedge effect. in x direction under various G h . The largest pressure
Pressure vs. outlet height relation is shown in Fig.6. Other increases from 16.46KPa to 28.49KPa. Fig.7 (c) gives the
parameters are used as follows hin = 100 Nm , u1 = 0.4 m / s , relationship between pressure and the ratio of the transition
I1 = I2 = 0.06 Pa s, 1 /h = 2 /h = 0.1 , Fig.6 (a) shows 3D layer in z-x plane at center in y direction. The largest pressure
increases from 39.37KPa to 68.13KPa. When the transition
pressure distribution for outlet height of 50m. Fig.6 (b) gives
layer accounts for less percentage, it has less influence on the
pressure distribution in z-y plane at center in x direction under
pressure distribution, on the other hand, however, the larger the
various hout . The largest pressure decreases from 16.46KPa to ratios of the transition layer are, the more significant its
5.57KPa. Fig.6 (c) gives the relationship between pressure and influences on pressure are. Clearly, improving transition layer
the outlet height in z-x plane at center in y direction. The thickness will also enhance the effective viscosity, thus it can
largest pressure decreases from 39.37KPa to 6.40KPa. We can cause fluid pressure increase.
conclude that the larger the outlet height is, the less significant
its influence on pressure becomes, which due to ratio of the
transition layer decreasing.
73
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
74
Numerical Solving Method for the Structural Stiffness of Gas Foil Bearings
Numerical Solving Method for the Structural Stiffness of Gas Foil Bearings
75
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
tangential deflections wi and vi , respectively, of and elastic prominent, the structural stiffness of the foil bearing is
intrinsically nonlinear and obtained after the relationship
curved foil (Walowit and Anno,1975) are obtained according to
Timoshenko’s simply supported beam theory: between the press distribution of gas film and the deformation
of foils is obtained through the iterative solution. It is obvious
DB § d 2 wB ·
¨ ¸ wB M that there is the structural stiffness of the foil bearing for every
RB2 © dT
2
¹ eccentricity.
(1) We founded generalized solution framework for GFBs in
According to the assumptions above mentioned, we finally
literature[18-19].In generalized solution framework of elasto-
obtain the radial and tangential deflections of the single bump
foil. Thus, the rigidity of the bump is reflected through the aerodynamic lubrication for aerodynamic compliant foil
constant value K B : bearings, we adopt the nonlinear contact finite element method
to solve the interactions between the springs part in foil bearings,
WB EB t 3 then a finite element method is developed for the calculation of
KB (2)
wB 2(1 vB2 )l03 aerodynamic lubrication through transforming the compressible
The deflection of the foil under the imposed hydrodynamic gas lubricated Reynolds equation into a typical elliptic partial
pressure is assumed to be proportional to the local pressure, we differential equation, then the coupled gas lubricated Reynolds
have equation, the elastic deformation equation and the contact
h C e cos(T I0 ) ( p p a ) / K B (3) boundary conditions between foils is solved through a the finite
To obtain more accurate information on the deflection of element grid mapping middle part, and the elasto-aerodynamic
bump foil, Ku, C.-P. R. and Heshmat.H ˈ establish a coupled numerical solution of the compliant foil bearings is
comprehensive model ,consider the link effect between two obtained. Using the method above mentioned, the structural
adjacent bump and the various forces and geometric parameters stiffness of the foil bearing under different eccentricity is
that affect bearing, and further develops the solution theory of solved.
the bump foil in the literature[4]ˈthe experimental data and the
theory analysis both show that the bumps near the fixed end
THOERY AND NUMERICAL SOLVING METHOD
have a much higher stiffness than those near the free end. But
this kind of variable bump stiffness so far has not been used to In order to solve the elasto-aerodynamic coupled problem
solve the coupled elasto- aerodynamic lubrication problem for in foil bearing, the researchers in the fields is always devoting to
the compliant foil bearings instead of constant bump stiffness introducing the finite element method into the solving process
[12]. of the elasto-aerodynamic coupled problem in foil bearings. In
To increase the load capability, many kind of the elastic
order to analyze the performance of the foil bearing, the
supports such as springs, bump foils and rubber etc are adopted,
compressible gas lubricated Reynolds equation and the problem
and the adjacent top foils even are joined[14]-[16]. In the
of foil deformation are firstly respectively solved.
previous analysis, the interaction between the elastic support
The Reynolds equations which is used to describe the
and the top foil has been shy away from because of structural
compressible gas lubricated problem may be written as(Fig.1):
complexity. The analytical difficulties are largely due to the
lack of proper modeling and limited empirical evidence w PH 3 wP w PH 3 wP w (4)
( ) ( ) 6U ( PH )
showing the dynamic interaction between the hydrodynamic wI P wI wZ P wZ wI
gas film and the foil support structure. This deficiency is Where M I T , z Z P H 6PZ R 2 , Z is
,h ,/ ,p ( )
exacerbated by the absence of physical modeling of the material R Pa C Pa C
coatings introduced to reduce frictional drag during start-up and angle velocity, C is nominal film gap, H is eccentricity ratio,
shut-down. Since the operating parameters are not well
Pa is environmental press. Thus the dimensionless
quantified, each foil bearing is now essentially a custom-piece
of hardware, with resulting variability even in identical units compressible gas Reynolds equations is written as:
and limited scalability[17]. w wp w wp w (5)
( ph 3 ) ( ph 3 ) / ( ph)
From the point of the author, this method mentioned above wM wM wz wz wp
seems doubtful and problematic because the foil bearings are
Let s ph , 3 p 2 h 2 .Thus
usually constructed asymmetrically. According to the method
presented by Heshmat, values of structural stiffness and w wp w h w wh
( ph3 ) [ ]
damping for a foil bearing are not independent, and parameters wM wM wM 2 wM wM (6)
of the motion of the rotor are also enveloped in the structural h w 2 1 wh w wh w w2h
2
stiffness and damping. This means that even for a 2 wM 2 2 wM wM wM wM wM
certain-structure foil bearing with bump foils supported, its
w wp w h w wh
stiffness and damping cannot be predicted alone. To a great ( ph3 ) [ ]
wz wz wz 2 wz wz (7)
extent, the Heshmat model can provide an estimation. The
h w 2 1 wh w wh w w2h
so-called structure stiffness according to the Hsehmat model has
2 w z 2 2 wz w z wz w z wz 2
only a statistic meaning.
Owing to the correlation between the structural stiffness of And then, the equation 5 is written as:
the foil bearing and the load distribution upon it is very
76
Numerical Solving Method for the Structural Stiffness of Gas Foil Bearings
w 23 w 23 2 w2h w2h that the lengths of the triangle sides are unchanged during
( ) ( )3 deformation. In order to reduce of the calculation scale, we use a
wM 2
wZ2 h wM 2 wz 2
set of curves or surfaces to denote a rigid body, thus only the
1 wh w wh w 1 ws
[ ] 2/ (8) boundary points are needed, and rigid body profile is
h wM wM wz wz h wM
constructed with these points. Using the flexible to rigid body
The Equation 8 is a typical elliptic PDE:
contact, we can analysis the all kinds of contact including with
(cu ) au f (9)
preload and without preload. In the contact analysis process, the
Through transforming the compressible gas lubricated contact state is necessarily detected. The contact state has the
Reynolds equation into a typical elliptic PDE (partial three following cases(Fig.4)
differential equation) form, thus the lubricated Reynolds
equation can be solved by finite element method, and a finite Rigid Body
(set of curves or
element program is developed for the calculation of Deformable Body
surfaces)
(set of elements)
aerodynamic lubrication.
n
The elastic deformation problem of foils in the compliant 'u A
foil bearing was always being analyzed by the analytic method
based on the beam theory, but the method reckon without the D D
effect of the three dimension deformations of foils upon the A
press distribution of gas film. In our work, the foil deformations Case 1 2 3 4
77
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
4) The gas dynamic force is loaded on the structure Equation is renewedly solved.
deformation FEA model, and the structure deformation 6) The step 4 and step 5 is iteratively calculated until the
of bearing are obtained. iterative solution is convergent.
5) Through changing the gas film gap by the elastic An elasto-aerodynamic problem solving environment is
deformation of bearing, the gas lubricated Reynolds established based on the iterative step above mentioned.
Stucture deformation
FEA Model
Transform the press into
node force
lubricate gas would leak from two side of the foil bearing. The
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS contact status between the bump foil and the top foil in foil
The primary goal of the investigation is determining the bearing is also investigated with this method (Fig 8). The
micro-deformations of the top foil. At the same time, the investigation of the contact status between foils is helpful to
contact status between the bump foil and top foil is also be the design of the gas foil bearing.
investigated. A certain aerodynamic compliant foil bearing is
calculated based on the presented theory by the method above
mentioned (Parameters from Table1, geometry from Fig.1).
78
Numerical Solving Method for the Structural Stiffness of Gas Foil Bearings
CONCLUSIONS
A generalized numerical solving method for the elasto-
aerodynamically coupled lubrication problem in the gas foil
(a)¦=0.3 bearing is given with mesh mapping relationship between the
two kind of finite element solving process above mentioned.
The contact status between foils is also investigated with
this numerical method.
The structural stiffness of the foil bearings with different
parameters is estimated by using the numerical method, which
is helpful to design the bump foil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the National Natural Science
(b)¦=0.8 Foundation of China (Grant No. 50635060), the National
Fig.7 Radial deformation of top foil Program on Key Basic Research Projects of China (Grant Nos.
2007CB707705 and 2007CB707706) and the National
High-tech Research and Development Program of China
(Grant No. 2007AA050501).
REFERENCES
[1] Radil, K., Howard, S., Dykas, B., The role of radial
clearance on the performance of foil air bearings, Tribology
Transactions, 2002, 45(4): 485-490.
[2] Dellacorte, C., Valco, M. J., Load capacity estimation of foil
air journal bearings for oil-free turbomachinery applications,
Tribology Transactions, 2000, 43(4): 795-801.
[3] Howard, S. A., Dellacorte, C., Valco, M. J. et al.,
Steady-state stiffness of foil air journal bearings at elevated
temperatures, Tribology Transactions, 2001, 44(3): 489-493.
[4] Ku, C.-P. R., Heshmat, H., Compliant foil bearing structural
stiffness analysis: part I - theoretical model including strip
and variable bump foil geometry, Journal of Tribology,
(a)¦=0.3
Transactions of the ASME, 1992, 114(2): 394-400.
[5] Ku, C.-P. R., Heshmat, H., Structural stiffness and coulomb
damping in compliant foil journal bearings: theoretical
considerations, Tribology Transactions, 1994, 37(3):
525-533.
[6] Heshmat, H., Ku, C.-P. R., Structural damping of self-acting
compliant foil journal bearings, Journal of Tribology,
Transactions of the ASME, 1994, 116(1): 76-82.
[7] Walowit, J.,Gas lubricated foil bearing technology
development for propulsion and power system, Technical
report, Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory, 1973.
[8] J.A.Walowit,J.N.Arno.Modern Development in Lubrication
Mechanics,Applied Science Publishers,Ltd,London,1975.
[9] Heshmat, H., J.A.Walowit, O.Pinkus. Analysis of
gas-lubricated foil journal bearings, Journal of Lubrication
Technology, Transactions of the ASME, 1983 105(10):
(b)¦=0.8 647-655.
Fig.8 Contact status between top foil and bump foil [10] Heshmat, H., J.A.Walowit, O.Pinkus. Analysis of
gas-lubricated compliant thrust bearings, Journal of
The structural stiffness of the foil bearing is key to the Lubrication Technology, Transactions of the ASME, 1983
stiffness and damp of the gas foil bearing. But the structural 105(10): 638-646.
stiffness would change with eccentricity and contact status,
79
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
[11] Ku, C.-P. R., Heshmat, H., Structural stiffness and [15] D Sudheer Kumar Reddy, S.Swarnamani. Analysis of
coulomb damping in compliant foil journal bearings: aerodynamic multileaf foil journal bearing. Wear,1997,
parametric studies, Tribology Transaction, 1994, 37(3): (209): 115-22.
455-462. [16] C A Heshmat, H Heshmat. An Analysis of Gas Lubricated
[12] Salehi, M., Swanson, E.E. and Heshmat, H. Thermal Multileaf Foil Bearings with Backing Springs[J]. ASME,
Features of Compliant Foil Bearings - Theory and Journal of Tribology,1995,117(7):437-443.
Experiments, Journal of Tribology, Transactions of the [17] Luis San Andres. Gas bearing will soon be widely
ASME, Volume (2001),123 (3):566-571. used.Turbomachinary International. 2004 (5):35.
[13] Foil Gas Bearing With Compression Springs: Analyses and [18] Yu Lie,Qi ShemiaoˈGeng Haipeng. A generalized solution
Experiments, Journal of Tribology, Transactions of the of elasto-aerodynamic lubrication for aerodynamic
ASME,2007, 129(3):628-639. compliant foil bearings.Science in China Ser.E Engineering
[14] K P Oh, S M Rohde. A Theoretical investigation of the and Materials Science 2005, 48(4):441-449.
Multileaf Journal Bearing. Journal of Applied Mechanics. [19] Geng HaipengYu Lie,Qi Shemiao. Software Framework
1976(6):237-242. for Solving of the Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication Problem.
Ruhua yu mifeng,2006(2):42-45.
80
Biotribological Properties of Natural Swine Joint Cartilage
˄Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology,
Nanjing 210094, People’s Republic of China, E-mail: cuitao11111@163.com˅
81
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
deposited on the frictional contact surface not only reduced the (b)
0.10
friction factor, but also reduced wear [3] .
Friction coefficientμ
A
0.08
B
0.20 C
0.18 (a) dry friction 0.06
distilled water
Friction coefficient,
0.16
brine 0.04
0.14
piasma
0.12
0.02
0.10
0.08 0.00
0.06 0 50 100 150 200 250
0.04 Sliding time(min)
0.02
0.00
Fig.2 Three different locations on swine articular
0 50 100 150 200 250 cartilage(a) and its friction coefficient(b) (speed 84r/min, load
Sliding time,min 1.5N, plasma lubrication)
50
45 (b) dry friction
distilled water WEAR SURFACE ANALYSIS
40
brine
Wear mass,mg
(a)
82
Biotribological Properties of Natural Swine Joint Cartilage
CONCLUSIONS
The friction coefficient and wear rate of natural swine
articular cartilage decreased in order of dry friction, distilled
water, saline and plasma. The friction coefficient is lowest
under the lubrication of plasma because of the presence of
plasma fibrinogen, which forms a protective lubricating film.
The different parts of the same joint articular cartilage show
different properties in friction under the same experimental
conditions .The smallest wear and friction coefficient was
obtained on the head of the joint front of the articular cartilage
due to regular contact and biotribological. The far away from
the area, the high friction coefficient was obtained.
In a variety of conditions, the original joint surface shows a
large number of biotribological traces, with pits and massive
flake particles sheded from the surface. The wear and tear of the
surface of stainless steel friction is the most rough. Under the
lubrication of plasma, the joint surface showed some slippery
tracks, the surface did not appear pit.
REFERENCES
[1] Anderson, J.M., in: Ratner, B.D., Hoffman, A.S., 1996, “An
Introduction to Materials in Medicine,” Biomaterials
Science:165-173.
[2] Williams, R.L., Brown, S.A., Merritt, K., 1988,
“Electrochemical studies on the influence of proteins on the
corrosion of implant alloys,” Biomaterials, 9, pp.181.
Fig.3 worn surface morphologies of swine articular cartilage in [3] Huang, X.L., Zhu, H., Ge, S.R., 2005, “A study on
the dry friction, distilled water, saline and serum (84 r/minˈ biotribology behavior of natural swine articular
1.5N) (a) dry friction (b) distilled water (c) saline (d) serum cartilage.lubrication and seal” 170(4)pp.16-23.
83
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
84
Effect of Surface Texturing on Lubrication Film Formation within Non-Conformal Contacts
{}.~2(E0(~7|
<
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5()(5(~}(|
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£$ ¾
. $ \ \
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85
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
86
Experimental Investigation of Time-Dependent Oil Film Pressure in a Dynamically Loaded Journal Bearing
0. Collector ring 1. Displacement transducer 2. Rotating axis 3. Investigation of time-dependent oil film pressure and
Key phase bore 4. 45°Inner taper reflector 5. Test journal 6. oil film transfer
Plexiglass end plate 7. Pointer 8. Plexiglass sleeve 9. Pressure As shown in Fig.1, the pressure sensors were mounted in
sensor 10. Journal bearing block 11. Adjustable screw 12. the journal and the sleeve material is plexiglass. The oil film
Annular lamps and lanterns 13. High-speed camera CCD 14. pressure, the phase and oil film picture were collected
Computer simultaneously. The working conditions are as follows: room
temperature 25°, full oil pool, journal diameter 80mm,
length-to-diameter ratio 0.75, clearance-to-radius 1%, dynamic
eccentricity 65.65m, static eccentricity 100m, dynamic
viscosity 0.03Pa.s, the shaft rotates counter-clockwise, rotation
speed 900r/m.
Theoretical results is available by using
five-point-difference method based on mass conservation
boundary to solve Reynolds Equation. Film thickness is known
because type of dynamic load is identical-frequency. To
compare with experimental results, one whole cycle is divided
into fifty equal pieces to calculate transient oil film pressure.
Each piece is at interval of 7.2e. In oil film distribution
pictures, places marked with black points (filled with "o") are
complete-film zone, while the others are cavitation zone.
Numbers marked in oil film pressure picture can be referred to
the title of oil film distribution picture. All angles in all
captions of the figures in this paper are the position of
maximum dynamic eccentricity.
The whole-oil-film distribution picture is shown in Fig.4. In
Fig.2 schematic of dynamically loaded journal bearing test comparison with theoretical results, the circle of whole-oil-film
apparatus for transient oil film pressure distribution picture was outspreaded at the oil inlet. By the
1. Test journal 2. Pressure sensor 3. Steel sleeve 4. Sleeve method of coordinate transform, the distortion was eliminated
support structure 5. Roller bearing and quite ideal photos of cavitation distribution of
whole-oil-film were attained. The black mark was mounted at
the position of maximum dynamic eccentricity to distinguish
transient position. The transient oil film pressure distribution
picture collected is shown in Fig.5. The picture of transfer of
the cavitation region is shown in Fig.6 at the position of
maximum dynamic eccentricity.
87
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
88
Experimental Investigation of Time-Dependent Oil Film Pressure in a Dynamically Loaded Journal Bearing
Fig.7-1 (27e
, CH1) compare between test end theoretical result
Fig.7-2 (63 ° , CH2) compare between test end theoretical Fig. 7-5 (126°ˈCH5) compare between test end theoretical
result result
89
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig.7-7 (162°ˈCH7) compare between test end theoretical Fig7-10 (234°ˈCH10) compare between test end theoretical
result result
90
Experimental Investigation of Time-Dependent Oil Film Pressure in a Dynamically Loaded Journal Bearing
91
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
92
Experimental Investigation of Time-Dependent Oil Film Pressure in a Dynamically Loaded Journal Bearing
Because the pressure sensor is not sensitive enough and one point on the journal in one cycle when the dynamic
uncertain time-lag when multi-channel sensor gathered signals, eccentricity is less than static eccentricity. But on some
so all these were not able to be taken into consideration during occasions, such as transient oil film pressure and the dynamic
collecting transient oil film pressure. Thus, the experimental eccentricity being more than static eccentricity, they did not
data is discrete and the result is not satisfactory. But its trend match well. Sometimes, the deviation of experimental value
should be observed and relevant data disposal skills need to be and theoretical one came out widely. Therefore, a further
further improved. In Fig.8, the pressure peak of experimental research should be done on theory of dynamic load.
results move along the circumference direction, which accords Though the pressure of oil film in dynamically loaded
with theory. This phenomenon is considerable especially in the bearings was complicated, the oil film pressure curve at a point
change of transient pressure. In this very condition, some was submitted to a good rule, which indicated inherent physical
transient moment had double-peak phenomenon, and the discipline. Experimental results offered credible and reliable
smaller one may has something to do with oil inlet. However gist to do a further research on theory of dynamic load.
results don't expectedly match theory results.
Reference
Summary [1] B. D. Jacobson, B. J. Hamrock : High-Speed Motion Picture
From the above results, both transfer and pressure of oil Camera Experiments of Cavitation in Dynamically Loaded
film in dynamically loaded bearings are more complicated than Journal Bearings Journal of Lubrication Technology 1983.7
in static ones. It is improper to consider that oil film usually vol 105 , pp:446-452.
fractures at atmospheric pressure on dynamic condition, so [2] D.C.Sun & D.E.Brewe: Simultaneous Pressure Measurement
negative pressure should be taken into account. when the and High-Speed Photography Study of Cavitation in a
dynamic eccentricity is bigger than static eccentricity, excellent Dynamically Loaded Journal Bearing. Transaction of the
boundary in solving static loaded bearings cannot explains ASME 1993 Vol. 115, pp: 88-95.
transient oil film pressure and time-dependent oil film pressure [3] Kawase.T & Someya. T: An Investigation into the Oil Film
distribution as well as double-peak phenomenon. Summing up Pressure Distrbution in Dynamically Loaded Journal
the results of experimental and theoretical comparison, some Bearing. Elsevier Science Publishers 1985, 1-10.
conclusions were made as follows. [4] Chen Xiaoyang, Sun Meili, etc. Experimental investigation
1. A 45einner taper reflector was used to collect the 360e of time-dependent cavitation in an oscillatory squeeze film,
full oil film distribution pictures, which offers a new method to Science in China Ser. G Physics, Mechanics & Astronomy
research cavitation. 2004 Vol.47 Supp. 107-112.
Cavitation destruction occurred below atmospheric [5] Sun Meili, Zhang Zhiming, etc, Experimental Study of
pressure at low rotating speed, so negative pressure should be Cavitation in an Oscillatory Oil Squeeze Film, Tribology
considered. Transactions, Vol.51,Issue 3, 2008, pp:341-350.
Based on mass conserving boundary theory, the
experimental results of pressure matched that of theory well at
93
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Experimental Research and Numerical Simulation of LY12 and HPb62-2 Ring Compression
*
Bin Guo, Feng Gong , Chunju Wang, Debin Shan
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin institute of Technology, Harbin150001, China
94
Experimental Research and Numerical Simulation of LY12 and HPb62-2 Ring Compression
calibration curves.
400
Flow stress(MPa)
300
200
100
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
True strain (b) HPb62-2
Fig. 3 Specimens after deformation: 1 talc powder, 2 without
(a) LY12 lubrication, 3 vaseline, 4 vegetable oil
600
500
400
under different friction factors can be seen in figure 4, it is clear
that the inner diameter of the ring decreases with the increase of
300
the friction factor. This means an excellent agreement on
200
experimental research and numerical simulation in terms of the
deformed shape.
100
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
True strain
(b) HPb62-2
Fig. 2 Stress-Strain curves of LY12 and HPb62-2
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
oil has a lowest friction factor of m=0.18 for LY12 and m=0.10
for HPb62-2. Vaseline, without lubrication and talc powder
have higher values. For all the lubrication states, the friction
factors of the lubricants for LY12 are all larger than HPb62-2
according to the friction calibration curves determined by
numerical simulation.
0.06
40 0.08 2. The friction factors of LY12 and HPb62-2 on the
0.10
0.15
lubrication states of talc powder, vaseline, vegetable oil
20 0.2 and without lubrication were 0.41, 0.22, 0.18, 0.27and 0.34,
0.3
0.4 0.14, 0.10, 0.21, respectively.
0
0.5
0.6
-20 0.7
0.8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
0.9
-40 1.0
The financial support from the National High-Tech
Research and Development Program (2006AA04Z316) and
-60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Heilongjiang Natural Science Funds for Distinguished Young
Reduction in height (%) Scholar (JC-05-11) are greatly acknowledged.
(a) LY12
80
REFERENCES
0
0.02 [1] Ebrahimi, R., Najafizadeh, A., 2004, “A new method for
60 0.04 evaluation of friction in bulk metal forming,” Journal of
Reduction in inner diameter (%)
0.06
40 0.08 Materials Processing Technology, 152, pp.136-143.
0.10
0.15 [2] Shen, G., Vedhanayagam, V., Altan, T., 1992, “A method
20 0.2
0.3
for evaluating friction a backward extrusion-type forging,”
0
0.4 Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 33,
0.5
0.6 pp.109-123.
-20 0.7
0.8
[3] Buschhausen, A., Weinmann, K., Lee, J.Y. et al., 1992,
-40
0.9 “Evaluation of lubrication and friction in cold forging
1.0
using a double backward extrusion process,” Journal of
-60 Materials Processing Technology, 33, pp.95-108.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Reduction in height (%)
[4] Engel, U., 2006, “Tribology in microforming,” Wear, 260,
pp.265-273.
(b) HPb62-2
[5] Sofuoglu, H., Gedikli, H., 2002, “Determination of friction
Fig. 6 Friction calibration curves of LY12 and HPb62-2
coefficient encountered in large deformation processes,”
Tribology International, 35, pp.27-34.
The reduction in height h and reduction of inner diameter
[6] Bakhshi-Jooybari, M., 2002, “A theoretical and
d of the experimental specimens can be calculated by equation
experimental study of friction in metal forming by the use
(1) and equation (2). Then the friction factors can be determined
of the forward extrusion process,” Journal of Materials
from figure6. The friction factors for LY12 and HPb62-2 can be
Processing Technology, 125-126, pp.369-374.
seen in table 3 and table 4. The results show that the vegetable
96
Experimental Research and Numerical Simulation of LY12 and HPb62-2 Ring Compression
[7] Petersen, S.B., Martins, P.A.F., Bay, N., 1998, “An [10] Fereshtech-Saniee, F., Pillinger, I., Hartley, P., 2004,
alternative ring-test geometry for the evaluation of friction “Friction modelling for the physical simulation of the bulk
under low normal pressure,” Journal of Materials metal forming processes,” Journal of Materials Processing
Processing Technology, 79, pp.14-24. Technology, 153-154, pp.151-156.
[8] Li, L. X., Peng, D. S., Liu, J. A. et al, 2000, “An [11] Rudkins, N., Hartley, P., Pillinger, I. et al., 1996, “Friction
experimental study of the lubrication behavior of A5 glass modelling and experimental observations in hot ring
lubricant by means of the ring compression test,” Journal of compression tests,” Journal of Materials Processing
Materials Processing Technology, 102, pp.138-142. Technology, 60, pp.349-353.
[9] Robinson, T., Ou, H., Armstrong, C. G.., 2004, “Study on [12] Hu, Z., Zhu, L.H., Li, J.Q., 1997, “Numerical simulation
ring compression test using physical modelling and FE on ring compression- A new approach to determine
simulation,” Journal of Materials Processing Technology, calibration curves of friction coefficient,” Acta Metallugica
153-154, pp.54-59. Sinica, 33, pp.337-344.
97
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Lei Wang1 , X.C. Zhou1* , Q.Q. Li1,C.Q. Yuan1, X.P. Yan1 ,Y.H. Chen2
1
Reliability Engineering Institute, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430063, PR China
2
Yangtze River Waterway Bureau
98
Application of Metal Self-Repairing Additives on Cylinder-Piston Ring Rubbing Pairs
2. laboratory experiment )H
VWDUERDUG
with a flash point of 232ćand a pour point of -20ć. HQJLQH
The disk and pin were cleaned by propanone firstly, then
labeled, dried and weighed. Its surface feature can be obtained
by Optical Microscope. The samples were divided into two
groups, observation group(added the self-repairing additives) 0J
and control group(not added), and the total wear time was 3h.
After completed the experiments, Optical Microscope was used
to observe the surface feature again and find the differences. SRVWHQJLQH
VWDUERDUG
DISCUSSION HQJLQH
1. The results of the real ship test
New lubricant’s spectral data were shown in Table 2. All the
contents of elements were low(FHİ1.8ppm, Crİ0.5ppm, Al $O
İ1.4ppm,Mgİ4.9ppm) except the content of Mg in Castrol
SAE40 lubricant (257ppm).
SRUWHQJLQH
Table 2 The spectral data of the new lubricant
ELEMENT VWDUERDUG
HQJLQH
ITEM Fe Cr Mg Al
Great Wall CD40 1.8 0.1 4.9 1.4
Castrol SAE40 0.6 0.5 257 0.8
Fig. 1 The spectral data comparison between port engine
oil and starboard engine oil
Figure 1 was the test data comparison between port
engine(added the self-repairing additives)oil and starboard
engine(not added)oil , the results displayed that the wear rates Figure 2 was the spectral data comparison between
rose gradually, but the port engine oil had higher contents of Fe, generator2# oil(added) and generator3# oil(not added), and the
Cr, Mg, Al than the starboard oil. In port engine oil ,the content curves was quit irregularly, especially in the
contents of Fe, Al rose from 20ppm to 43.2ppm and from generator3# oil which did not add the self-repairing additives.
6.9ppm to 11.4ppm gradually; respectively, in starboard engine In the generator3# oil, the contents of the Fe, Cr, Al rose
oil ,the two elements rose from 12.7ppm to 32.5ppm and from steeply, and at the fifth sample reached their maximum(Feİ
4.6ppm to 9.3ppm. The rising curve of two elements in the port
129ppmCrİ8.6ppmAlİ22.2ppm; on the contrary, in the
engine oil was consistent with the starboard engine oil.
generator2# oil, the Fe, Cr, Al contents were low and changed
However, the contents of Cr, Mg changed differently: in the
port engine oil, the Cr content increased rapidly up to 9.2ppm little(Fe İ 33.4ppmCr İ 4.1ppmAl İ 10.6ppmwhich
on the fourth sample then changed smoothly, and the Mg means that the wear of the generator2# changed smoothly
content presented vertical line ascending and up to 315ppm; in However, these elements contents decrease sharply at the sixth
the starboard engine oil, the contents of the Cr, Mg were and seventh sample separately in the 2# and 3#generator’s oil .
showed an steady increasing tendency, and at the eighth sample The major cause was that new lubricants had been added into
reached their maximum(Cr İ 5.3ppm,Mg İ 127ppm). This the two lubrication systems separately before the two samples.
difference was caused by adding of the self-repairing additives The content of Mg were not significantly changed, and
into the oil. stayed in a range of 233~276ppm, according to the table 1 and
From table 1, the conclusion was reached that the metal table 2,the content of Mg came from Castrol SAE40 lubricant.
self-repairing additive didn’t function obviously in the port It was easy to see the element contents in the oil of
engine oil. Because the lubrication volume size was too large generator2# (added) were lower than generator3# (not
and the effective composition of the additives couldn’t circulate added),because the contents of self-repairing additives were
sufficiently in the lubricant cycle system, the self-repairing enough to exhibit restorative effects and came to the conclusion
additives were too low to work effectively. that the metal self-repairing additives showed better function on
the generator.
99
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
)H &U
SRUWHQJLQH
*HQHUDWRU
*HQHUDWRU GUHGJLQJSXPS
GLHVHO
&U 0J
SRUWHQJLQH
*HQHUDWRU
*HQHUDWRU GUHGJLQJSXPS
GLHVHO
$O
0J
SRUWHQJLQH
*HQHUDWRU
GUHGJLQJSXPS
*HQHUDWRU GLHVHO
SRUWHQJLQH
GUHGJLQJSXPS
GLHVHO
400N ,300r/min not added
100
Application of Metal Self-Repairing Additives on Cylinder-Piston Ring Rubbing Pairs
REFERENCES
[1] HuangY, 2004, “Research on self-reconditioning
material technology for wear of metals applied in
automobile engines,” Journal of Shenyang Normal
University(Natural Science),03,pp.2-4.
[2] Ouyang P, Chen G,X, Li H,F ,2006,”Researching Trend
of Traditonal Antiwear Agents in Lubricating Oils,”
Lubrication Engineering,06,pp5-7.
400N ,300r/min added [3] YangHe,JinY,S,KazuhikoYamashita,2006,“Experim-en
Fig. 5 The surface morphology after added the metal self- tal Study of Applying Mg6(Si4O10)(OH)8 Reconditioner
repairing additives in water medium to Simulative Journal Bearing” Lubrication
Engineering, 07,pp14.
CONCLUSIONS [4] ChenW,G,GaoY,Z,ZhangH,C,2006,“Investiga-tion of
the Effects of Lubricant Oil With Silicate Particles as
The metal self-repairing additives showed better function on
Additive on the Wear Resistance of Friction Pair,”
the generator and the dredging pump diesel than on the port
China Surface Engineering,01,pp34-37.
engine, which caused by the running condition and running time,
[5] FuJ,G,WangHui,ChenLi,2007, “Development Status
and it came to the conclusion that a reconditioned layer with a
and Trends of Serpentine Ore,” Hydrometallurgy of
certain thickness (sub-micro level) was generated on the
China,03,pp5-6.
substrate under given conditions of dredge. Then, the friction
[6] TianBin,WangC,B,MaX,D,2006, “ Effect of a Cermet
and wear experiments in Lab showed that a certain thickness
Additive in Lubricating Oil on the Wear Performance of
smooth layer was formed on the abrasion surface.
Steel Cast Iron Friction Pair,”Lubrication
(1) Both the generator and the dredging pump diesel were
Engineering,09,pp6-9.
continuous running, but the push diesel engine was
[7] Zhang Zh,Y,YangHe,Li S,H,2004, “Application
alternate running for the requirement of conditions.
Research of Auto reconditioner for Worn Metals on DF
Combined with the spectral data, the metal self-repairing
Locomotive Diesel Engines,” Lubrication
additives showed better function in the continuous running
Engineering ,04,pp10-11.
conditions.
[8] Dong W,D,MaW,J,Huang Yan,2005, “ Eflect of the
(2)Lubrication volume was another restrictive factor. The
Auto-restoration Material and Technology Applied in
volume of the port engine is 950 L, which was obviously
Engine of Automobile and Ship”, Foundry,04,pp9-11.
greater than the dredging pump diesel (310L) or the
[9] Jin Y. S., Li S. H., Zhang Z. Y. Yang H. & Wang F.
generator(55L). Therefore, the lubrication volume was so
2004,“Insitu Mechanochemical Reconditioning of
large that the effective composition of the additives
Worn Ferrous surfaces, ” Tribology International, 18 ,
couldn’t circulate sufficiently in the lubricant cycle system.
pp562-567.
101
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Extended Abstract 0.05% (w/v) was spun cast onto the aforementioned three
In order to investigate the influence of surface microtextures kinds of silicon substrates at a speed of 3000 rpm, thus
on the wettability, Multiply-alkylated cyclopentane, a novel monolayer films were formed.
hydrocarbon mobile lubricant, was deposited on silicon surface 2.3 Characterization of the films
treated by different cleaning and etching processes. Using an
atomic force microscope, measurement on the silicon surface The static contact angles for ultrapure water on the samples
was made to fully characterize the surface. Contact angles of were measured with a DSA100 contact-angle meter. At least
water on these surfaces were measured using a DSA100 five replicate measurements were carried out for each
contact angle meter. The result indicates the wettability of the specimen, and the measurement error was below 2°. The film
hydroxylated silicon wafer and the silicon wafer with a morphologies were examined with an atomic force microscope
monohydride-terminated surface is better than the cleaned (AFM) (Nanoscope IIIa, Digital Instrument), using tapping
silicon wafer, which are mainly caused by topological scanning mode. The nano-adhesive behavior of the films was
structure changes of the surface. Furthermore, the characterized with an AFM controlled by CSPM4000
nano-adhesion property was also measured. The different electronics, using the contact mode. Commercially available
behavior in adhesion forces is due to the differing surfaces of rectangle Si3N4 cantilever with a normal force constant, 6N/m
the silicon wafers. and a Si3N4 tip with a radius of less than 10nm (Budgetsensors
Keywords: Etching; hydroxylated; monohydride-terminated; Instruments Inc) was employed. To avoid influence of
adhesion molecules which may transfer to the tip on the AFM/FFM
experiment, the tip was scanned on a cleaved mica surface to
1. INTRODUCTION remove these physical adsorbed molecules. The force distance
Multiply-alkylated cyclopentanes (MACs), a novel curves were recorded and the pull off force reckoned as the
hydrocarbon mobile lubricant, are a mixture of the di- and adhesive force, which was given by
tri-substituted (2-octylodecyl) cyclopentane. They have F=KcZp
excellent viscosity properties, thermal stability and low Where Kc is the force constant of cantilever and Zp is the
volatility for use as lubricant and is presently gaining wide vertical displacement of the piezotube, i.e., the deflection of
acceptance on actual space application [1, 2]. MACs may also the cantilever [6, 7]. In data processing, a test of ten
have the potential as lubrication in the measurements was made for each sample. All the tests were
micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) application. While conducted at room temperature and a relative humidity of
MACs have been observed to dewet bearing steel surfaces [3] 45%.
and it was wondered if this represented a long-term life threat.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Controlling the wettability is quite important in the study of
nano-adhesion and nano-friction. Since silicon has been the
3.1. Wettability
most widely used material in the MEMS [4], this paper studied
Contact angles of MACs films on three kinds of silicon
the wettability of MACs on silicon wafers treated by different
substrates were measured, as shown in Table 1. The contact
cleaning and etching processes. The nano-adhesion property
angle of the cleaned silicon wafer increased very little. It may
was also measured.
indicate that MACs were unwetted on cleaned silicon wafer
2. EXPERIMENT DETAILS and there were little MACs adsorbed on it. The contact angles
2.1. Materials of the hydroxylated silicon wafer and the H-Si(100) increased
P-doped single-side polished single-crystal silicon (1 0 0) by about 20° after coated with MACs. This result indicates that
wafers (obtained from GRINM Semiconductor Materials Co. MACs were adsorbed on the substrates and made them more
Ltd., Beijing) about 0.5mm thick were used as the substrate. hydrophobic, which may be resulted from the apolar ü
MACs were synthesized by reacting dicyclopentadiene with (CH2)nüCH3 (hydrophobic) groups.
alcohols of various chain lengths to produce a lubricant with a
selectable range of physical properties [5]. The solvent 3.2. Surface topological structure
n-hexane (purity >98%) was used as received. The topological structures of the samples were observed by
2.2. Substrates and film preparation AFM, as shown in Fig. 1, the thicknesses of which are 2.5±0.3
The silicon wafers were first ultrasonicated sequentially in nm. It can be clearly seen that the cleaned silicon wafers are
acetone, ethanol and acetone each for 5 min and then rinsed unwetted and there are little MACs adsorbed on it, which is
with adequate ultra-pure water and dried by N2. The cleaned consistent with the result of contact angle measurement. The
silicon wafers were hydroxylated by immersing in a piranha Table 1 List of the contact angles of the samples used in this
solution, a mixture of 7:3 (v/v) 98% H2SO4 and 30% H2O2 at article
90ć for 30 min. Other cleaned silicon wafers were immersed Substrates Without With MACs
in 40% deaerated aqueous NH4F solution for 5-7 min to obtain MACs (°) (°)
a monohydride-terminated surface, that is, H-Si(100). Wafers Cleaned silicon 46.8 51.8
were then rinsed with adequate deaerated ultra-pure water and wafer
dried by N2. Then we got three kinds of substrates: the cleaned hydroxylated 2 25.9
silicon wafers; the hydroxylated silicon wafers and the silicon wafer
H-Si(100). H-Si(100) 74.9 94.1
The solution of MACs in hexane with a concentration of
∗
Corresponding author. Tel: +86 931 4968080; Fax: +86 931 4968163. E-mail address: mwbai@LZB.ac.cn
102
Wettability Study of Multiply-Alkylated Cyclopentanes (MACs) on Silicon Substrates
3.3. Adhesion
The adhesive forces measured from the pull-off point on each
sample are presented in Fig. 2. It shows that the adhesion force
for the hydroxylated silicon wafer with MACs is the largest in
the three. This may be induced by the partly exposed
hydroxylated silicon wafer, which can increase the capillary
force and further increase the adhesion force. It also can be
seen that the adhesion force for the H-Si(100) with MACs is
the smallest. This may be resulted from the partly exposed
monohydride-terminated surface, which can decrease the
adhesion force. This may also explain why the adhesion force
for the cleaned silicon wafer with MACs is between the above
two samples. We may conclude that the difference in adhesion
forces is due to the differing surfaces of the silicon wafers. The
result of the adhesion force is consistent with the contact
angles measurements.
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we studied the wettability of MACs on silicon
wafers treated by different cleaning and etching processes. The
wettability of the hydroxylated silicon wafer and the H-Si(100)
is better than the leaned silicon wafer, which are mainly
caused by topological structure changes of the surface. The
Fig. 1 AFM images of MAC films. (a) Cleaned silicon wafer different behavior in adhesion forces is due to the differing
with MACs. (b) Line section analysis of (a). (c) Hydroxylated surfaces of the silicon wafers. In the future, we will further our
silicon wafer with s. (d) Line section analysis of (c). (e) research in this aspect and mainly focus on the study of the
H-Si(100) with MACs. (f) Line section analysis of (e) influence of surface microtextures on the wettability of MACs
for the practical application as lubrication for MEMS.
wettability of the hydroxylated silicon wafer and the H-Si(100)
is better. It is well known that the wettability of solid surface is REFERENCES
decided both by topological structure and chemical structure [8, [1] Venier C.G., Casserly E.W., 1991, “Multiply-alkylated
9]. MACs, which have no functional groups, are physically cyclopentanes (MACs): a newclass of synthesized
adsorbed on the substrates. This indicates that the wettability hydrocarbon fluids,” Lubr. Eng., 47, pp.586–591.
changes of the samples are mainly caused by topological [2] Dube M.J., Bollea D., Jones W.R., Marrcheti M., Jansen
structure changes of the surface. M.J., 2003, “A new class of synthetic hydrocarbon fluid
lubricant for space applications,” Tribol. Lett., 15, pp.3–8.
1. Si-OH-MAC
[3] Pochard, M., Prat, P., Vergne, P., Sicre, J., 1994,
250 2. Si-MAC “Thermocapilliary Migration of Lubricants in Space
3. Si-H-MAC Environments,” Proc. 4th Int. Tribology Conf., Austrib ’94,
Adhesive forces(nN)
103
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
WZhai , P. Feng
104
Numerical Analysis on Hydrodynamics of Circular Translational Polishing under Mixed Lubrication
1
Fig. 2 Microcosmic interface between wafer and pad
0.56 h
W ³ ³ [ p(r,T ) p (r,T )] r drdT
0 0
c
(9)
Ir I T 1 0.9e V
The moments resulting from these pressures can then be
0.98 §h· §h·
2
calculated:
§h· 0.92 ¨ ¸ 0.05¨ ¸
©V ¹ ©V ¹ (4)
I s 1.899¨ ¸ e 2S 1
³ ³ [ p(r ,T ) p (r ,T )] r sin T drdT
2
©V ¹ Mx c
0 0
(10)
The average local film thickness as shown in Fig.2 for a 2S 1
³ ³ [ p(r, T ) p (r , T )] r cos T drdT
2
Gaussian distributed rough surface can be obtained by: My c
0 0
hT
h
2
>
1 erf ( h / 2V )
2S
e @
V h2 / 2V 2
(5) The initial pressure at the center point of the wafer was set as
the average pressure on the wafer, while during iteration the
Here, erf (x) is the error function pressure was determine as the average of the pressures at the
nodes of the inner loop. As a boundary condition, the pressures
ASPERITY CONTACT PRESSURE EQUATION on the edge of the wafer were set as ambient pressure. The
The asperity contact pressure between pad and wafer can be calculation for the fluid pressure continues until the load
obtained by using Greenwood and Tripp elastic contact model resulted from the pressure as described by equation (9) are
[9]: balanced with the externally applied one (with a relative error of
0.05%).
§4· (6)
pa ¨ ¸ (KEV ) F3 / 2 (h / V ) E c V / E
©3¹ RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
f
The representative input parameter values for analysis are
F3 / 2 (h / V ) ³
h /V
(] 2h / V ) 3 / 2 f (] )d] (7)
shown in Table 1. The instantaneous 3-D fluid pressure
For the physical meaning of each parameter, refer to [9]. distribution is shown in Fig.4, where, X=x/r0,Y=y/r0. The pad at
this moment is moving from minus to plus along y axis, and the
SOLUTION PROCEDURES wafer tilts with the rotating angle of 45o from x axis, thus the
fluid is brought in along y axis by polishing pad.
The following dimensionless parameters are applied to
From Fig.4, we see that there is negative fluid pressure
above Reynolds equation to decrease the errors of numerical
calculation and improve computing succinctness. spreading over the inlet area of wafer. This can be seen clearer
from the corresponding contour plot in Fig.5(a). The maximum
r0 ˈ r ˈ h ˈ p ˈ t
F r h p t (8) negative pressure occurs near the center of the inlet region,
h piv r0 h piv p0 T while the maximum positive one is formed at the second
Here, r0 is radius of wafer, p0 the ambient pressure, and T is quadrant but in the vicinity of o. Further case studies show
the periodic time of the direction change of polishing velocity, that the exact positions of both the positive and the negative
105
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Y axis
film thickness, on which pad deformation affects a lot as
shown by Eq.(2) and Fig.6.
Film thickness distribution can affect the distribution of
abrasive particles in the slurry, and the contact probability with
wafer. The more uniform of the film thickness, the larger
contact area of particles with wafer, thus the larger the wafer’s
material removal rate.
X axis
Table 1 Typical input parameters for analysis Fig.6 Contour plot of pad deformation
Parameter Values Fig.7 shows the distribution of dimensionless asperity
Translational velocity
1.2 m/s - contact pressure, which increases along the radial direction of
Rotation speed 150 rmp - the wafer, though its value is much smaller than the
Initial standard nominal 10m hydrodynamic one in the case studied.
clearance h0
pressure, pc
Y axis
X axis
y axis
106
Numerical Analysis on Hydrodynamics of Circular Translational Polishing under Mixed Lubrication
deformation, d (m)
film thickness. Higher applied load leads to larger contact
Minimum film
Maximum pad
Fig.10 we can see that the maximum positive fluid pressure
and negative pressure change in a proportional accord in all
circumstances, i.e., the higher the positive pressure, the higher
W=100, =200rpm the negative one, and vice versa. As regards the negative
pressure, we find it decreases with the polishing speed but
increases with rotating speed and applied load.
Polishing speed, Ë (m/s) Fig.11 shows the influence of working parameters on the
resultant moments in x and y axis due to hydrodynamic
pressure and asperity contact pressure. In all the cases studied,
deformation, d (m)
moment in x axis is always much larger than that in y axis.
thickness, h (m)
Minimum film
Maximum pad
on moment in x axis, while rotating speed affects it little.
Higher polishing speed results in lower moment, while higher
W=100Nˈv=1.2m/s load leads to larger one. Moment in y axis is slightly, if not
negligibly, influenced by these variables.
W=100, =200rpm
Maximum pad
Minimum film
=150rpm, v=1.2m/s
W=100, =200rpm
Dimensionless fluid
pressure, p1 and p2
pressure, cp
=150rpm, v=1.2m/s
pressure, cp
pressure, cp
107
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
108
Micro-Tribological Analysis of POM-MoS2-Compounds
s (Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT RESULTS
Blending MoS2-particles (Molybdenum-disulfide) in a As a result, distinctive recurring characteristics for each
POM-Matrix (Polyoxymethylen) results in a plastic alloy group of samples appeared. Many of the results are
with high qualifications for frictional stressed applications. comparable to others, which leads to a new strategic focus on
The tribological behavior depends on the MoS2 content. how the material’s surface-qualities can be furthermore
Keywords: Microtribology, Lubricants enhanced.
As an example the following figure shows the relation
INTRODUCTION between the coefficient of friction, the abrasion and the
Polyoxymethylen was compounded with three different permanent deformation of the surfaces.
versions of MoS2-particles (micro-, nano-sized and
restacked), each batch with three different shares of MoS2-
quantity.
This research project investigates the micro-mechanical
attributes of two dimensional samples. The equipment used
for this work was the UST (Universal Surface Tester)
produced by the German company Innowep.
This highly sensitive device is an instrument to analyze
permanent, plastic, elastic, and viscoelastic properties of a
surface - punctual as well as along a line or an area. The
distinctive feature of the UST is that it works with high
sensitive sensor technology in very low load-dimensions of 1
to 1000mN.
When using the UST a free selectable tip-head scans the
surface of a sample along a selectable linear distance;
whereas the load on the tip-head, its speed and path-distance
is free selectable.
Fig. 2 Friction-abrasion-deformation
109
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
2.3 Worm helicoid equation and its parameters
Based on the theory of elastohydrodynamic
lubrication (EHL), a mathematic model is developed and
corresponding computer programs are proposed for calculating 3 THE SECOND ENVELOPING
the EHL characteristic parameters of a novel type of toroidal
3.1 Relative motion and meshing function in the second
worm drive, including the geometrical coefficient of minimum
oil film thickness, the average entrainment velocity, the enveloping
lubricating angle, the velocity ratio of sliding and rolling and
so on, by using the theory of gearing. The numerical examples 3.2 Worm gear tooth flank equation
show the verification and validation of the principium and the
model. The simulation investigation demonstrates that the dual 3.3 Geometrical parameters in the second enveloping
tori double-enveloping toroidal worm drive has better
lubricating property. In this foundation, the preliminary rules
of selecting the design and technical parameters are proposed 4 LUBRICATION PROPERTIES OF WORM PAIR
for this type of toroidal worm drive.
Keywords: Worm Drive, Double-Enveloping, Elastohydrody-
namic Lubrication, Meshing Analysis
5 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES AND DISCUSSION
1 INTRODUCTION
This is a novel type of hourglass worm set. The two
flanks of one tooth space of the toroidal worm are 6 CONCLUSIONS
envelope-finished at the same time by using a grinding
wheel with two tori, which are symmetrical about its
mid-plane. A worm gear is enveloped by using a toroidal ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
hob, whose generating flank is accordant with the
The research work in this paper was fully supported
corresponding toroidal worm helicoid. After mating the
by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
worm and the worm gear, a dual tori double-enveloping
under Grant No. 50705068, China Hubei Provincial
toroidal worm drive is presented [1].
Natural Science Foundation under Grant No.
Besides the favorable manufacturability, the toroidal
2007ABA282, and the Key Program of Science
worm drive is of great advantages for transmission as
Research Foundation of Wuhan University of Science
shown in the preliminary researches, such as longer
and Technology under Grant No. 2006XZ6.
double-line working length of the worm and shorter
twice contact time of the worm pair [2], better
distribution of instantaneous contact lines of the worm REFERENCES
drive, broader contact zone [3] and lower contact stress
[1] Zhao, Y., “A Type of Dual Rotation Surfaces
of tooth surfaces and so on. Furthermore, unlike the
Double-enveloping Toroidal Worm Pair and Its Generating
previous one, the worm set can be used on the condition Method”, China patent, 200610124466.8, CN1970208,
of “many-head” and “small drive ratio” because as far as 2006 (in processing, in Chinese).
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sufficiently thick [4] and there is no undercutting. Double-Enveloping Toroidal Worm Drive and
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elastohydrodynamic lubrication, theoretical research is University of Science and Technology, 31 (1), pp.74-77. (in
made on the lubricating property of the worm set by Chinese)
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Tooth Surface Configuration of Dual Tori
Double-enveloping Worm Pair without Tooth Flank
2 THE FIRST ENVELOPING
Modification” ē Proc. of ICMT’2006, Chongqing, P R
2.1 Generating flank equation and its parameters China㧦Sept, pp.180-184.
[4] Zhao, Y., Wei, Wen., Dong, X., 2007, “Tooth Thickness of
2.2 Relative motion and meshing function in the first Dual Tori Enveloping Toroidal Worm”, Proc. of The 12th
enveloping World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science,
Besançon, FRANCE: June, pp.133-138.
*Corresponding Author.
[5] Dong, X., 1989, Theoretical Foundation of Gear Meshing,
E-mail address: zhaoyaping1975@126.com.
110
On Lubrication Characteristics of Dual Tori Double-Enveloping Toroidal Worm Drive
Mechanical Industry Press, Beijing. (in Chinese) [10] J. Oprea, 2003, Differential Geometry and Its Applications
[6] Litvin, F. L., 1994, Gear Geometry and Applied Theory, (2nd Edition), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
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Modification, Mechanical Industry Press, Beijing. (in
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[8] Wu, D., Luo, J., 1992, A Geometric Theory of Conjugate
Tooth Surfaces, World Scientific, Singapore.
[9] F. Di Puccio, M. Gabiccini, M. Guiggiani, 2006,
“Generation and Curvature Analysis of Conjugate Surfaces (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
Via a New Approach”, Mechanism and Machine Theory,
needs it.)
41 (9) , pp.382-404.
111
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
112
Thermoelastohydrodynamic Lubrication Analysis of Crankshaft Bearing Considering Crankshaft Deformation under Load
L
h0 c e0 cos(T \ 0 ) tgJ ( y )cos(T D ang \ 0 )
2
where c is radius clearance, e0 and 0 represent eccentricity
vector of journal at mid-plane of bearing,
ang is angle between
projection of journal rear centerline and eccentricity vector e0,
is angle of journal misalignment.
is the change of oil film thickness caused by elastic
deformation of bush surface of bearing under oil film pressure.
CALCULATION OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION OF BUSH
SURFACE OF BEARING
Fig. 1 Finite element model of connecting-rod bearing
The elastic deformations of all nodes on bush surface
under oil film pressure are calculated by deformation matrix
method.
FORMULA OF DEFORMATION MATRIX METHOD
G=Kp (2)
where G is radial deformation matrix of all nodes on bearing
surface under oil film pressure, K is compliance matrix
which is gained by finite element analysis of bearing, and p
is oil film pressure matrix of all nodes on bearing surface.
FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF BEARING
(1) Connecting-rod bearing
Generally combined together by bolts, bush, cap
and body of connecting-rod can be considered as a whole
body in analysis. When dividing model into element, bush is
divided by hexahedron element and other parts of
connecting-rod are divided by tetrahedron element. The element
division on bush surface is controlled specially to make nodes
Fig. 2 Finite element model of main bearing
on bush surface correspond with nodes of difference grid used
to calculate oil film pressure of bearing and assure oil film
where,
pressure of bearing can be applied correspondingly on bush h
³ K dz
surface. Finite element model of connecting-rod bearing is 1
F0
shown in Fig. 1, which consists of 6625 elements and 12988 0
nodes. h
³ K dz
z
(2) Main bearing F1 z F0
0
Finite element model of main bearing is shown in Fig. 2, F1
which is composed of bush, main bearing cap and top-half part z
of main bearing housing in cylinder block. Bush is divided by F0
h Uz
³
hexahedron element and other parts of main bearing housing are
F2 ( z z )dz
divided by tetrahedron element. Model of main bearing consists 0 K
of 13877 elements and 4568 nodes. p is oil film pressure, U j is velocity of journal surface and U j
ESTABLISHMENT OF COMPLIANCE MATRIX =R j j, R j is journal radius, j is angular velocity of journal,
The deformations of all nodes on bush surface are U b is velocity of bearing surface and U b =R b b , R b is
calculated when unit oil film pressure is acted on each node bearing radius and b is angular velocity of bearing, is
according to given sequence of nodes on bush surface. The density of lubricant, K is viscosity of lubricant.
elements of a certain row of compliance matrix consist of radial Eq. (3) is solved by finite difference method.
deformation of a certain node when unit oil film pressure is ENERGY EQUATION
acted individually on all nodes of bush surface. The elements of
wT wT wT w 2T wu wv
a certain column of compliance matrix are composed of radial Ucp (u v ) K 2 K[( ) 2 ( ) 2 ] (4)
deformations of all nodes on bush surface when unit oil film Rb wT wy wt wz wz wz
pressure is acted on a certain node. The number of rows and where T is temperature of oil film, u and v are axial and
columns of formed compliance matrix is equal to the number of radial velocity of oil respectively, c p is specific thermal
nodes on bush surface. In this paper, the number of nodes on capacity of oil, and K is heat conduction ratio.
bush surface of connecting-rod bearing and main bearing is 468 EQUATION OF SOLID HEAT CONDUCTION
and 396 respectively, thus the number of row and column of w 2Tb 1 wTb w 2Tb 1 w 2Tb Uc wT
compliance matrix for connecting-rod bearing and main bearing (5)
is 468 and 396 respectively. wr 2 r wr wy 2 r 2 wT 2 K wt
REYNOLDS EQUATION
where T b is temperature of bearing.
w wp w wp
( F2 ) ( F2 ) RELATION OF OIL VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE
Rb wT Rb wT wy wy The CD30 diesel oil was used and Vogel expression about
F (3) oil viscosity-temperature relation was adopted in analysis.
w ( Uh U 1 )
F0 w F wh K 0.5076 u 10 3 exp[3434.6 /(T 22.29)] (6)
Uj Ub ( 1) U
Rb wT Rb wT F0 wt LOAD EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION
If the effect of oil film inertia is not considered, the
113
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
2S h 3 wp
Q2
³0
12K wy y L
Rb dT (10) (b) Mid-plane
114
Thermoelastohydrodynamic Lubrication Analysis of Crankshaft Bearing Considering Crankshaft Deformation under Load
consideing thermaleffects
not consideing thermal effects consideing thermaleffects
Fig. 4 Maximum oil film pressure pmax of No. 4 main bearing not consideing thermal effects
against crankshaft angle CA in an engine working cycle Fig. 6 End leakage flow-rate Q of No. 4 main bearing against
crankshaft angle CA in an engine working cycle
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
116
Transient Behavior of Elasto-Metal-Plastic Journal Bearing during the Stage of Stop
film
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
Simulations for both EMP journal bearings and babbitted
journal bearing are carried out. The geometrical characteristics
of the bearing and the operating conditions used for the
numerical simulation are presented in Table 1. The rotational
speed varies linearly from 1200 rpm to 0 in 10 s. The load is
fixed to 4000 N. The steady-state operating position is used as
the shaft initial position. The rotor doesn’t stop until it reaches
its static resting position in contact with the bearing.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Nondimensional deformation
Nondimensional deformation
t (s) Bearing Circumferential angle
Fig.3 Nondimensional maximum thermal and elastic length
deformations of the babbitted bush (solid line---thermal
deformation, dashed line---elastic deformation) Fig.6 Coupled deformation of the EMP bush
Fig.4 gives the nondimensional maximum thermal and During stopping, boundary lubrication dominating in the
elastic deformations of the EMP bush at different moment. bearing and significant heating can occur in the contact. So the
Thermal deformation is bigger than elastic deformation at the rotor is normally jacked up. But the EMP bush has an extremely
beginning and the opposite result occurs at the end. This is low coefficient of friction. It can avoid the friction problem
because the peak value of pressure increases greatly during successfully. The EMP bearings have no requirement for a
stopping period. Young’s modulus of EMP is much smaller than jacking system during stopping. Furthermore, the coupled
that of Babbitt. The elastic deformation of EMP bush is much thermo-elastic deformation of the EMP bush leads to an
bigger than that of the babbitted one. increase in the radial bearing clearance. A cavity is formed on
the EMP bush surface. Some lubricant is sealed in it. Fully
contact of the rotor and bush surface is avoided.
The simulation results also show that the rotor stops at
Nondimensional deformation
9.421 s for the babbitted journal bearing while at 9.837 s for the
EMP journal bearing. This means the rotor speed of EMP
journal bearing is lower than that of the babbitted one when it
contacts the bearing. This also has a positive effect on bearing
operating characteristics.
CONCLUSIONS
For the oil slip on the film-bush interface, the temperature in
the film and in the EMP bush is about 3ć lower than the
t (s) babbitted bush journal bearing during stopping periods.
Fig.4 Nondimensional maximum thermal and elastic Deformations of the active surface due to pressure are quite
deformations of the EMP bush (solid line---thermal deformation, large and have to be taken into account. When the rotor stops,
dashed line---elastic deformation) large elastic deformation of the EMP bush results in a cavity on
the bush surface. The hydrodynamic film still separates the rotor
from bush surface. The feasibility of bearing damage decreases.
Fig.5 illustrates the coupled thermo-elastic deformation of Utilization of EMP bush prolongs bearing service life.
the babbitted bush. And Fig.6 gives the coupled thermo-elastic
deformation of the EMP bush. When the rotor ceases, the
coupled thermo-elastic deformation of the babbitted bush is so NOMENCLATURE
small that it has the same effect as roughness. Thus, the friction c = radial clearance (m)
area between bush and rotor is larger than the EMP one. cb = bush specific heat (J/kggK)
cF = lubricant specific heat (J/kggK)
Nondimensional deformation
e = eccentricity (m)
h = film thickness (m)
kb = EMP bush thermal conductivity (W.m-1.K-1)
kF = lubricant thermal conductivity (W.m-1.K-1)
m = journal mass (kg)
p = pressure (Pa)
t = time (s)
u , v, w = velocity components (m/s)
vs = slip velocity (m/s)
Bearing Circumferential angle x, y = Cartesian coordinate system
length B = bush thickness (m)
D = journal diameter (m)
Fig.5 Coupled deformation of the babbitted bush Edef = nondimensional elastic deformation
118
Transient Behavior of Elasto-Metal-Plastic Journal Bearing during the Stage of Stop
Fh , Fv = instantaneous film force components (N) [4] Wu, B.L., Wang, J.Z., 1992, “The operation of the Soviet
L = bearing length (m) thrust bearing pads from spring metal-plastic,” Large
Ql = leaking flow (m3/s) Electric Machine and Hydraulic Turbine, 1, pp. 6-10.
[5] Jin, J., Zhang, G.X., 2000, “Thermo-elasto-hydrodynamic
Qr = recirculating flow (m3/s)
analysis of EMP radial sliding bearing considering the
R = journal radius (m) effects of boundary slip,” Journal of Machine Design, 9,
T0 pp.16-19.
= inlet lubricant temperature (ć)
Ta [6] Ma, Z.Y., Dong, Y.X.,2000, “Thermoelastohydrodynamic
= ambient temperature (ć)
lubrication of PTFE thrust bearing,” Journal of Dalian
Tb = bush temperature (ć) University of Technology, 12, pp. 90-94.
Tdef = nondimensional thermal deformation [7] Liu, J., Wu, H.J., Liu, Z.M., Wang, Z.M., 2004,
Tr = temperature of the recirculating fluid (ć) “Characteristics of lubricating mechanism of elastic
Db metal-plastics bearing and its improvement,” Water
= coefficient of thermal expansion (10-5K-1) Power, 11, pp. 68-72.
E = thermoviscosity coefficient (1/K) [8] Gao, R., Wang, X.J., Pan, J.J., Xie, M.C., 2006, “The
H = eccentricity ratio, H e / c experimental research of the Elasto-Metal-Plastic thrust
P = dynamic viscosity (Pags) bearing during its start-up,” Lubrication Engineering, 7,
P0 = initial dynamic viscosity (Pags) pp. 100-101, 104.
Q [9] Malik, M.M., Bhargava, S.K., Sinhasan, R., 1989, “The
= Poisson’s ratio transient response of a journal in plane hydrodynamic
T , r, z = cylindrical coordinate system bearing during acceleration and deceleration periods,”
Ub = bush density (kg/m3) SILE Trib Trans, 32(1), pp.61-69.
UF = lubricant density (kg/m3) [10] Jain, S.C., Sinhasan, R., Pilli, S.C., 1990, “Transient
Z0 = angular speed (rad/s) response of a journal supported on elastic bearing,”
Tribology International, 23(3), pp.201-209.
[11] Khonsari, M.M., Wang, S.H., 1992, “Notes on transient
REFERENCES
THD effects in a lubricating film,” Tribology
[1] Glavatskih, S. B., 2003, “Evaluating thermal Transactions, 35(1), pp. 177-183.
performance of a PTFE-Faced tilting pad thrust bearing,” [12] Monmousseau, P., Fillon, M., Frêne, J., 1997, “Transient
J. Tribol., 125, pp. 319-324. thermoelastohydrodynamic study of tilting-pad journal
[2] Wang, X.J., Zhang, G.X., Zhang, Z.M., 1997, “Slip study bearings—comparison between experimental data and
of the plastic thrust bearing,” Lubrication Engineering, 4, theoretical results,” J. Tribol., 119, pp. 401-407.
pp. 19-22, 35.
[3] Jin, J., Zhang, G.X., Wang, X.J., 2004, “Experiment and
simulations on lubrication performance of EMP journal
bearing,” Journal of Shanghai University, 2, pp.85-89.
119
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
A new model for the free jet breakup is derived from the Ekp + Esp + Eε p = Esc (2)
TAB theory to determine the size of breakup in the energy
conservation law. In addition, the splash behavior of droplets It is believed that speed of droplets will not changed great
after impingement is determined by the newly proposed model, before and after breakup of droplets, so the kinetic energy of
which incorporates both the size and the number models based both sides are equation and could elimination. The surface
on Wu Ziniu’s phenomenological theory. The numerical energy, vibration and deformation energy of "Father" droplet
calculations for several experimental conditions are carried out can be expressed as: Esp = 4π r 2σ ; E = 1 kx 2 = 2 π C 2 ρ r 5ω 2 y 2 ;
kp b
for impinging sprays on a static flat wall. The results indicate 2 3
that the splash ratio increases along with the jet velocity and 1 2 dy Where x = Cb ry m = 4 ρπ r 3
Eε p = mv 2 = π Cb 2 ρ r 5 ( 0 ) 2 ω=
k
the nozzle’s diameter probably as the exponential curve growth 2 3 dt m 3
tendency. The new model generally predicts the splash Combine with mass conservation principle before and after
behavior better than the previous models, and it performs for breakup:
prediction of spattering ratio effectively. The model is useful in 4 3 4 (3)
π r ρ = n1 π r323 ρ
further calculation on the two-phase flow air volume fraction 3 3
in the high-speed jet lubrications. It can be solved as a nonlinear equation:
Keywords: Spray; Free jet breakup; Collision; Spattering ratio db (4)
d32 =
4Cb 2 Kyb 2 Cb 2 K ρl db 3 dy0 2
INTRODUCTION 1+ + ( )
3 48σ dt
Generally, the whole process of jet collision is divided into Where, d32 is the sauter mean diameter after breakup.
two phases: free jet breakup and colliding with walls. Reitz
had raised fluctuations breakup (WAVE) model [1] in 1987, Consider the initialization of equation (1) and derivative
believes that jet droplets broken is caused by the rapid growth equation from equation (1):
of Kelvin-Helmholtz’s instability SAW. This model identifies y0 = y (0) = 0 ; yb =y(t= tb )=1; dyb = dy = 0
the relationship between size of droplet and wavelength of the dt dt t =tb
SAW. Then, numerical Solution is got by iteration.
O'Rourke and Amsden [2] raised the TAB model based on 2. Spattering Models
the Taylor’s match. This way comes from Taylor’s analogy
between the quality system in the spring and the droplet According to Wu Ziniu’s phenomenological theory, diameter
deformation. of droplets which splashed out for impingement can be
About the second phase, spray impingement phenomena is expressed as:
analyzed by most experiments to describe the interaction We
A2 + 8 BWel +A
between droplets and the wall. Mundo et al. [3] pointed out d a = Bs Re d (5)
b
that phenomena of the interaction between droplets and the 2B
wall consists of three representative regimes such as rebound, However, this model is only fit for single droplet.
deposition and spatter. The regime transition criterion between Considering the free jet breakup, we developed a new model
deposition and spatter is determined by the empirical for multi-droplets based on Wu Ziniu’s phenomenological
correlation and represented as a function of Reynolds number theory.
and Ohnesorge number of the droplet. We db 2
But very few people directly analysis diameter and number A2 + 8 BWel ( )+A
Re d32 2 (6)
of the spattering droplets from theory. Wu Ziniu [4] was first d a = Bs d32
2B
time developed the relationship of diameters before and after
Where, A = Wel (Wel + 4) ˗ B = Wel (We + 12) ˗ We= ub ρl db ˗
2
impingement from the theory without any experiment
parameters. σ
This paper deals with the development of a new spray/wall ub ρl d b ˗ We Wel is 2, Bs is 4.23.
Re= l
impingement model, which is based on the energy μ
conservation law. Based on the new size model, consider energy conservation
before and after the collision while stability. For a static wall,
THEORY MODELS energy conservation can be expressed as:
1. Jet breakup Model
According to TAB theory [2]:
Ek + Es = Ek' + Es' + Ed' (7)
1 dy0 y0 − Wec (1) Where Ek , Es and Ed represent kinetic energy, surface
y (t ) = Wec + e − (t / td ) [( y0 − Wec ) cos(ωt ) + ( + ) sin(ωt )]
ω dt td energy and dissipated energy, respectively. Parameters of after
Use energy conservation principle, the energy of "Father" the collision are expressed as relevant letters with the
droplet should equal to that of "son" droplets. superscript. All parameters can be expressed as:
120
Analyses on the Splashing Parameters of High-Speed Oil Impacted a Wall in Jet Lubrications
1 ; Es = π db 2σ ; 1 ;
Ek = ρl ub 2π db 3 Ek ' = ρl ua 2π d a 3n Figure 3 shows that spattering ratio is monotonous increase
12 12
with the increase of jet speed, but the spattering state will
Es ' = Sσ + nπ d a 2σ present saturation and the spattering ratio will no longer
Where n is the number of spattering droplets after the collision; increase sharply when jet speed arrive a certain ratio.
S is the droplet’s surface area for the deposition, details later.
Dissipation can be used a simple model developed by 0.9
spattering ratio
0.6
O˖1.2mm
For isotropic wall, spreading droplets are evenly spread on 0.5
Ƹ˖0.6mm
the wall and final form a hemispherical, see Figure 1. 0.4
acreage: V = π h 2 ( R − 1 h) ; S = 2π Rh 0.2
3 0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
spray jet speed(m/s)
Fig. 3 Effect of jet speed on spattering ratio
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
To identify the lubricating film build-up by the where a is the radius of the Hertzian contact. It can be seen that
spinning motion, numerical analyses were carried out. when Ssp= 0, no spinning is present, and Ssp= :, pure spinning.
Experiments were performed at temperature 20±1ºC.The
Snidle and Archard [6] were among the first to presented
steel ball used is 25.4mm in diameter and its surface roughness
analytical analysis about the film profiles and pressure is Ra = 10;m. The loaded side of the glass plate is coated with
distribution. In their work, the solid surface elastic a thin Cr film with surface roughness of Ra = 5nm. The
deformation was not included and only the half reflectance of the Cr film is around 20% for interferometry
summerfield conditions used. Their results showed that measurement of the film profiles between the steel ball and the
glass plate. Two oils, PB680 and PB1300, were employed and
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed:
meguof@yahoo.com.cn their properties are listed in Table 1. With PB1300, significant
122
Interferometry Measurement of Spinning Effect on Sliding EHL
(a) Interferograms
800
600
h(nm)
Ssp˙1.0
Ssp˙0.667
(a) Schematic illustration Ssp˙0.5
400 Ssp˙0.125
Ssp˙0
-100 0 100
x(μm)
(b) Film profiles along line BC
Fig.4 Film profiles at different spin-slide ratios, w = 16N, ue =
636μm/s, PB1300, w = 16N㧘uc = 0.636mm/s
hminR
w = 16N
120
ue = 0.782mm/s
90
60
30
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Ssp
Fig.5 Influence of spinning/sliding ratios on the film thickness,
Fig.2 Interference fringes of an EHL contact under
spinning-sliding conditions, PB680, w = 16N 㧘 ue = PB650, w = 16N, ue = 0.782mm/s
2.346mm/sSsp = 0.4 (r = 2.5a)
Figure 6 shows that the speed index is different for hminL
and hminR, and influenced significantly by spin-slide ratios.
Figure 2 is a typical interferogram of a sliding EHL with
spinning. It can be seen that due to the spinning motion, the
two side lobes, where the minimum film thickness occurs,
loses their symmetry about the central entrainment as in the
classical EHL conjunctions. There is more lubricant 100
h(nm)
entrainment in the right side of the Hertzian contact. Therefore Ssp = 1.0 hminL slope = 0.92
the minimum film thickness hminR (at B) in the right lobe is less Ssp = 1.0 hminR slope = 0.69
Ssp = 0.1 hminL slope = 0.75
than that hminL (at C) in the left lobe. Furthermore, the Fig. 2 Ssp = 0.1 hminR slope = 0.72
indicates that the spinning drags the cavitation region from the 10
exit to the entrance, and the unsymmetrical lubricant supply 100 1000
uc(μm/s)
also induce the unsymmetrical film shape.
Figures 3 and 4 present the films under different spinning Fig. 6 Influence of spin-slide ratios on the variation of hminL
motions, it can be seen that more spinning can induce lower and hminR with ue , PB1300, w = 16 N
film thickness and the interference fringes are more skewed.
Furthermore, in Fig.4 due to the wall slippage an inlet dimple ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
also appears. This project is supported financially by the Program for
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
NCET, Ministry of Education of China (07-0474) [5] Wedeven, L. D., Wedeven, G..G, Krata, S.H., 2002,
“USCAR traction test for traction-CVT fluids”, SAE
REFERENCES Transactions, 111, pp.1676-1707.
[1] Parker, R.J., Zaretsky, E. V., Anderson, W. J., 1968, [6] Snidle, R. W., Archard, J. F., 1969-1970, “Theory of
“Spinning friction coefficients with three lubricants”, hydrodynamic lubrication for a spinning sphere,”
Trans. ASME, Journal of Lubrication Technology, 90, pp. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., 184, pp. 839-848.
330-332. [7] Dowson, D., Taylor, C.M., and Xu, H., 1993,
[2] Dietrich, N.W., Parker, R.J., Zaretsky, E.V., 1969, “Elastohydrodynamic lubrication of elliptical. contacts
“Contact conformity effects on spinning torque and with pure spin”, Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., Part C: J.
friction”, Trans. ASME, Journal of Lubrication Mech. Engg. Science, 207, pp.83-92
Technology, 91, pp. 308-313. [8] Yang, P. R., Cui, J. L., 2004, “The influence of spinning
[3] Johnson, K.L., Tevaarwerk, J.L., 1977, “Shear behavior on the performance of EHL in elliptical contacts,”
of elastohydrodynamic oil films”, Proc R Soc Lond, 356, IUTAM Symposium on Elastohydrodrnamics and
pp. 215 -236. Micro-elatohydrodynamiccs, 2, pp.81-92.
[4] Jonathon, N, Adrian, L., 2004, “Measurement and [9] Ehret, P., Dowson, D., Taylor, C.M, 1999, “Thermal
prediction of spin losses in the EHL point contacts of the Effects in Elliptical Contacts with Spin Conditions,”
full toroidal variator,” Proceedings of the 30th Proceedings of the 24th Leeds-Lyon Conference on
Leeds-Lyon Tribology conference, pp. 769-779. Tribology, pp. 685-703.
124
Effect of Wide Dimples on Planar Contact Lubrication
Extended Abstract wide and 80 mm long was used as the upper surface for each
At different lubricant supplies, effect of dimples with a few lower sample and a microscope was employed. The contact
millimeters width on planar contact lubrication has been area was a square of 40 mm width. 150SN lubricant was used
investigated and discussed. At a small amount of lubricant in the experiments, and its viscosity was 0.062 mPas.
supply, the friction force was reduced obviously because of a The steps for the experiments were as follows: a definite
mixed film consisting of the lubricant and the gas. At a full volume of lubricant was placed on the middle of the sample
lubricant supply, the friction force was dominated by the and was covered with the glass; the normal force was loaded.
hydrodynamic lubrication. At different amounts of lubricant Run-in was carried out for four minutes and then stopped for a
supplies, an optimal dimple size existed. Additionally, surface ten-minute rest. Finally, the reciprocal motion was started
roughness, dimple shape and distribution were investigated. A again and friction force was sampled. In the experiments, 5 μL,
calculation and analysis were given and agreed with the 10 μL, 20 μL and 30 μL lubricant were applied.
experiment. 3 Experimental Results.
Keywords: Lubrication; Drag reduction; Dimple; Meniscus 3.1 Effect of dimple depth. In some of the experiments, gas
1 INTRODUCTION could be observed through the microscope. Table 2 shows
some typical results of the gas area percentage in the
Drag reduction is considered to be a necessary requirement experiment.
for energy efficiency and environmental protection. Effects of
textured surfaces on lubrication [1-2], friction [3] and wear [4]
have been investigated. For lubrication, the understanding of
the mechanisms involved in the tribology of textured surfaces
is mainly derived from elastohydrodynamic lubrication[2].
Dimpled surface is a typical artificial textured surface. In most
of studies on dimpled surfaces, dimple size was about tens or
hundreds of micrometers [2].
In the previous studies [5,6], bubbles were small and were
entrained in lubricant. If big bubbles can exist stably between
two surfaces, the pressure in the bubbles induced by the
surface tension of the bubbles can balance load and the drag
can be reduced obviously.
The goal of the ongoing study was to investigate the effect
of wide dimples on drag force at different lubricant supplies.
2 Experimental scheme
2.1 Samples. The samples were steel 45 with width of 40 mm
and length of 80 mm. A chemical corrosion method was
employed to produce dimples. All samples employed in the
experiment are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Dimple size and distribution on the samples. x is dimple width
or diameter; y is unit cell width; rd is dimple area percentage; Ra is
average roughness excluding dimples; h0 is average central depth of
the dimples
Sample x(mm) y(mm) rd (%) Ra(μm) h0(μm) shape array
b0 4 8 25 0.17 0 square regular
b1 4 8 25 0.17 1.32 square regular
b3/w4×8/rs 4 8 25 0.17 3.21 square regular
b5 4 8 25 0.17 4.99 square regular
a0 4 8 25 0.33 0 square regular
a1 4 8 25 0.33 1.62 square regular
a3 4 8 25 0.33 3.19 square regular
a5 4 8 25 0.33 5.04 square regular
w4×6 4 6 44.4 0.17 2.97 square regular
w4×10 4 10 16 0.17 3.08 square regular
w3×6 3 6 25 0.17 3.12 square regular
w5×10 5 10 25 0.17 3.25 square regular
w6×12 6 12 25 0.17 3.19 square regular
hs 4 8 25 0.17 2.91 square hexagonal
rc 5.1 8 25 0.17 3.28 circle regular
Fig. 1 Effects of the dimple depth on friction coefficient and drag
2.2 Experimental procedures. A self-developing experimental reduction at (a) 5 μL, (b) 10 μL and (c) 20 μL lubricant supplies
system was employed and its principle is similar with a SRV
tester. The motion between upper and lower surfaces was The percentage of drag reduction is defined as the friction
reciprocal. The velocity at the stable duration was 0.1 m/s. To force of a sample without dimples minus the friction force of
observe the lubrication interface, a transparent glass 40 mm another sample with dimples and then divided by the friction
*email: jdwang@tsinghua.edu.cn force of the sample without dimples. Fig.1 shows the results at
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
different lubricant supplies. From the figure, with increase of 3.5 effect of dimple shape and distribution pattern. Fig. 5
the lubricant supply the friction coefficient of every sample hows the effects of dimple shape and distribution pattern at
initially decreased. However, after 20 μL, it became stable. For different lubricant supplies. From the figure, the dimple shape
different lubricant supplies, the drag reduction percentage of and its distribution pattern seldom affected the lubrication.
sample b3 was the highest. At the smallest lubricant supply of
5 μL, the drag reduction was the most remarkable. When
lubricant supply reached 10 μL, the drag reduction induced by
dimples went down, However, after 20 μL, the drag reduction
went up again.
3.2 Effect of surface roughness. Fig. 2 shows the effect of
dimple depth of the samples with average roughness of 0.33μm
on lubrication. Compared with Fig. 1 (a), the friction force
coefficient here was more than the counterpart, i.e. the larger
the surface roughness, the larger the friction force coefficient. Fig. 5 Effects of dimple shape and distribution pattern on lubrication at
However, the drag reduction percentage of each sample here 5 μL lubricant supply
was larger.
4 Discussion
The full lubrication calculation is based on Navier-Stokes
equations and a finite volume method (FVM). Periodical
boundary condition is applied. When the maximum average
pressure is set as an optimal objective, the optimal dimple
depth as a directly proportional function of the distance
between upper and lower surfaces can be achieved and the
average slope is approximately 1. Average pressure as a
function of dimple area percentage shows that the average
pressure arrives at the maximum value when the dimple area
percentage is about 25%.
Fig. 2 Effects of dimples of surfaces with average roughness of 0.33
μm on lubrication at 5 μL lubricant supply Based on liquid-gas interface and Laplace equation, the
increase of gas pressure enough to drive the gas out of the
3.3 Effect of dimple area percentage. In the samples covered dimple is proportional to the dimple depth and is inversely
with dimples, dimple width was 4 mm and unit cell size related to the distance.
changed from 6 mm to 10 mm, corresponding dimple area
percentage from 44.4% to 16%. Fig. 3 shows the effect of Summary
dimple area percentage on lubrication. From the figure, the At different lubricant supplies, effect of wide dimples on
drag reduction of sample w4×8 with dimple area percentage of lubrication has been investigated and discussed. The effect was
25% was the highest at all lubricant supplies. determined by the gas in the dimples and the hydrodynamic
lubrication induced by the dimples. For different amounts of
lubricant supplies, in the planar contact lubrication, an optimal
dimple size existed. The gas in the dimples was a key inducing
drag reduction at a small amount of lubricant supply, while
hydrodynamic lubrication was a key at a full of lubricant
supply. An analysis was given and agreed with the experiment.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NSFC) Project under grants number
Fig. 3 Effects of dimple area percentage on lubrication at 5 μL 50675112㧘50505020 and 50721004.
lubricant supply
3.4 Effect of unit size. In the samples, dimple area percentage References
was kept as a constant of 25% and its width changed from 3 [1] Pettersson, U., Jacobson, S., 2007, “Textured surfaces for
mm to 12 mm, corresponding unit cell width from 6 mm to 12 improved lubrication at high pressure and low sliding
mm. Fig. 4 shows the effect of unit size on lubrication. From speed of roller/piston in hydraulic motors”, Tribol. Int, 40,
the figure, the drag reduction of sample w4×8 was similar with pp. 355-359.
that of sample w5×10, and their drag reduction was the highest [2] Costa, H.L., Hutchings, I.M., 2007, “Hydrodynamic
at all lubricant supplies. lubrication of textured steel surfaces under reciprocating
sliding conditions”, Tribol. Int., 40, pp.1227-1238.
[3] Becker, E.P., Ludema, K.C., 1999, “A qualitative empirical
model of cylinder bore wear”, Wear, 225-229, pp.387-404.
[4] Pettersson, U., Jacobson, S., 2004, “Friction and wear
properties of micro textured DLC coated surfaces in
boundary lubricated sliding”, Tribol Lett, 17(3), pp.553-9.
[5] Kicinski, J., 1983, “Effect of the aeration of a lubricating
oil film and its space and time-related compression on the
static and dynamic characteristics of journal bearings”,
Wear, 91, pp.65-87.
[6] Nikolajsen, J.L., 1999, “The effect of aerated oil on the
5 4 Effects of unit size on lubrication at 5 μL lubricant supply load capacity of a plain journal bearing”, Tribol. Trans., 42,
Fig.
pp.58-62.
126
Friction Properties and Microstructure of Al-Cu-Fe Nano Films
*Corresponding author: zhouxiying@smmail.cn The critical load and the friction coefficient were
127
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
examined by the nano-scratch method at same time. The critical good matching between the substrate and film.
load generally means the minimum load, which responds to the Fig. 2a and b show bright field image and the selected area
cracking or delamination of a film. According to the Bull and diffraction pattern (SADP) respectively, obtained from the thin
Rickerby model [5], the critical load is inversely proportional to film of F3 sample, clearly showing the existence of amorphous
the friction coefficient of the film. When the friction coefficient phase. For the thin film of F1 sample, there are obviously
increases, the model thus predicts that the critical load differences. The bright field image and the selected area
decreases. As the hardness of substrate (i.e. hard substrate) diffraction pattern (SADP) are shown in Fig. 3a and b. The
increases, the critical load of the film also enhances because of microcrystal phase is formed in the thin film in the region A.
a) b)
Fig. 2 TEM morphology of Al-Cu-Fe film of F3 sample, a) bright field image and b) SADP pattern
a) b)
Fig. 3 TEM morphology of Al-Cu-Fe film of F1 sample, a) bright field image and b) SADP pattern
Fig. 4 indicates the XRD patterns of Al-Cu-Fe film on Si phase. Element distribution of Al-Cu-Fe film is shown in Fig. 5.
wafer. It can be seen that the Al-Cu-Fe film are mainly Under this composition condition, the film has been reported
composed of amorphous phase and phase. The -phase, that phase in Al-Cu-Fe phase diagram has an approximate
which is the CsCl cubic phase with a lattice parameter of composition [6]. The microstructure of the film is determined by
0.294nm, has the composition (at%) of Al50Fe50-xCux. When the chemical composition of Al-Cu-Fe film.
the sputtering temperature is 200ć, the film exists more
400 100
80
300
60 Fe
Intensity
Wt. /%
200 Al
200 ć 40 Cu
Si
100
20
25 ć
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
128
Friction Properties and Microstructure of Al-Cu-Fe Nano Films
The curves of the relationship between the load and increase of substrate temperature. The microstructure of films
displacement are shown in Fig. 6. The nanohardness and elastic is composed of amorphous phase and phases.
modulus of the films are measured. The nanohardness and
elastic modulus of the films under F1 condition are 7.6 GPa
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and 154.7 GPa respectively. With the increase of working
pressure, the nanohardness and elastic modulus of the films The authors express their appreciation for the financial
under F2 condition increase to 8.1 GPa and 157.0 GPa. The support of Shanghai Education Commission Project (No:
change of nanohardness and elastic modulus are related to the 07ZZ159) and Shanghai Leading Academic Discipline Project
formation and volume percent of phases. Additionally, the (No: J51402).
different substrate temperature and working pressure influence
the surface diffusion and bonding of atoms, maybe influence REFERENCES
the compaction of the films.
[1] Ding Y., Northwood D. O., Alpas A. T., 1997,
30 “Fabrication by magnetron sputtering of Al-Cu-Fe
quasicrystalline films for tribological applications”, Surf.
25 F1 Coat. Technol. 96, pp.140-147.
F2 [2] Kanjilal A., Tiwali U., Chatterjee R., 2002, “Preparation
20 F3 of Al-Cu-Fe thin films by vapor deposition technique
Load /mN
129
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
130
Tribological Properties of Ti6Al4V Alloy by FOTS Self-Assembled Monolayers Modification Treatment
energy decreases as the radiation time increasing. When ozone and atomic oxygen may highly be generated [9].
reaching to 5 min, the modified sample processes the best O2 hv o 2O
(1)
hydrophobic property. Then the contact angle decreases and
O 2 O o O3
surface energy increases as the radiation time increasing. When (2)
reaching to 13 min, the modified Ti6Al4V alloy surface O3 hv o O O 2 (3)
becomes hydrophilic, which indicates the lubrication film
O3 O o 2O2
formed by FOTS SAMs is destroyed. (4)
Then the oxygen atom reacts with trace amounts of water to
Table 1 Water contact angle and calculated surface energy for form a hydroxyl radical which also processes high oxidative
Ti6Al4V alloy surface hydroxylated by different methods property.
O + H 2O 2 OH (5)
Method Contact Angle Surface Energy
The hydroxyl radical is absorbed by titanium atom to form
/Deg /mN·m-1
Ti-OH bond. The chemical reactivity of metal hydroxide
depends mainly on the electronegaticity of the metal atom [10].
Titanium alloy
The FOTS headgroup of Si-Cl can easily form Si-OH bond in a
without hydroxylation 47.5 54.98
little water environment. The Si-O-Ti bond is formed by
Alkali solution(15 min) 44.5 56.90
condensation reaction between Ti-OH bond and Si-OH bond.
Piranha solution(1 min) 42.1 58.23
Meanwhile, the Si-O-Si band is formed between the hydrolytic
Piranha solution(5 min) 21.2 68.30
FOTS molecules. The formation mechanism is similar with the
Piranha solution(10 min) 11.4 71.41
OTS SAMs forming on silicon substrate [11].
UV(5 min) 41.6 58.50
The structure change of FOTS SAMs under UV radiation can
UV(12 min) 31.5 63.76
be described as follow: An initiation step is hydrogen
UV(15 min) 31.4 63.80
abstraction from alkyl chains by attacks of hydroxyl radical and
Piranha solution(3 min)
atomic oxygen, thereby forming alkyl radicals [12].
& UV(15 min) 10.1 71.70
OH CH 3 R o H 2 O CH 2 R (6)
200 O CH 3 R o H 2 O CHR (7)
Modified Ti6Al4V The alkyl radicals further react to form alkoxy radicals, which
1 Ti6Al4V
can be oxidized to form carbonyls. The resulting carbonyls
2 Hydroxylated Ti6Al4V
Contact Angle / Deg
150 dissociate via direct photolysis or attack from radicals with loss
of carbon, thus reducing the length of alkyl chains [13].
The alkyl radical can also be degraded by -scission to form a
100 shorter radical chain and ethylene. This process continues until
the carbon chain is completely consumed [14]. The result is in
agreement with conclusion drawn from preparing OPA SAMs
47.5 Deg on titania surface [15].
50 1
Si Rn CH 2 CH 2 E
scission
o
10.1 Deg Si Rn 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 (8)
2
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 C-F bands in FOTS possess high ionization potential. It can
Radiation Time / min be also photolyzed under low wavelength UV radiation to form
(a) Contact angle CF2O [16].
120 Si Rn CF2 CF2 O
o Si Rn 1 CF2 CF2 CF2 O
Modified Ti6Al4V (9)
1 Ti6Al4V
-1
2 Hydroxylated Ti6Al4V Fig. 2(a). The hydroxylated surface is uniform and relatively
90
g
72.5 mN m
-1 rough. The scratches that generated during the polishing process
2 can be obviously seen from the image. Fig. 2(b) shows the AFM
g
55.19 mN m
-1
image of FOTS SAMs modified sample. It can be seen that the
60
1 FOTS SAMs modified sample is smooth, compared with the
Ti6Al4V alloy. The scratches in Ti6Al4V alloy bulk can not be
30
seen, which indicates that the FOTS SAMs were formed on the
Ti6Al4V alloy. When ultraviolet radiation/ozone photochemical
process was performed for 5 min, it can be found that the
modified sample is the smoothest in Fig.2(c), which shows that
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 the 5 min UV radiation can enhance the FOTS SAMs
Radiation Time / min modification effect. The main reason is that the organic impurity
(b) Surface energy physically adsorbed on the SAMs surface is burned off by UV
Fig.1 Variation of contact angle and surface energy with radiation. It can be also proved by the surface roughness
radiation time parameters shown in Table 2. The Rq, Ra and Rmax value of
FOTS SAMs modified Ti6Al4V alloy is smaller than that of the
The formation mechanism of FOTS SAMs on Ti6Al4V alloy unmodified Ti6Al4V alloy. The values of 5 min UV radiated
can be described as follow: there is a basic photoreaction of modified Ti6Al4V alloy are the smallest.
oxygen under UV radiation, in which oxidative species such as
131
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Friction Coefficient
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 400 800 1200
(b) Modified Ti6Al4V Load/mN
(a) Load
0.6
Ti6Al4V
FOTS modified Ti6Al4V
5 min UV radiated modified Ti6Al4V
Friction Coefficient
0.4
0.2
132
Tribological Properties of Ti6Al4V Alloy by FOTS Self-Assembled Monolayers Modification Treatment
0.1 mm/s and 0.4 mm/s has less influence on anti-wear REFERENCES
properties of modified samples under or no 5 min UV radiation. [1] Modi, M., Sitaraman, S. K., 2004, “Interfacial fracture
The wear failure time decreases under big sliding velocity such toughness measurement of a Ti/Si interface,” Journal of
as 2.5 mm/s. Electronic Packaging, 126, pp.301-307.
[2] Aimi, M. F., Rao, M. P., Macdonald, N. C., Zuruzi, A. S.,
2000 Bothman, D. P., 2004, “High-aspect-ratio bulk
Ti6Al4V micromachining of titanium,” Nature Materials, 3,
FOTS modified Ti6Al4V pp.103-105.
1500 5 min UV radiated modified Ti6Al4V [3] Singh, R. A., Yoon, E. S., 2007, “Friction of chemically and
Wear failure time /s
133
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
*
X.MˊLi, F. Guo , B. Fan
School of Mechanical Engineering, Qingdao Technological University, 11 Fushun Road, Qingdao 266033, P.R. China
Extended Abstract
Spinning can not be ignored in some O is the centre of the contact region, and r is the distance
elastohydrodynamically lubricated contacts, and may have between O and O'. The ball and the disc can rotate around their
important influences on component performance. In a own axes and in the experiments they are driven to run at the
ball-on-disc test rig, spinning was incorporated by adjustment same speed in the x direction at the contact center O. The
of the contact center offset from the disc rotation axis. velocity distribution in the contact region along y axis is given
Influences of spinning on elastohydrodynamic lubrication in Fig.2(a), which can be further decomposed into two types of
(EHL) films were experimentally studied under rolling motion: pure rolling and pure spinning, where a is the
conditions. Experimental results show that with increasing semi-contact width and the velocities u1and u2 are
spinning the film thickness decreases, and the symmetry of the 7u1 9 4 (r ? a ) (1)
6
film shape about the central entrainment gets lost. The 5u2 9 4 (r > a )
variation of the central film thickness and the minimum film Therefore, the entraining velocity u in the x direction, the
thickness on the entrainment speeds and loads were pure rolling velocity ur and the spinning velocities us at the two
investigated under different spinning-rolling ratios. The results sides of the contact region are
showed that the central film thickness did not change much u = ur = (u2+u1)/2 = r (2)
with the spinning-rolling ratios. The minimum film thicknesses, us = (u2-u1)/2 = a (3)
located respectively at the two side lobes, demonstrate an Here, a parameter that can be defined as spinning/rolling
obvious variation with the spinning-roll ratios. Some ratio Ssp is introduced to represent the spinning level, which
numerical work has been carried out to further clarify the can be expressed as
experiment findings. Ssp = us/ur = a/r (4)
Keywords: Elastohydrodynamic lubrication, Spinning, Optical
interference, Point contact
INTRODUCTION
A great deal of research has been done in the area of
elastohydronamic lubrication (EHL), and most is concentrated
on the motion of pure rolling or rolling with sliding. In fact,
spinning also widely exists in lubricated pairs in practical
engineering. For instance, in an angular contact ball bearing,
some spinning motion occurs simultaneously with rolling due Fig.1 Schematic of the test principle
to the contact angle between balls and raceways. Bearings can
wear out due to the spinning moment [1,2]. In continuously
variable transmission (CVT), the axes of rolling elements are
not parallel for getting infinite variable speed, which causes a
different speed distribution at contact area and results in
spinning motion with the power loss [3].
Earlier experimental studies on spinning were mainly (a) spinning/rolling (b) pure rolling (c) pure spinning
restricted to the frictional torque. Paker et al. [4] and Ditrich et
al. [5] got high effective frictional coefficients by spinning, Fig.2 Kinematic analysis
indicating spinning motion might generate more power loss in
realistic machine elements, which attracted researchers’ Obviously, when the eccentricity r0, namely Ssp , the
attention on spinning from then on. Afterwards, researchers contact in under pure spinning. On the contrary, when r ,
designed different apparatus to get spinning component in the namely Sspψ0, the contact is under pure rolling. Different
tests and to analyze the influence of spinning on lubrication, spinning levels are obtained by adjusting the eccentricity r.
friction and transmission efficiency [6, 7]. Numerical
solutions have also been employed since Snidle and Archard 2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
[8] for the first time presented their theoretical results of the
spinning effect on lubrication. For example, Zou [9] analysed Fig.3 shows a representative interferogram under
the influence of spinning effect on film thickness and the film spinning/rolling conditions, in which there are four
trait with multilevel/ mutigrid techniques. In this paper, the characteristic positions A, B, C and O. At points B and C are
influence of spinning effect on film thickness and film shape is the minimum film thickness of the two side lobes, respectively
investigated through experiments and numerical calculations denoted as hminL and hminR. Point O is the contact center and
respectively. also the central film thickness hcen. Line OA is perpendicular to
line BC. At point A is the minimum film thickness hminO along
line OA. The present paper is mainly concerned with the
1 TEST PRINCIPLE
variation of hminL, hminR, hminR hminR with entrainment speeds,
As is shown in Fig.1, OÏ is the rotating centre of the disk, loads and spinning/rolling ratios
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed:
meguof@yahoo.com.cn
134
Influence of Spinning Effect on the Rolling EHL Films
Film thickness,nm
90
80 hminL
Figure 4 illustrates the variation of the interferograms and
70 hminR
film profiles along the line BC at different speeds where the
load and the spinning/rolling ratio are fixed. At low speed, i.e., 60
and the film profile are nearly symmetrical and the difference 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Ssp
between hminL and hminR is small. However, with the increasing
speed the symmetry of interferograms and film profiles get lost Fig.6 Minimum thickness at different spinning/rolling ratio, w
and the difference values become large. The variation trend of = 16N, u = 87.7μm/
hminL, hminR and hcen can clearly be seen
135
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
*
Jae-Youn Jung1, Ihn-Sung Cho2, Il-Hyun Beak2, Hyun-Il Shin2, , Jae-Cheon Jo2, Lu Hong3
1
Department of Precision Mechanical Engineering and RCIT (Chonbuk National University)
2
Department of Precision Mechanical Engineering (Chonbuk National University)
3
School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering (Wuhan University of Technology)
INTRODUCTION
Fig.1 The Diagram of the bent-axis type piston pump
Recently, the oil hydraulic system used in large and heavy
equipment has been reinforced in restriction of performance,
Fig. 2 is the behavior of the piston and the piston ring in the
environment, and noise. In order to solve these problems, a
cylinder bore. The boundary condition is very complex because
variety of research as been carried out actively, such as the oil
the pressure is changed from suction pressure to discharge
hydraulic system’s compacted style, high speed and pressure,
pressure during one rotating speed.
electronic control, substitute oil, and noise decrease.
The bent-axis type oil hydraulic piston pump acted as the It is necessary the access of EHL case for direct lubrication
core power source of the oil hydraulic system is no exception to analysis, because contact surface will occur to elastic
this technique tendency. And it is used as the main pumps in deformation at relative motion between cylinder bore and
heavy construction equipment due to its characteristics of high piston ring.
speed and pressure, high total efficiency and distinguished Thus, in this paper, EHL analysis on the sliding part
variable delivery. between the cylinder bore and the piston ring. The analysis
Since the piston is tapered in a bent-axis type piston pump, model and the boundary condition of the sliding part is
to prevent the leakage in the sliding part between the cylinder expressed in Fig. 3.
bore and the piston, the piston ring is designed at the end of the Fig. 3 shows the model between the piston ring and the
piston. Therefore, the friction and leakage characteristics in this cylinder bore. In this figure, the piston and the piston ring are
sliding part have influence on the performance of piston pump. moved by the sliding velocity u1 on the fixed cylinder
The research as mentioned above has been carried out, for bore( u2 =0). In this figure, R is the radius of the piston ring,
example, The Lubrication Characteristics of a Rotary p is the fluid pressure, h is the film thickness, and w is
Compressor used for Refrigeration and Air-conditioning the load of the piston ring.
136
A Study on Lubrication Characteristics between Piston Ring and Cylinder Bore of Bent-Axis Type Piston Pump
piston ring.
The average velocity u is expressed by the following
equation.
Here, p1 pd , p2 pa at u1 t 0 , and p1 pa ,
p2 ps at u1 ¢ 0 . p1 is the input pressure, p2 is the output
pressure, pd is the discharge pressure, pa is the atmospheric
pressure, ps is the suction pressure, T is the rotating angle
of shaft, w is the angular velocity of shaft, D p is the swivel
angle, and Rd is the pitch circle radius of the disk spherical
surface part.
The viscosity coefficient K is expressed by the following
equation.
Fig. 2 The behavior of the piston and the piston ring in the K K0 exp(D p ) (3)
cylinder bore
Here, K0 is the viscosity of the lubricant at the
The assumption for analysis is as follows: atmospheric pressure, and D is the pressure-viscosity
(1) The flow of y-direction of the lubricant is ignored
coefficient.
because the contact film thickness of the elastic body is very
The film thickness h and the elastic deformation v are as
small.
(2) The inertia of the lubrication fluid is ignored because it follows:
is very small.
(3) The deformation of the elastic body is a plane x2
h h0 v (4)
deformation condition of unlimited body. 2R
(4) The lubricant is the uncompressing characteristics. 2 xa
S E ' ³xb
(5) The viscosity of the lubricant is expressed as index v p ( s )ln( x s ) 2 ds C0 (5)
coefficient of the pressure.
(6) The viscosity of the lubricant isn’t concerned with the
changed of the temperature. 1 1 1 V 12 1 V 2 2
Here, ( ) , h0 is the film thickness
E' 2 E1 E2
at x 0 , C0 is the integral calculus constant, E ' is the
equal elastic coefficient, V 1 , V 2 is the poisson ratio, and
E1 , E2 is the elastic coefficient.
The unit load w on the piston ring is expressed by the
following equation.
xb
w ³ xa
p ( x)dx (6)
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Table 1 The geometrical data and the operating conditions a swivel angle to shaft. The code expresses the direction
Item Values Unit because the higher rotating speed of the piston ring, the more or
less rotating speed.
Suction pressure 0.05 MPa
When the piston ring is located at 0 deg and 180 deg, it is
Discharge pressure 30,35,40 MPa TDC and BDC which the rotating speed of the piston ring is
Rotating speed 1500,1800,2100 rpm zero regardless of rotating speed. The velocity of the piston ring
Oil viscosity (at 40) 30 cP is higher when the rotating angle is lager. When the piston ring
Diameter of cylinder bore 25 mm is located at 90 deg and 270 deg, the rotating speed of the piston
Diameter of pitch circle ring is at maximum speed. The velocity of the piston ring is
75 mm proportionate to the rotating speed.
in piston head
Width of piston ring 3.2 mm Fig. 6 shows the pressure distribution in the discharge
Swivel angle 29 deg region(0~180 deg) of the piston pump. In this figure, the
discharge pressure at 0 deg and 180 deg are higher than at
90deg. The reason is that the velocity of the piston is zero at
TDC and BDC and the film thickness is close to zero. The
maximum pressure is higher than 200MPa. Therefore, EHL is
necessary for the analysis of the lubrication characteristics
between the piston ring and cylinder bore. In this paper, the
lubrication characteristic is studied to the discharge pressure
and rotating speed by the EHL.
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A Study on Lubrication Characteristics between Piston Ring and Cylinder Bore of Bent-Axis Type Piston Pump
CONCLUSION
Based on the above theoretical analyses about lubrication
characteristics between a piston ring and a cylinder, the
following conclusion can be obtained:
1. When the rotating speed is higher, minimum film
Fig. 8 The friction force to the discharge pressure thickness is increased. When discharge pressure is larger, it is
almost constant.
Fig. 9 shows the minimum film thickness in variation to the 2. When the rotating speed or discharge pressure is higher
rotating speed. The minimum film thickness is proportionally the friction force increase.
increased to the rotating speed because the wedge effect affects
the film thickness. REFERENCES
[1] Jung J. Y, Cho I. S, Oh S. H, 1997, “The Lubrication
Characteristics of a Rotary Compressor used for
Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Systems, Part 2:
Analysis of Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication on Vane Tip”,
Journal of the KSTLE, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp.62-69.
[2] Dowson, D., Higginson, G. R., “Elasto-Hydrodynamic
Lubrication”, Pergamon, 1966.
[3] R.M. Douglas, J.A. Steel and R.L. Reuben, 2006, “A study
of the tribological behaviour of piston ring/cylinder liner
interaction in diesel engines using acoustic emission”,
Tribology International, Vol. 39, No 12, pp.1634-1642.
[4] John J. Truhan, Jun Qu and Peter J. Blau, “The effect of
lubricating oil condition on the friction and wear of piston
ring and cylinder liner materials in a reciprocating bench
test”, Wear, Volume 259, Issues 7-12, July-August 2005, pp.
1048-1055.
[5] Eric W. Schneider and Diniel H. Blossfeld, “Radiotracer
Fig. 9 The minimum film thickness to the rotating speed method for measuring real-time piston-ring and
cylinder-bore wear in sparking-ignition engines”, Nuclear
In Fig.10, since the normal force is proportionally increased Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A:
to the discharge pressure, friction force is also increased in Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated
discharge region. The friction force is very small in the suction Equipment, Volume 505, Issue 1-2, 1 June 2003, pp.
region because the suction pressure is small at 0.05MPa. 559-563.
139
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.
2
School of Material Science and Engineering, Jiangsu University,Zhenjiang,China.
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Transition metal dichalcogenides MoS2 nanotube is widely method. Before anodizing experiments were performed,
used as solid lubricant. In this paper,MoS2 nanotubes arrays pretreatment must be done to aluminum foils(99.99%
were prepared using a catalyzed thermal decomposition of purity).After pretreatment, the samples were anodized at 40V
(NH4)2MoS4 on anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) template. The direct current in 0.3M oxalic acid aqueous solution at room
nanotubes were investigated by FESEM,TEM and AFM.The Finally,pore-enlargement was performed in phosphoric acid at
results show that the MoS2 nanotubes have uniform diameters 50ć for 8 min and an AAO template with highly ordered pore
of about 100nm which corresponds closely to the pore diameters arrays was obtained.
of AAO templates. The result of AFM shows that MoS2 The thermal decomposition method[5] is used to produce
nanotubes have the lower frication coefficient than MoS2 powder. the fullerene-like MoS2.A 0.1 M solution of (NH4)2MoS4 in
Keywords: MoS2 nanotubes; AAO; friction and lubricant dimethyl sulfoxide (DMF) was used as a solution-phase
precursor,AAO templates as-prepared were dipped in the
INTRODUCTION precursor solution for a few minutes and then were dried in the
Transition metal dichalcogenides MX2 (M=Mo, W; X=S, oven at 70ć until the solvent was evaporated. Then the
Se, Nb) are well known for their excellent properties and templates were loaded into a quartz tube,an atmosphere of H2
promising applications[1-4].Especially MoS2 is widely used as was introduced into the tube while the reactor temperature was
solid lubricant.Compared with traditional 2H- MoS2,MoS2 heated to 450ć at a rate of 10ć/min,maintaining this
nanotubes with hollow fullerene-like structure eliminate the temperature for 1 h [7].Then the template was dissolved in o.1
fringe dangling bonds, which made MoS2 nanotubes nearly not M sodium hydroxide solution for 20 min and was carefully
to be oxidized in humid air and high temperature, their washed with distilled water several times.MoS2 nanotube
fullerene-like structure nearly not to be destroyed. therefore arrays were obtained.
they improve the chemical stability and property of friction and
wear. However, In reality, Experts in the field of mechanism
only pay attention to the applications of materials and experts
in the field of material only pay attention to academic
researchs.In this paper,MoS2 nanotubes were synthesized in the
porous of AAO templates by thermal decomposition[5].The
morphology and microstructure of MoS2 nanotubes were
investigated by FESEM and TEM. The tribological
performance of MoS2 nanotubes were studied also.
EXPERIMENTAL
In order to obtain well-aligned pore channels, the AAO Fig.1 SEM image of AAO template
fabrication was carried out with the two-step andization[6]
_________________________________________________________ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
a
Corresponding author.Tel.:+86 51188790268 A typical morphology of the AAO template prepared by
E-mail address:lichangsheng@ujs.edu.cn
140
The Fabrication and Lubricant Performance of MoS2 Nanotubes Arrays
two-step method is shown in Fig.1(a). The average pore morphology of MoS2 nanotube (Fig.4(a)) appears fine grain size,
diameter was about 100 nm.The geometry and size of these comparing with that of MoS2 powder (Fig.4(c)).It can be shown
pores determine directly the parameters to produce nanotubes. (a) (b)
(c)
(d)
REFERENCES
[1] Jamison.W.E.,Cosgrove.S.L.,1971, “Friction characteristics
of transition-metal disulfides and diselenides,”ASLE
Trans.,14,pp.62.
[2]Moshkovich.A.,Perfilyev.V.,Yutujyan.K.,Rapoport.L.,2007,
“ Friction and wear of solid lubricant films deposited by different
Fig.2(a) SEM image of portrait slice of MoS2 nanotubes arrays
types of burnishing,”Wear,263,pp.1324-1327.
in the AAO template. (b) SEM image of aligned MoS2
[3]Chen.J,Kuriyama.N.,Yuan.H.T.,Takeshita.H.T.,Sakai.T.,2001,
nanotubes arrays in AAO template
“ Electrochemical Hydrogen Storage in MoS2
Nanotubes,”J.Am.Chem.Soc.,123,pp.11813-11814.
[4]Kubart.T.,Polcar.T.,Kopecky.L.,Novak.R.,Novakova.D.,2005,
“ Temperature dependence of tribological properties of MoS2
and MoSe2 coatings,”Surface & Coatings
Technology,193,pp.230-233.
[5] Zelenski.C.M.,Dorhout.P.K.,1998, Template Synthesis of
Near-Monodisperse1 Microscale Nanofibers and Nanotubules
Fig.3 TEM micrograph of MoS2 nanotubes of MoS2,”J.Am.Chem.Soc.,120,pp.734-742.
[6] Masuda.H,Fukuda.P,1995,”Ordered metal nanohole arrays
A typical morphology of MoS2 nanotubes as prepared are
made by a two-step replication of honeycomb structures of
shown in Fig.2(a). It is visible that the direction of growth of
anodic alumina,”Science,268,pp.1466-1468.
MoS2 nanotubes are quite uniform with uniform diameter and
[7]Santiago.P.,Ascencio.J.A.,Mendoza.D.,2004, “ Synthesis and
length.
structural determination of twisted MoS2
TEM image of as-synthesis MoS2 nanotube is shown in
nanotubes,”Appl.phys.A,78,pp.513-518.
Fig.3.It shows hollow nature and samdwich of MoS2 nanotube.
The lateral force microscope (LFM) is used to evaluate the
specimen’s nanoscale friction behavior in Fig.4. The
141
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Extended Abstract
142
The Research on the Lubricant Aging under Durability Test of the Porous Sliding Bearings
143
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
P. Lafont Morgado, J. Echávarri Otero*, J.B. Sánchez-Peñuela Lejarraga, J.L. Muñoz Sanz,
A. Díaz Lantada, J. M. Muñoz-Guijosa, H. Lorenzo Yustos, P. Leal Wiña
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. José Gutiérrez Abascal n.2, 28006. Madrid, Spain.
Extended Abstract
The main aim of this work is to compare the results of zone is taken into account in more mathematically complex
different friction models to the experimental data obtained with rheological models also shown in figure 1.
a Mini Traction Machine (MTM). This test system allows the
measurement of friction coefficient in point contacts (ball-disc)
under a wide range of parameters, such as temperature,
slide-roll ratio, lubricant, material, load or velocity.
Keywords: Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication, Friction, Rheology
INTRODUCTION
As a starting point, Newtonian Model for viscous fluids is
applied to describe the lubricant behaviour. For the calculation
of the shear stress the following hypotheses are made:
- The sliding component of the friction is taken into account.
- The velocity gradient is taken as linear [2].
- Film thickness is approached as constant in the whole of the
contact and equal to the central film thickness (hc) given by Fig. 1 Transition zones in the Limiting Shear Stress Model
Hamrock equation. [3].
- The increase in lubricant viscosity is given by Barus’ Law [4]. According to these considerations, the expression for the
- Circular point contact [2]. friction coefficient (μ) is obtained.
- Hertzian parabolic pressure distribution: contact radius a and @U exp(mCp0 )EmCp0 ? 1F > 1
maximum pressure p0 [5]. ; 9 3A0 8 > D ( 1 ? m3 ) (3)
hc C 2 p03
Thus, for Newtonian Model, shear stress (Ð) is expressed as:
@U
2
144
Models for Predicting Friction Coefficient and Parameters wth Influence in Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
Fig. 2 Photograph and diagram of the test zone in the MTM CONCLUSIONS
The paper shows analytical methods for predicting shear
The experimental stage includes a wide variation of the stress and friction coefficient in point contacts under
operating conditions, by using different control parameters. The elastohydrodynamic lubrication. The test plan performed with
range for each test parameter is as follows: Velocity the MTM enables these models to be verified.
(10-3000mm/s), Temperature (30, 40, 60, 80, 100ºC), Load (14, The Limiting Shear Stress Model degree of precision has
20, 28N), Materials (Steel-Steel, Steel-Copper), SRR (5%, shown to be sufficient for explaining variations in friction
25 %) and Lubricants (PAO-6 and paraffinic oil). coefficient due to variations in velocity, temperature, load,
material, SRR and lubricant. The simplicity of this model is the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cause of misfits between the theoretical results and the
The non-Newtonian Models proposed allow the theoretical experimental measurements.
prediction of the influence on friction of each parameter: On the other hand, Carreau’s Model fits perfectly to the
-Temperature and base of lubricant affect the viscosity, experimental results obtained testing polyalphaolefins in all the
pressure-viscosity coefficient and pressure-limiting shear stress tests performed with different materials and working
coefficient. conditions.
-The load applied and the elastic modulus of the test-specimens
materials modify the contact area and hertzian pressure. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
-The slide-roll ratio (SRR) allows to distinguish between three This work was carried out as part of a Project financed by the
different regions of behaviour according to Johnson and REPSOL-YPF Foundation. The authors would like to thank
Tevaarwerk results [11]. Jorge Insa and Luis Fernández their valuable collaboration.
As for the accuracy of the Limiting Shear Stress Model, by
way of example, figure 3 shows a comparison between the REFERENCES
predictions and the experimental results, concerning the friction
coefficient in steel-copper point contact lubricated with PAO-6 [1]Dowson D., 1995. “Elastohydrodynamic and micro-
at 80ºC, 20N of load and SRR=25%. In these conditions, elastohydrodynamic lubrication”. Wear 190 pp. 125-138.
lubrication regime can be taken as elastohydrodynamic for [2]De Vicente J., Stokes J.R., Spikes H.A., 2005. “The frictional
velocities above approximately 2000mm/s. properties of Newtonian fluids in rolling–sliding soft-EHL
An overestimation of the friction coefficient is observed due contact”. Tribology Letters, Vol. 20.
to the shear stress overestimation commented previously. [3]Hamrock B.J., 1994. “Fundamentals of Fluid Film
Lubrication”. McGraw-Hill, New York.
[4]Barus C., 1893. “Isotherms, isopiestics and isometrics
relative to viscosity”. Am. J. Sci. 45 87–96.
[5]Hertz H., 1896. Miscellaneous papers by H. Hertz. Jones &
Schort (eds), Macmillan, London.
[6]Ge P., Liu Z., 2002. “Experimental and computational
investigation of the traction coefficient of a ball traction
drive device”. Tribology International 35 pp. 219–224.
[7]Bair S., Winer W.O., 1982. “Some observations in high
pressure rheology of lubricants”. Trans. ASME, J. Lubr.
Technol. 104 357.
[8]Carreau P.J., 1972. “Rheological equations from molecular
Fig. 3 Comparison between Limiting Shear Stress Model network theories”. Trans Soc Rheol. 16(1): 99–127.
and experimental results obtained in the MTM [9]Bair S., Vergne P., Querry M., 2004. “A Unified
Shear-Thinning Treatment of Both Film Thickness and
On the other hand, figure 4 shows a comparison between the Traction in EHD”. Tribology Letters 18 pp.145-152.
theoretical results obtained by applying Carreau’s model and [10]Bair S., 2006. “Reynolds-Ellis equation for line contacts
those obtained experimentally. with shear-thinning”. Tribology International 39 pp.
The results in all the tests performed with the polyalphaolefin 310–316.
PAO-6, using different materials and working conditions, show [11]Johnson K.L., Tevaarwerk J.L., 1977. “Shear behaviour of
always deviations below 5% between predicted and elastohydrodynamic oil films”. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
experimental data. 356 pp. 215–236.
145
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, ReCAPT, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Korea
146
Elastohydrodynamic Film Thickness in Elliptical Contacts with Rolling and Spinning
K0 are in [Pa] and [Pas], respectively. Where d i , j , k ,l is an elastic influence coefficient which refers to
the elastic deformation at grid (i , j ) caused by unit pressure
2.3 FILM THICKNESS acting over the rectangular pressure element at grid (k , l ) .
The EHL film thickness for elliptical contact can be written Then substitution of equation (7) into equation (4) gives
as:
x2 y2
x2 y2 h( x, y ) ho ¦¦ d i , j , k , l pk , l (8)
h ( x, y ) ho hd ( x, y ) (4) 2 Rx 2 R y k l
2 Rx 2 R y
Where ho is a constant, the second and third terms of right 2.4 LOAD CONDITIONS
hand-side are the separation due to the geometry of ellipsoids in The EHL film thickness for elliptical contact can be written
their undeformed state, and hd ( x, y ) is the elastic as:
deformation.
w ³³ p( x, y)dxdy (9)
X =x / b, Y =y / a, H =h / Rx , P =p / E , U =U / U0 , K =K /K0 ,
(10)
k =a / b, G =D E , U =K0u / ERx , W =w / ERx2 , B =2Z Rx / u
147
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
b ª§ kbBY j ·
12U «¨1 ¸ ( Ui 1/ 2, j H i 1/ 2, j Ui 1/ 2, j H i 1/ 2, j )
3 3
Rx «¬© 2 Rx ¹
n n
(a) B=0
§ wfi , j · § wfi , j ·
¦¦ ¨¨
l © wPk , l
n 1
¸¸ ( Pk ,l Pk ,l ) ¨
n
wH
n 1
¸ ( H o H o ) fi , j
n n
0 (21)
k ¹ © o¹
(i, k 2,, M j , j , l 2,, N 1)
148
Elastohydrodynamic Film Thickness in Elliptical Contacts with Rolling and Spinning
×
Fig. 9 Variation of film thickness with speed parameter
5. CONCLUSIONS
(a) W=0.72×10-7 In this paper, elastohydrodynamic lubrication of elliptical
contacts with rolling and spinning is studied. The highly
nonlinear system equations are analyzed successfully using a
finite difference method with non-uniform grid systems and the
Newton-Raphson method. 3-dimensional pressure
distributions, film contours and variations of the minimum and
central film thicknesses for various dimensionless parameters
are presented. The results show that the pressure distributions
and film shapes are highly affected by spinning
motion. Reduction of the minimum film thickness with
(b) W=2.80×10-7 spinning is remarkable whereas the central film thickness is
not. Especially variations of the minimum film thickness with
Fig. 7 Pressure distribution and film contours: U=2.262×10-12, dimensionless load parameter are considerably different from
k=2, B=120 those of pure rolling/sliding. Therefore the results can be used
149
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
150
Experimental Study on the Tribological Properties of Pure Powder Lubrication under Plane Contact
Experimental Study on the Tribological Properties of Pure Powder Lubrication under Plane Contact
Wang Wei / Hefei Unversity of Technology, China Liu Xiaojun / Hefei Unversity of Technology, China
Liu Kun / Hefei Unversity of Technology, China Li Hongxian / Hefei Unversity of Technology, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The pure powder lubrication has been studied using plane Additionally, force is loaded along axis㧚In order to prevent
contact tribo-tester. Four kinds of powder, such as PTFE, scrape and serious wear as a result of direct contact between
graphite, MoS2, copper, have been used during the experiments. top sample and bottom sample㧘some powder was put into
The results show that the powder can be introduced into tribopair before the experiments, and then start the tribotester
frictional clearance without any special method. The powder’s under the condition of the existence of powder between two
physical properties have significant influence on the rubbing surfaces㧚The friction coefficient and temperature can
tribological characteristics of power lubrication. The friction be obtained in real time, and the friction surface of the sample
coefficient and wear are obviously decreased while the is observed and analyzed by the optical microscope after
powders are PTFE, graphite and MoS2 which have good
experiments㧚
exhibition in application of traditional solid lubrication. At the
lower load capacity㧘powder lubrication using ball-like copper
has certain antifriction effects㧘but it became worse rapidly
with the increasing of load capacity. The observation of
lubrication film with optical microscope shows that lubrication
film is dynamically formed on the rubbing surfaces in most
experiments.
Keywords: Powder lubrication; Plane contact; Powder
Fig.1 Sketch map of tribopair
properties; Tribological characteristics
INTRODUCTION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Pure powder lubrication, which was employed to achieve Possibility of the powder entering friction gap
the lubrication with lower frictional coefficient, wide Because there are no measures are taken to bond powder
temperature adaptation, long life and self-replenishment, is a and surface together in the process of powder lubrication,
new solid lubrication method[1-4] 㧚 In the process of pure whether the powder entered friction gap or not has become the
powder lubrication, solid lubrication material in the state of dry primary problem㧚In order to verify the possibility of the
particles has been introduced directly into tribo-pairs, and the powder entering tribopairs, the rubbing pairs has been loaded
clearance of frictional surfaces has been filled with flowing together under the condition of no any powder in the friction
solid particles. gap, and then the sealing cover has been filled with powder to
There are multifarious powders which can be used in the completely immerge the tribopair. If the powder can
application of powder lubrication, and their properties are dynamically enter friction clearance when the machine started,
different distinctly. Besides traditional thin-layer structural the tribological characteristics should exhibit obvious
solid lubricant materials such as MoS2[5], WS2[6], there are also difference with dry friction. The load is 6 MPa, and the speed
boron nitride and boric acid powders friendly to environment[7], of tribopair’s middle ring is 0.4 m/s. The experimental results
and even glass, metallic microspheres or multi-component testified the assumption. Figure 2 illustrated that the friction
particles mixture. When different powders are applied to pure coefficient of dry friction is obviously higher than the others
powder lubrication, their physical properties have significant which have been immerged in three kind of powder. It proved
influences on the lubrication characteristics. However, the that powder entered friction gap dynamically in the running
present researches focus on the powder lubrication effects in state of tribopair and made a good antifriction role.
particular mechanical parts utilizing specific kind of powder.
0.36 Dry friction
Consequently, the performances of the powder lubrication with
Graphite powder4 μm
different powder properties have not been compared in same
0.30 PTFE powder4 μm
Friction Coefficient
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
experiment is 6 MPa which will increase 3 MPa per five smaller powders have stronger bonding force between
minutes until 18 MPa㧘and the speed of friction ring is 0.4 m/s㧚 themselves which will concrete the cluster of granules and
Four kinds of typical powders, which included ball-like copper have strong ability to anti-cutting. The effects of bonding
powder, PTFE powder, Graphite powder and MoS2 powder, between larger powders are relatively weaker, and the slide
have been used to compare their different performance on and shearing between larger powders are easier. Moreover, the
powder lubrication. Figure 3 shows that PTFEޔgraphite and scale interaction between the roughness of the rubbing surfaces
MoS2 achieved good powder lubrication characteristics which and the particle size may be the other reason which induced the
should owe to their special physical properties. Because PTFE difference of the lubrication performance with the various
is a cylindrical string structure㧘and the graphite and MoS2 are powder sizes. The ability of the larger powder to avoid the
direct contact between rubbing surface is apparently stronger
the layered structure㧘they have long been used as typical solid
than smaller powders.
lubricants for their structure features endowed themselves
excellent antifriction ability. Further more, the friction
coefficient of PTFE powder is better than graphite and MoS2 CONCLUSIONS
under relatively lower load, but it is worse under higher load. 1) The results from the experiments testified that powders
Generally speaking, the ball-like copper powder has worse without any clinging method to the rubbing surface can also
powder lubrication characteristics compared to the other three enter the rubbing clearance dynamically, and realizes the good
powders. While the load capacity bellows 12 MPa㧘copper lubrication effects. But the entering ability will significantly
powder lubrication has lower friction coefficient㧘but it became influenced by the characteristic of powder, design of the
worse rapidly with the increasing of load capacity. That may matching parts, the working conditions and so on.
because the copper particles which classified as soft metal in 2) When the load capacity is relatively small, four kinds of
friction gap can create a rolling effect in light load. But while powder have exhibited different lubrication ability. Moreover,
the load became higher, the copper particles will be deformed the graphite and MoS2 powder have excellent lubrication
and embedded in the surface of the bottom sample which made characteristic under extreme pressure. So, it’s necessary to
of copper alloy during friction contact. The serious adherence select the material of powder depend on the working
between copper powder and the bottom sample deteriorated the conditions in powder lubrication.
lubrication and led to the obvious increase of friction 3) The size of powder will strongly affect the
coefficient㧚 characteristics of pure powder lubrication. In this study, the
0.5 larger graphite powders have achieved better results to reduce
Copper powder 10 μm the friction. The bonding of powders and the scale interaction
PTFE powder 4 μm between powder size and surface roughness are the primary
0.4
Graphite powder 4 μm reason.
Friction Coefficient
*UDSKLWHSRZGHU μ m
*UDSKLWHSRZGHU 0μ m of Thermal Phenomena[J]. Journal of
0.20 Tribology-Transactions of the Asme㧘1995㧘117(3):506-512.
[6] Heshmat H, Brewe D E. Performance of a Powder
0.15 Lubricated Journal Bearing with WS2 Powder:
Experimental Study[J]. Journal of Tribology-Transactions
of the Asme㧘1996㧘118(3):484-491.
0.10
[7] Sawyer W G, Ziegert J C, Schmitz T L ,et al. In Situ
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Lubrication with Boric Acid: Powder Delivery of an
/RDG03D
Environmentally Benign Solid Lubricant[J].Tribology
Fig.4 Influence of particle size Transactions㧘2006㧘49(2):284-290.
152
Hydrodynamic Analysis and Experiment Verification of the High-Pressure Small-Flow Centrifugal Pump
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The press distribution, temperature distribution and The inlet boundary condition of centrifugal pump is
cavitations in the inner fluid field of the high-pressure considered as pressure import, and the outlet boundary
small-flow centrifugal pump are simulated by using the condition is considered as exportation pressure. The wall
FLUENT software. The simulation is separately analyzed under function method is adopted for dealing with the boundary
the experimental conditions at small flow, design flow, and large condition at the standing wall. Turbulence model is the
flow according to SIMPLE algorithm, Ñ-Ò Turbulent-flow standard Ñ-Ò model, and solution algorithm is SIMPLE
Model and Mixture Multiphase Model. The simulation results algorithm. A Moving Reference Frame is applied to the
are nearly the same comparing to the experimental results. The rotor-stator coupled area which includes impeller region and
results show that the flow fields of high-pressure small-flow volute region.
centrifugal pump can be obtained according to the result of
hydrodynamic simulation, and a theoretical reference can be 2 Calculation result and analysis
provided for the further optimization of the high-pressure
small-flow centrifugal pumps. 2.1 Calculation result
Keywords: flow field; centrifugal pump; cavitations
We obtain the pressure cloud picture and velocity cloud
picture by numerical analysis.
The centrifugal pump is a power device which is widely
applied in hydraulic engineering ˈ chemical engineering, 2.2 Pressure distribution
aerospace engineering, energy engineering and vehicle
engineering. The water pump is also critical components for Under the condition of the low flow rate 0.68Q, design
the cooling water drain system of nuclear power station in flow rate 1.0Q and large flow rate 1.22Q, the static pressure
China, which relates to the safe operation of nuclear power distribution and total pressure distribution are separately
station. Therefore, the key is how to reduce the vibration and analyzed on central plane. Pressure analysis showed that the
enhance pressure bearing capacity during the pump design. It pressure is low at impeller inlet region, which easily produces
is necessary to research on the dynamics of high-pressure cavitations and cavitation erosion. Because the low area at
small-flow centrifugal pumps for the pump design. In the paper, 0.68Q flow rate is larger than design flow rate one, cavitations
the interior flow field simulation and cavitations is studied for and cavitation erosion easily occurred.
the high-pressure small-flow centrifugal pump by use of the
software-FLUENT. The research can provide theoretical basis 2.3 Velocity distribution
and instruction for the optimization design of the high-pressure
small-flow centrifugal pump. It is showed that the dead water part occurs at off design
flow, while the dead water part is not obvious at design flow.
1 Geometric model and boundary condition The reason why the phenomena appears is that prototype pump
design is not quite reasonable besides flow instability at off
1.1 The model of the interior flow field of centrifugal pump design flow. If the pump part which appears the dead water
part can be improved, the phenomena will disappear.
In this paper, the blade of centrifugal pump impeller is
straight, and the volute is ring. The 3D model of centrifugal 2.4 Performance evaluation curves
pump is established by using Pro/E. The modeling idea is as
follows. The first is to build the 3D model of the impeller. The The flow field parameters of centrifugal pump can be
second is to build the model of the pump body which includes contained by post-processing in FLUENT, then performance
inlet region of centrifugal pump, volute region and the outlet parameter can also be contained by calculation. The
region. The last is to process Boolean operation of pump body performance evaluation curves including the flow-lift curve,
model and impeller model, namely to subtract the impeller the flow power curve and the flow efficiency curve can be
model from the pump body model. Then the interior flow contained by least square of curve fitting with Matlab.
model of centrifugal pump is established. The centrifugal
pump model has been reasonably simplified in modeling 3 Centrifugal pump test and validation
process.
3.1 Centrifugal pump
1.2 Mesh generation
In this paper, the centrifugal pump test is done on
The unstructured tetrahedron mesh is applied to the model open-type platform. The performance curves can be contained
mesh generation by using the software-GAMBIT. by the test.
1.3 Boundary condition 3.2 Verification analysis
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
4 Conclusions References
(1) In this paper, the centrifugal pump model has been [1] Xu NaiXiang, Wu YuLin. Centrifugal Pump. BeiJing: China
reasonably simplified in modeling process with Pro/E. The Machine Press, 2003.
results of numerical simulation show that the simplification is [2] Wang FuJun. Computational Fluid DynamicsˉCFD software
reasonable. Principle and Application. BeiJing: Tsinghua Unversity
(2) Through the numerical simulation of cavitations, it is Press, 2007.
found that the number of cavitation bubble at impeller inlet [3] Ren YuXin, Chen HaiXin. The Basis of Computational
is more than other regions. It is also proved in the theory that Fluid Dynamics. BeiJing: Tsinghua Unversity Press, 2006.
the impeller inlet is region generating cavitations for the [4] Wang JiaWen, WangHao, Liu Hai. MATLAB7.0
products. Programming Base. BeiJing: China Machine Press, 2005.
(3) Through analyzing numerical simulation results at [5] Zhang ZhaoShun, Cui GuiXiangˈXu ChunXiao. Turbulence
off design flow, it is found that the dead water part occurs on Theory and Simulation. BeiJing: Tsinghua Unversity
centrifugal pump outlet region, while the dead water part is not Press, 2005.
obvious at design flow. Because of the existing of the dead
water part, the hydraulic loss of centrifugal pump is (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if the reader
increased, and the structure parameters on this part need to needs it)
be optimized.
(4) By comparing the performance evaluation curves to the
154
Effect of Liquid Surface Tension and Viscosity on Micro-Bubble Induced by External Electric Field
Effect of Liquid Surface Tension and Viscosity on Micro-Bubble Induced by External Electric Field
Xie Guoxin∗ (State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Luo Jianbin (State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China) Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
In present work, different liquids with various surface appropriate weight ratios. (2) glycerin/water mixtures with
tension and viscosities were chosen to study the micro-bubble various amount of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to vary the
emergence and bubble shape. Moreover, the bubbles’ moving liquid surface tension without changing other properties
characteristics was investigated, and the electric current in the significantly. Surface tension measurements were conducted
circuit was monitored. Different mechanisms of these using KrUss K12 Tensiometer. Viscosities and densities were
experimental phenomena will be discussed in the paper. measured with a controlled-strain-rate Hake RV20 rheometer
Keywords: Microbubble, electric field, viscosity, surface and a volumetric technique.
tension, cavitation erosion
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
Shaft voltage due to the asymmetric effect between the When an external electric field is applied onto a liquid film,
rotor and the stator frequently exists in rotating machineries, higher voltage potential and electric current are needed where
such as turbines and compressors, which absorbs much the micro-bubbles begin to emerge, which are defined as the
attention among researchers to the effect of external electric critical voltage potential and critical electric current [4]. The
field (EEF) on lubrication and wear properties [1-2]. Some gas data of the critical voltage potentials and electric currents at
micro-bubbles emerged due to nucleate boiling in thin liquid different viscosities are presented in Fig.1. As it is shown, at
films under an EEF was observed by an instrument for the intermediate range, the critical voltage potential is
measuring lubricant film thickness with a technique of the relatively lower with a value around 6 V, whereas the critical
relative optical interference intensity (ROII) [3-5], which a electric current decrease significantly as the viscosity increases,
new evidence can be added to understand the potential suggesting that the electrolysis effect gradually reduces as the
cavitation erosion problem in bearing applications when the weight fraction increases of G/W mixture and the effect of
shaft is charged. overheating on bubble emerging becomes dominant [5].
Cavitation behavior and its damage to material are
demonstrated to be affected by liquid properties such as
viscosity and surface tension [6]. Viscosity relates to stability
problem of bubble movement and explosion, e.g., larger
viscosity makes bubbles expand or contract more slowly, and
bubble life-time becomes larger [7]. Surface tension of the
liquid is one of the basic factors determining the rate and
nature of the collapse of cavitation bubbles, and hence the
operation of various cavitation processes such as the erosion of
solid surfaces, sonoluminescence, induced chemical reactions,
etc [8]. It was argued that the reduction of surface tension Fig. 1 Correlation between critical voltage potential, critical
promotes the instability of bubble growth and collapse, though electric current and viscosity
the surface tension only contributes almost a negligible portion
to the driving forces if compared with other terms, e.g. the
hydrodynamic-driving force [9].
Now that liquid viscosity and surface tension are closely
related to the cavitation erosion, do these have any influence in
the shape and behavior of the micro-bubbles generated under
EEF? It has been revealed that bubble size can limit the
bubbles collapse velocity and that smaller bubbles offer higher
energy conversion efficiencies with less or little erosive power.
Moreover, bubble velocity plays a role in the cavitation noise
[10]. Thus, the influences of viscosity and surface tension on Fig. 2 Interference patterns of microbubble emerging in
the formation of micro-bubble in terms of their size and the liquids with different viscosities
moving velocity show the importance to the potential
cavitation problems. Based on these considerations, a tentative
study was directed to investigate the roles of liquid viscosity
and surface tension on bubble size, shape and its moving
characteristics in order to provide some guidance to predict the
performance of cavitation erosion due to bubbles induced by
EEF in nanoscale liquid films.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Two sets of liquids have been used in this study: (1)
different concentrations of glycerin/water (G/W) mixtures Fig.3 Bubble diameter v.s. viscosity both in the inner
were made by mixing distilled water and pure glycerin in region and the outer region
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Figure 2 and 3 show the results of the bubble size A clear comparison of bubble sizes for liquids with
measurements for aqueous glycerin of different viscosity different surface tension in the inner and outer regions is
values in the inner and outer regions, respectively. As shown in Fig. 6. For the inner region, an evident
shown, an increase by 13% in the bubble size when the increase trend in the bubble size can be seen as the
viscosity increases from 1.81 to 219 mPa•s at the inner surface tension increase, while for the outer region, the
region, and a relatively large increase trend by 72% can bubble size does not vary pronounced when the surface
be observed at the outer region. This result suggests that tension is changed, suggesting the bubble size in the
the bubble size at the outer region has a stronger inner region depends more directly on the surface
dependence on viscosity. Namely, larger bubbles would tension of the liquid.
exist when they move outwards with higher viscosity
values. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support from NSFC
(50605034 and 50390062) and 973 Project (2007CB607604).
REFERENCES
[1] Lavielle L., 1994, “Electric field effect on the friction of a
polyethylene-terpolymer film on a steel substrate,” Wear, 176,
pp.89-93.
[2] Chiou Y.C., Lee R.T., Lin C.M., 1999, “Formation criterion
Fig.4 Bubble velocity v.s. viscosity both in the inner region and mechanism of electrical pitting on the lubricated surface
and outer region under AC electric field,” Wear, 236, pp. 62–72.
[3] Luo J. B., He Y., Zhong M., Jin Z. M., 2006, “Gas
Next, the dependence of bubble velocity on viscosity micro-bubble phenomenon in nanoscale liquid film under
will be examined [Fig.4]. As the viscosity is getting external electric field,” Applied Physics Letter, 89, pp.013104.
larger, a progressive decrease in bubble velocity is [4] Xie G. X., Luo J. B., Liu S. H., Zhang C. H., Lu X. C.,
evident for the inner region from about 0.52 mm/s to “Micro-bubble phenomenon in nanoscale water-based
0.22 mm/s, while for the outer region, the variation trend lubricating film induced by external electric field,” Tribology
Letters, 29, pp.169-176.
is not very certain with a slight decrease globally.
[5] Xie G. X., Luo J. B., Liu S. H., Zhang C. H., Lu X. C., Guo
D., 2008, “Effect of external electric field on liquid film
confined within nanogap,” Journal of Applied Physics, 103,
pp. 094306.
[6] Brennen C. E., 1995, Cavitation and bubble
dynamics, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
[7] Toegel R., Luther S., Lohse D., 2006, “Viscosity
destabilizes sonoluminescing bubbles,” Physical Review
Letters 96, pp. 114301.
Fig. 5 Correlation between critical voltage potential, critical [8] Kuvshinov G. I., 1991, “Effect of surface tension on
electric current and surface tension the collapse of a cavitation bubble,” Journal of
Engineering Physics, 60, pp.34-37.
Figure 5 gives the critical voltage potential and [9] Iwai Y., Li S. C., 2003, “Cavitation erosion in waters
electric current for bubble emerging in liquids with having different surface tensions,” Wear 254, pp.1-9.
different surface tension. It can be seen that no [10] Hobbs J. M., Hickling R., Brunton J. H., Ellis A. T.,
significant influence on both of the critical values, and Gadd G. E., Benjamin T. B., Silverleaf A., Smith A. V.,
the two values correspond to each other relatively well, Hammitt F. G., Shal'nev K. K., Tuffrey A., Heymann F.
as compared with variation trend in the liquids with J., Popple R. G., Broom T., Rasmussen R. E. H., Hobbs J.
different viscosities as shown in Fig.1. M., Marriott J. B., Pearson D., Tabor D., Fyall A. A.,
Barnard B. J. S., Cooper G. A., 1966, “Practical aspects
of cavitation,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, 260, pp. 267-294.
156
Study of Water Lubrication in Sliding Point Contact Friction Pairs with Hydrophobic Surfaces
Study of Water Lubrication in Sliding Point Contact Friction Pairs with Hydrophobic Surfaces
(Extended Abstract)
EXPERIMENTAL
In this experiment, glass slides were used as the substrates
Fig. 2 AFM images of (a) the ball, (b)the bare glass, (c)C8F layer
for the growth of 1H,1H,2H,2H– Perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane
and (d)C8F s layer immersed in water after 30 minutes
(C8F) self-assembling layer. To characterize the linkage
between glass and C8F, XPS analysis was performed by a
PHE-5100X instrument. The morphology of glasses, The topography of the ball, bare glass and the surfaces
self-assembling layer and their triboligy counter part-silicon modified with self-assembling layer analyzed by atomic force
nitride ball were captured by digital Instrument Nanoscope IIIa microscopy (AFM) are shown in Fig.2. The root mean square
Multimode atomic force microscope. The surface characters of roughnesses of the specimens are 0.967nm, 0.329nm, 0.183nm
frictional pairs have important effects on the properties of and 0.802nm, respectively. From Fig.2(c), it can be seen that
lubricants, especially for water based. So the static contact the agglomeration of C8F molecules taken place and this
phenomena accordance with the research results that silicane
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
Zhizuo Ma,E-Mail :mazz06@mails.thu.edu.cn
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
could be hydrolyzed by water[6].So the test time of friction water, the above formula would not be satisfied and water may
was limited in 10 minutes in this experiment. lost its load carrying capability, so water was squeezed out of
the contact zone. And these consequences were also approved
by our test results. So we thought that water film could be
FRICTION RESULTS AND DISCUSSTION
formed hardly to separate the two surfaces of the friction pairs
effectively. In other words, if a great amount of water encircled
The friction coefficients of the ball and bare glass slide the ball, the load carrying capability the water adjacent to the
under dry friction and water full immersion conditions are 0.8 contact zone would lost and then its lubricate action.
and these indicate that water could not play a role as a
lubricant due to its lower piezo-viscous effect and its
impossible tribochemistry effect with silicates in short time
scale.
SUBMISSION
In this work, results shown that the friction coefficients
were affected the state of water surrounding near the Si3N4 ball.
Under full immersion, water could be squeezed out from the
contact zone because of the attractive force between water
Fig.5 Friction coefficients curves of (a)bare glass slide molecules was bigger, so the water film could not be formed
against Si3N4 ball under dry friction and full water immersion,(b) easily in the contact zone and the friction coefficients were
under dry friction and water droplet lubrication(volume,5ul,10ul), higher. However, lower friction coefficient can be received
(c)under water droplet lubrication (volume, 20ul, 30ul, 40ul, 50ul, under droplet lubrication due to thin film of water formed in
75ul, 100ul, 150ul,200ul) and (d) under water droplet the contact zone effectively separated the glass plates and steel
lubrication(volume, 250 ul, 300ul) and full immersion ball under the interaction of air, water, hydrophobic layer C8F
and Si3N4 ball.
The friction coefficients of C8F against Si3N4 ball under
dry friction and droplet lubrication when the volume are 5ul ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and 10ul are shown in Fig.2b. Under dry friction, the friction
coefficient increased sharply to near 0.8 due to the weak The work is financially supported by NSFC of China
durability of C8F layer although this layer could last for about (50605034 and 50721004) and 973 Project (2007CB607604).
ten seconds equivalent to 5 cycles. When the water droplets,
which volume are 5ul and 10ul, were placed on the top of
Si3N4 ball, the C8F layer can last for a more cycles than that REFERENCES
under dry friction. But the increasing coefficients and the final [1]H.Tomizawa, T.E. Fischer,1987, “Friction and wear of
friction coefficients close to 0.8 hint that the C8F layer had silicon nitride and silicon carbide in water: hydrodynamic
been destroyed by the heavy contact stress 330MPa. So we lubrication at low sliding velocity obtained by
thought that little water could not enter into the contact zone tribochemical wear,” STLE Trans, 30,pp. 41–46.
easily to lubricate the friction pairs between glass slides [2] F. Honda, T. Saito,1996,ĀTribochemical characterization of
modified with C8F layer and Si3N4 ball. When the water the lubrication film at the Si3N4/Si3N4 interface sliding in
volume varied from 20ul to 200ul the friction coefficients aqueous solutions” Applied Surface Science. 92,
remained in the lower level and not changed linearly with the pp.651-655.
volume increased but fallen in the interval of 0.02 to 0.06. [3] Junguo Xu, Koji Kato,2000, “Formation of tribochemical
Under these conditions, water film must be formed to lubricate layer of ceramics sliding in water and its role for low
the friction pairs, otherwise the friction coefficients should not friction,” Wear. 245 () 61-75.
be so lower than that under dry friction. However, when the [4]J.Q.Yao, TA Blanchet, DJ Murphy, 2003, “Effect of fluid
droplet volume increased, the friction coefficients increased to absorption on the wear resistance of UHMWPE orthopedic
a higher level though the Si3N4 ball was surrounded by water. bearing surfaces,” Wear, 255,pp1113-1120.
Wo consider that water could not form load bearing film in [5]De Vicente J, Stokes JR, Spikes HA, 2005,
contact zone to separate the two surfaces. “Lubrication properties of non-adsorbing polymer
solutions in soft elastohydrodynamic (EHD)
A simple model shown in Fig.3 attempted to illustrate the contacts,” Tribology International, 38, pp.515–526.
mechanism of water film forming under droplet lubrication and [6]Yi He, Shengfu Chen, Jason C. Hower, 2007, “Molecular
its failure under full immersion was built. Under droplet simulation studies of nanoscale friction between
lubrication, water film would be forming in the contact zone phosphorylcholine self-assembled monolayer surfaces:
due to the interaction among air, water, ball and the upper ball. Correlation between surface hydration and friction,”
Under this condition, we thought the load capability of the Journal of Chemical Physics,127, 084708 .
water come from the hydrophobicity of air and self-assembled (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
layer C8F. However, when the upper ball immersed in the needs it.)
158
A Simplified Numerical Elastic-Plastic Contact Model for Rough Surfaces
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
problem that obeys the Kuhn-Tucker complementary algorithm. At the first step, one has to assume a certain part in
conditions: the computation domain as the area of contact in which Eq.(9)
p( i, j ) 0 and g ( i, j ) = 0 in contact region, (3) is solved to get pressure. If the solution gives a negative
pressure at node (i, j), it will be set to zero. Next, the surface
or, displacement ue and gap g(i,j) over the entire domain are
p( i, j ) = 0 and g ( i, j ) 0 out of contact region, (4) calculated in terms of Eqs. (7) and (5). The nodes where g(i,j)
< 0 are added to the contact area while the node where g(i,j) >
where g(i,j) denotes the surface gap which can be expressed as:
0 are set as non-contact area, and the next round of pressure
g ( i, j ) = h(i, j) + ue ( i, j ) (5) solution starts. The iteration proceeds until the complementary
conditions (3) and (4) are satisfied. More details for the
where h(i , j) is the discrete form of the interference in numerical procedure can be found in reference [8].
equation (1) and ue(i, j) is the normal surface displacement due
2.2 A simplified elastic-plastic contact model. In elastic-plastic
to elastic deformation. The deformation ue caused by a
contact problem, there will be a permanent surface
distributed normal pressure can be calculated in terms of the
deformation caused by plastic strain. A simplified
infinite half-space solution of Boussinesq’s integration,
elastic-plastic contact model can be developed by adding the
1 p(ξ , η)
πE
ue ( x , y ) = dξdη (6) permanent deformation to the surface gap equation, so that Eq.
s (x ξ )2 + ( y η)2 (5) has to be modified as
where + u + ur
g=h (10)
e p
1 1 v 1 v 2
1
2
2
r
where u denotes the permanent normal displacement due to
= + p
E E1 E2 plastic deformation, namely, the residual displacement. Eq.(10)
For numerical computations, equation (6) has to be is expressed in the array form and it has an new item u rp
rewritten in discrete form:
which does not exist in elastic model. Residual displacement at
1
πE (k
ue (i, j) = k(i k, j l ) p(k, l ) (7) surface can be calculated from plastic strain, as did by Jacq et
, l )
Γ al. [12] who used Betti’s reciprocal theorem to deduce the
where k(i-k, j-l) is defined as the pressure-deformation expression of u rp . The plastic strain domain under surface is
influence coefficient, i.e., the element of matrix k shown in Eq. divided into small cubic elements in which the plastic strain is
(1). The influence coefficients have to be determined in considered constant. Assume that the plastic strain in each
advance, by using the Green’s Function or more accurate element would cause a certain amount of plastic deformation at
interpolations to the integrand in Eq. (6). The difficulty is that surface, the total displacement, u rp , can be obtained by adding
the surface elastic deformation has a singularity at the point
where the force is applied. To avoid the singularity, the the contributions from the every cubic element. Then, the
pressure-deformation influence coefficients were deduced by residual displacement at a surface point (i, j) can be written as:
applying uniform pressure to a small rectangular area, instead
of a force concentrated at a single point. The expression for
urp (i, j) = D(i k, j l)ε
( k , l )
Ω
p (k, l ) (11)
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A Simplified Numerical Elastic-Plastic Contact Model for Rough Surfaces
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
In elastic-plastic contact problem, the analysis of software ABAQUSTM to perform the FEM computations for
subsurface stresses has to include the effects of residual an elastic-plastic sphere with different hardening law in
stresses due to plastic strain. The calculation of residual frictionless contact with a rigid plane. The FEM model used
stresses is time consuming (see Tab. 1 in reference [12]). 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral with reduced
However, its effect on subsurface stresses can be taken into integration and hourglass control (type CAX4R) element to
account by a modification of contact surfaces geometry. This is mesh the hemisphere. The element mesh near the contact
the principal idea for the simplified model proposed in this region was refined. Fig. 3 shows the model of a quarter-circle
study. Assume that the change in subsurface stress caused by in contact with a rigid plane under a normal load. The nodes at
residual stresses could be evaluated by adding a virtual the base of the sphere have zero displacements in all directions.
displacement to the surface. As a result, the total residual The basic parameters of hemisphere are Young’s modulus
displacement is modified as α u rp , where (Õı1) denotes a E=100 GPa, Poisson’s ratio Ö=0.3, and radius of the
hemisphere R=20 mm. Elastic-plastic calculations were
plastic factor. The plastic factor can be determined through
performed under a normal load of 800N, in which the yield
computational tests using the FEM software, as will be
stress, ÊY=600 MPa, and two values of the tangential modulus
discussed for a smooth contact problem in the next section.
for linear hardening law, ET=0.8E and ET=0.5E, were
After both elastic and plastic deformations are obtained,
employed. The pressure, distance, and residual displacement
the gap g can be calculated in terms of Eq. (10) and the
were normalized by using the maximum Hertzian pressure and
simplified elastic-plastic contact can be analyzed by solving
the contact radius from purely elastic model, i.e., ph=1671.92
the following quadratic programming problem similar to that
MPa and a=0.47798 mm.
in Eq. (1) and Eq. (2),
1
+ αu r ) p + pT k p
Minimize F(p) = (h p (24)
2
Subject to p( i, j ) 0, i = 1,2,", M , j = 1,2,", N (25)
The method for determining the contact pressure p(i,j) is
similar to that described in section 2.1, and the numerical
procedure to solve the entire problem of elastic-plastic contact Fig.3 Axisymmetric hemispherical contact model of a
can be summarized in a flow chart shown in Fig. 2. The quarter-circle in contact with a rigid plane under a normal load
influence of residual displacement and residual stresses is 800 N
considered through adding D u rp to surfaces geometry.
Because the actual residual surface displacement should be 3.1.1 The influence of plastic coefficient
A smooth elastic-plastic contact with linear hardening law,
u rp rather than D u rp , the pressure distribution obtained from ET=0.5E, was employed to investigate the influence of plastic
Eq.(24) and (25) contains an additional term which does not factor, . Fig. 4 shows the von Mises stress along the z
exist in reality but it can give a proper evaluation of the direction obtained from the present model for different values
residual stress below surface. To get accurate pressure of ǂ. The corresponding results for the equivalent plastic
distribution, one has to set ǂ = 1 in Eq.(24) at the end of loop, strain are shown in Fig. 5. As can be seen from Fig. 4 and Fig.
then solve contact problem via the CGM approach. 5 that =2.0 is more accurate to match the FEM results for the
smooth contact, and greater or smaller values of would result
in significant deviation from the FEM solutions. In the study
below, the plastic factor =2.0 will be used for the analysis of
elastic-plastic contact problems.
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A Simplified Numerical Elastic-Plastic Contact Model for Rough Surfaces
3.1.2 The results for smooth contact Table 1 Comparison of our method and FEM results: Purely
Two types of linear hardening law, ET=0.8E and ET=0.5E, elastic
were considered for the plastic flow. The results for the Purely elastic Maximum von Mises Maximum Pressure
normalized contact pressure, p/ph, and the half width of contact stress (MPa) (MPa)
region, x/a, are compared in Fig. 6, showing that the pressure Our method 1036.6 1672.0
Abaqus 1030.0 1663.0
decreases as the material plasticity increases. The comparison Diff. 0.640% 0.541%
of the von Mises stress distributions along the contact axis is
given in Fig. 7, from which it can seen that the von Mises Table 2 Comparison of our method and FEM results: ET=0.8E
stresses decrease as plasticity become more and more Linear Maximum Maximum Maxim Maximum
significant. Comparing to purely elastic model, the maximum hardening von Mises equivalent um residual
von Mises stress decreases from 1036.6 MPa to 856 MPa. ET=0.8E stress plastic pressure displaceme
(Mpa) strain (MPa) nt (mm)
Our method 968.0 9.20E-4 1609 2.44E-4
Abaqus 966.4 9.16E-4 1594 2.54E-4
Diff. 0.166% 0.437% 0.94% 3.94%
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
plastic factor =2.0 are validated by comparing to the FEM Max Hertz contact pressure ph˙1653.5218 Mpa
solutions.
Fig. 13 compares pressure distributions from purely
elastic and elastic-plastic analyses. Results show that in
elastic-plastic analysis the pressure decreases at peaks but
increases at valleys, giving rise to a less fluctuated distribution.
The surface residual displacement in the z direction, reflecting
the changes of surface geometry after loading and unloading, is
shown in Fig. 14, where the positive or negative value of
displacement corresponds to a decrease or increase of
roughness height. The magnitude of positive displacement is
generally greater than that of negative, indicating that the
surface is largely flattened due to plastic deformation. The
changing and flattening of roughness profile after loading and
unloading can be seen in Fig. 15, by comparing to the original
roughness.
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A Simplified Numerical Elastic-Plastic Contact Model for Rough Surfaces
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
166
Film Characteristics of Grease in Point Contact under Micro-Swaying Motion
Li Gang (State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Zhang Chenhui∗ (State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China) Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China)
Luo Jianbin (State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Liu Shuhai (State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China) Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China)
Lu Xinchun (State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Transient thin-film lubrication of the grease occurs in many acceleration/deceleration, stop/start and reciprocation.
machine elements including bearings, gears and cams. It also In the experimental apparatus, the point contact is formed
occurs in rolling-element bearings at the start or stop of motion. between the flat surface of a coated glass disc and 7/8 int.
Thus the lubricant supply and film formation are important in diameter steel ball.
ensuring the successful operation of a bearing. A lubricated point contact is formed by loading and
This paper uses experiment to study the behavior of grease rolling a highly polished, steel ball against the flat surface of a
films in swaying motion. The technique of Relative Optical glass disc, as shown in fig.1. The ball is driven by disc and the
Interference Intensity is used to measure the film thickness and disc is driven by NSK-YSB motor which can provide velocity
the film profile through analysing the interference images from 0.0001r/s to 3r/s and provide acceleration from 0.01r/s2
which are captured at a rate of 60 times per second. The to 1280r/ s2.In tests the steel ball(AISI 52100 ) has 7/8 int.
lubrication state is monitored during accelerated and diameter, which Ra roughness is 5nm,the glass disc has a
decelerated motion. diameter of 140mm, which Ra roughness is 2nm. The two
The experiment results show that the grease lubrication in bodies are loaded together with a force of 7N, which produced
swaying motion is a complex problem. The minimum film a maximum Hertzian pressure of 0.423GPa.The lubrication
thickness does not occur at the theory position, but with a employed in these experiment was lithium grease.
certain time delay which is relative to the change of speed and
the rate of change motion direction.
Keywords: thin-film lubrication, micro-swaying motion,
grease, viscosity
INTRODUCTION
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication occurs in many important
mechanical components such as ball and roller bearings, gears
and cams. The elastic deformation of the bounding surfaces
and the viscosity rise of the oil due to the very high pressures,
lubricant is dragged into the contact by entraining motion and
forms a film thick enough to separate the contacting bodies. It
is easy to understand that the influence of combined entraining Fig.1 Schematic of the experimental apparatus
and normal squeeze motion is very important for highly
This study is concerned with film behavior under swaying
stressed machine elements. In practical terms, the grease is
motions with constant acceleration and constant deceleration.
used in many mechanical elements. The primary role of the
The tests are carried out in pure rolling.
grease lubricant is to provide a sufficient supply of oil to
maintain a separating lubricant film.. Although steady-state
lastohydrodynamic(EHD) lubrication is quite well understood RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
both from the theoretical and from the experimental view, it is Fig.2 shows a set of film thickness interference images
difficult, however, to predict the elastohydrodynamic (EHD) just before reversal. The arrowheads on the left of the
film hickness obtained with a grease[1~4].The liquid oil is interference pictures indicate the motion direction of the disc.
usually used in lubricant experiment by many peopleunder The motion is deceleration from the moment 0ms to 64ms. The
nonsteady state[5,6] , investigations of grease lubricant under zero entrainment moment just occurred after 64ms and a
“hump” film profile can be seen at round zero entrainment.
nonsteady-state are currently far less developed. This paper
After reversal from 64ms onward, the motion is acceleration
focuses on an experimental study on film characteristics of
and the hump can be seen to pass from left to right across the
grease in point constant under swaying motion.
contact.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
In this paper, the non-steady state film thickness
measurement system is shown in fig.1, which uses the
(a) (b) (d) (e) (f)
technique of relative optical interference intensity[7].The
technique can be used to determine film thickness in the
contact region down to 0.5nm in the vertical direction and
10μm in the horizontal direction. It also describe film (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)
thickness profiles across the contact, in either the transverse or
rolling direction. This measurement system can be used in Fig.2 Images of the point contact during reversal of
many kinds of non-steady state motions, including entrainment (2Hz)
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168
Effects of Solid Body Temperature on the Non-Newtonian Thermal EHL Behavior in Point Contacts
Effects of Solid Body Temperature on the Non-Newtonian Thermal EHL Behavior in Point Contacts
Xiaoling Liu* (School of Mechanical Engineering, Peiran Yang (School of Mechanical Engineering,
Qingdao Technological University, Qingdao Technological University,
Qingdao 266033, China) Qingdao 266033, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
In order to understand the influence of the body main goal of this study is to obtain the thermal solution of
temperature of contact solids on the lubrication performance non-Newtonian point EHL contacts at various operating
of machine components such as gears and roll-bearings, full conditions by assuming that the body temperature is different
numerical solution for the non-Newtonian and thermal from the supplied oil temperature, so that to get a deeper
elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) problem in point insight in the thermal and non-Newtonian EHL regime.
contacts has been achieved, assumed that the solid body
temperature is different from the temperature of the supplied MATHEMATIC MODEL
lubricating oil. The Ree-Eyring rheological model has been The schematic of the thermal lubrication system
used to describe the shear-thinning behavior of the lubricant. investigated in this paper is shown in Fig. 1. Solids a and b run
The effects of the body temperature, the slide-roll ratio, and the in the same direction with surface velocities ua and ub,
velocity parameter have been discussed. The solutions for the respectively. The inlet is on the left-hand side. Assumed that
body temperature being higher or lower than the temperature the body temperatures of solids a and b are the same. At the
of the supplied oil have been compared with that of the left edge (where x = xin) of the temperature computational
conventional thermal EHL solution, where the temperature of region, the boundary temperatures of solids a and b are given
the contact bodies and the temperature of the supplied oil are by ts, while the boundary temperature of the oil film excluding
assumed to be the same. Results show that, if the entrainment the region of reverse flow is given by t0, which denotes the
velocity is not very high, the solid body temperature plays a temperature of the supplied oil.
dominant role in the EHL behavior, however, the influence of
the body temperature decreases as the entrainment velocity
increases. Comparisons between the non-Newtonian and
Newtonian results have been made under some operating
conditions. It has been shown that, comparing with the
Newtonian solution, the shear-thinning property of the
lubricant can always lead to lower frictional coefficient and
lower temperature, but has little effect on the film thickness, no
matter the temperature of the contact bodies is lower than,
equal to, or higher than that of the supplied oil.
Keywords: Solid body temperature, Non-Newtonian, Thermal
EHL, Point contacts Fig. 1 Boundary temperatures of both solids and the oil film
INTRODUCTION
As shown in Fig. 1, the boundary condition of the oil film
The first numerical solution for point EHL contacts energy equation is
considering both the thermal effect and the non-Newtonian
t ( xin , y, z ) = t0 (if uin ≥ 0). (1)
flow was carried out by Zhu [1] in 1984. Recent thermal
analyses for point EHL contacts considering non-Newtonian The boundary conditions of the energy equations of both
flow included the works by Kim et al. [2], and Liu et al. [3]. solids are
For the lubrication of machine components such as
bearings, gears, etc., the temperature of the supplied oil ⎧t ( xin , y, za ) = t s , t ( x, y,− d ) = t s , (2)
⎨
sometimes may higher than the body temperature of the ⎩t ( xin , y, zb ) = t s , t ( x, y , d + h ) = t s .
machine elements, such as in the process of starting up of an All other equations such as the generalized Reynolds
outdoor equipment in a winter morning, and, sometimes the equation, the film thickness equation, the load balance equation
former may lower than the later, such as in the case that cold and the viscosity and density relationships for the current
oil is sprayed to a pair of meshing gears when the running problem are the same as those in Ref. [3].
machine has reached a thermal equilibrium state. Therefore, in
an thermal EHL analysis, the body temperature of the
RESULTS
contacting solids should be treated not to be the same as the
temperature of the supplied oil. However, in the previous Numerical solutions were obtained for both the
analyses for the Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid thermal Newtonian fluid and the Ree-Eyring fluid (assumed that τ0 =
EHL problems, the body temperature of the contacting solids 10 MPa) with various body temperatures for a steel-steel
was usually assumed to be the same as the temperature of the circular contact with Rx = Ry = 0.02 m. The dimensionless
supplied oil. Although the present authors have investigated domain for pressure is Xin = xin/bH = −4.5, Xout = xout/bH = 1.5,
the effect of the body temperature on the Newtonian EHL and Yout = yout/bH = 1.8. Although the absolute temperature
contacts [4], it appears that the role of the body temperature on with unit K was used in the numerical procedure, the
the non-Newtonian EHL has never been investigated yet. The temperatures of the numerical results will be presented with
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
* email: lxl@qtech.edu.cn
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
the Celsius degree (°C). For all results, the temperature of the Figure 3 shows comparisons of the predicted frictional
supplied oil was assumed to be t0 = 303 K (30 °C). The body coefficients between the Newtonian and Ree-Eyring solutions.
temperatures in figures will be represented by the It can be seen that the difference between the corresponding
dimensionless value Ts: Ts = 0.95 means ts = 0.95×t0 = 287.85 frictional coefficients is remarkable, especially when the
K (14.85 °C), similarly, Ts = 1.0 means ts = t0 = 303 K (30 °C), slide-roll ratio is small.
and so on. 0.5 0.5
For the dimensionless parameters ξ = 1.0, Ue = 1.0×10−11, Newtonian
ξ = 1.0
ξ = 0.1
frictional coefficient
frictional coefficient
mm), distributions of the film thicknesses, pressures and film 0.3 0.3
temperatures on the plane of Y = 0 for the Ree-Eyring fluid are
0.2 0.2
illustrated in Fig. 2. It can be seen from Fig. 2(a) that, as the
body temperature increases, the film thickness decreases 0.1 0.1
significantly, however, Fig. 2(b) indicates that the body
0.0 0.0
temperature has little effect on the pressure distribution. The 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.14 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.14
temperature curves shown in Fig. 2(c) suggest that, the Ta Ts
supplied oil can be cooled or heated very rapidly in the inlet Fig. 3 Variations in the frictional coefficients versus the body
region by the cool or hot solids. From the dotted curve for Ts = temperatures for the Newtonian and Ree-Eyring fluids. Ue =
0.95 and the dashed curve for Ts = 1.05 shown in Fig. 2(c), it
1.0×10−11, G = 5000, and W = 1.74×10−6
can be seen that, after the oil molecules pass the distance from
X = −4.5 to X = −3.0, i.e., a distance of 1.5bH, the supplied oil Numerical solutions with various entrainment velocities
has already been cooled or heated completely, that is, the have been obtained. The results indicate that the effect of the
temperature of the oil has already become the same as the body body temperature decreases as the entrainment velocity
temperature of the contacting solids. It is well known that, for increases, because the higher the speed, the shorter the time for
the same entrainment velocity, the EHL film thickness mainly the oil to reach the contact.
depends on the inlet viscosity of the lubricant, that is, the oil
viscosity at the position a little before the point of X = −1.0.
From the temperature curves shown in Fig. 2(c), it can be CONCLUSIONS
roughly assumed that, for the three cases, at a point before X = No matter for Newtonian or Ree-Eyring fluid, the EHL
−1.0 the pressure is close to zero and the temperature is about behavior of a point contact is dominated by the body
0.95×t0, t0, and 1.05×t0, respectively, and the corresponding temperature when the entrainment velocity is low enough. The
viscosities at this point should be applied to estimate the film effect of the body temperature becomes weaker with the
thicknesses if the famous Hamrock-Dowson formulae are increase in the velocity parameter, and becomes negligibly
employed. small when the entrainment velocity becomes extremely high.
When the EHL behavior is dominated by the body temperature,
the film thickness in the contact is controlled by the effective
1.0
a) ambient viscosity of the lubricant. Through the whole range of
0.8 the body temperature investigated in this study, comparing
with the Newtonian solution, the non-Newtonian solution
0.6
always predicts smaller frictional coefficient and lower film
h (μm)
0.6
through grant 05-1-JC-94.
0.3
REFERENCES
0.0
120
[1] Zhu, D., 1984, “A Thermal analysis of the
c)
elastohydrodynamic lubrication in elliptical contacts,” Ph.
90
D. thesis, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China (in Chinese).
[2] Kim, H. J., Ehret, P., Dowson, D., and Taylor, C. M., 2001,
t ( C)
60
o
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Numerical Analysis on Dynamic Characteristics of Flying Magnetic Head with Ultra Thin Spacing
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
H H0 K
(6)
P P0 \
(7)
The small deviation of spacing Ø is given as:
K Z 4 ( X G X ) ) Y A sin( :T )
(8)
where, Z =z/h0; =
l/h0, =B/h0 and Asin(T) are the
translation, pitch, roll and the motion of the recording surface,
Fig. 1 The three-DOF physical model of a slider respectively.
The dynamic pressure for spacing Ø is expressed as
1.2 The Momentum Equation \ G1 Z G 2 4 G3 ) G 4 A sin( :T ) (9)
The dynamic characteristics of a slider are analyzed by
using the three degree freedom model as shown in Fig.1. where, Gi (i=1,2,3 or 4) is the complex stiffness. The real
The variations of the translation z, the pitch angle D and and imaginary parts of -G1, -G2, -G3 represent air film stiffness
and damping coefficient, respectively. G4 represents the
roll angle E of a slider are governed by the following equations.
coefficient of the external forces which vibrates the slider.
d 2z
°m dt 2 kz ³³ ( p p0 )dxdy
From the definition of inverse Knudsen number D
° (=D0PH), flow rate of the Poiseuille flow, Q is described as
(3) wQ
° d 2D Q ( P0 \ , H 0 K ) Q ( P0 , H 0 ) D0 (\H 0 KP0 ) O (H 2 )
® I D 2 kD D ³³ ( p p0 )( xc x)dxdy wD
° dt (10)
° d 2E
°I E 2
k E ³³ ( p p0 ) ydxdy Putting Eq.6 to Eq.9 into Eq.1 and neglecting terms of
¯ dt higher order than (Ò2).
where, m is the slider mass, I and I are the slider moment w w\ wP wQ wP ½ w (\ H 0 ) w (K P0 )
3
®QH 0 ( P0 \ 0 ) D0 \ P0 H 04 0 ¾ / x /x
of inertia around pitch axis and the slider moment of inertia wX ¯ wX wX wD wX ¿ wX wX
around rolling axis, respectively. k, k, and k are the suspension w w\ wP0 wQ 4 wP0 ½ w (\ H 0 ) w (K P0 )
3
®QH 0 ( P0 \ ) D0 \ P0 H 0 ¾ /y /y
stiffnesses for translation, pitch and roll motions, and xG is the wY ¯ wY wY wD wY ¿ wY wY
center of gravity in the x direction. w 2 wP0 wQ ½ w 2 wP0 wQ ½
As the values of k is very large, k and k can be negligible ® P0 H 0 (3Q D0 P0 H 0 )K ¾ ® P0 H 0 (3Q D0 P0 H 0 )K ¾
wX ¯ wX wD ¿ wY ¯ wY wD ¿
in comparison with the air film stiffness. Therefore, they are w (\ H 0 ) w (K P0 )
assumed to be zero in the paper. V V 0
wT wT
2 Methods of Solution (11)
To obtain the air film stiffness Kij and damping coefficient
2.1 The Static Pressure Distribution Cij, Laplace transformation is performed on Eq.8, Eq.9 and
The static pressure distribution is calculated numerically Eq.11. And, substitute Eq.6 and Eq.7 into Eq.9, the differential
by solving Eq.1 when t=0. As the bearing number / far exceeds equations of Gi as follows.
105 as h0 is below 10 nm, the Couette flow terms including / is w wGi wP wQ wP ½
very larger than the others in Eq.1. Based on the fact that
3
®QH 0 ( P0 Gi 0 ) D0 P0 H 04 0 Gi / x H 0Gi ¾
wX ¯ wX wX wD wX ¿
Couette flow terms include the variable pressure P, in the
discretizing procession upwind techniques is introduced to w ª 2 wP0 wQ º ½
® « P0 H 0 (3Q D0 P0 H 0 ) Fi » / x P0 Fi ¾
prevent the unphysical oscillations. Otherwise, a special wX ¯¬ wX wD ¼ ¿
treatment by using weighting flow factor qi+1/2,j is developed to
w wGi wP wQ wP ½
solve the calculation overflow question caused by the high 3
®QH 0 ( P0 Gi 0 ) D0 P0 H 04 0 Gi / y H 0Gi ¾
negative pressure in the region of abrupt height change. The wY ¯ wY wY wD wY ¿
calculation formula of qi+1/2,j is: w ª ½
2 wP0 wQ º
® P0 H 0 (3Q D0 P0 H 0 ) Fi » / y P0 Fi ¾
wY ¯ «¬
2qi 1, j qi , j
qi 1 / 2, j (4) wY wD ¼ ¿
qi 1, j qi , j j:V ( H 0Gi P0 Fi ) 0
Where q=QH3 is evaluated at middle way between grid (12)
points. where, F1=1ˈF2=XG-XˈF3=YˈF4=-1.
The Eq.1 was discretized by using upwind finite difference Gas film stiffness matrix K and damping coefficient matrix
scheme for the Couette flow terms on the left. The difference C can be obtained from the following equation.
approximation can be written as: ª K11 K12 K13 º ª C11 C12 C13 º ª F1 º
«K K 23 »» j: ««C21 C22 C23 »» ³ >G G3 @ «« F2 »» dXdY
1 1
« 21 K 22 ³ 1 G2
2/( Pi , j H i , j Pi 1, j H i 1, j ) / 'X i 2/ ( Pi , j H i , j Pi 1, j H i 1, j ) / 'Yi «¬ K 31 K 32 K 33 »¼ ¬«C31 C32 C33 ¼»
0 0
«¬ F3 »¼
qi 1/ 2, j ( Pi 21, j Pi ,2j ) qi 1/ 2, j ( Pi ,2j Pi 21, j ) / 'X i2 (13)
Put Eq.13 into Eq.12, the differential equations of Kij and
qi , j 1/ 2 ( P P
2
i, j
2
i , j 1 ) qi , j 1/ 2 ( P P
2
i, j
2
i , j 1 ) / 'Y j
2
Cij can be obtained so that the air film stiffness and damping
(5) coefficient can be calculated by the Eq.12. The frequency
2.2 Linear Analysis in Frequency Domain response of a slider can be calculated in combination with Eq.3.
Linear dynamic equations can be derived from Eq.1 by
3 Results and Discussions
dividing pressure P and spacing H into static and dynamic
components, respectively. 3.1 Static Pressure Distribution
Finite difference method and relaxation iteration are used
172
Numerical Analysis on Dynamic Characteristics of Flying Magnetic Head with Ultra Thin Spacing
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
174
The Analysis of Higher Guide Bearing Pad Temperature and Its Fault Diagnosis
The Analysis of Higher Guide Bearing Pad Temperature and Its Fault Diagnosis
175
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
176
The Analysis of Higher Guide Bearing Pad Temperature and Its Fault Diagnosis
REFERENCES
[1] Gao liang, Zhang Lida. Study on the expert system for
fault diagnosis of hydro-generator set. Water Power, 2006.
[2] Feng Fuzhou, Chu Fulei, Zhang Zhengsong, etc. The
Design Consideration on The Condition Monitoring
Analysis and Diagnosis System for Pumped Storage
Power Generator Units. Mechanical Science and
Technology, 2000.
[3] Feng Fuzhou, Chu Fulei, Zhang Zhengsong, etc. Bearing
pad temperature analysis using field measurements and
simulation. Journal of Tsinghua University, 2000.
[4] Liu Guanglin, Cheng Hongju. The Research of Neural
Network Method in the Faults Diagnosis of Large scale
Fig. 5 Fault diagnosis of bearing pad temperature Turbo Units. Journal of Hydroelectric Engineering, 2001.
[5] Bai Liang, Jia Rong, Luo Xingqi. Research on fault
CONCLUSIONS diagnosis based on RBFNN for hydropower units.
A theoretical analysis of the impact of bearing clearance on Journal of Northwest Science and Technology University
bearing pad temperature is done first of all, which provides a of Agriculture and Forest, 2006.
theoretical basis for temperature fault diagnosis. At the same [6] Liu Guanglin, Fu Xiangqian, Jiang Jin, etc. Condition
time, the computation result is significant to the installation of monitoring of large2scale hydrolectric generating set and
guide bearing in a hydraulic generator unit. What is to be its fault diagnosis system. Journal of Huazhong
improved is: the numerical computation of guide bearing pad University of Science and Technology, 2006.
temperature was conducted by using some simplified means,
177
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Pitting Life Prediction Based on a 3-D Line Contact Mixed EHL Analysis and Subsurface von Mises
Stress Calculation
(Extended Abstract)
178
Pitting Life Prediction Based on a 3-D Line Contact Mixed EHL Analysis and Subsurface von Mises Stress Calculation
CONCLUSIONS
A pitting life prediction approach for gears, roller
bearings and some other line-contact components is
presented based on the newly developed 3-D
line-contact mixed-EHL analyses and subsurface von
Mises stress calculation, using digitized 3-D machined
surface topography as input data. Fifteen transmission
gear sets have been analyzed, and life prediction results
agree well with available experiments.
Shaved vs. Shaved (Set #12) Ground vs. Ground (Set #13)
Max. von Mises Stress 3.601*PH Max. von Mises Stress 3.303*PH
179
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
180
Numerical Lubrication Simulation of Metal-on-Metal Hip Joints: Ball-in-Socket Model and Ball-on-Plane Model
displacement coefficients were subsequently used to obtain the near the edge of cup.
elastic deformation using the FFT technique [2]. The numerical 50
(a) Load:1500N, Viscosity; 0.001Pa.s, Inclination angle: 45deg
100
Ball-in-socket model
solution to the present lubrication problems were based on a Ball-on-plane model
Pressure [MPa]
30 60
For effective ball-on-plane model, a unified Reynolds equation
system [3] and numerical procedure was used to solve both 20 40
and all the way down to boundary lubrication and dry contact. 40
(c)
100
Pressure [MPa]
80
30
This section shows the effect of model geometry by comparing 60
the result from these two models for the same lubrication 20
40
problems of an artificial hip joint. The solution domain in the 10
20
spherical coordinates was divided into 256 ×256 uniform 0 0
divisions in the flexion/extension and the medial-lateral -30 -20 -10
Angular coordinate [degree]
0 10 20 30
hydrodynamic pressure and the load were kept to 10-5 and 10-2
Central film thickness [nm]
28
respectively. Similarly, the solution domain was covered by a
26
uniform grid 257×257 for ball-on-plane model.
A metal-metal hip joint was considered with the following 24
(d)
parameters: Femoral head radius (Rb) of 14mm, Cup radius (Rc) 22
2500N, 0.001Pa.s
Ball-in-socket model
Ball-on-plane model
of 14.03mm, Elastic modulus of 200GPa, Poisson ratio of 0.3.
20
In effective ball-on-plane model, the inlet distance is different 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Inclination Angle [Deg]
in every case to represent the inclination of cup in Fig. 1 lubrication analysis comparison between ball-in-
ball-in-socket model. The inlet distance x0 can be determined socket model and ball-on-plane model with load 1500N and
by x0=Rb(π/2-). When the inclination angle of cup becomes 2500N respectively
large, the head will approach the edge of cup, subsequently, the
inlet in ball-on-plane model will become small, which will
influence the lubricant supply. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fig. 1 shows two cases of artificial hip joints. In both cases the The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from
acetabular cup was positioned horizontally, and loaded in the the Royal Society. Wang also made thanks to the excellent
vertical direction. Furthermore, the acetabular cup was young scholars fund (Award #2007Y0307) and fundamental
assumed to be stationary, while the ball was assumed to rotate research fund supported by Beijing Institute of Technology,
with a nominal steady state angular velocity of 2rad/s, China.
corresponding to the flexion/extension experienced in hip
joints during walking. The applied load was 1500N and 2500N REFERENCES
respectively. The viscosity of synovial fluid was chosen as [1] Jin, Z. M., and Dowson, D., 1999, “A Full Numerical
0.001Pa.s. From Fig. 1, it can be seen that the simulation Analysis of Hydrodynamic Lubrication in Artificial Hip
results are in good agreement especially for film thickness. The Joint Replacements Constructed from Hard Materials,”
good agreement of results from the two models implies that the Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part C: J. Mech. Eng. Sci., 213(4),
ball-on-plane model can be used in lubrication analysis of pp.355-370.
artificial hip joints which will greatly simplify the complexity [2] Wang, F. C., and Jin, Z. M., 2005, “Elastohydrodynamic
of numerical simulation of hip joint. However, as the head is lubrication modeling of artificial hip joints under
positioned near the edge of cup, the difference of two models steady-state conditions,” J Tribol- Trans. ASME., 127(4),
become visible. This is due to the elastic deformation pp729-739.
evaluated in ball-on-plane model under an assumption of [3] Hu Y.Z., Zhu D., 2000, “A Full Numerical Solution to the
semi-infinite solid. Mixed Lubrication in Point contacts,” J TRIBOL-T ASME,
122, pp.1-9.
5 CONCLUSIONS [4] Wang, W.Z., Wang, H, Liu, Y.C., Hu, Y.Z., and Zhu, D.,
Ball-in-socket model and effective ball-on-plane model can 2003, “A Comparative Study of the Methods for
both be employed to conduct steady state EHL analysis of Calculation of Surface Elastic Deformation,” Proc. ImechE,
metal-metal hip joint. For different inclination angle of cup, Part J, Journal of Engineering Tribology, 217, pp.145-153.
there are no great differences in the prediction of lubrication (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
performance of hip joints except that the head is positioned needs it.)
181
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Topography development is an important component of least-squares algorithm. Recently a two-mesh-level
surface engineering. Surfaces with controlled micro geometry displacement computing scheme has been adopted to reduce
may help enhance the lubrication. The development and the computational load [7]. Because of the size of the mesh,
application of textured surfaces in bearing design requires the full influence function based displacement computation
deterministic analyses of the micro feature effect on lubrication. becomes very time consuming and almost impossible. The
However, limited numerical tools are available on authors [8] proposed a method of selective storage that can
deterministic mixed lubrication solutions for greatly reduce the E storage. However, the computational cost
conformal-contact systems with real engineering surfaces due of this approach to obtain the compliance operator is the same
to the difficulty that conformal geometry involves a much as that in the traditional approach because np nodes are used
larger area of surface interaction as compared to point contact for each i.
geometry. Generally, a huge amount of storage and computer In this work, a further improved method, named as
time can be involved if a micro-scale fine mesh capable for selective-fine-mesh with selective storage, is used to improve
asperity description is used for an overall conformal the aforementioned computational efficiency. A special
lubrication analysis. Although an absolute solution is technique of combined selective-fine-mesh with
difficult, the authors intend to try conditional solutions without selective-storage mapping is proposed for the cases of
losing generality. Reported in this presentation is a new cylindrical bearings with uniform external surface boundary
deterministic model for the mixed lubrication of surfaces in conditions. A numerical benchmark test is conducted,
conformal contact. Numerical schemes to accelerate considering the effect of longitudinal and transverse micro
computations are developed and tested, the model application surface grooves on journal-bearing lubrication. Parameters of
to journal bearing lubrication is explored, and sample the groove design are explored.
calculations are conducted.
Keywords: Journal Bearing, Conformal Contact, Mixed
NUMERICAL APPROACHES
Lubrication
The displacement, Eji, at loading node i has the largest
INTRODUCTION value among those at all other nodes, Eji (j=1,2,…, np), as
shown in Fig. 1 (a). The value of Eji drops sharply with
Recently designed compact bearings often operate under
distance and becomes negligibly small for most part of the
severe conditions, such as high load and temperature.
entire region. Hence, truncation can be made for the response
Circumferential microgrooves on bearing surfaces have been
of all nodes whose relative values are smaller than a certain
used to lower bearing temperature and ease initial wear [1,2].
limit, E / E ≤ ~e (Here, e~min = 10 −4 ). Nodal values inside
In such a design, contact becomes so important that the contact ji ii min
pressure between bearing and journal surfaces should be well the region, marked red, meeting E / E > e~ , are stored.
ji ii min
calculated [3]. The elastic deformation caused by
hydrodynamic and contact pressure should also be considered. Considering the fact that the shape of the red region is irregular
Generally, the elastic deformation conformal-contact and also varies with the position of loading point, it is more
elements can be calculated with the use of a compliance convenient for the code development if one stores the values of
operator, E, [4, 5] in the form of di=EijPj, where i, j=1,2,…,np , Eji inside the regular blue block. This approach is named as the
and np is the number of total nodes, Pj the pressure at the node selective storage approach [8]. Compared with the traditional
j, and Eij the elastic deformation of node j when Pi=1 whilst approach storing Eji for all nodes, the selective compliance
Pj=0 (as ji). When np is large, the full matrix of E may operator construction can greatly help reduce E storage.
become a burden to storage and computation. For example, np However, the computational cost of this approach to obtain the
of 20,000 needs about 1.56GB to store the full matrix of E compliance operator is still the same as that of the traditional
(single precision) and it will take 4x108 times multiplication approach because np nodes are used for each loading node i.
operation to compute elastic deformation for a single iteration. Since Eji for the nodes outside the blue block are
There has been little research on the reduction of the full truncated, the idea of using the coarse mesh in some regions
matrix, E, for efficient conformal-contact elastohydrodynamic appears naturally. A method of selective-fine-mesh with
lubrication analyses. The two-dimensional spherical FFT (fast selective storage method is suggested with which both the
Fourier transform) technique was applied to determine the discretization space and the values of Eji are appropriately
normal elastic deformation of spherical bodies with a particular truncated, as shown in Fig.1 (b). The fine mesh is utilized only
in a small region, I (i.e. the green block), surrounding the
reference to the acetabular cup and femoral head for
loading node, and the coarse mesh is used in other regions.
artificial hip joints [6]. In order to perform FTT, they Note that the mesh inside I must be the same as that used in
made use of the spherical distance for both the the traditional approach. Although the final matrix size to store
acetabular cup and the femoral head, and thereafter, Eji is almost the same as that using the ‘selective-storage
curve-fitted basic displacement influence coefficients using a method’, the computational time to obtain Eji is significantly
182
Deterministic Simulation of Surfaces in Conformal-Contact Lubrication
reduced.
For the cases of cylindrical bearing with a uniform
external surface boundary condition, a special technique,
combined selective-fine-mesh with selective-storage mapping,
is proposed, as shown in Fig.1 (c). Eji is calculated and stored
on only one line along the width direction, and Eji is mapped
for other lines. Therefore, it further reduces computational time
to obtain Eji and its storage.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 (a) Circumferential grooves (b) Example of pressure
distribution
(b) (c)
REFERENCES
Fig.1 Illustration of three approaches: (a) selective storage; (b) [1] Kumada, Y. et al., 1996, “Performance of Plain Bearing
selective fine-mesh with selective storage; and (c) combined with Circumferential Microgrooves,” Tribology
selective-fine-mesh with selective-storage mapping. Transactions, 39, pp.81-86.
( E / E > e~ is inside the red region, and Eji for nodes in the [2] Watanabe, K. et al., 2000, “A Study of Microgrooved
ji ii min
blue block is stored, and the fine mesh is used inside the green Bearing Performance by using Numerical Analysis,”
block). Proceedings of SAE, 2000-01-1338, pp.756-762.
[3] Ashihara1,K. and Hashimoto, H.,2008, “Mixed Lubrication
One can obtain the pressure distribution using the Average Characteristics of Microgrooved Bearings,” STLE annual
Reynolds equation [9]. Once a partial solid contact occurs, the meeting, 19–22 May, 2008, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
reduced Reynolds equation approach with a combined [4] Oh, K. P. and Huebner, K.H., 1973, “Solution of the
FE-backwards finite difference scheme or the zero film elastohydrodynamic finite journal bearing problem,”
thickness approach can be used [10]. Journal of Tribology, 95, pp343-351.
[5] Wang, Q., Shi, F., and Lee, S., 1997, “Study of Mixed
Lubrication of Journal-Bearing Conformal Contacts,"
PRELIMINARY RESULTS Journal of Tribology, 119, pp.456-461.
A special circumferential groove case (Fig.2(a)) is [6] Wang F. C. and Jin Z M, 2004, “Prediction of elastic
analyzed here. Only half of journal-bearing system is used due deformation of acetabular cups and femoral heads for
to symmetry. The shaft is assumed rigid. The main lubrication analysis of artificial hip joints,” Journal of
simulation condition is shown as follows Engineering Tribology, 218, pp.201-209.
[7] Bobrica, M. B., Fillon, M., and Maspeyrot, P., 2007,
External radius of bearing: 28.575mm “Deterministic Modeling of Elasto-Plastic Contact and
Internal radius of bearing: 19.1008mm Mixed Lubrication in Small Fluid Bearings,” STLE annual
Whole bearing length: 12.7mm meeting, 6~10 May 2007, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Radial clearance, 127μm USA.
Young’s Modulus: 205GPa [8] Xiong, S. W., Wang, Q., Lin, C., Wang, Y., and Liu, W. K,
Poisson ratio: 0.29 2007, “An efficient elastic deformation analysis procedure
Viscosity: 30cp for simulating conformal-contact transient
Rotating velocity of shaft: 0.5~100rpm elastohydrodynamic lubrication systems,” STLE/ASME
Groove width, 280μm International Joint Tribology Conference, 22–24 October,
Groove depth: 8μm 2007, San Antonia, California, USA.
Groove space: 1mm [9] Patir, N. and Cheng, H. S., 1978, “An average flow model
for determining effects of three-dimensional roughness on
An example of pressure distribution is plotted in Fig.2(b). It is partial hydrodynamic lubrication,” Journal of Lubrication
found that, within the groove, the pressure becomes very small Technology, 100, pp.12-17.
due to large film thickness. [10] Xiong, S. W., Wang, Q., Liu, W. K., Yang, Q. M,
Vaidyanathan, K, Zhu, D., and Lin, C, 2006, “Approaching
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mixed Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Smooth
Journal-Bearing Systems with Low Rotating Speed,”
The work is sponsored by Baker Hughes Inc. The authors
Tribology Transactions, 49, pp598-61.
are grateful to Baker Hughes Inc. for the permission to publish
the work. (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
needs it.)
183
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Simulation and Experimental Validation of the Effect of Surface Texture on Fluid Film Formation
Zhang Jinyu /Tsinghua University, China Meng Yonggang / Tsinghua University, China
Le Chengning /Tsinghua University, China Hideki OGATA / IHI Co. Ltd., Japan
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
A surface texturing process with the photolithography and
is very regular and clear, the lateral wall is quite steep, and the
wet etching methods was established. By optimizing the
surface roughness of the central part of the bottom is
process parameters, surface textures with regular dimples on
Ra0.706μm.
steel plates were obtained. The textured steel plates were tested
on Falex friction test machine against lapped smooth brass
plates under different loads. Test results of friction coefficient
have shown that both of the dimple dimension and distribution
patterns influence the friction characteristics remarkably, and
some of the tested textures result in lower friction than the
non-textured samples. In order to reveal the mechanism of
surface texturing and to reduce the cost of experiments, a
numerical simulation program which can deal with mixed
lubrication analysis has been developed, based on the Patir &
Cheng’s average flow model the Kogut & Etsion’s friction
model. The tendency of the simulation results of friction Fig. 1 3-D dimple topography
coefficient is consistent with the experimental one for some Friction tests
typical load cases. Therefore, the design and optimazation of
surface texture in tribological applications can be assisted by
numerical simulation of mixed lubricantion.
Keywords: Surface texturing, Photolithography, Mixed lubrication
INTRODUCTION
Surface texturing has become an attractive and potential
technology for improvement of lubrication performance such
as load capacity, wear resistance, friction coefficient, etc. [1,2].
Many manufacturing techniques, including precision
machining, ion beam etching, chemical etching and laser Fig. 2 Layout of the fixture and samples
ablation, can be used for surface texturing [3]. Among them, 1: steel ball; 2: water bath; 3: lower sample; 4: lateral stop; 5:
the process with photolithography and wet etching is an sample holder; 6: upper sample; 7: shaft
efficient and cost-saving one. With this technique, abundant
texture shapes and distribution patterns can be obtained in a Experiments with the textured plates were carried out on a
simple way. Besides, the texture topography can be controlled Falex friction tester. Fig. 2 shows the layout of the fixture and
well by adjusting process parameters. samples. The upper sample was fixed onto the shaft and
The present work focuses on studying the effects of surface rotated at 600r/min in all experiments. It was made of brass
texturing on friction characteristics of a flat thrust bearing and its rubbing surface was lapped. The below sample, whose
theoretically and experimentally. It is aimed to reveal the upper surface was textured, was placed into the fixture of the
mechanism of surface texturing by comparing the experimental holder. The samples were immersed2 into the hydraulic oil
and numerical simulation results. L-HM46 (kinematical viscosity 46mm /s at 40ఁ) to guarantee
ample lubricant supply. The sample holder sat on a steel ball to
EXPERIMENTS make it free to rotate around two horizontal axes. However, it
Texture preparation could not rotate around the vertical axis because of the lateral
The process of photolithography associated with wet stop. Water was filled into the water bath to alleviate oil
etching was adopted to form micro-size surface textures on temperature change during experiments. Twenty different loads
steel plates. There are several steps in the process, including were imposed gradually from 10N to 360N by a lever
grinding, polishing, cleaning and drying, photoresist coating, mechanism. Under each load, the average oil temperature and
soft baking, exposure, development, hard baking, etching and the friction torque were recorded when the values became
photoresist striping, cleaning and drying. In each step, some stable. For each textured lower sample, a new upper sample
key process parameters, such as the soft baking temperature, with the similar surface quality was used.
the development time, the content of each component of the SIMULATION
etching solution, should be optimized for obtaining good
texturing results. A numerical simulation program for the full film and
mixed lubrication analysis of textured surfaces was developed,
Twelve different kinds of textures were made on the and it can deal with problems with wider ranges of speed and
surfaces of twelve steel ring plates. Fig. 1 shows the 3-D load.
topography of a circle dimple obtained with the When the plates run in the mixed lubrication region, the
photolithography and wet etching processes. The dimple shape total normal load PT is shared by the hydrodynamic lifting
184
Simulation and Experimental Validation of the Effect of Surface Texture on Fluid Film Formation
density function. P and Fs are the contact load and 14.18 0.352 0.469 11.406 0.391 0.500 12.812 0.391 0.456 13.125 0.391 0.471 12.812
26.23 0.232 0.310 10.937 0.232 0.250 11.875 0.232 0.295 12.500 0.254 0.265 11.875
adhesion force for each individual asperity respectively.
315.76 0.046 0.044 5.500 0.044 0.043 5.625 0.044 0.045 5.500 0.044 0.047 5.500
The friction component FC is calculated by FC = fCPC,
475.18 0.043 0.035 4.500 0.040 0.036 4.687 0.041 0.039 5.500 0.041 0.039 4.500
where fC represents the boundary friction coefficient and its
value is set to be 0.1 in the simulations. CONCLUSIONS
The above differential equation was solved by using finite
(1) A cost effective surface texturing process with the
difference method, and the oil film thickness was calculated
photolithography and wet etching methods has been
iteratively by satisfying the convergence condition.
established, and abundant texture shapes and distribution
patterns can be obtained with the technique.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (2) Friction experiments of the textured samples have shown
The twelve samples tested were classified into three series, that the area ratio or length ratio, dimple depth, dimple width
A, B and C, according to the texture features. Here series A or dimple diameter, and the dimple distribution pattern
was chosen to study the effects of surface textures on friction influence the frictional performances mutually, and their
performances. In series A, circle dimples, which distribute effects also depends on load conditions.
uniformly both in the circumferential and radial directions (3) Numerical simulation results of friction coefficient accord
were designed. The diameters of circle dimples on A-1, A-2, well with the experiment results under the relative heavy load
A-3 and A-4 are φ800μm, φ960μm, φ1060μm and φ1340μm conditions. Under the light load conditions, the simulation
respectively, and thus the area ratios vary from 51.74%, 42.2%, results of friction coefficient are 20% higher than the
33.35% to 36.57%. The dimple depth is fixed as approximately experiment values, which can be reduced by improvements of
6.5μm. simulation model and measurement accuracy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the Tsinghua—IHI cooperation
research project.
REFERENCES
[1] Costa, H.L., Hutchings, I.M., 2007, “Hydrodynamic
lubrication of textured steel surfaces under reciprocating
sliding conditions,” Tribology International, 40, pp.1227-1238.
[2] Andersson, P., Koskinen, J., Varjus, S., etc., 2007,
“Microlubrication effect by laser-textured steel surfaces,” Wear,
262, pp.369-379.
Fig. 3 Comparison between experiment and simulation results
[3] Etsion, I., 2005, “State of the art in laser surface texturing”,
of sample A-4
JOURNAL OF TRIBOLOGY-TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASME, 127,
As an example, the comparison between experimental and pp.248-253.
simulation results of friction coefficient vs. bearing number for [4] Patir, N., Cheng, H.S., 1979, “Application of average flow
the sample A-4 is shown in Fig. 3. The two curves are close model to lubrication between rough sliding surfaces,” ASME
with each other excepting the point at the highest bearing Journal of Lubrication Technology, 101, pp.220-230.
number (lowest load of 10N). The effects of dimple diameter [5] Kogut, L., Etsion, I., 2004, “A static friction model for
and area ratio in series A are alike, and the difference of the elastic-plastic contacting rough surfaces,” JOURNAL OF
four textures is not obvious. By comparing to the lapped TRIBOLOGY-TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASME, 126, pp34-40.
surface, we foundd that surface texturing of series A does (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
improve the frictional performance, especially in the range of needs it.)
185
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Marangoni Stress and Its Effects on the Flow in an Evaporating Sessile Droplet
Xuefeng Xu / State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Jianbin Luo / State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
By using the fluorescent nanoparticles as seed particles, the
convective Marangoni (or Thermocapillary) flow in an
evaporating sessile water droplet has been observed. The
results show that a stagnation point, where the surface flow
changes its direction, exists at the boundary between the
micro-region and the macro-region. Furthermore, the effects of
Marangoni stresses on the flow in the droplet have been
observed and analyzed.
Keywords: Marangoni effect, Water droplet, Flow, Fluorescent
nanoparticle
INTRODUCTION
Marangoni effect, induced by a surface tension gradient
generated either by a composition or a temperature variation
along the free liquid surface, was observed as early as the
1800s [1]. The Marangoni flow plays a key role in many
engineering applications, including heat-mass transfer, surface
Fig. 1 A schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus
coating, and production of novel materials [1-7].
The Marangoni flow has been observed in many liquids, e.
g., ethanol, methanol, acetone and n-pentane [2-4, 8]. In RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
evaporating water droplets, some simulations and analyses [1, The particle trajectories in one droplet are shown in Fig. 2.
4] predicted that a very strong thermally driven Marangoni The contact line is pinned during the observation. The Figure
flow would exist. However, its existence in the pure water is indicates that particles move outward to the contact line first,
still dubious because it is very weak and can hardly be and then turn back at a position near the contact line. It can be
observed in usual experiments [4, 9]. In the absence of the clearly seen from Fig. 2 that a convective flow exists in the
Marangoni effect, the velocity of the outward flow in an evaporating water droplet due to the Marangoni effect.
evaporating droplet will diverge near the contact line to match
the strong evaporation there [9,10]: ū ~ d–λ, where ū is the
depth-averaged velocity of the outward flow, d is the distance
from the contact line, λ = (π-2θ)/(2π-2θ) and θ is the contact
angle.
In present work, the Marangoni flow in evaporation water
droplets has been observed by using fluorescent nanoparticles
[11] as tracer particles, and the outward flow in the droplets
has been measured and analyzed.
EXPERIMENTS
In the experiment, deionized water droplets with
fluorescent nanoparticles are deposited on the lower surface of
a glass slice and allowed to dry as shown in Fig.1. An
Olympus BX-51 fluorescent microscope (100×, 1.3 NA), an
Evolution QE cooled CCD camera, and an image processing Fig. 2 The particle trajectories in a evaporating water droplet
software Image-Pro Plus 5.0 are used to observe the particle
images in the liquid film near the contact line of the The experimental results show that the droplets can be
evaporating droplets. The movements of tracer particles can be divided into two regions (Fig. 3): the outward-flow region
obtained by identifying an individual tracer particle in where the liquid moves outward directly to the contact line,
consecutive images. Then, from the trajectories of these and the convective-flow region where the liquid moves
particles, the flow pattern in the droplets can be deduced, and outward first and then turns back. The size and brightness of
the velocity of the flow can be calculated. the particles are almost constant when they move outward,
The base radius and the initial contact angle of the droplets which means that the outward liquid flow is parallel to the
are about 2 mm and 10° respectively. The droplets are initially substrate surface. In contrast, the images of the particles are
at the same temperature as that of the gas phase and the glass faded away as they move back. Considering the weak
slice, which is equal to the room temperature about 28 ºC. The evaporation in the region away from the contact line in the
relative humidity in the experiment is about 60%. slowly evaporating droplet [12, 13], the inward flow is
186
Marangoni Stress and Its Effects on the Flow in an Evaporating Sessile Droplet
REFERENCES
1. H. Hu and R. G. Larson, Langmuir 21, 3972-3980 (2005).
2. C. Buffone and K. Sefiane, Int. J. Multiph. Flow 30,
1071-1091 (2004).
3. C. Buffone, K. Sefiane and J. R. E.Christy, Phys. Fluids 17,
052104 (2005).
4. H. Hu and R. G. Larson, J. Phys. Chem B 110, 7090-7094
(2006).
5. H. Hu and R. G. Larson, Langmuir 21, 3963-3971 (2005).
6. V. X. Nguyen and K. J. Stebe, Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 164501
(2002).
7. V. X. Nguyen and K. J. Stebe, Langmuir 19, 8271-8279
(2003).
8. C. Buffone and K. Sefiane, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 29, 65-74
Fig. 4 The liquid velocities in the outward region vs distance
(2004).
9. R. D. Deegan, O. Bakajin, T. F. Dupont, G. Huber, S. R.
The relationship between the liquid velocities in the
Nagel and T. A. Witten, Nature 389, 827-829 (1997).
outward-flow region and time are shown in Fig. 5. It shows
10. R. D. Deegan, O. Bakajin, T. F. Dupont, G. Huber, S. R.
that the velocity increases as time. This is because that the
Nagel and T. A. Witten, Phys. Rev. E 62, 756-765 (2000).
height of the outward-flow region will decrease due to the
11. J. Duan, K. Wang, W. Tan, X. He, C. He, B. Liu, D. Li, S.
evaporation of the liquid, and the evaporation rate of the
Huang, X. Yang and Y. Mo, Chemical Journal of Chinese
droplet is almost unchanged when the contact line is pining.
Universities 24, 255-259 (2003).
12. V. S. Ajaev, J. Fluid Mech. 528, 279-296 (2005).
CONCLUSIONS
13. V. Sartre, M. C. Zaghdoudi and M. Lallemand, Int. J.
In conclusion, the Marangoni flow has been observed in Therm. Sci. 39, 498-504 (2000).
evaporating water droplets. Experimental results indicate that a
stagnation point where the surface flow changes direction (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
exists at the droplet surface. The evaporating droplets can be needs it.)
187
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Extended Abstract
The oil in water emulsion has been widely used in many layer is chosen as a kind of material with high absorptivity of
fields such as rolling operations. The mechanism and the light. The reflectivity of the chromium layer is controlled
characteristics of film forming have been widely investigated to be 18% and the transimissivity to be 55%. In addition, a
before. However, the mechanism is still dubious and film layer of reflection reducing MgF coating is used to reduce the
forming characteristics are seldom discussed under an oil reflectivity of the upper surface of the glass disc from 4% to
concentration of 0.05%. In this paper, a lubricating film testing less than 1%. Thus, I1 and I 2 are almost the same and I 3
apparatus is used to investigate the film forming characteristics is reduced below 2%. The influence of the multiple-beam
and tribological behaviors under different speed of oil-in-water interference is avoided availably. I max and I min have been
emulsion between a steel ball and a glass disc. By carrying out
found to be very important in our experiments. If the two
experiments under an extremely low concentration of oil, some
values are not correct, there will be big errors in film thickness.
new phenomena are found in our experiments. Oil
The profile of the light intensity distribution out of an optical
concentration is even low to 0.0005%. The results indicate that
the speed-thickness curves are changed as the condition fiber should be a Gauss distribution. Thus I max and I min
changes. The effect of droplet size and the stability of emulsion varies at different interference orders as figure 1 shows.
are both considered to be important. The frictional behaviors
are investigated under different conditions.The film forming
mechanism of oil-in-water emulsion is also discussed by direct
observations of emulsion in the contact area. A new viewpoint
on the lubrication of emulsion is put forward in this paper.
Keywords: Emulsion; Super-low concentration; Film thickness;
Friction force
INTRODUCTION
Emulsions were used as lubricants first in 1940s and then
were widely used in metal working where non-flammable
lubricants are required such as hot rolling and cutting. The
lubricating performance of oil-in-water emulsions was first
studied even 50 years ago. To improve the lubricating
efficiency, there is a need for a better understanding for the
lubrication mechanism of oil-in-water emulsions. According to
the reports, there are three basic lubricating models under
different speed levels: Plate-out theory, Chiu-starvation theory
and Dynamic concentration theory. According to the author’s
knowledge, the studies about emulsions were mainly focused Fig. 1 Sketch of the practical variation of the light intensity
on that with oil concentration larger than 0.05%. However,
there are little work was reported about the film formation 2. Experiment conditions
mechanism under a super low oil concentration (lower than All experiments carried out under a room-temperature
0.05%). In the present study, the film forming characteristics of about 250C and a pressure of the contact area 0.53GPa in pure
emulsions with oil concentration from 0.0005% to 3% are rolling conditions. The line speed range is from 0 m/s to about
reported. Some new features are revealed as the oil 2.5 m/s. For experiments of emulsions under extremely low oil
concentration is super low. The film forming mechanism is concentrations, it is important that all pieces of apparatus
discussed. coming into contact with the test samples are very clean. A
Some researchers indicated that there is an error of film multi-stage cleaning method by using kinds of organic solvent
thickness measurement by the relative optical interference is used in this study.
intensity method. Actually the result with low accuracy is Dimethylsilicone oil is used to be confected into
because that there is no consideration of several important oil-in-water emulsions/mixtures with different oil percentages.
impact factors. There is an introduction aiming at illuminating Three mixing levels are used in this study. All experiments are
the detailed principles and the parameters influencing the carried out under a room-temperature about 250C and a
accuracy and validating the accuracy of film thickness pressure of the contact area 0.53GPa.
measurement by ROII.
Experiment details Experiment results
1. Experiment method (ROII)
A technique of relative optical interference intensity is 1. Influence of mixing level
used to measure the film thickness in this study. The existence The influence of mixing level is studied by using different
of multiple-beam component will influence the calculation blenders. Particle size distributions of emulsions with different
accuracy of film thickness. It is necessary to reduce the situations are also measured by laser particle size analyzer.
multiple-beam interference as much as possible. The Curves in figure 2 show the results of three levels. It is can be
reflectivity of the surface of steel ball is about 60%. Chromium indicated that there is no obvious influence of mixing level on
film thickness. The volumes of oil separated from water in concentration so that there is a film thickness even higher than
emulsions used in this study are big enough to form a thick oil high concentration. The flat stage of film thickness is possibly
film on the disc surface, which is the reason of that the due to a flux balance of fluid. When the oil concentration is
influence of mixing level on film thickness is small. extremely low (0.0005%), the reason of the film formation is
that only a very small volume of oil is need.
Conclusion
There are some new phenomena in studies of emulsions.
Mixing level has nothing to do with the film formation of
emulsions. The film-forming behaviors of mixtures with oil
floating on water are similar to that of emulsions. The film
formation performances of emulsions are much different under
low concentrations and high concentrations. A more stable and
high film thickness is got at high speed under lower
concentration. Under an extremely low oil concentration
(0.0005%), a relative high film thickness of 80nm is formed.
That is to say that a high film thickness should be got by
putting an extremely small volume of oil into the water
without emulsifier and blender.
Fig. 2 Contrast of different mixing levels As a result, the film forming mechanism of emulsions is
2. Influence of concentration redescribed. At very low speeds, emulsions have been found to
The film forming performances of emulsion with low lubricate the contact area as a result of the adsorption of oil
concentrations are experimental discussed in the program. The separated from water. Only a very small volume can result in a
film thickness and friction force are both measured under high film thickness. At higher speeds, dynamic concentration
different concentrations from 0.005% to 2.5% with the which brings a drop of thickness under a high concentration
measurement of the particle sizes. Obvious different occurs. The higher the oil concentration is, the more the
performances are found under low and high oil concentrations. influence on film formation of dynamic concentration has.
There is not clear explanation for the second rise of film
thickness at even higher speeds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
[1] Williams, J.A., 2001, “Friction and wear of rotating pivots
in MEMS and other small scale devices,” Wear, 251,
pp.965-972.
[2] Bowden, F. P., Tabor, D., 1954, The Friction and
Fig. 3 Contrast of a lower concentration and a higher Lubrication of Solids, Part One, Clarendon Press, Oxford .
concentration [3] Hankins, M.G., Resnick, P.J., Clews, P.J., 2003, “Vapor
The film forming performance is also investigated on deposition of Amino-Functionalized self-assembled
emulsions with ultra low concentration of 0.0005%. monolayers on MEMS,” Proceedings of SPIE, 4980,
pp.238-247.
Discussions [4] Belfit, R.W. and Shirk, N.E., 1961 “Brass Rolling
Adsorption and dynamic concentration theory can be used Emulsions,” Lubr. Eng, 17, pp 173-178.
to explain phenomena above. At a low speed, lubricant [5] Haixia Yang, Steven R. Schemed, Ronald A. Reich. 2006
performs a film-forming behavior same as the neat oil because “Direct Observations of Emulsion Flow in
that oil exists as a layer of film floating on emulsion/water and Elastohydrodynamically Lubricated Contacts,” Journal of
contacts solid surface directly. But if the oil concentration is Tribology, 128 (3), pp 128- 619.
very low, there will be a starvation at even a low speed so that [6] M. Ratoi-Salagean and H.A. Spikes., 1997 “Optimizing
there is a thickness smaller than neat oil. As speed increases, film formation by oil-in-water emulsions,” Tribology
film thickness increases until a dynamic concentration occurs Transactions, 40, 569-578.
when the oil concentration is high. Big size oil droplets come
into being and the continuous phase of oil is destroyed at a [7] Wan, G. T. Y., Kenny, P and Spikes, H.A. 1984
speed about 0.1m/s~0.2m/s as dynamic concentration occurs. “Elastohydrodynamic Properties of Water Based
Oil droplets are flushed to the side of the contact and rarely Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids,” Tribology International.
penetrate to the contact zone so that a drop of film thickness 17, pp.309-315.
occurs under a high concentration. As dynamic concentration [8] Zhu, D., Biresaw, G., Clark, S.J. and Kasun, T.J., 1994
forming more difficultly due to extremely tiny oil in water, “Elastodydrodynamic Lubrication with O/W Emulsions,”
there are few droplets with big size forming at a low ASME Jour. of Trib., 116, pp 310-320.
189
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
[9] Schmid, S. R., and Wilson, W. R. D., 1996 “Lubrication [11] Haixia Yang, S.R.Schmid, Thomas J.Kasun and Ronal
Mechanisms for Oil-in-water emulsions,” Lubr. Eng. 52, A.Reich. “Elastohydrodynamic Film Thickness and
pp. 168-175. Tractions for Oil-in-Water Emulsions,” Tribology
[10] Luo JB, Wen SZ, Huang P., “Thin film lubrication .1. Study Transactions, 47, pp 123-129, (2004).
on the transition between EHL and thin film lubrication
using a relative optical interference intensity technique,”
WEAR 194 (1-2), pp 107-115, (1996).
190
A Piston Lubrication Model Considering the Coupling between the Piston Secondary Motion and the System Inertia Variation in an IC Engine
A Piston Lubrication Model Considering the Coupling between the Piston Secondary Motion and
the System Inertia Variation in an IC Engine
*
Xiaoxiang Zhang , Zhinan Zhang, Ping Wang, Youbai Xie
ABSTRACT variable inertia on the side force and friction force of piston skirt
With increasing public concern about the environmental are carefully studied.
problems and oil prices, improving fuel economy and reducing This paper is arranged as follows: Firstly, the new piston
engine emissions in modern passenger car engines has become dynamics model is derived, and then the lubrication sub model
one of the important trends in engine design. It is currently is introduced. Next is a description of the implementation,
estimated that the piston - cylinder bore friction accounts for up followed by some simulation results to show the model
to 25% of the power loss in a typical engine. The piston behavior and validation. Finally, there are discussions and some
secondary motion has a significant influence on the major conclusions.
characteristics of lubrication in internal combustion engine,
such as the oil leakage, the piston slap phenomenon and the
frictional power loss. Therefore, better understanding and more PISTON DYNAMICS MODEL DERIVATION
accurately modeling piston dynamics play an important role in Details of the derivation of the fully-coupled model are given
piston design for the reduction of friction to improve fuel in this section, which is partly based on the Hesterman and
economy and to reduce exhaust emissions. This paper presents a Stone’s dynamic analysis [13] of a vertically mounted, single
new model of piston secondary motion with consideration of the reciprocating mechanism.
effect of system inertia variation. According to this model, it is
found that the piston side force dominates piston secondary Kinematic analysis
motion, and system inertia variation has an important effect on A schematic drawing of piston-rod-crankshaft mechanism is
the piston side force, so it greatly influences the piston shown in Fig 1. With reference to Fig.1,
secondary motion. Also, the effects of system inertia variation
on the friction and lubrication behavior between piston skirt and l sin M r sin T C
C
(1)
cylinder liner are investigated in this study. Differentiating equation (1) gives
Keywords: Piston lubrication, Piston friction, Secondary rT cos T
M
motion, Inertia variation l cos M (2)
ª§ 2 º
r cos T · r sin T »
M T2 «¨ ¸ tan M
INTRODUCTION «© l cos M ¹ l cos M »
¬ ¼
The secondary motion of a piston refers to its lateral and r cos T
T
tilting movement in the cylinder liner due to the existed l cos M
clearance between the piston and the liner and the forces and The general expressions for the center-of-mass (COM)
motions acting on the piston. accelerations of the piston, rod and crankshaft are given in the
A significant number of authors have investigated and following equations (3) to (5).
analyzed the piston lubrication and its secondary motion during For the motion of the piston,
the past years [1-10]. Li et al. [3] presented a simple secondary X p X p (3)
motion model considering the hydrodynamics of the skirt liner
interface. A comprehensive model of secondary motion, Yp T r cos T tan I r sin T
including skirt hydrodynamics and elastic deformation of the
§ r cos T 2 ·
skirt, was presented by Zhu et al [4-5]. Later on, Zhu’s model T 2 ¨ r sin T tan I r cos T ¸
was widely referenced by many researchers who focus on ¨ l cos I
3
¸
© ¹
secondary dynamics, piston assembly friction and wear.
For the motion of the rod,
However, all the above studies have neglected the coupling of
secondary motion and the piston-rod-crankshaft mechanism X R r (1 j )T cosT r (1 j )T 2 sin T
(4)
inertia variations which is owing to the change of geometry YR T rj cos T tan I r sin T
through a crank revolution. The piston and connecting rod
masses change their position relative to the crankshaft axis and § r cos T 2 ·
hence change the effective inertia about this axis. Recently, T 2 ¨ j jr sin T tan I r cos T ¸
¨ l cos3 I ¸
Guzzomi et al [13] presents the derivation of the inertia © ¹
function for a single cylinder engine, including piston friction. For the motion of the crankshaft,
However, they neglected the effects of the inertia variation on
XC Thr cos T T 2 hr sin T
the piston secondary motion which significantly influences (5)
piston lubrication and friction. YC Thr sin T T 2 hr cos T
This paper presents a new model of piston dynamics. It takes
account of the effect of system inertia variation. A computer Kinetic analysis
program is developed to analyze this effect of the inertia As shown in Fig.1, FB is the force acting along the
variation on the piston secondary motion. Effects of the system connecting-rod, Q(t) is the gas force acting on the crown of
piston, Xp and Yp are piston lateral and vertical displacement,
* Correspondence author
191
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
and is the piston tilting degree. A full description and assumed to act through the wrist pin. The dynamic equations
explanation of each of the term in Fig.1 and all subsequent for the piston, connecting rod and the crank are then,
figures can be found in notation. All forces on the piston are
Q(t)
Piston
Anti-Thrust side
Cylinder Liner
FBY
C
Thrust side
I B FBX
P
et
CS
I
FBX
B
S CA
CB
B
F
CP C L
Y C
eb
FB FBY
Y AB l
Connecting Rod Ù
X AR jl
(b) OA r
FAY RÚ
FAX Ù OC hr
m Rg
Ù A FAX A
O
A FAY
O
FOY ÚC
Crank
FOX m Cg
(a) (c) (d)
Fig. 1 A Schematic Drawing of Piston/Rod/Crank system geometry, force and moment (a)(b)(c)(d)(e)
E
1
I PIN
TI p1 (T ) T2 I p 2 (T ) M p (T ) I c (T ) I C mC h 2 r 2 I R ¨¨ ¸¸
© l cosI ¹
(20)
m p r 2 cosT tanI sinT
2
1 § 1 2 c ·
T ¨ T Ic (T ) T gc (T ) Qc (t,T ) ¸
Ic (T ) © 2 ¹ ª 2
2º
mR r 2 «(1 j ) 2 cosT j cosT tanI sinT »
where m p1 (T ) , mp 2 (T ) , I p1 (T ) , I p 2 (T ) , I c (T ) are functions ¬ ¼
of the crankshaft angular position©: And I c c (T ) is the rate of change of inertia with respect to
192
A Piston Lubrication Model Considering the Coupling between the Piston Secondary Motion and the System Inertia Variation in an IC Engine
M SK R ³³ W R cos I dI dy (39)
§D · (26)
M Ff Ff ¨ CC ¸ A
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
During the initialization process, the most important To study the effects of inertia variation on piston secondary
parameters of the engine geometry and the engine inertia motion, comparisons are made for piston side force, piston
properties are input into the program. lateral and tilting motions, piston skirt friction force and
(b) The sub model calculation frictional power loss between the model with system inertia
The lubrication sub model, which is based on the average variation effect and the model without system inertia variation
Reynolds equation, is solved by a finite difference method. effect. These comparisons illustrate important differences. The
And, hydrodynamic forces S and Ff can be obtained after the
model without system inertia variation effect, in this paper, is
solving process. The combustion gas force Q(t) will also be
not a newly-established model but a modified model by
obtained through the combustion gas force history versus
crankshaft angle. eliminating from the governing equations (15)-(30) the terms
(c) The coupled piston secondary dynamics model calculation which include mass of crank, mass of connecting rod, inertia of
Given the combustion gas force Q(t), hydrodynamic friction crank, and inertia of connecting rod.
force Ff, and the hydrodynamic side force S, the Runge-Kutta As illustrated in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, inertia variation has
algorithm will be called to solve the differential equations of the considerable effect on the lateral and angular displacement of
coupled dynamics model and generate the instantaneous engine the piston. It is apparent from Fig. 4 that the
states that include X , X , E , E , T , and T .
B B
inertia-variation-influenced model’s magnitude of lateral
motion is greater than non-inertia-variation-influenced model’s.
(d) Output It can be seen from Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 that the piston motion
Store the important data calculated at each time step. differences between the two models is smaller during firing
(e) Update
stroke and greater during other strokes. Obviously, this means
Update the model states, and goes to go to the next time step
that the piston motion is more controlled by the inertia force
calculation.
and less so by gas pressure during all other strokes except the
firing stroke.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The influence of the inertia variation on the piston side force
Numerical simulations have been conducted with a four stroke is presented in Fig. 6 for an entire cycle. By comparing Fig. 6
single cylinder gasoline engine. While simulations are run in the with Fig. 4, a relationship between piston side force and piston
times-domain, all results are shown versus crankshaft angle. The
lateral motion can be seen. It is apparent that the side force
important parameters used in the simulation are summarized in
drives the lateral motion of the piston.
Table 1.
This simulation used a sample combustion pressure history Fig. 7 shows the variation of the hydrodynamic friction forces
shown in Fig. 3 which was measured at average speed of 5500 of the two models with crank angle. As shown in Fig.7, the
r/min. Note that firing stroke is from 10 to 190 degree. The friction fluctuation for the inertia-variation-influenced model is
pressure is at maximum around TDC. more severe. By comparing Fig. 7 with Fig. 4, it can be found
that the variation trend of the piston friction is similar to that of
Table1 Input Parameters the piston side force. Therefore, it can be inferred that piston side
Working Speed (n) = 5500 r/min force plays an important role in determining the piston friction.
Length of cranN (r) = 0.0185 m The instantaneous frictional power loss is presented in Fig. 8.
Length of Connecting Rod (lc) = 0.061 m The figure shows that with the effect of inertia, there is much
Length of Skirt (LSK)= 0.0225 m power loss throughout the four strokes, especially in the firing
Mass of Piston (mpis) = 0.140362 kg stroke.
Mass of Piston Pin (mpin) = 0.013309 kg As shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 8, with the effect of system
Mass of Crank = 0.4794191 kg inertia variation, the piston motion, the piston side force, the
Mass of Connecting Rod(MR) = 0.0330807 kg hydrodynamic friction force and the frictional power loss are
Inertia of Piston (Ipis) = 0.00000989 kg•m2 greater during all four strokes.
Inertia of Connecting Rod (IR) = 0.00224 kg•m2
Inertia of Crank (IC)= 0.001322 kg•m2
Inertia of Flywheel(IFW)= 0.5 kg•m2
Roughness of Cylinder Bore (Ê1) = 6.15E-7 m
Roughness of Piston Skirt (Ê2) = 8.15E-7 m
Diameter of Cylinder Liner (DCL) = 4.35E-2 m
DSK = 4.345E-2 m
L = 2.25E-2 m
CA = 7.3E-4 m
CB = 6.0E-3 m
Distance of the Pin from the Central Mass of the Piston
(CP) = 0 m
Distance of the Wrist-pin from the Geometric Axis of the
Piston (CC) =0 m
Connecting Rod Mass Center Distance(LJ)= 0.336066 m
Crank Mass Center Distance(HJ)= 0.084719 m
hydrodynamic lubrication regional angle=70 degree Fig.3 Combustion gas pressure acting on the piston crown
Dynamic viscosity (Ø) = 0.01295 Pa•S
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A Piston Lubrication Model Considering the Coupling between the Piston Secondary Motion and the System Inertia Variation in an IC Engine
Fig.4 Effects of inertia variation on piston lateral motion Fig.7 Effect of inertia variation on the friction force
CONCLUSIONS
a. A mathematical model is developed for piston lubrication
analyses, considering the coupling of piston secondary
motion with system inertia variation.
b. The analyses incorporated equations for piston, connecting
rod and crank dynamics, as well as the average Reynolds
equation applied to calculate friction force and side force.
c. A computer program is constructed based on the model.
The variation of the engine friction force and frictional
power loss can be simulated and predicted by the program.
d. The results show that system inertia variation has a
significant effect on piston secondary motion, piston
friction and lubrication behavior.
e. Many other parameters and factors are not studied here.
The presented model can also be performed to investigate
the other factors and parameters that affect piston
dynamics and lubrication. Future work of this study
should take into account the factors including wrist pin
offset, piston skirt profile, piston-liner deformation, mixed
Fig. 6 Effect of inertia variation on the side force lubrication and piston ring force.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS APPENDIX
The authors are most grateful to the 973 National Basic Notation
Research Priorities Programme of China (No. 2006CB705402), L connecting rod length, m
the project of NSFC (No. 50705055), the project of Shanghai r crank length, m
Science and Technology Committee (No.07JC14027) for L piston length, m
supporting this research. Special thanks to Dr. Xianghui Meng LSK piston skirt length, m
for his suggestions. The authors would also like to express their DSK piston skirt diameter, m
sincere thanks to the anonymous referees and the Editor for their D cylinder bore diameter, m
constructive comments. R nominal radius of piston, m
angular displacement of crank, rad
angular displacement of connecting rod, rad
REFERENCES L hydrodynamic lubrication regional angle, rad
piston tilt angular displacement, rad
CA vertical distance between piston mass and piston
[1] Edara, R.B., “Reciprocating Engine Piston crown, m
Secondary Motion - Literature Review”, SAE paper CB vertical distance between wrist-pin and piston crown,
2008011045. m
[2] Wong V., Tian T., Smedley G., et al., CC distance of the wrist-pin from the axis of piston, m
Low-Engine-Friction Technology for Advanced CP horizontal distance between piston center of mass
Natural-Gas Reciprocating Engines. Final Technical and wrist-pin, m
Report, 2007, MIT. CS distance between the lubrication force acting point
[3] Li, D. F., Rohde, S. M., and Ezzat, H. A., 1983, “An and piston crown, m
Automotive Piston Lubrication Model,” ASLE Trans., 26, eb, et distance between the centre at the bottom and top of
No. 2, pp. 151-160. the skirt and the cylinder axis, respectively, m
[4] Zhu, D., Cheng, H. S., Takayuki, A., et al., 1992, ‘‘A j ratio of connecting rod length AR to AB (0<j<1)
Numerical Analysis for Piston Skirts in Mixed h ratio of crank length OC to OA (0<h<1)
Lubrication: Part I—Basic Modeling,’’ ASME J. Tribol., A connecting rod big end bearing position
114, pp. 553-562. B wrist-pin position
[5] Zhu, D., Hu, Y., Cheng, H. S., Takayuki, A., et al., 1993, C crank centre of mass position
‘‘A Numerical Analysis for Piston Skirts in Mixed R connecting rod center of mass position
Lubrication: Part II—Deformation Considerations,’’ hT average gap (oil film thickness), m
ASME J. Tribol., 115, pp. 125-133. hT local film thickness, m
[6] Dursunkaya Z., Keribar R., Ganapathy V., “A 0odel of h nominal film thickness, m
3iston 6econdary 0otion and (lastohydrodynamic 6kirt Q(t) combustion gas force action on the top of piston, N
/ubrication. ASME J. Tribol., 1994, Vol. 116, no. 4, pp. S piston hydrodynamic side force, N
777-785. Ff friction force acting on the skirt, N
[7] Liu K. The investigation of the friction and lubrication mPIS piston mass, kg
property of piston ring pack and the establishment of wear mPIN wrist pin mass, kg
model of piston ring-cylinder wall. PhD thesis, Xi'an mP total mass of piston and wrist pin, kg
Jiaotong University, 1995. (In Chinese) mR connecting rod mass, kg
[8] Liu, K., Xie, Y. B., and Gui, C. L., 1998, ‘‘A
Comprehensive Study of the Friction and Dynamic
mC crank mass, kg
Motion of the Piston Assembly,’’ Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. IPIS piston rotary inertia about its centre of mass
Part J, 212, pp. 221-226. Ø lubricant viscosity
[9] McNally Conor P., 1998, Development of a Numerical Ê1 cylinder bore surface roughness
Model of Piston Secondary Motion for Internal Ê2 piston skirt surface roughness
Combustion Engines, Master Thesis, MIT. Ê root mean square value of bore and skirt surfaces,
[10] Prata A.T., Fernandes J.R.S., Fagotti F., 2000, ‘‘Dynamic Ê=(Ê12+Ê22)0.5
Analysis of Piston Secondary Motion for Small p mean lubrication pressure
Reciprocating Compressors”, ASME J. Tribol., 122, pp. u piston velocity, m/s
752-760. Ix ˈ I y pressure flow factors
[11] Patir N., Cheng H.S., 1978, “An Average Flow Model for
Determining Effects of Tree Dimensional Roughness on
Is shear flow factor
Partial Hydrodynamic Lubrication”, ASME J. Tribol., 100, Yp COM vertical displacement of piston, m
pp. 12-17. COM lateral displacement of piston, m
Xp
[12] Patir N., Cheng H.S., 1979, “Application of Average
Flow Model to Lubrication Between Rough Sliding YR COM vertical displacement of connecting rod, m
Surfaces”, ASME J. Tribol., 101, pp. 220-230. XR COM lateral displacement of connecting rod, m
[13] Guzzomi A.L., Hesterman D.C., and Stone B. J., 2008,
“Variable Inertia Effects of an Engine Including Piston YC COM lateral displacement of crankshaft, m
Friction and Crank/Gudgeon Pin Offset”, Proc. Inst. XC COM lateral displacement of crankshaft, m
Mech. Eng., Vol. 222, Part D, pp. 397-412. COM center of mass
196
Analysis of the Combined Effect of the Surface Roughness and Inertia on the Performance of High-Speed Hydrostatic Thrust Bearing
Analysis of the Combined Effect of the Surface Roughness and Inertia on the Performance of
High-Speed Hydrostatic Thrust Bearing
197
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
®0 P 2 (2)
° wz
° wp longitudinal roughness
°0 wz
¯
Considering the following boundary conditions
u r, 0 u r, h v r, 0 0 , v r, h r: (3)
then the radial and tangential velocity are then obtained
1 wp 2 U r:2
°° u r , z
2P wr
z zh
12P h 2
z 4 zh3
® (4)
°v r , z r : z
°̄ h isotropic roughness
Substituting above two equations into the continuity
equation and integrating with respect to z with the following
boundary conditions
wh
w r, 0 0 , w r, h (5)
wt
the simplified dynamic Reynolds equation in polar coordinates
is derived as
1 w § 3 wp 3 · wh
¨ rh U: 2 r 2 h3 ¸ 12P (6)
r wr © wr 10 ¹ wt
Fig.2 Three-dimensional asperity model for transversely,
longitudinally and isotropically oriented
MODIFIED FILM THICKNESS
It is assumed that the three-dimensional asperities are PERTURBATION SOLUTION
adhered to the stationary bearing surface only as shown in Fig.2. Introducing the following dimensionless variables and
It presents the three-dimensional asperity model for parameters
longitudinally, isotropically and transversely oriented r h
roughness patterns. Longitudinally oriented roughness offers r , , h , W Zt ,
r0 h0
little resistance to the pressure flow, permitting only a small
0.6U: 2 r0 2 12PZ r0 2
amount of side flow, but it is reversed for the transversely one. s , V
For isotropic oriented roughness, the local side flow is of the ps ps h0 2
same order in both directions. Neglecting high order terms, the dimensionless simplified
The profiles of the asperity in both r and T directions Reynolds equation is thus approximately expressed as
are cosine curves. With H a , n and m being the asperity 1 w § wp · 3 wh
¨r ¸h sh 3 V (9)
amplitude, the number of asperities in circumferential direction r wr © wr ¹ wW
and the number of asperities in radial direction, the geometry With the shaft undergoing small amplitude oscillation about
size of asperity profile is expressed as its steady-state position, the dimensionless film thickness and
pressure are perturbed as
198
Analysis of the Combined Effect of the Surface Roughness and Inertia on the Performance of High-Speed Hydrostatic Thrust Bearing
and then
ªp § ] 2 1 ·º
1 w § wp1 ·
r i
V W0 0.5 ] 2 1 « r 0 0.25s ¨ ] 2 1 ¸»
r wr ¨© wr ¸¹
(13)
h3 ¬ ln ] © ln ] ¹ ¼
(21)
RECESS BOUNDARY PRESSURES The static lubrication flow rate from the recess boundary is
evaluated by integrating the radial velocity
The recess flow continuity equation for an orifice z h0 2S
³ ³u
compensated bearing including the effect of fluid Qr 0 r dT dz (22)
r rI i
compressibility in the recess is expressed as z 0 0
1
G 0 1-pr 2 then
(14) pr 0 0.25s ] 2 1
wh wp Qr 0 2S h 3
(23)
Qr pr \ r \J r pr 0 ln ]
wW wW
where the orifice restrictor parameter, the dimensionless The static frictional torque is calculated by integrating the
recess pressure, the dimensionless flow rate, the recess shear stress for the whole bearing
frequency parameter and the recess volume compressibility r0 2S ª h wp P r : º 2
parameter are defined respectively as
MW ³ ³
ri 0 « 2r wT h »r dT dr
¬ ¼
(24)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Im W1 50
longitudinal
D (30) 40
V 30 transverse
isotropic
20 /=0.4, ] =2,pr0=0.7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Qr0 10
This study is mainly concerned on the combined effects of 5
roughness, fluid inertia and recess volume fluid compressibility
2
on the static performance and the dynamic stiffness and
1
damping characteristics of externally pressurized circular step W0 0.5
thrust bearings. The effect of surface roughness is characterized
by the roughness parameter H a , n and m . The effects of 0.1
rotational inertia and recess volume compressibility are depicted 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Qr0 10
STATIC PERFORMANCE 5
The variation of dimensionless steady load capacity W0 and 2
lubricant flow rate Qr 0 with inner radius ratio ] for speed 1
W0 0.5
number s 0.4 is shown in Fig.3. Since the hydrostatic
bearing system is conservative, the steady pressure distribution 0.1
and then the integrated load capacity depends on the steady 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
recess pressure. Under the same recess pressure pr 0 0.7 , s
surface roughness / H a 4h0 0.4 , has a negligible effect
Fig.4 Variation of dimensionless steady load capacity
on the value of W0 . However, the value of Qr 0 for transverse
and flow rate with speed number
roughness is more than for a isotropic bearing. Since the forms
of ridges and valleys running in the r direction tends to give an
60
increased flow component in the radial direction as the load is
applied. However, the situation of the longitudinal roughness is 55 isotropic
reversed. Since the form of ridges and valleys in the T
longotudimal
50 transverse
direction tends to suppress flow in the radial direction, the /
45
bearing flow is thus reduced. N
The variation of dimensionless steady load capacity W0 40
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Analysis of the Combined Effect of the Surface Roughness and Inertia on the Performance of High-Speed Hydrostatic Thrust Bearing
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Study on the Efficiency of the New-Style Reducer with the Green Lubricant
1
Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang China ,110178
2
Tsinghua University, Beijing China, 100084
3
Northeast University, Shenyang China, 110004
4
DaLian JiaoTong University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116028
INTRODUCTION
The double crank four ring-plates cycloidal reducer
belongs to the pin-plate drive. It combines a parallel four-bar 1.Load Generator; 2.Reducer; 3.Torque Senser; 4. double rank
mechanism with a pin-cycloid planetary drive. Compared with four-plates cycloid drive; 5,6. Torque Senser; 7,8. Electrical
the traditional pin-cycloid planetary drive, it has the motor
advantages of the small volume, the high transmitting Fig.1 The function-testing system of double rank four-plates
efficiency, more heavy loading capacity and etc. [1] cycloid drive driven by double motors
In running, under lubricant of the mineral-based oil, the
working temperature is higher. This make the working time THE TEST PROCCESS
short. And the lubricant condition becomes worse with the
At first, We select the pentaerythritol GHJ100, RO, and the
time longer.
mixed oil of 20% GHJ100 and 80% rapeseed oil as base oil. On
In order to overcome this defect, we confect the special
the four-ball machine, we check the properties of the base oils.
lubricant for it. The basic oil is green oils[4]. The first is the
And then, with the 2% package, we test the characteristics of
pentaerythritol oil and the second the mixed oil of the
the lubricants. The running parameters of the machine are
rapeseed oil and the pentaerythritol oil. The additive is UT343.
shown in Tab 2.
In the base oil of the pentaerythritol GHJ100, GHJ68, mixed
The second, we do SEM and SEDS analysis.
base oil of 20%GHJ100 and 80%RO(Rapeseed Oil), and the
At the end, we do the running test on the rig of the double
mineral oil N100, N68, we confect the lubricants with the
crank four plate cycloid drive. The rig construction are shown
same additive content of UT343 2%. The properties of the
in Fig. 1. The ratio of the drive is 35. The power of the electrical
base oil are shown in table 1.
motor is 22kW.
In the testing rig, we do the comparing test. The result
The Testing Results
proves that the properties of the green lubricants take
Tab 3 is the results of the four ball machine without the
advantages of the mineral oil in transmitting power. The rig
package.
layerout is showm in Fig.1.
Tab 4 is the results of the four ball machine with the
additive of 2%UT343
* E-mail: hujunh@tom.com.
202
Study on the Efficiency of the New-Style Reducer with the Green Lubricant
Lubricant WSD PB PD From Fig.2, we can find that there are polymers in the
lubricating films which the lubricants has RO contents. The
(mm) (N) (N) scars show smooth and compact. The furrows are flat. These
GHJ100 0.78 637 1569 prove that the lubricating film has better loading property.
Fig.3 is the SEDS photo of the lubricant of GHJ100 added
RO 0.80 588 784 2%UT343. Fig.4 is the RO added 2%P120. Fig.5 is the mixed oil
added 2%UT343. From these pictures, we can confirm that the
Mixed oil 0.66 637 1569
films all contain phosphorus element. The forer study has
From Tab.3 and Tab. 4, we can confirm that the lubricant proved that the additives of the phosphorus family have good
of RO has the best receptivity to UT343. The mixed oil has the antiwear properties[2,4]. From these tests above, the UT343
higher PB and PD values than the base oils. The WSDs are all belonging to P family additives has the same EP characteristic as
smaller than the base oils. the additives of the sulfur family.
Fig.2 is the result of SEM.
a.GHJ100 b.GHJ100+2%UT343
c.RO d.RO+2%P120
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Base on the tests of the aboves, we select the N100, N68, increase, the efficency is enhanced. The maximal value is
GHJ100, GHJ68 and mixed oil to do comparative tests in the 96.53% of GHJ68 at full speed point.
double crank four plate cycloid drive on the rig. Fig.8 is the result of the oil temperature curves. We record
Fig.6 is the result under the condition of the constant speed the data after the oil temperature up to the 40ć. At this point, the
and the variant load. From the picture, the efficencies of the test with N68 has run for 20min. The GHJ68 has run for two
green lubricants GHJ100, GHJ68, the mixed oil of GHJ100 and hours. And 2:20 later, the temperatur of N68 sample has reached
RO are higher than that of the mineral oils N100 and N68. And 96ć. The test of this sample must stop for protecting the load
with the increase of the load, the efficency is enhanced. The generator. 7 hours later, the temperature of GHJ68 sample is
maximal value is 96.53% of GHJ68 at full load point. 92ć. From the picture, the temperature curve with GHJ68 is
Fig.7 is the result under the condition of the full load and the much lower than that with N68. The average difference of the
variant speed. The efficencies of the three green lubricants are sample temperature is 10ć.
higher than that of the two mineral oil. And with the speed
204
Study on the Efficiency of the New-Style Reducer with the Green Lubricant
95
Efficency /%
90
85 N 100
N 68
G H J100
G H J68
80 20% G H J100+80% R O
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
R a tio o f lo a d /%
Fig.6 Under constant speed, the relation between the transmitting efficiency and the running load
9 7
9 6
9 5
9 4
Efficency/%
9 3
9 2
9 1
N 1 0 0
9 0 N 6 8
G H J 1 0 0
8 9 G H J 6 8
2 0 % G H J 1 0 0 + 8 0 % R O
8 8
4 0 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 7 0 0 8 0 0 9 0 0 1 0 0 0
R o ta r y S p e e d /r /m in
Fig.7 Under the constant load, the relation between the transmitting efficiency and the rotating speed
100
90
Temperature/
80
70
60
N 68
50 G H J68
40
T im e / m in
Fig.8 The relation between the oil temperature and the running time
CONCLUSION REFERENCES
From these result, we can educe the following conclusion: [1] Li L X, He W D. Study on double crank ring-plate-type
1.The green lubricant can replace the mineral oil in this cycloid dive, Tenth World Cogress on the Theory of
reducer. Machines and Mechanism[C]. Oulu, 1999. 20~24
2.The green lubricant has lower temperature than the [2] Ma Zh ibao,Ma J iangbo. Influence of Sulfur and
mineral oil. Phosphorus Type Additives on Biodegradation of Rapeseed
3.The green lubricant can enhance the transmiting efficency Oil, Lubrication Engneering. July 2005:54~55
of the reducer. Because the oil film creates the better [3] Stringfellow W D ˈ Jacobs N L ˈ Hendriks R
lubricating condition. The friction loss becomes low. And this VˊEnvironmentally acceptable specialty lubriacantsˉAn
losing part is changed to the effective power. So the efficiency interpretation of the environmentally regulations of North
is enhanced. Sea(World)[J].NLGI,Spokesman,1993,57(9)˖14~19
4.The UT343 exhibit both the antiwear property and EP [4] Ma Jiangbo, Study on lubricating behavior of the
property in the green lubricants. This P family additive can biodegradable base oil with additive[M], 2004.1
replace S family additive in EP characteristic.
205
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ABSTRACT shown in a photo taken by Bair and Winer [6]. Recent EHL
studies [7-9] reveal that conventional EHL theory cannot
This paper presents a single empirical model that correlates
describe the EHL film profile under certain conditions such as
reasonably well with the pressure-limiting shear stress
pure and opposite sliding. Optical EHL measurements indicate
coefficients of different types of lubricants measured by
that the film profile can deviate drastically from the
different techniques. The model consists of three lubricant
conventional EHL horse-shoe shape [7]. Thermal effects [8]
parameters – atmospheric viscosity, density and a viscosity
have been proposed to account for the deviation in EHL film
temperature property (ASTM slope). These parameters are
profiles. A recent study by Guo and Wong [9] demonstrated that
readily available or can easily be measured by conventional
the anomalous EHL film profile that is shown in Fig.1 was due
techniques.
to the limiting shear stress effect of the lubricant. The
Keywords: Pressure-limiting shear stress coefficient, breakdown (or collapse) of a lubricating film because of the
high pressure rheology. limiting shear stress effect has been numerically established by
Shieh and Hamrock [10] and Zhang and Wen [11].
INTRODUCTION
2.0
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) research started in
the early 1950s following proof of a thin lubricating film (< 1 Pure sliding
1.6
Pm) generated between non-conformal contacts. Efforts were Pure rolliing
Film thickness h , P m
206
Pressure Dependence of the Limiting Shear Stress Coefficient of Liquid Lubricants
stress is acquired at h’, then plug flow with slippage occurs at or termed the critical shear rate. It is assumed that the critical
near the interface of the lubricant and solid surface. To maintain shear rate is also a linear function of pressure in the high
a quasi-equilibrium condition, the film thickness has to be pressure range as follows:
reduced, as illustrated in Eq. 1. A conventional EHL film gives a
parallel film thickness with a constriction at the exit. The
J L J Lo Ep (3)
pressure and pressure gradient vary along the entraining According to the Barus viscosity model [15], the
direction. The shear stress at the wall surface depends on the viscosity-pressure coefficient can be expressed as
pressure gradient, as indicated by Eq. 1, whilst the limiting
1 wK
shear stress is a function of pressure. Under certain D (4)
circumstances, the theoretical shear stress at the surface may K wp
exceed the pressure-dependent limiting shear stress of the W
lubricant in the EHL contact and thus a local reduction in film
thickness occurs. An anomalous EHL film such as that shown in
Fig. 1 is attributed to this mechanism. Hence, knowledge of the
limiting shear strength of lubricants is highly beneficial for the WL2 p2>p1
prevention of lubrication failure and to an understanding of
non-conventional EHL film profiles. WL1 p1>p
Bair and Winer [1] and Hoglund and Jacobson [2] measured
the limiting shear stress of different lubricants at different EHL WLo po
pressure ranges using self-developed high pressure chambers.
Because of the difficulties in building and operating these high
pressure devices, Jacobson [12] developed a dropping ball
apparatus to examine EHL contact between a metallic ball and J
plane surface for high pressure studies. Later, Hoglund [5] J Lo
measured the pressure-limiting shear stress coefficient of many
different types of oils using this impact ball apparatus. The Fig. 3 Typical relation of the shear stress and
experimental results of different investigators find that the strain rate of a lubricant
limiting shear stress varies linearly with the EHL pressure level,
which can be expressed as By definition, viscosity is the ratio of shear stress to strain rate:
WL W Lo Jp W
(2) K (5)
The pressure-limiting shear stress coefficient J is a property of J
the lubricant. WLo is the limiting shear stress of the lubricant at
atmospheric pressure and has been found to be approximately Substituting Eq. 5 into Eq. 4 gives
1-5 MPa by Jacobson [12]. Therefore, the limiting shear stress
of a lubricant at any pressure can be calculated by Eq. 2 once its §W· w §W·
D¨¨ ¸¸ ¨ ¸ (6)
J is known. © J ¹ wp ¨© J ¸¹
In the 1970s, many application-oriented studies were
Considering the limiting shear stress and the critical shear rate,
carried out to establish empirical models for the
and from Eq. 2 and 3, Eq. 6 can be written as
pressure-viscosity coefficient of lubricants D, which is a
significant parameter for the determination of EHL film §W · J L ( J ) W L (E)
thickness. Having described the significance of several fluid D¨¨ L ¸¸ (7)
properties in molecular movement, So and Klaus [13] © J L ¹ J 2L
introduced an empirical correlation that makes use of
atmospheric viscosity, density and a viscosity-temperature Simplifying Eq. 7 gives
property (similar to the ASTM slope [14]) of fluids, and §W ·
demonstrated that the correlation can predict the J DW L ¨¨ L ¸¸E (8)
pressure-viscosity coefficient of mineral oils, resin, polymer © J L ¹
blends and hydrocarbons with reasonable accuracy. The
limiting shear strength and J of lubricants are also related to the Putting p = 0, Eq. 8 can be expressed as
interaction among molecules. Thus, it is reasonable to expect
§W ·
that an empirical model for the pressure-limiting shear stress
J DW Lo ¨¨ Lo ¸¸E (9)
© J Lo
coefficient of oils can be established in a similar manner.
¹
FROM D TO J Thus it is shown that the pressure-limiting shear stress
A typical shear stress-strain rate curve for a fluid is coefficient J is largely proportional to the pressure-viscosity
schematically shown in Fig. 3. Before reaching the limiting coefficient D. Typical values of D and WLo are 2 x 10-8 Pa-1 and 2
MPa, respectively. Their product is 0.04, which falls into the
value, the fluid is Newtonian. Even though a smooth curve of
range of J, which is from 0.02 to 0.1.
asymptotic type is preferred for numerical calculation, a simple
curve with an abrupt turning point is good enough for
illustrative purposes. The experimental results obtained at EHL EMPIRICAL MODEL OF J AND CORRELATION WITH
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
pressure levels [1, 2] prove that the limiting shear stress is
directly proportional to pressure, as expressed in Eq. 2. The From Eq. 9, it is known that to establish a model of J, we
shear rate at which the fluid acquires limiting shear stress is can refer to the correlation of D. So and Klaus [13] proposed an
207
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
empirical model of D that relies on atmospheric viscosity, polyglycol oils could be attributed to the differences in the
density and a viscosity-temperature property. They correlated molecular nature of the oils compared to mineral oils, esters and
the model with the experimental data of different types of fluids polyalphaolefines, which show excellent correlation for both
that have been obtained by various investigators. Fitting to a sets of experimental data.
large group of oils, the model demonstrated an accuracy of
8
approximately r20.0%. A similar approach is adopted here to fit
the J value of a set of 23 fluids measured by Hoglund [5] using
Hoglund 1989
Worket et al. 2003
7
an impact ball apparatus. Information of the specimen oils and Hoglund & Jacobsen 1986
Calculated (x10-2)
values are also listed. From the two given viscosities at 40oC 6
ª log(K1 0.7) º
log « » 4
208
Pressure Dependence of the Limiting Shear Stress Coefficient of Liquid Lubricants
Table 1 Properties of specimen oils (quoted from [5]) and comparison of experimental and predicted
209
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
210
A Method of Dual Number for the Aerodynamic Property Analysis of Gas-Lubricated Mechanism˖Self-Pressurizing Thrust
Bearings and Non-Contacting Face Seals (Partĉ˖Analytical Methods)
A Method of Dual Number for the Aerodynamic Property Analysis of Gas-Lubricated Mechanism˖
Self-Pressurizing Thrust Bearings and Non-Contacting Face Seals
(Partĉ˖Analytical Methods)
*
Wanfu Xu1 , Bin Geng2, Chunjing Shi1,
1
Shenyang Ligong University, No6, Nanping Ro Shenyang 110168, PR China
Shenyang V/ndaf Industries Ltd, No17, Nanta Str Shenyang 110016, PRChina
2
ABSTRACT always thought that the stiffness and damping coefficients are
For analyses on small perturbation approximation of related to the self-excited whirl frequency on the bearings or
dynamic stability parameters of the mechanism for seals, viz. they must be solved with their system motion
aerodynamic lubrication such as gas thrust bearings and gas equations in course of analyzing them using the small
non-contacting face seals, a dual number which perturbed perturbation approximation>7-10@.
displacement and pressure are defined is put forward. Thus the A special number was put forward by Clifford
deduced perturbed Reynolds equations of the gas-lubricated WK1845-1879, an English mathematician, in 1873 and
thrust bearings or non-contacting face seals are independent of was named as ĀDual Numberā by Study E, an Germany
the perturbed frequencyvizWKHself-excited whirl frequency mathematician, 30 years later. In 1947, it was first used to
for the bearings or seals, namely solving the perturbed study the place and the displacement of mechanism by a
Reynolds equations don’t require the simultaneous motion RUSS scientist of mechanical>11@. After this, it was widely
equations of the bearing’s or seal’s system while the complex used as the effective mathematic tool to analyze the motion
number does. This sharply simplifies the process of and motivity in the field of mechanism because its application
value-solving of the dynamic parameters. By means of the is simple. The dominances of the dual number are that its
dual number of perturbed restoring force and restoring symbolic meaning is specific and its mathematic express is
moment for gas film, stiffness and damping coefficients for simple. Then whether can these advantages be exerted on
aerodynamic lubricated thrust bearings or non-contacting seals study of the hydrodynamic lubrication theory? Under the
are deduced in order to specify the dynamic stability of them. hypothesis of the small perturbation approximation, the dual
For analyses on the small perturbation approximation of the number is used to obtain the perturbed Reynolds equations
dynamic stability parameters for the gas-lubricated bearings or which are independent of the perturbed frequency, viz. the
non-contacting seal by the complex number in vogue, its motion equation of the system, and conveniently solved the
problems related to perturbed frequency are discussed. By
perturbed pressures wp and wp (m=z,
,)of dynamic gas
means of numerical value analysis, the truncation error theory
wm wm
brought forward should neglect the high-order infinitesimal of film in the bearings and seals, according to this, the stiffness
the perturbed frequency, thus the conclusion on the perturbed and damping coefficients used to determine the bearing’s or
Reynolds equations in accord with those by the dual number is seal’s dynamic running stability were calculated.
obtained, namely both are independent of the system motion
equations of the bearings or non-contacting seals, or of the GAS FILM LINEAR PERTURBED REYNOLDS
whirl frequency of instability. EQUATIONS
Keywords: Gas film Dynamic Property, Gas Bearings and The compressible dynamic Reynolds equation for
Seals Stability, Dry Running Gas Seals, Stiffness and
no-dimensional cylindrical polar coordinate R,©,T in Fig. 1
Damping Coefficients, Dual Number
is given by>6@
INTRODUCTION z, z '
Hydrodynamic lubrication has good resistance to the r ©
frication and wear. It’s applications can be abstracted as a , z
bearings model in mechanism. The hydrodynamic lubricated
seals, namely non-contacting rotating shafts seals, are one of y'
the developed branches of the bearings technology. What the
air is regarded as a very desirable lubricant which was firstly Oc
put forward by Hirn in 1854>1@, and which was conclusively
ro
experimented by Kingsbury>2@ in the end of the century, then
it was really used after 1900s.
y
The advantages of aerodynamic lubrication are little frication x' O
the dynamic viscosity of air is only one in a thousand of
mineral oil, no-pollution, heat and cold resistant and also x ri
from ambience. Its disadvantages are low loading capacity,
especially dynamic running instability, namely, easily
bringing “half-frequency self-excited whirl”, and “gas film
Fig.1 Coordinate system of thrust bearings or face seals
resonant whip” phenomenon>3-6@. The dynamic stability of
motion
the aerodynamic lubrication depends on its stiffness and
damping of the gas film. For the gas-lubricated bearings and
w wP 2 w wP 2 wPH w PH (1)
seals, it is an important research that the stiffness and damping H 3 RH 3 2 > 2 @
R w
2
w RwR wR w wT
coefficients of the gas film were confirmed. Heretofore, it was
211
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
w wP 2 w P0 PZ w wP 2 w P0 PZ For any balancing point, six perturbed pressure PZr, PZd, PAr,
>3H 02 0 2 H 03 @ >3RH 02 0 2 RH 03 @
R 2 w w w RwR wR wR PAd and PBr, PBd can be respectively obtained by formula (8a)
w P PZ H 0 (6a) ~ (8f) and (9a), (9b), after its pressure P0 is solved by formula
2 > 0 2 J Z P0 PZ H 0 @
w (8’) and (9’).
w wP 2 w P0 PA w wP 2
>3RH 02Sin 0 2 H 03 @ >3R 2 H 02Sin 0 THE DYNAMIC STIFFNESS AND DAMPING
R 2w w w RwR wR
3 w P0 PA w P0 RSin PA H 0 COEFFICIENTS OF GAS FILM
2 RH 0 @ 2 > 2 J N P0 RSin PA H 0 @ The perturbed dynamic restoring force and restoring
wR w
(6b) moment of non-dimension of gas film are expressed as the
w wP 2 w P0 PB w wP 2 dual number respectively
>3RH 02 Cos 0 2 H 03 @ >3R 2 H 02 Cos 0
R w
2
w w RwR wR ϺF FZr J Z FZd > K ZZ J Z D ZZ @Z (10a)
212
A Method of Dual Number for the Aerodynamic Property Analysis of Gas-Lubricated Mechanism˖Self-Pressurizing Thrust
Bearings and Non-Contacting Face Seals (Partĉ˖Analytical Methods)
K A½ ³ ³ Pmr R { }dRd seals are running, the solving of the stiffness and damping
¾m Cos
B¿ 0 1
have the actual meaning under condition of =05. This leads
2È R 0
Sin (12d) to the critical parameters of the bearings or seals obtained
DA ½ ³ ³ Pmd R 2 { }dRd
¾m
B¿ 0 1
Cos when the unsteady half-frequency whirl occurs, such as the
m A, B limit operating speed, the limiting quality or limiting moment
There are ten so-called the dynamic parameters used to of inertia>6@ of design. Suppose the stiffness and damping
analyze the dynamic stability of gas film. Kzz, Dzz decide the coefficients in the bearings or seals are relevant of the whirl
property of the axial self-excited whirl, KAA, KAB, KBA, KBB frequency ratio of them, their change=100: average K or
and DAA, DAB, DBA, DBB decide the property of the angular D˘5%>10@ is small in the range of =045~065.
self-excited whirl nutation.
CONCLUSIONS
DISCUSSION ON THE MATHEMATIC AND PHYSICAL (1) when the dynamic stability parameters for the
MEANINGS OF THE DYNAMIC STIFFNESS AND aerodynamic lubricated mechanism, such as the gas thrust
DAMPING AND THEIR PERTURBED PRESSURE OF bearings and gas non-contacting face seal, are analyzed by the
GAS FILM small perturbation approximation, using the dual number can
Difference in using the complex number and the dual obtain the perturbed Reynolds equations independent of the
number to analyze dynamic stability parameters of the self-excited whirl frequencies, namely the perturbed Reynolds
aerodynamic lubricated bearings and seals is mainly the equations are independent of the system motion of the
perturbed Reynolds equations determined to the dynamic bearings and seals. Hence, it makes them easily to solve the
stiffness and damping coefficients of the bearings and seals. stiffness and damping coefficients of the aerodynamic
(1) the comparison with the dual number and the complex lubricated bearings and seals.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(2) the dual number can be similarly applied to the analysis of 3 RSinT w ( PH ) (B1c)
the dynamic stability for the journal bearings and non-contact H wT
cylinder seals of the aerodynamic lubrication, and for the 1 w w PP$ 1 w w PP$
> RH 3 @ 2 >H 3 @
bearings and the non-contact seals of the hydrodynamic R wR wR R wT wT
lubrication. w (B1d)
> HP$ 2 HP$ PRSinT @
wT
APPENDIX A 1 w w ( PP% ) 1 w w ( PP% ) w
The displacement and velocity perturbed Reynolds [ RH 3 ] 2 [H 3 ] ( PRCos T HP% )
R wR wR R wT wT wT
equations in the dynamic properties for gas-lubricated 3H wH wP 2
wH wP 2
non-contacting face seals or thrust bearings analyzed by the [( RCosT HCosT ) ( RCosT HSinT ) ]
2 wR wR RwT RwT
complex number on the small perturbation approximation 3 RCosT w ( PH ) (B1e)
are>10@
H wT
Rey P0 PZr N PZr , P0 2i 2 J Z PZi H 0 (A1a) 1 w w ( PP% ) 1 w w( PP% )
[ RH 3 ] 2 [H 3 ]
R wR wR R wT wT
Rey P0 PZi N PZi 2 J Z P0 PZr H 0 (A1b)
w (B1f)
(A1c) [ ( HP% ) 2( HP% PRCosT )]
Rey P0 PAr N PAr , P0 2i 2 J N PAi H 0 wT
The Reynolds equation under the steady state is
Rey P0 PAi ) N ( PAi ) 2 J N ( P0 RSin PAr H 0 ) (A1d)
1 w wP 2 1 w wP 2 w (B2)
(A1e) RH 3 2 H 3 2 PH
Rey P0 PBr N PBr , P0 2i 2 J N PBi H 0 R wR wR R wT wT wT
Rey P0 PBi N PBi 2 J N P0 RCos PBr H 0 (A1f)
NOMENCLATURE
Its damping coefficient is
˙Harrison Numbers, 6 ri 2
2È R 0 pa h02
1 (A2a)
DZZ
JZ ³ ³P
0 1
Zi RdRd ˙dynamic viscosity
pa˙pressure under standard state
1
2È R 0
2 Sin
(A2b)
DA ½
¾m
JN ³ ³1 Pmi R {Cos}dRd ¹, ri, h0˙operating angular velocity, inner radius
B¿ 0 and film thickness for steady-state
Now transform P Pi ˈthen equation(A1) is Z0, A0, B0˙perturbed initialization of no-dimension
d
J Z, N˙perturbed frequency ratio,
Rey P0 PZr N PZr , P0 2 iJ Z 2 PZd H 0 (A3a) z n (the pertinency of angular motion)
Z ,N
Rey P0 PZd N PZd , PZr , P0 (A3b) Z Z
z, n˙perturbed frequency
Rey P0 PAr N PAr , P0 2 iJ N PAd H 0 2 (A3c)
Rey P0 PAd N PAd , PAr , P0 (A3d) REFERENCES
Rey P0 PBr N PBr , P0 2 iJ N PBd H 0 2 (A3e) >1@HirnG1854ĀSur les Principaux Phlnomknes Qui Pr
l sentent les Frottements M l diatsāBullSocind
Rey P0 PBd N PBd , PBr , P0 (A3f)
Mulhouse26pp188-277
And that the damping coefficient formula(A2) is >2@ Kingsbury A1897ĀExperiments with An Air
2È R 0
(A4a)
DZZ ³ ³ PZd RdRd Lubricated JournalāJAmSocNaval Engrs9
0 1 pp267-292
2È R 0
Sin (A4b) >3@Sternlicht BandWinn LW1964ĀGeometry Effect
DA ½ ³ ³ Pmd R 2 { }dRd
¾m
B¿ 0 1
Cos on the Threshold of Half-Frequency Whirl in
Self-ActingGas Lubricated Journal BearingsāASME
APPENDIX B JBasic Engrg86pp313-320
The perturbed equations are obtained under the real >4@ Green Iand Barnsby R M2001(4)Āa Simultaneous
number coordinate respectively differentiate on the dynamic Numerical Solution for the Lubrication and Dynamic
Reynolds equation with respect to perturbed displacement Z, A, Stability of Noncontacting Gas Face Seals ā ASME
B and perturbed velocity Z , A , B >13@ J.Tribol.123pp388-394
1 w w PPZ 1 w w PPZ w >5@ Wanfu XuYuchuan Liuand Zhili Wang2002ĀReason
> RH 3 @ 2 >H 3 @ P HPZ
R wR wR R wT wT wT of Angular Wobble Self-excited Vibration and Half
3/ w PH 3H wH wP 2 wH wP 2 (B1a) Frequency Characteristic for Gas Film Face Sealsā
H wT 2 wR wR RwT RwT Chinese Jourof MechEng38pp43-46(in Chinese)
1 w w PPZ 1 w w ( PPZ )
> RH 3 @ 2 >H 3 @ >6@ Wanfu XuYuchuan Liuand Guangyu Li2003
R wR wR R wT wT
ĀTheoretical Analysis and Experimental Investigation of
w (B1b)
> HPZ 2 HPZ P @ Spiral Groove Dry Running Noncontacting GasāChinese
wT
1 w w PP$ 1 w w PP$ w Jourof MechEng39pp124-127(in Chinese)
> RH 3 @ 2 >H 3 @ PRSinT HP$ >7@ LundJW1968ĀCalculation of stiffness and Damping
R wR wR R wT wT wT
3H wH wP 2 wH wP 2 Properties of Gas BearingsāASMEJLubrTech90
> RSinT HSinT R sin T HCosT @
2 wR wR RwT RwT pp793-803
214
A Method of Dual Number for the Aerodynamic Property Analysis of Gas-Lubricated Mechanism˖Self-Pressurizing Thrust
Bearings and Non-Contacting Face Seals (Partĉ˖Analytical Methods)
215
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
A series of porous polyimide (PI) samples was prepared
using compressive molding. Thus the PI powders with a grit Fig. 1 Optical microscopic image of molded porous PI sample
size of 50 m were compressively molded through hot No.1
216
A Model for the Calculation of the Micro-Pores Number of Compressively Molded Polyimide Porous Materials
Figure 1 shows the optical microscopic image of molded PI 3.2, once again indicating that it could be infeasible and
sample No.1. The measured numbers of the micro-pores in unreliable to use Eq.(2) to calculate the number of the
molded PI samples No.1, 3, 5, and 7, together with the values micro-pores in porous PI samples.
of N calculated using Eq.(2) and those calculated using the
models established in the present research (Which will be dealt 3.4 Relationship between the number of the micro-pores
with in the following sections) are given in Table 1. It is seen and the pore size
that the numbers of the micro-pores in the molded porous PI As it is seen in Eq.(2), the number of the micro-pores, N, is
samples were measured to be only about 550̚900 /mm2 (see
inversely proportional to the size of the pores, d, which might
the value of Nexp in Table 1), which are much different from
not conform to the actual situation of the compressively
those (see the value of N in Table 1) calculated using Eq.(2).
And in some cases, N was about one thousand times as much molded porous polymeric materials. Taking compressively
as Nexp, indicating that it could be infeasible and unreliable to molded PI as a typical example, the porosity of the molded PI
use Eq.(2) to calculate the numbers of the micro-pores in the samples decreased with increasing compressive molding
molded porous PI samples. pressure, so did the size of the pores, which had been
confirmed by the relevant experimental results. However, the
3.3 Theoretical analysis of the maximum number of the number of the micro-pores would not be excessively increased
micro-pores in molded PI with increasing molding pressure, and it might be even
decreased in some cases, owing to the deformation and closure
of some pores under a higher molding pressure. In an ideal
situation, all the micro-pores would experience decreasing in
the size but not be closed, i.e., the number of the total
micro-pores would be kept around 900.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
218
A Model for the Calculation of the Micro-Pores Number of Compressively Molded Polyimide Porous Materials
but Ncalc was larger than Nexp. The uneven deformation 4 CONCLUSIONS
coefficient of porous PI materials can be empirically set as From the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:
=2.64, then the number of the capillaries in a unit volume can When spherical powders were stacked in the most-dense
be modified as N N calc , and we have: stacking pattern under no external pressure, the maximum
m
K number of the micro-pores on the most densely piled plane was
1644162H (13) 2 L2 2.866 DL
Nm expressed as N , where D is the diameter of
25.4 R r 3 6.9 R r 3 0.866 D 2
the powders, and L is the size of the bottom plane on which the
Eq.(13) is the final equation established in the present work spherical powders were stacked in the most dense pattern.
for illustrating the relationship between the number of The number of the capillary pores of porous PI materials
micro-pores and the pores size. The number of the micro-pores compressively molded from the powders with a radius of R
in the compressively molded porous PI samples, calculated KH
could be expressed as N m* , where r is
aR r bR r
3 3
using Eq.(13), is also present in Table 1 and plotted against the
pores size and shown in Figure 5 as well. Interestingly, Nm
the size of the pores, and is the porosity of the porous PI
was very much close to Ncalc, indicating that Eq.(13) could be
samples. In this way the variation in the size of each pore
well used to calculate the number of the micro-pores in the
perpendicular to the bottom plane of the mold together with the
compressively molded PI samples. Moreover, Eq.(13) can be
octahedron and tetrahedron pores was taken into account, so the
expressed in its universal form as:
corresponding equation for the calculation of the number of the
KH (14)
N* micro-pores had definite physical meaning and the calculated
aR r bR r
m 3 3
value of Nm* agreed well with the corresponding experimental
where Nm*, refers to calculated number of the micro-pores, value Nexp.
refers to porosity of the porous PI samples, Both the porosity and pores size of compressively molded
R refers to the radius of the powders, porous PI materials varied with increasing pressure, and the
r refers to size of the pores, number of the micro-pores generally tended to decrease with
and K , a, and b are all coefficient of correction. decreasing pores size.
REFERENCES
[1] Bertand P. A., 1997, “Oil Exchange between Ball Bearings
and Porous Polyimide Ball Bearing Retainers.” Tribology
Transactions, 40, pp.294-302.
[2] Sepulveda, P., 1997, “Gelcasting foam for porous ceramics.”
The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 76, pp. 61-65.
[3] Pu Yuping, Lv Guangshu. , 2003, “Study on the Properties
of Molded Polyimide Porous Materials.” Transactions of
Beijing Institute of Technology, 23, pp.389-393.
[4] National Standard GB5250ˉ1993 of People's Republic of
China.,1993,Determination of fluid permeability of sintered
permeable metal-matrix materials.
[5] National Standard GB5249ˉ1993 of People's Republic of
China.,1993,Determination of pore size of sintered
permeable metal-matrix materials using gas-bubble test.
[6] Liu P. Sh.,2004, Introduction to Porous Cellular Materials.
Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, pp.304-310.
[7] Liu G. X., 1980, Principle of Metallography. Beijing: Press
Fig. 5 Variation of the number of pores with pore size (N is the of Metallurgical Industry, pp.24-34.
value calculated using Eq.(2), Ncalc is the calculated value in the [8] Lv G Sh., Zhang Y. M.,2001, Fundamentals of Engineering
present article, Nmodified is the calculated value after modification, Materials and Processing Technology. Beijing: Higher
and Ntest is the measured value in the present research) Education Press.
219
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Frictional Dynamics in a Two Dimensional Frenkel-Kontorova Model with Square Lattice Symmetry
220
Frictional Dynamics in a Two Dimensional Frenkel-Kontorova Model with Square Lattice Symmetry
position of an arbitrary n, m th atom { xn,m , yn,m } satisfy Following the previous studies[16,17] in 1D FK model, we
first study the commensurate case of E 1 . Fig.2 represent the
the following equations of motion,
.. . average mean chain velocity, as a function of the driving
x n , m J x n , m k [ x n 1, m x n 1, m 2 x n , m ] force F . We present the simulation data for the case
k of T 0, K 1, f 1, and J 0.1 for different values of
[ x n 1, m 1 x n 1, m 1 x n 1, m 1 x n 1, m 1
angle D . For D 0 , it is exactly the 1D case. We note from
2
(1)
³
f
v ! ¦ vd t misfit angle T . In order to understand how the friction force
N t f ti
ti j 1
221
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
n N n M 2S
¦ ¦ f [ sin T sin( ( xn,m cos T yn,m sin T ))
n 1 m 1 b
2S
cos T sin( ( xn,m sin T yn,m cos T ))] (4)
b
N M F sin D
For large enough K , the particles are nearly equally
separated, xn,m na ' x , yn,m ma ' y ,where | ' x | a
2 §S ·
Fs f 1 tan ¨ D ¸ (S 4 d D d S 2) (6)
©2 ¹
This analytical results are in good agreements with
numerical ones, see Fig.3. ' x and ' y should satisfy the
sin[2S' y ]
Fig. 4 relation of tan D .
sin[2S' x ]
For 1D commensurate case of T 0 and D 0 , the We then conclude that, for the case of commensurate (1D
contact between two layers where their lattice spacing ratio is case), the static friction force is much larger than that of 2D
an rational number ( E 1 ), the magnitude and direction of the case. Therefore, although superlubricity may not be obtained
forces received by atoms nearly same. Thus, for an infinite for 1D case (also 2D case for T 0 and D 0 ), it is likely
system, the sum of the forces received by the atoms, namely, that the superlubricity can exist for more real 2D case. In order
the friction forces, is not zero. However, for 2D case of T z 0 , to know if or how the superlubricity exists for a more real 2D
case, following we will investigate the dependence of both the
the magnitude and direction of the forces received by atoms do
not line along the direction of sliding at all. Then, for an
222
Frictional Dynamics in a Two Dimensional Frenkel-Kontorova Model with Square Lattice Symmetry
Fig. 7
Fig. 5
For different materials of upper and lower layers their
We also checked the system behavior for smaller
lattice constant a and b are usually different a z b . In order
value( f 0.25 ) of the magnitude of the adhesive force
to study how the static friction force varies between two
between two layers with the other parameters set E 1 , different material layers, the numerical simulation of the
J 0.1 , K 1 . The numerical results are shown in Fig.5. mobility as a function of the driving force and the static
The static friction force for T 0 is smaller than that for large friction force as function of a in different values of T are
value of f 1 which can be approximately expressed by presented. The plot of static friction force for this case is given
(see Fig.8), where the system parameters are
Eqs.(5) and (6) (see Fig.5). It is also noted that except for the
case of T 0 , the average velocity of the system for other E ( 5 1) / 2 , f 1, J 0.1. It is found that for the case
cases such as T 0 , 40, 60 is not zero even for much small of T 0 the static friction force is less for the case of
external force F , namely, the static friction force is very a z b than that of the corresponding case of E 1 . However,
2
small 10 or zero, in which case superlubricity may take for any other values of T z 0 the static friction force Fs is much
place. In conclusion, we know that as the magnitude of the
larger for the incommensurate case of a z b than that of the
adhesive force f decrease the static friction force decrease for
commensurate case E 1 . The similar conclusion are
any values of both T and D .
obtained by numerical simulation for other cases such as
f 1, J 0.7, K 1 and f 0.25, J 0.1, K 1 etc. If two
layers are arbitrarily contacted the possibility of T 0 is
nearly zero, so we can say that the possibility to obtain
superlubricity is much larger between same materials than that
for different materials. This result is completely contrary to
one dimensional case[12].
Fig. 6
223
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
junction, charge density waves(CDW), Wigner crystal, etc. The [9] B. N. J. Persson, Sliding Friction: Physical Principles and
possible study of the kinks and the relation to the lock-to Applications sSpringer-Verlag, Berlin, 1998d; Surf. Sci. Rep.
33, (1999) 83.
sliding transition will be a future topic based on more realistic
[10] Z. G. Zheng, B. Hu, and G. Hu, Phys. Rev. B. 58 (1998)
2D FK model we presented in this paper. 5453.
[11] J. Tekic, O. M. Braun, and B. Hu, Phys. Rev. E. 71 (2005)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 026104.
The authors are grateful to the National Natural Science [12] O. M.Braun, A. R. Bishop, and J. Roder, Phys. Rev. Lett.
Foundationof P. R.China (Grant No.10875098, 50575217 and 79,(1997) 3692; M. Paliy, O. Braun, T. Dauxois, and B.
50421502), theNatural Science Foundation of Northwest Hu,Phys. Rev. E 56, (1997) 4025; O. M. Braun, B. Hu,
Normal University (Grant No.NWNU-KJCXGC-03-48, A.Filippov, and A. Zeltser, Phys. Rev. E 58, (1998) 1311;O.
03-17). M. Braun, B. Hu, and A. Zeltser, Phys. Rev. E 62,
(2000)4235;O. M. Braun, H. Zhang, B. Hu, and J. Tekic,
REFERENCES Phys. Rev. E 67, (2003) 066602.
[1] G. Blatter et al., Rev. Mod. Phys. 66, (1994) 1125. [13] M. Hirano, Wear. 254, (2003) 932.
[2] M.J.Higgins and S. Bhattacharya, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, [14] H. Li, T. Xu, C. Wang, J. Chen, H. Zhou, and H. Liu,
(1995)3029. Tribology International 40, (2007) 132.
[3] G.Grüner, Rev. Mod. Phys. 60, (1988) 1129. [15] A. Vanossi, N. Manini, G. Divitini, G. E. Santoro, and
[4] C. Reichhardt and C. J.Olson Reichhardt, Phys. Rev. Lett. E. Tosatt,Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, (2006) 056101; A. Vanossi,
92, (2004) 108301. N. Manini, F. Caruso, G. Divitini, G. E. Santoro, and E.
[5] C. Reichardt, C. J. Olson, N. Gronbech-Jensen, and F. Nori, Tosatt, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, (2007) 206101.
Phys. Rev. Lett.86, (2001) 4354. [16] A. Vanossi, A. R. Bishop, A. Franchini, and V. Bortolani,
[6] A. A. Middleton and N. S. Wingreen, Phys. Rev. Lett.71, Surf.Sci. 566-568, (2004) 816-820.
(1993) 3198. [17] A.Vanossi, J. Roder, A. R. Bishop, and V. Bortolani,
[7] C. Reichhardt and C. J. Olson Reichhardt, Phys.Rev. Lett. Phys.Rev.E. 67, (2003) 016605.
90, (2003) 046802.
[8] R. Seshadri and R. M. Westervelt, Phys. Rev. B 46, (1992)
5150.
224
Advances in Investigation of Elasto-Aerodynamic Lubrication in Compliant Foil Bearings
Institute of Mechatronics and Information Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an 710049, China
225
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
.
P I , z z, O H bÛ M , O
Top foil
Fixed end L
2R O p I , z ,
P I , z A W I , z
I ,M Bump foil
O
Atb q M , O ,
L H Û M , O Fi
W I , z 2R I1 I2 Ni
(b) (c)
Denote all the forces acting on domain A of the top foil of the action of N i and Fi can be dealt by using the method
3 I , z , elastic deflection of the top foil at arbitrary point presented in reference [8], and details are neglected here for
simplicity.
q M , O due to the action of all the forces can be written as
Substitution of Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) yields
follows.
H Û M , O ³³ P I , z f I , z,M , O dI dz
H Û M , O ³³ 3 I , z f I , z,M , O dI dz
t
t A
(1) (5)
³³ W I , z f t I , z,M , O dI dz
A
M , O A, I , z A Atb
can be written as
3 (I , z ) P (I , z ) W (I , z ) (2)
M , O A, I , z A tb
(6)
Generally, the reaction force W I , z due to contact H M , O ³³ P I , z f I , z,M , O dI dz
pÛ t
A
differs from the gas film pressure P I , z and takes place only M , O A, I , z A
on local contact area Atb , and in most cases, contact between Within the contact area Atb between the top foil and the
the top foil and bump foil is linear-contact, with increased load, bump foil, the following deformation coordination condition
contact taking place in top foil and bump foil maybe becomes must be satisfied.
area-contact. So when the definition of contact load is in the
H pÛ M , O H wÛ M , O H bÛ M , O
whole domain A , W I , z can be written as (7-1)
M , O Atb
°W I , z
W I , z
I , z Atb , Atb A
® (3) or
°̄ 0 I , z A Atb
Similar to the expression of the deformation of the top foil, ³³ P I , z f I , z,M , O dI dz
A
t
226
Advances in Investigation of Elasto-Aerodynamic Lubrication in Compliant Foil Bearings
2 u105
0.5
0
1.5
-1
-2
1 355 355
270 1.2 270
1.2 0 180 0 180
-1.2 8
90 I1 / degree O 90 I1 / degree
O -1.2 8
(a) (b)
u105
0.35
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5 355
270
1.2
180
O 0 90 I1 / degree
-1.2 8
(c) (d)
Fig. 2 Solution of elasto-aerodynamically coupled lubrication for a journal foil bearing ( H 0 0.4 )
(a) Static pressure distribution (b) Radial deformation of the top foil
(c)Macroscopic deformation of the top foil (d) Microscopic deformation of the top foil
For the multi-leaf foil journal bearing with large preload, parts.
the nonlinear finite element contact model of the foil bearings Numerical results for a five-leave journal foil bearing with
was developed by introducing the method of contact dynamics large preload are shown in Fig. 3 [11].
to describe the moving contact relationship among the bearing
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 3 A five-leaf foil bearing with large preload
(a) State of foil bearing before assembly (b) State of foil bearing after assembly
(c) Static pressure distribution ( H 0 0.3 ) (d) Static pressure distribution ( H 0 0.8 )
14 6
Dxx
Dxy
12 Dyx
4 Dyy
Dxx f
10 Dxy f
Dyx f
K xx 2 Dyy f
8 K xy
K yx
K yy
D
6 0
K
K xx f
K xy f
K yx f
4 K yy f
-2
-4
0
-2 -6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
: :
(a) (b)
228
Advances in Investigation of Elasto-Aerodynamic Lubrication in Compliant Foil Bearings
(1) The dynamic characteristics of the compliant foil continuous and limited even in the case of : o 0 or
bearing can be defined and predicted in linear range similar to : o f . In general, the direct terms of the dynamic stiffness
that of the oil-lubricated bearing.
K xx and K yy increase with the increase of the frequency of
(2) Both the dynamic deformations of the foil bearing and
the frequency of disturbance have great influences on stiffness disturbance, while the cross-coupling terms K xy and K yx tend
and damping coefficients in gas-lubricated bearings. to an equal value when the frequency becomes infinite. All the
(3) Solution of the dynamic stiffness and damping damping coefficients decrease in higher frequency region and
coefficients in air-lubricated bearings exists in the whole range vanish when : o f .
of the frequency of disturbance, furthermore, both the stiffness
and the damping coefficients in the case of small disturbance are
(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Dimensionless dynamic coefficients of a five-leaf journal foil bearing with large preload
(a) Stiffness coefficients Kij (i, j=x, y) (b) Damping coefficients Dij (i, j=x, y)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
230
Normal Stress Effects in Journal Bearing Lubrication with Maxwell Fluid
231
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
wu wv wa wa wu wv
W xx W yy 2Kˆ( ) 2OKˆ[ x y 2(Z xx Z yy )] (7)
wy wx wy wx wy wx 3 Numerical results in steady laminar lubrication
In journal bearing lubrication, the thickness of the lubricant
Assuming that the temperature is constant, the first normal
film is far less than other dimensions. Compared with the
stress difference of Maxwell fluid will affect the pressure profile
dominating velocity u and velocity gradient wu , wv and wa y and the load capacity. The pressure of the intermediate
wy wx wx cross-section at L/2 is shown in Fig. 2. p 0 is the dimensionless
are omitted in Eq. (7), the first normal stress difference is pressure of the lubricant which is not affected by the first
simplified to Eq. (8). normal stress difference, p1 is the dimensionless pressure
wu wa wu
W xx W yy 2Kˆ ( O x 2OZ ) (8) which is under the effect of the first normal stress difference.
wy wy wy M is the angular location along the circumference of bearing.
In Eq. (8), O is the relaxation time, Z is the angular velocity
Corresponding load capacities are shown in Fig. 3.
of the following coordinate to the reference coordinate. Z is
0.12 _
caused by the elasticity of Maxwell fluid and is considered as p1
damping ratio of the Maxwell element [9]. Thus, the first 0.08
with Eq. (9) and (10), the X1 (J ) is expressed as Eq. (11). Fig. 2 Effect of the first normal stress difference to the
2Kˆ wa pressure profile.
X1 (J ) (J O x 2OZ nJ ) (11)
J 2 wy 0.4
0.35
w2 p 2 wp wh 3 w p
2 200 600 1000 1400 1800
h3 3h h : (r.p.m)
232
Normal Stress Effects in Journal Bearing Lubrication with Maxwell Fluid
stress can be omitted in lubrication calculation. In real the increment of the pressure peak is about 5%.
lubrication, because the effect of the first normal stress 1
v = 0.01
normal stress difference is also a safe design. From Fig. 3, we
v =0
may also find that the variation of the load capacity is caused
principally by the shearing rate. The reason is that the
differential viscosity is affected by the shearing rate greatly. In
_
p
0.5
Maxwell fluid lubrication, the variation of the viscosity is the
key factor to affect the lubrication effect, and the effect of the
first normal stress difference is to increase the load capacity in
small variation range.
The effect of the first normal stress difference is constrained 0
by two factors. One of the factors is the material dynamic 0
M
180
(DEG)
360
property. The first normal stress difference is determined by the Fig. 5 Effect of the normal stress difference to the pressure
natural frequency and the damping ratio of Maxwell fluid, and it profile
is also affected by the shearing rate. The amplitude frequency
response of the first normal stress difference is shown in Fig. 4. Normal velocity may be considered under some condition in
In Fig. 4, the first normal stress difference of Maxwell fluid the true journal bearing lubrication. For example, under the
varies as the shearing frequency increases. Its amplitude reaches condition of the dynamic load, the normal velocity of the
the maximum value at the natural frequency. Different material lubricant is increased by the axle center movement. The effect
parameters, such as the damping ratios, affect the amplitude of of the normal velocity to the lubrication result should be
the first normal stress difference and its rate of change. considered and is analyzed as follows.
Choosing suitable lubricant may increase the effect of the first
normal stress difference and improve the lubrication effects. 4. Conclusions
The other factor is the normal velocity of the lubricant film. From the Rivlin-Ericksen equation and the momentum
In Eq. (12), the function of the first normal stress difference is equation, integrated with the coordinates conversion, the
constrained by the normal velocity of the lubricant. Because the expression of the first normal stress difference is derived. The
normal velocity is small, it weakens the effect of the first normal function of the first normal stress difference is not only related
stress difference. For example, under the parameters used in with the Maxwell fluid material parameters, but also is affected
calculation, the value of the dimensionless first normal stress by the shearing frequency.
difference is -36, but the calculated normal velocity v is no In finite width journal bearing lubrication, under the steady
more than 0.0021, so the effect of the second item on the right laminar flow, the pressure and the load capacity are increased by
side of the Eq. (12) is far less than the geometric effect. the effect of the first normal stress difference. But constrained
100 by the normal velocity, the effect of the first normal stress
difference is not so obvious. Considered both from the
theoretical calculation and from the true application, the first
80
normal stress difference is omitted while the differential
Magnitude (dB)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
[7] Tanner,R.I. Stady of anosothermal short journal bearings [11]Christensen R.M., Saibel E.A. Normal stress effects in
with non-newtonian lubricants. J. Appl. Mech. 1965, 12: viscoelastic fluid lubrication. Journal of Non-Newtonian
781-787. fluid mech. 1980, 7, pp: 63-75.
[8] Rajalingham C., Prabhu B.S. The steady state performance Harnoy A. Analysis of stress relaxation in elasitco-viscous
of a hydrodynamic journal bearing with a non newtonian fluid lubrication of journal bearing. J. of Lubr. Tech. 1978,
lubricant. Wear. 1979. (55): 107-120. 100, pp: 287-291.
[9] Chen H.S., Chen D.R. Frequency-domain analysis of [12]Becker E. Simple non-Newtonian fluid flows. Advances in
Maxwell fluid lubrication in journal bearings, 2004, Applied Mech. 1980, 20, pp 212-226.
preprint. [13]Rivlin R.S. The hydrodynamics of non-newtonian fluids.
[10]Swamy, S.T. Caculated load capacity of non-newtonian Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 1948, 193, pp: 261-280.
lubricants in finite width journal bearings. Wear, 1975, [14]Chen Darong, An universal form of Reynolds equation
31:.277-285. suited to non-Newtonian medium. Chinese Journal of
Mechanical Engineeringˈ1991(2), pp 21-32.
[15]Pinkus O. Theory of hydrodynamic lubrication, New York :
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961.
234
Analysis of Bearing Outer Ring Creep with FEM
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
238
Effects of Content of MoS2 on Sliding Tribological Behavior of Copper-Based Powder Metallurgy Materials under Electrical Current
1. School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, PR China
2. School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471039, China
(Extended Abstract)
1.INTRODUCTION
Contact strips used in the electrical railways is quite
important collecting electrical materials which transmit
electrical power from the wire to the electrical locomotive to
insure the electrical locomotive run safety, it is necessary for
contact strips to possess not only a good mechanical property,
tribological behavior ˈ but also an excellent electrical Fig.1 Schematic diagram of the wear test apparatus
conductivity[1-2].Service materials of contact strips are Cu-based 1-disk, 2-pin, 3- guide sleeve, 4- load shaft
powder metallurgy material, Cu-impregnated carbon material
and C-C composite material. With the technological
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
developments of electric railways, speedup of train and
reduction of cost to maintain the facilities are strongly required, Fig.2 shows the relation between the electrical current and
it is necessary to decrease the wear of wire and contact strips. friction coefficient of the powder metallurgy materials under an
The addition of solid lubricants such as MoS2 to materials is applied load of 40N. It is noted that the friction coefficient of
used to improve the friction and wear properties of powder cu-based powder metallurgy material decreases with increasing
metallurgy material[3]. The tribological behavior of powder the electrical current. Adding 10% or 20%t MoS2, the friction
metallurgy material containing MoS2 were investigated[4-8], but coefficient of the materials are lower than that of no MoS2 and
the tribological behavior of the materials containing higher are changed within a narrow range with increasing the electrical
MoS2 under electrical sliding were less reported. In this paper, current.
the friction and wear of Cu-based powder metallurgy material
which contains 10% and 20% MoS2 as pin were investigated
IULFWLRQFRHIILFLHQW
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
materials is obviously increased , wear rate of no containing Arc discharge, which were generated between the pins and
MoS2 materials is obvious higher than that of containing MoS2 the disk when the contact broke, made a significant contribution
materials at the same electrical current, especially at high to the wear rate of the material. The temperature of arc plasma at
current. electrode was known to reach 3500–4000 K, therefore, around
the spot where arc was discharged, the temperatures of the
surface and the subsurface increased promptly[9], the material
could be melted, which resulted in severe arc erosion . Adhesive
ZHDUUDWHPJh P
wear, abrasive wear and arc erosion were the dominant
mechanisms during the electrical sliding processes[10]. As the
electrical current increases, because of roughness, the
probability of arc discharge which generates between the pins
and the disk increases, the wear rate of the materials increases
because of the arc discharge (Fig5)
HOHFWULFDOFXUUHQW$
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
a) 0%MoS2, 100A,20Nˈ10m/s
The authors gratefully acknowledge the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No.50432020,
50775066) and the National 973Project (2007CB607603).
REFERENCES
[1] Da Hai He, Rafael R.Manory ,Norm Grady, 1998, “Wear of
railway contact wires against current collector materials,”
Wear,215,pp. 146-155.
[2] S.G. Jia , P. Liu. 2005, “Wear behavior of Cu–Ag–Cr alloy
wire under electrical sliding.” Materials Science and
Engineering A, 398,pp. 262–267.
[3] Chen Jie, Xiong Xiang, Yao Ping-ping,2003, “Application
and perspective of MoS2 in metallurgy power brake
materials for air plane” , Materials Science and Engineering
of Powder Metallargy,8(2),pp.141-146.
b) 10% MoS2,75A,40N,20m/s [4] Liu Rutie, Li Xibin. 2000, “Effects of MoS2 Addiction on
the Tribological Characteristics of Self – lubricating
Fig. 4 SEM morphologies of wear surfaces of different content
Nickel-base Material.” Power Metallargy Technology,
MoS2 powder- metallurgy Materials
18(1),pp.31-34.
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Effects of Content of MoS2 on Sliding Tribological Behavior of Copper-Based Powder Metallurgy Materials under Electrical Current
[5] XU Shao-fan, Jin Niu ,Wang Cheng-fu .2003, “Effects of [8] Yoshitada. Watanabe, 2008, “High-speed sliding
MoS2 on Structure and Properties of copper-graphite characteristics of Cu–Sn-based composite materials
composites.” Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, 23(3), containing lamellar solid lubricants by contact resistance
pp. 54-56. studies,” Wear, 264, pp. 624-631.
[6] S.Dhanasekaran, R.Gnanamoorthy, 2007, “Abrasive wear [9] Shunichi Kubo,Koji Kato, 1998, “Effect of arc discharge on
behavior of sintered steels prepared with MoS2 addition,” wear rate of Cu-impregnated carbon strip in unlubricated
Wear, 262, pp. 617-623. sliding against Cu trolley under electric current,” Wear,
[7] Surapol Raadnui, Sithipong Mahathanabodee, Ruangdaj 216, pp. 172-178.
Tongsri, 2008, “Tribological behaviour of sintered 316L [10] J.P. Tu, W.X. Qi, Y.Z. Yang,2002, “Effect of aging
stainless steel impregnated with MoS2 plain bearing,” Wear, treatment on the electrical sliding wear behavior of
265, pp .546-553. Cu–Cr–Zr alloy,” Wear, 249, pp. 1021-1027.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
242
Research on Frictional Wear Properties of C/C Composite with Electric Current
ZHDUUDWHJNP
FRHIILFLHQW
frictional wear with electric current. As shown in Fig.2(a), the
IULFDWLRQ
coefficient of friction of C/C composite is approximately
proportional to the load applied to the pin sample. Whereas the
wear rate of C/C composite decreases rapidly at the early stage
of experiment and slowly at the latter stage of experiment. The
wear rate of C/C composite is also approximately proportional FXUUHQW$ FXUUHQW
to the load when the load is over 70N.
Fig.4 the relationship of coefficient and wear rate to current
ZHDUUDWHJNP
3. DISCUSSION
FRHIILFLHQW
IULFDWLRQ
ZHDUUDWHJNP
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
function of load. The carbon films has self-lubrication effect electrical wear mechanism is the main wear mechanism of C/C
and the self-lubrication effect makes coefficient of friction composite. So the wear rate of C/C composite with electric
decrease. Further more, the electric current can improve the current is higher than that without electric current. The gasified
degree of ablation and evaporation. This fact will add electrical small carbon particles attached to the indentations of pin and
wear to C/C composite beside mechanical wear. Thus the wear disk and change into carbon filmes throughing that pin sample
rate of C/C composite increases. and disk sample press with each other by the effect of load. And
As shown in Fig.4, the coefficient of friction of C/C carbon films can be act as lubricants and lead the coefficient of
composite decreases but the wear rate of that increases with the friction to decrease. These facts is consistent with the result in
increase of electric current. This fact may be caused arc Fig.3.
generated at the interface between pin and disk samples. The
energy of arc enhances continuously when electric current
increases. The enhancement of arc energy improves the degree
of the ablation and erosion of C/C composite. Thus the wear rate
increases. A lot of carbon particles adhere to the wear surfaces
of pin and disk samples after evaporating caused by arc effect.
And then the compact carbon films are formed by the press of
load. The carbon film can act as a lubricant so as to reduce
frictional resistance. Therefore, the coefficient of friction
decreases with the increase of electric current.
(a) 0A-120N-20m/s (b) 100A-120N-20m/s
4. WEAR MECHANISM OF C/C COMPOSITE` Fig.6 the wear surface feature of C/C composite with and without electric current
4.1 GENERATION OF ARC AND THE EFFECT OF ARC ON
WEAR PROCESS The wear surface features of C/C composite with different
Under the condition of friction wear with current-carrying, electric current are shown in Fig.7. The two pictures in Fig.7
poor contact may be appear in the course of sliding when load is indicate that under the condition of constant velocity and load,
light or velocity is high because micro asperities are existed on there were carbon films, broken carbon fibres and a few small
the surface of pin and disk samples. The contact area increases holes caused by arc on the wear surface of C/C composite when
gradually just at the beginning of that the pin sample is the electric current was low(Fig.7a). But there were carbon
separated from the disk sample. The electric resistance of the films, big holes caused by arc and a few broken carbon fibres on
contact area becomes greater and greater. And so the heat the wear surface of C/C composite when the electric current was
emitted from the contact area becomes higher gradually. high(Fig.7b). The reason of this fact is that the arc energy
Therefore, the temperature of contact points increases rapidly increases gradually with the increase of electric current
and electrons are emitted. The electrons change into free eletron conducted by friction couples. The increased arc energy eroded
and positive ion which can conduct electric after they strike and ablated C/C composite pin sample and copper disk sample
with the gas molecules at the space between pin and disk. Thus intensively. Therefore, the wear rate of C/C composite increases
gas discharge phenomenon is formed and this phenomenon is with the increase of electric current (see Fig.4b). A lot of carbon
called arc. particles distributed in the place between pin and disk after they
The deposit carbon and carbon fibres in C/C composite are gasified on the effect of arc. Illuminated by arc light, fumes
gasified due to the effect of arc. The C/C composite suffers from were seen to disperse in atmosphere. And pungent odor was
arc erosion at different levels and ablation pits are left on wear smelled simultaneously. Carbon particles changed into compact
surface. The copper of disk sample adheres to the wear surface carbon films which had lubricating effect because pin and disk
and changes into small particles after gasifying and press each other. The higher the electric current is, the more the
condensating. The instantaneous high temperature caused by crabon films are. And so the coefficient of friction decreases
arc makes the temperature gradient of samples to be increased. with the increase of electric current (see Fig. 4a).
The great temperature gradient induces heavy thermal stress and
the heavy thermal stress induces fractures formed in the matrix
of sample. The fractures extend and connect with each other
after they have been formed and eventually fatigue failure is
appeared in samples.
4.2 WEAR MECHANISM ANALYSIS
Fig.6 shows the wear surface feature of C/C composite with
and without electric current. From Fig.6 (a), it can be seen that
the wear surface of C/C composite is hackly when friction
experiment is conducted without electric current. The horizontal
carbon fibre was cut off by the shear effect of friction force and (a) 40A-80N-20m/s (b) 160A-80N-20m/s
the deposit carbon and broken carbon fibres were left in C/C Fig.7 the wear surface feature of C/C composite with different electric current
composite in the process of trial. The longitudinal carbon fibres
were drawn out of the matrix and the nicks were formed at wear Velocities affect the degree of arc-starting strongly when
surface. This process is called of grain abrasive wear friction experiment is carried out with current-carrying.
mechanism. But from Fig.6 (b), it can be seen that the wear Therefore, velocities affect the wear mechanism strongly. Fig.8
surface of C/C composite is relatively smooth when friction shows the wear surface feature of C/C composite with different
experiment is conducted with electric current. Along the velocities. It can be seen from the picture that the wear surface
longitudinal carbon fibre, the deposit carbon and carbon fibres of C/C composite is mainly composed of masses of carbon films
in C/C composite were evaporated and gasified by the erosion and a few small holes when velocity is low (Fig.8a). But the
of arc. Thus holes were formed at these places. That is, wear surface of C/C composite is mainly composed of a few
244
Research on Frictional Wear Properties of C/C Composite with Electric Current
carbon films and a lot of big holes when velocity is high As illustrated above, the wear mechanism of C/C
(Fig.8b). This fact indicates that the arc energy at high velocities composite with electric current is mainly of electric wear
is more intensive than that at low velocities. The ablation effect caused by arc erosion as compared with that without
of arc makes the wear of C/C composite become more severe. electric current.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper studied the frictional wear properties and main
wear mechanism of C/C composite with electric current.
Conclusion can be drawn as follows:
(1) When the current is constant, the coefficient of friction and
wear rate of C/C composite increase with the increase of
velocity. And the frication coefficient increases but wear rate
decreases with the increase of load.
(2) When the load is constant, the coefficient of friction of C/C
(a) 100A-40N-10m/s (b) 100A-40N-40m/s composite decrease but wear rate increase with the increase of
Fig.8 the wear surface feature of C/C composite with different velocities current.
(3) Contrast with friction without current, the coefficient of
friction of C/C composite decreases obviously but the wear rate
Loads affect the wear mechanism of C/C composite with increases evidently under the condition of friction with current.
current-carrying, too. The contact state at heavy load is better (4) The wear mechanism of C/C composite is mainly of
than that at light load and so the electric wear level is lower. As electrical erosion caused by electric arc on the condition of
shown in Fig.9, when load is light, arc is generated at the place current-carrying.
where pin is detached from disk on the effect of heat and electric
field. The arc eroded the surface of pin sample and gasified the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
deposit carbon and carbon fibre on the wear surface so that
This study was financially supportted by the National Natural
ablation holes were formed at the surface of C/C composite. The
Science Fundation of China (No: 50432020 and 50775066) and
ablation holes enlarged and deepened gradually due to the
the National Basic Research Program of China (No.
ablation of arc periodically. So the contact area was diminished
2007CB607603) is gratefully acknowledged.
and deeper holes were left at the surface of C/C composite. The
degree of electric wear is heavier. while the contact state
between pin and disk is improved when load is heavy. REFERENCES
Subsequently, the energy and frequency of arc were decreased [1] Yu, L., 2002, “Study on the Wear Mechanism of Au-Rare
and the degree of electric wear is reduced. The ablation holes on Earth Alloy Wires,” Tribology, 22 (4), pp.282-285.
the wear surface were small and the wear rate was [2] Kubo, S., Kato, K., 1998, “Effect of arc discharge on wear
correspondingly lower than that at heavy loads (see Fig. 2b). rate of Cu-impregnated carbon strip in unlubricated
sliding against Cu trolley under electric current,” Wear,
216(2), pp. 172-178.
[3] Nagasawa, H., Kato, K., 1998, “Wear mechanism of
copper alloy wire sliding against iron-base strip under
electric current ,” Wear, 216(2), pp. 179-183.
[4] ZHAO, J.G., etal., 2006, “The influence of thermal
gradient on pyrocarbon deposition of carbon/carbon
composites during the CVI process,” Carbon, 44(4), pp.
786 -791.
[5] Golecki, I., 1997, “Rapid vapor-phase densification of
(a) 100A-40N-40m/s (b) 100A-120N-40m/s refractory composites,” Materials Science and Engineering,
Fig.9 the wear surface feature of C/C composite with different loads 20(2), pp. 37-124.
[6] Savage, G., 1994, Carbon-carbon Composites, Chapman
˂ Hall Press, London.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1. State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China;
2. Hunan Boyun New Material Co., LTD, Changsha 410205, China
246
Friction Behavior of C/C-SiC Braking Composites Fabricated by Warm Compacted-in situ Reaction
2. RESULTS
2.1 Friction and wear properties
Fig.2 shows the values of the average friction and wear
properties of the test samples. The samples of F1ǃF2 and F3
(c) (d)
show different tribological performance depending on the
carbon fiber volume fraction. It can be seen that the COF
increases at first but decreases at last with the increasing of the
carbon fiber volume fraction, while the wear rate has contrary
current. In comparison to the S2ǃS1 and F2 samples, the COF
enhance slightly but the wear rate reduce sharply with
R2 R2
(a) (b)
R1 R1
(e) (f)
G2 G2
G1 G1
S2 S2
S1 S1
F3 F3
F2 F2
F1 F1
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
3. DISCUSSION
3.1 The influence of carbon fiber (a)
It is reported that there has a best volume fraction of fiber in
the short fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites
(SFRCMC). If the fiber volume is few, then the space between
each fiber will be large. The reinforcement of the fiber will be
very small and even not, and then the fiber instead become
impurity and decrease the composites performance. Some
researchers have pointed out the fiber can not strengthen the
matrix unless the space between each fiber is less than 0.8 mm
[14]. At the same time, the larger fiber volume is, the more
uniform distribution in the matrix and the reinforced effect is,
for braking composites the wear rate is lower. However, when
the fiber volume surpasses certain limit, the bonding strength
between the fiber and the matrices will decrease, then the fiber (b)
will be easier to be stripped and drawn, which leads to the wear
rate increase.
4. CONCLUSIONS
3.3 The influence of graphite Generalized analysis about the tribological properties of all
In contrast of the COF change curves between the G1 and the samples, it is obvious that there are a best volume fraction for
the G2 (as shown in the Fig.5). The curve of the G1 is steady and the carbon fiber to improving the tribological performance. The
without obvious vibration. However, the curve of the G2 has SiC has the function to the formation of friction film, which is in
great vibration correspondingly, and its average COF is obvious favor of increasing the COF and decreasing the wear rate. The
higher than the G1’s. This indicates that the graphite, which with resin carbon plays the role of integrating the other components
layer structure and is easy to slip, has the lubrication function and enhancing the COF, but they are easy to be cut and increase
and prevents vibrating during the braking process. the wear rate. The graphite plays the lubrication function, and a
The graphite was added in the form of powers during the proper volume content of graphite is helpful to form friction film
composites preparation process, and it felt the other components to reduce the wear rate. At the same time, the friction film forms
248
Friction Behavior of C/C-SiC Braking Composites Fabricated by Warm Compacted-in situ Reaction
on the C/C-SiC composites worn surface during braking is [7] Heidenreich, B. Renz, R. and Krenkel, W. 2001, “Short fiber
propitious to reducing the wear rate. reinforced CMC materials for high performance brakes,” 4th
The COF and the wear rate of the C/C-SiC braking International Conference on High Temperature Ceramic
composites, which fabricated by the WCISR, can arrive the Matrix Composites (HT-CMC4), Munich, Germany,
maximum value of 0.44 and the minimun value 1.1m/cycle, pp.68-74.
respectively. [8] Xu, Y.D.Cheng, L.F. and Zhang, L.T. 1999, “Carbon/silicon
carbide composites prepared by chemical vapor infiltration
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS combined with silicon melt infiltration,” Carbon, 37, 8,
pp.1179-1187.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
[9] Krenkel, W. and Berndt, F. 2005, “C/C-SiC Composites for
for this study provided by the National Hi-Tech Research
space applications and advanced friction systems,” Materials
Development Program of China (2006AA03Z560) and
Science and Engineering A, 412, 1-2, pp.177-181.
Excellent Youth of Hunan Province, China (06JJ1007).
[10] Gadow, R. 2000, “Current status and future prospects of
CMC brake composites and their manufacturing
REFERENCES technologies,” Ceramic Engineering and Society Proceeding,
[1] Krenkel, W. Heidenreich, B. and Renz, R. 2002, “C/C-SiC 21,3, pp.15-29.
Composites for Advanced Friction Systems, ”Advanced [11] Krenkel, W. 200), “Cost effective processing of CMC
Engineering Materials, 4,8, pp.427-436. composites by melt infiltration (LSI-process),” Ceramic
[2] Gadow, R. and Kienzle, A. 1997, “Processing and engineering and science proceeding, 22,3, pp.443-454.
manufacturing of C-fibre reinforced SiC-composites for disk [12] Hillig,W. B. 1994, “Making ceramic composites by melt
brakes,” Proc 6th Int Symp on Ceramic Mat and Components infiltration,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 73,4,
for Engines, Arita, Japan, pp. 412-418. pp.56-62.
[3] Muhlratzer, A. and Karlsfeld. 1999, “Production, properties [13] Osterle, W. KloS H. Urban, I. and Dmitriev, A.I. 2007,
and applications of ceramic matrix composites,” Ceramic “Towards a better understanding of brake friction materials,”
forum international, 76,4, pp.30-35. Wear, 263,7-12, pp.1189-1201.
[4] Developing ceramic materials for heave vehicle brake [14] Naslain, R. 1999, “Processing of ceramic matrix
rotors.Internet: http://www.trucks.doe.gov/research/materials composites.” In: Niihara K, Nakano K, et al. edited High
/CMC-brakes.html accessed February 18, 2002. temperature ceramic matrix composites ċ. CSJ Series
[5] Stadler, Z. Krnel, K. and Kosmac,T. 2007, “Friction behavior -Publications of the Ceramic Society of Japan. 3 pp.3-8.
of sintered metallic brake pads on a C/C-SiC composite brake [15] Osterle, W. and Urban, I.2004, “Friction layers and friction
disc,” Journal of the European Ceramic Society. 27,2-3, films on PMC brake pads,” Wear 257, 1-2, pp.215–226.
pp.1411-1417. [16] Li, Y. H. and Jing, X. L. 2007, “Pyrolysis and structure of
[6] Xiao, P. Xiong, X. Zhang, H. B. and Huang, B. Y. 2005, hyperbranched polyborate modified phenolic resins,” Carbon,
“Progress and application of C/C-SiC ceramic braking 45,10, pp.1965-1971.
materials,” The Chinese Journal of Nonferrous Metals, 15,5,
pp.667-674. (in Chinese)
249
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
250
Tribological Properties of Hybrid Ag4SiW12O40 Nanoparticles Multilayer Films
solution reacts violently with organic solvents and is a skin 267 nm is ascribed to the oxygentungsten charge-transfer
irritant. Extreme caution should be exercised when handling (CT) transition of polyoxometalate. Plotting the absorbance at
piranha solution) [8]. The piranha treatment allows removal of 267 nm versus the cycle n resulted in nearly straight lines
residues of organic and inorganic impurities from the substrates (Figure 3). This indicates that Ag4SiW12O40 nanoparticles are
and makes the slides completely hydrophilic at the same time. involved in the multilayer films and the forming process is
Then, follow’s by rinsing with plenty of deionized water and reproducible.
drying with nitrogen.
The polyionoc solutions of PDDA and PSS were prepared
0.65
into 2g/L and 1g/L respectively. All concentrations were
0.60
calculated based on the monomer molecular weight.
0.55
Pristine MD films were obtained using the molecular
0.50
deposition of opposite charge on substrates, which were built by
dipping the substrates into solutions of PDDA and PSS 0.45
Absorbence
rinsing after each immersion step. One monolayer of PDDA and 0.35 n=0~7
one of PSS form a bilayer. 0.30
Nucleation of Ag4SiW12O40 nanoparticles within the MD 0.25
films occurred by as follows process. When the desired number 0.20
of bilayers was achieved, the substrate was then dipped into 0.15
AgNO3 (0.01mol/L) and H4SiW12O40 (0.01mol/L) aqueous 0.10
solution for 1min and 2min, respectively. And the step of 0.05
rinsing with deionized water and drying with N2 was performed 0.00
after each deposition step. This process is called one synthesis -0.05
cycle and repeated. The above procedure results in the 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
construction of the multilayer MD films containing Wavelength(nm)
Ag4SiW12O40 nanoparticles, which can be expressed as
(PDDA/PSS)m/(Ag4SiW12O40)n, where m is the number of
Fig. 2 UV-vis spectra of (PDDA/PSS)4.5/ (Ag4SiW12O40)n
bilayer and n is the cycle number.
films with n=0~7 on quartz substrates
1.3 CHARACTERIZATION OF FILMS
UV–vis absorption spectra of the in-situ nanoparticles filled 0.26
MD films in the 190–350 nm range were recorded on a Unico
2102 UV–vis spectroscopy which was used to monitor the 0.24
influence on the in situ synthesis Ag4SiW12O40 nanoparticles
within MD films. 0.22
source. The vacuum inside the analysis chamber was 1.333×10-6 0.18
Pa during the analysis. The binding energy has been corrected
used the benchmark C1s = 284.8eV. 0.16
TMX2000 atomic force microscopy (AFM, made by) was
used to evaluate the morphology and the roughness of the films, 0.14
and it was operated in contact mode under ambient conditions
0.12
(20±3ć) using commercial silicon nitride probes (force
constant 0.032 N/m). 0.10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1100
immersion step used deionized water, accordingly same
Ag3d5/2 nanoparticles grown linearly.
Ag3d3/2
1000
2300 nm 2300 nm
30.82 nm 38.18 nm
900
1500
0 nm 0 nm
101.4 0 nm 1150 nm 2300 nm 0 nm 1150 nm 2300 nm
1200
(a) (b)
Intensity(CPS)
2300 nm
900 48.17 nm 2300 nm
42.89 nm
Si2p
600
0.00 nm
0.00 nm
1150 nm 1150 nm
300
(c) (d)
3000
2300 nm 2300 nm
34.6 50.06 nm
24.57 nm
36.7
2000
Intensity(CPS)
0.00 nm
0.00 nm
1150 nm 1150 nm
1000
W4f5/2 W4f7/2
0 nm 0 nm
0 nm 1150 nm 2300 nm 0 nm 1150 nm 2300 nm
(e) (f)
0
45 40 35 30 25
Fig. 5 The AFM images of (PDDA/PSS)4.5/ (Ag4SiW12O40)n ((a)
Binding energy(eV)
n=0; (b) n=2; (c) n=4; (d) n=6; (e) (f) n=8)
252
Tribological Properties of Hybrid Ag4SiW12O40 Nanoparticles Multilayer Films
scanning speed, and at the higher scanning speed, the friction nm, load is 20nA, scanning speed is 4m/s, 20°C at room
heat and shedding of exterior nanoparticles made the friction temperature, relative humidity is 51%).
forces increase.
From Figure 6(b) we can see that the friction forces of
hybrid Ag4SiW12O40 nanoparticles molecular deposition films
increase reposefully with the load increase. It is linear
approximatively. The friction force variety law of the clean
glass substrate is given in Figure 6(b) as contrast.
Judging from Figure 6, the hybrid Ag4SiW12O40
nanoparticles molecular deposition films have the best
tribological performance when the cycle number n=6. Which
may be due to the nanoparticles grew uneven at lower cycle
number, and at higher cycle number the size and range of
nanoparticles diameter increased, also the strange morphology
of nanoparticles appeared. These all may cause the friction force (a) (PDDA/PSS) 4.5/ (Ag4SiW12O40)6 molecular deposition
increase. film
(b) The glass substrate
Fig. 7 The AFM images of surface topography for
before and after the friction movement
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
REFERENCES
[1] Decher, G., Hong, J. D., Schmitt, J., 1992, “Buildup of
ultrathin multilayer films by a self-assembly process: I
Consecutively alternating adsorption of anionic and cationic
polylectrolytes on charged surface,” Thin Solid Films,
210-211, pp.831-835.
[2] Decher, G., 1996, “Layered nanoarchitectures via directed
assembly of anionic and cationic molecules,” Comprehensive
Supramolecular Chemistry, 9, pp.507-528.
[3] Feng, D. P., Wang, D. G., Zhang, S. W., 2004, “Preparation
and nanotribological behavior of PAH/graphite oxide
molecular deposition film,” Science in China Ser. E., 47(4),
pp. 385-390.
[4] Gu, G.T., Zhang, Z. J., Dang, H. X., 2004, “Preparation and
characterization of hydrophobic organic–inorganic composite
thin films of PMMA/SiO2/TiO2with low friction coefficient,”
Appl. Surf. Sci., 221, pp.129–135.
Fig. 8 Friction coefficients as a function of the number of [5] Joly, S., Kane, R., Radzilowdki, L., et al., 2000, “Multilayer
single reciprocating sliding cycles nanoreactors for metallic and semiconducting particles,”
Langmuir, 16, pp.1354–1359.
[6] Dante, S., Hou, Z., Risbud, S., et al., 1999, “Nucleation of
iron oxy-hydroxide nanoparticles by layer-by-layer
polyionic assemblies,” Langmuir, 15, pp.2176–2182.
3 CONCLUSIONS [7] Lan, Y., Mao, B. D., Wang, E. B., et al., 2007, “In-situ
From the above, the following conclusions can be drawn: fabrication of hybrid polyoxometalate nanoparticles
(1) With the molecular deposition method, hybrid Ag4SiW12O40 composite films,” Thin Solid Films, 515, pp.3397-3401.
nanoparticles MD films were obtained on substrate. The [8] Chickneyan, Z. S., Briseno, A. L., Shi, X. Y., et al., 2003,
nanoparticles are distributed proportionedly in films and “Polyelectrolyte-mediated assembly of copper phthalocyanine
the agglomerate of nanoparticles is unconspicuous. tetrasulfonate multilayers and the subsequent production of
(2) AFM studies showed that the hybrid Ag4SiW12O40 nanoparticulate copper oxide thin films,” J. Nanosci.
nanoparticles molecular deposition films have good Nanotech., 4(2), pp.1-7.
tribological performance; the films have a protective effect [9] Yang, L., Luo, Y. F., Jia, X. R., et al., 2004,
to the substrate, which also verified the excellent antiwear “Microtribological property of self-assembly multilayer
performance of the films. films based on PAMAM dendrimers,” Acta Polymerica
(3) Hybrid Ag4SiW12O40 nanoparticles MD films can improve Sinica, 5, pp.780-784 (in chinese).
the antiwear life of MD films, which is attributed to [10] Arrighi, V., McEwen, I. J., Qian, H., et al., 2003, “The
nanoparticles’ load-carrying capacity. glass transition and interfacial layer in styrene-butadiene rubber
containing silica nanofiller,” Polymer, 44, pp.6259–6266.
254
Study on Fatigue Crack Behavior of Rail in Different Curve Radius
Wear that results in uniform material removal from the surface 2.0
region can partially or entirely remove the surface cracks,
counteracting therefore crack propagation. So a high wear rate 1.5
can reduce RCF by removing newly initiated cracks.
1.0
2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
To investigate such damages, the rolling fatigue and wear tests 0.5
were performed using a JD-1 wheel/rail simulation facility
without any lubricant. The tester is composed of a small wheel 0.0
served as rail and a larger wheel served as wheel. The schema
PG4 PD3
∗
Corresponding author. E-mail:lqy9065@yahoo.com.cn. Fig.2 Wear volume of rail rollers
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig.3 shows that the degree of plastic flow is also significantly deformation of the material in which they lie, and high surface
increased with curve radius decreasing. It can be seen that the roughness derived stresses.
plastic deformation becomes thicker with decreasing curve In this case the problem is complicated by the fact that surface
radius. The plastic deformation of the PD3 rail material which cracks propagate in mixed mode conditions and can involve
it was from the high rail of a 1200m curve is thickest. From the contact (partial or global) between the crack faces. The
experimental results, the plastic deformation of the PD3 rail is coefficient of friction can play an important role in determining
thicker than of the PD3 rail. As well as its poor performance on the kinetics of crack propagation. Fig.5 shows the relationships
resisting wear, the tiny cracks will be wiped off by wear, so the between the friction force and curve radius, and it can be seen
PD3 rail behaves better performance of fatigue. that the friction force decreases rapidly with the curve radius
increasing from 1200 to 1800m, and then increases a little and
becomes steady. When the friction force between wheel and
rail increase, the cracking propagation angle would reduce.
30
25
15
(a) Line condition (b) Curve radius 1200m 10
Fig. 3 Plastic flow of PD3 rail rollers
A rail head contact zone is subject to three creepage (slippage) 5
directions, axial (in the direction of traffic), spin and transverse, 0
whilst rolling is generally in the axial direction, with small yaw
angles during curving. Reduced life due to RCF is mainly 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
associated with an increase in transverse creepage due to Curve radius (m)
curving forces, vehicle hunting or track/vehicle irregularities. Fig.5 Friction force vs. curve radius
There is thus a vector of creepage from the three directions
where along which a combination of contact stress and strain is 4 CONCLUSIONS
at a maximum resulting in RCF cracks forming normal to that In this paper, the fatigue damage behavior of rail roller has
direction. Angled sectioning along this vector, in addition to been studied using JD-1 wheel/rail simulation facility. The
axial and transverse sections, has shown the true regularity of conclusions from this study are as follows:
crack formation. 1. It may be considered that curve radius is a key factor for the
Crack initiation was at the surface (at these contact conditions) fatigue damage of rail material. With curve radius decreasing,
as initiation sub-surface in the high strain region is inhibited by wear volume of rail roller increases rapidly and the fatigue
the compressed matrix and compressive residual stresses. Some damage becomes severe.
of the initiating small cracks adjacent to the main crack were 2. The cracking propagation angle increases obviously with
found. Fig.4 show that the cracking propagation angle increases curve radius decreasing. For the same curve radius, the wear
obviously with curve radius decreasing and fatigue wear is volume of PD3 rail is more than that of PG4 rail and the plastic
dominating during the wear process. The small cracking angle deformation is more obvious. Furthermore, the cracking
would make the crack propagation close more the wear surface propagation angle of PD3 rail material is smaller than that of
of rail. PG4 rail.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No.50675183), the Funds for the
National Innovative Research Teams (No.50521503) and the
National Basic Research Program of China
(No.2007CB714702).
REFERENCES
(a) Line condition (b) Curve radius 1200m [1] D.I. Fletcher, J.H. Beynon, Development of a machine for
Fig. 4 SEM photographs of fatigue crack of PD3 rail rollers closely controlled rolling contact fatigue and wear testing, J.
Test. Eval.2000, 28(4):267-275.
Rail-wheel contact is often assumed to produce a Hertzian [2]H.D. Grohmann, Klaus Hempelmann, Arnold Grob-Thebing.
pressure profile on the rail surface, and the cracks are often A new type of RCF, experimental investigations and theoretical
assumed to be semicircular or semi-elliptical. These modelling. Wear, 2002. 25(3):67-74.
assumptions are necessary for the reduction of computing and [3] Keisuke, Tanaka. Fatigue crack propagation from a crack
model construction time, and also for generation of results in inclined to the cyclic tensile axis. Engineering Fracture
which trends with external conditions (loads, friction force, etc) Mechanics, 1974, (6):493-507.
are clear. Fatigue crack propagation is related to the cycling
variation of the stress intensity factors. Cracks of this size are
subject to a number of influences such as severe plastic
256
Improvement in Wear Resistance of TiNi Alloy Processed by Equal Channel Angular Extrusion and Annealing Treatment
INTRODUCTION
Recently, a number of investigations have demonstrated
that TiNi alloy has high resistance to wear in different wear
conditions compared it with many conventional wear-resistant
materials such as steels, Ni-based and Co-based tribo-alloys
[1-5]. This makes TiNi alloy attractive for application in many
environments. Extensive researches have confirmed that the
high wear resistance of TiNi alloy is mainly attributable to its
special martensitic phase transformation [4-9] which is also
called pseudo-elasticity. Liang et al. [7] has noticed strong Fig.1 Schematic illustration of the ECAE process in the
correspondence between the wear behavior and the experiment
pseudo-elasticity. Specimens with pseudo-elasticity show
higher wear resistance than those with little pseudo-elasticity. Specimens for microstructure observation, pseudo-elasticity
Ultra-fine grained materials have attracted much attention and wear behavior measurements were cut along the extrusion
owing to their better mechanical properties. Of several direction from the TiNi billets processed by ECAE and
techniques developed for producing fine-grained materials by subsequent annealing treatment. After mechanically polished
severe plastic deformation (SPD), the equal channel angular and etched with a mixture solution of HF:HNO3:H2O with a
extrusion (ECAE) technique introduced by Segal et al. has ratio of 1:3:10, the microstructure of specimens was observed
been successfully applied to produce various fine-grained on a NEOPHOT-1 type optical microscope.
materials [10-14]. Many studies have confirmed that ECAE Tensile testing was done to investigate the effect of ECAE
process can not only refine the microstructure, but also and annealing treatment on the pseudo-elasticity of TiNi alloy.
improve the mechanical properties of materials. Tensile test specimens with a reduced gage section of 1 mm
The microstructure of a material remarkably affects its thick, 2 mm wide and 20 mm long were machined from
mechanical properties and the wear behavior. Till now, some as-received TiNi alloy and the ECAE processed TiNi alloy.
results on the microstructure and phase transformation Tensile tests were performed using an Instron Universal
behavior of TiNi alloy processed by ECAE have been reported Testing machine at room temperature (24ć). The rate of
[15-16]. However, the wear behavior of TiNi alloy processed extension was 0.1 mm/min.
by ECAE has not been well reported yet. The objective of this The wear behavior of the Ti-50.6at.%Ni alloy sliding
research is to understand the wear behavior of TiNi alloy against a GCr15 steel ring under dry sliding condition was
processed by ECAE against GCr15 steel under dry sliding evaluated using a block-on-ring tribometer. The size of the
condition. The microstructure, pseudo-elasticity, and wear TiNi block for wear tests was 20 mm×7 mm×8 mm. Wear tests
behavior of TiNi alloy processed by ECAE and annealing were carried out at a sliding speed of 0.42 m/s and sliding time
treatment are studied to evaluate the effects of ECAE and of 30 min. The applied load was ranged from 50 N to 100 N. A
annealing treatment on the wear properties. The wear BP211D electron scale to evaluate the wear resistance was
mechanisms of the TiNi alloy are discussed based on the SEM used to measure wear of TiNi specimens. The morphology of
examination of the worn surfaces. worn surfaces was observed using an OPTON CSM 950
scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE dispersive spectroscopy X-ray analysis system.
Experimental materials were Ti-50.6at.% Ni alloy rod with
a diameter of 25mm. The rod had been hot forged at 1123K RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
and annealed at 773K for 2 hours. Billets for ECAE process 1. Microstructure
were cut from the TiNi rod and had dimensions of 9.4 mm×9.4 For comparison, the as-received and the ECAE processed
mm×100 mm. The ECAE die was designed to yield an TiNi alloy were investigated. Fig.2 shows the cross-section
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
microstructure of the TiNi alloys. It can be seen that the processed TiNi alloy exhibited lower wear in the load range of
microstructure of the as-received TiNi alloy (Fig. 2a) was 50 -100 N than the as-received one. This can be rationally
coarse equiaxed structure with the mean grain size of 60 m. explained by the following reasons. Firstly, the ECAE
After ECAE and subsequent annealing treatment, the processed TiNi alloy had more fine grains than the as-received
microstructure of TiNi alloy was refined markedly, having an TiNi alloy, leading to the smaller stress concentration. Under
average grain size of approximately 5 m. the same external stress, the smaller stress concentration caused
by fine grains made it difficult adjacent grains deform
plastically, so the larger external stress was needed to make
adjacent grains plastic deformation. It means that the plastic
deformation resistance of the ECAE processed TiNi alloy is
enhanced after the microstructure was refined, which reduces
the initiation probability of crack and decreases stress
concentration, resulting in the increase of wear resistance of the
alloy. Secondly, the ECAE processed TiNi alloy has better
pseudo-elasticity than the as-received one, which was recorded
(a) (b) in Table 1. Liang et al. [7] had demonstrated the strong
Fig.2 Microstructures of TiNi alloy: (a) as-received TiNi correspondence between the wear resistance and the
alloy; (b) the ECAE processed TiNi alloy pseudo-elasticity. The greater the pseudo-elasticity, the higher
the wear resistance. ECAE and annealing treatment enhanced
2. Pseudo-elasticity the pseudo-elasticity of TiNi alloy, which was certainly
Results of the measurement demonstrated that the TiNi beneficial to the wear resistance of TiNi alloy.
alloys showed pseudo-elastic characteristics, which was
illustrated by Ê – Ò curve of the TiNi alloys (Fig. 3). The 120 As-received TiNi alloy
'H
100
Wear (10 g)
-5
60
'H was the recoverable strain which was not caused by the 20
equal to H p 'H . The higher the J value is, the greater Fig.4 Variation of wear with applied load at a sliding speed of
0.42 m/s
the pseudo-elasticity. Table 1 showed J value of the TiNi
alloys. It can be seen that the J value of the TiNi alloy after The worn surfaces of as-received TiNi alloy under different
ECAE and annealing treatment increased obviously, which applied loads were shown in Fig. 5, respectively. It can be seen
suggests that the TiNi alloy processed by ECAE and annealing that the worn surfaces of the as-received TiNi alloy had
treatment had better pseudo-elasticity than the as-received TiNi different morphologies under different applied loads. At the
alloy. load of 50 N, the worn surface was smooth. However, a strong
550
iron contamination transferred from the steel ring counterpart
500
450
was observed by EDS analysis (as shown in Fig. 6), suggesting
400 that adhesion occurred during friction. At a higher load, deep
350
300
250
200 as-received alloy. Fig. 7 shows worn surfaces of the TiNi alloy
150
100
with ECAE and annealing treatment. It can be seen that there is
50
0
not significant difference in the worn surface between low
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Òp
àÒ
H(%) applied load and high load. The surface scuffing was primary
wear mechanism under both low and high loads. The
Fig.3 Ê – Ò curve of TiNi alloy
morphological difference in worn surface of the ECAE
processed TiNi alloy under different loads was not significant
Table 1 The J value of TiNi alloy as that of the as-received TiNi alloy.
As-received processed by ECAE
J value 40ˁ 63ˁ
3. Wear behavior
The effects of applied load on the wear resistance of TiNi
alloys were investigated under dry sliding wear condition. The
variation of wear of TiNi alloys with applied load was given in
Fig. 4. It can be seen that the wear of both the as-received TiNi
alloy and the ECAE processed TiNi alloy increased with
applied load. This can be explained by the friction-induced
thermal and mechanical effects which may increase the actual (a) (b)
contact area and the adherence between the frictional pair as Fig.5 Worn surfaces of as-received TiNi alloy: (a) worn under
the load increased. Moreover, it was found that the ECAE a low load of 50 N; (b) worn under a high load of 100 N
258
Improvement in Wear Resistance of TiNi Alloy Processed by Equal Channel Angular Extrusion and Annealing Treatment
REFERENCES
[1] Richman RH, Rao AS, Kung D, 1995, “Cavitation erosion
of NiTi explosively welded to steel,” Wear, 181, pp.80.
[2] Zimmerly C.A., Inal O.T., Richman R.H., 1994,
“Explosive welding of a near-equiatomic nickel-titanium
alloy to low-carbon steel,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 188,
pp.251-254.
[3] Imbeni V., Martini C., Prandstraller D., 2003, “Preliminary
Fig.6 Results of the energy dispersive spectroscopy X-ray study of micro-scale abrasive wear of a NiTi shape
analysis performed on the wear tracks of the initial TiNi alloy memory alloy,” Wear, 254, pp.1299.
after sliding against GCr15 steel under a load of 50 N and a [4] Jin J.L., Wang H.L., 1988, “Research on Wear Resistance
sliding speed of 0.42 m/s of NiTi Alloy,” Acta Metall. Sinica A, 24, pp.66.
[5] Clayton P., 1993, “Tribological behavior of a
titanium-nickel alloy,” Wear, 162, pp.202.
[6] Li D.Y., Liu R., 1999, “The mechanism responsible for
high wear resistance of Pseudo-elastic TiNi alloy-a novel
tribo-material,” Wear, 225-229, pp.777.
[7] Liang Y.N., Li S.Z., Jin Y.B., 1996, “Wear behavior of a
TiNi alloy,” Wear, 198, pp.236.
[8] Li D.Y., 2003, “Development of novel tribo composites
with TiNi shape memory alloy matrix,” Wear, 255, pp.617.
[9] Li D.Y., 1996, “Wear Behavior of TiNi Shape Memory
Alloy,” Scripta Mater., 34, pp.195.
[10] Valiev R.Z., Islamgaliev R.K., Alexandrov I.V., 2000,
“Bulk nanostructured materials from severe plastic
(a) (b) deformation,” Progress in materials Science, 45, pp.103.
Fig.7 Worn surfaces of the ECAE processed TiNi alloy: (a) [11] Zhilyaev A.P., Furukawa M., Horita Z., 2003, “Processing
worn under a low load of 50 N; (b) worn under a high load of and properties of bulk ultrafine-grained materials produced
100 N through severe plastic deformation,” Diffusion and Defect
Data Pt.B: Solid State Phenomena, 94, pp.3.
CONCLUSIONS [12] Markushev M.V., Bampton C.C., Murashkin M.Y., et al.,
1997, “Structure and properties of ultra-fine grained
(a) After ECAE and annealing treatment, both the
aluminum alloys produced by severe plastic deformation,”
microstructure and the pseudo-elasticity of the TiNi alloy were
Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 234, pp.927-932.
improved markedly;
[13] Shin D.H., Park K.T., 2005, “Ultrafine grained steels
(b) The wear of the as-received TiNi alloy and the ECAE
processed by equal channel angular pressing,” Mater. Sci.
processed TiNi alloy both increased with load. When the load
Eng. A, 410, pp.299-302.
ranged from 50 to100 N, the ECAE processed TiNi alloy
[14] Son Y.I., Lee Y.K., Park K,T,, 2005, “Ultrafine grained
exhibited higher wear resistance than the as-received alloy;
ferrite-marten site dual phase steels fabricated via equal
(c) The wear mechanism of as-received TiNi alloy was
channel angular pressing: Microstructure and tensile
adhesion and delamination under low load; while under high
properties,” Acta Mater., 53(11), pp.3125.
load, deep plough tracks were observed. After ECAE and
[15] Li Z.H., Cheng X.H., ShangGuan Q.Q., 2005, “Effects of
annealing treatment, the surface scuffing was primary wear
heat treatment and ECAE process on transformation
mechanism of the TiNi alloy under both low and high loads.
behaviors of TiNi shape memory alloy,” Materials Letters,
59(6), pp.705.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [16] Stolyarov V.V., Prokof'ev E.A., Prokoshkin S.D., 2005,
The authors would like to thank the financial support from “Structural features, mechanical properties, and the
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. shape-memory effect in TiNi alloys subjected to
50071034) and State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua equal-channel angular pressing,” Physics of Metals and
University, Beijing, P.R. China. Metallography, 100(6), pp.608.
259
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Self-Healing of a Soft Primer Coating Caused by Plasticization during Sliding against UHMWPE
Gustaaf Schoukens
Ghent University – Department of Textiles
Technologiepark 907, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
(Extended Abstract)
260
Self-Healing of a Soft Primer Coating Caused by Plasticization during Sliding against UHMWPE
Table 1 Coefficients of friction and sliding temperatures Coating wear depending on contact conditions
Due to stress concentrations and thermal effects for COP-
Cylinder-on-plate (COP) tests, the soft coating is easily removed and shows features that
Static (MPa) Steel Soft coating correspond to the previously outlined sliding regimes (Figure
F (N)
pmax pavg μdyn T* (°C) μdyn T* (°C) 2). The combination of plasticization and softening for FOF-
10 11 9 0.32 33 0.50 39 tests at 150 MPa allows for self-healing of cracks initiating in
20 16 13 0.28 39 0.45 48 the coating due to the incorporation of carbon fiber debris in
30 20 16 0.28 45 0.40 54 the sliding interface (Figure 3). As such, the life-time of the
40 23 18 0.25 47 0.36 60
present sliding couple is expected to be about 100 years, which
50 25 20 0.22 48 0.38 64
is confirmed by an in-the-field application for ball-joint repair.
75 31 25 0.20 54 0.38 71
100 37 28 0.20 62 0.40 90 50 N plasticization 150 N melting
125 41 32 0.20 68 0.40 113
150 45 35 0.20 74 0.28 130
175 48 38 0.20 80 0.30 135
200 52 40 0.18 85 0.33 137
Flat-on-flat (FOF)
360 k 15 0.10 50 0.08 56
720 k 30 0.09 64 0.07 89
1440 k 60 0.06 87 0.04 95
2880 k 120 0.04 110 0.03 110
3600 k 150 0.03 112 0.02 120
Fig. 2 Failure of the coating on COP-tests
Polymer wear depending on contact conditions 60 MPa cracks and de-adhesion 150 MPa homogenization
In agreement with the good wear resistance of UHMWPE,
no material loss is observed after sliding for 1 hour in contact
with the soft coating. However, important deformation mecha-
nisms influence the sliding properties.
For COP tests, the deformation during testing is recorded
and compared to creep of UHWMPE cylinders under static
conditions (Figure 1). Plastic deformation occurs above 50 N,
with the average Hertz contact pressure pavg = 20 MPa corres-
ponding to the yield strength of UHMWPE. The limit between
visco-elastic and plastic behaviour on COP is clearly observed Fig. 3 Self-healing of the coating on FOF-tests
from the regimes with recoverable and permanent deformation.
Plasticization of the polymer in contact with steel results in the
stabilization of friction. Softening is not dominating in contact CONCLUSIONS
with steel, as the temperatures T* are below the glass transition
temperature Tg = 85°C. Only at 200 N, there is an additional A soft coating is successfully used under extremely high
decrease in friction own to thermal effects. In contact with the contact pressures, with good adhesion to the counterface and
soft coating, however, plasticization at 50 N results in higher ability for self-healing of defects eliminating wear. Homogene-
friction (0.36 to 0.38), while additional softening at 100 N ous contact pressures and thermal conditions are required, as a
further reduces the sliding performance until the melting simulation test with concentrated test conditions is not repre-
temperature Tm = 133°C is approached at 150 to 200 N. sentative for this exceptional coating behaviour.
For FOF tests, both plasticization and softening contributes
to a decrease in friction at higher contact pressures. The
deformation of the polymer element can be controlled by the REFERENCES
design of a carbon fiber reinforcing structure [5], causing the
polymer sample to be under hydrostatic pressure conditions. [1] Heinze, M., 1998 “Wear resistance of hard coatings in
plastics processing,” Surf Coat Techn, 105, pp. 38 - 44.
[2] Benabdallah, H., 2003, “Friction and wear of blended
Diameter reduction (µm)
261
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
262
Performance of an Infinitely Long Transversely Rough Hydrodynamic Slider Bearing
tan −1 ⎨
⎧
⎪ (
m h 2 3σ ⎫
⎪
⎬
) deviation is significantly adverse. It is noticed that the
aspect ratio has a significantly positive effect in the
G=
(
⎪⎩1 + h 2 3σ (1 + m ) ⎪⎭
2
,
) sense that the load carrying capacity increases and the
friction decreases at the bearing surface and the runner
⎧ 2 ⎫
⎪ (1 + m ) 1 + 3σ h 2 ⎪
ln ⎨
(
⎬
) plate with increasing value of the aspect ratio. The
effect of σ is almost negligible upto 0.005 when
⎪ (1 + m )2 + 3σ h 2 2 ⎪
⎩ (
⎭ ) considered for the combined effect with respect to m
and h2 .
we obtain the dimensionless pressure distribution
determined by the expression Key References
¾ Christensen, H. and Tonder, K.C., Tribology of
P=
2 3 h2
2 ⎧
tan −1 ⎨
(
⎪ − h 2 3σ [m(1 − x)] ⎪
⎫
⎬+
) rough surfaces: Stochastic models of
( )
hydrodynamic lubrication. SINTEF report no.
mσ ⎪⎩1 + h 2 3σ [1 + m(1 − x)]⎪⎭
2
10/69 – 18, 1969.
(3) ¾ Christensen, H. and Tonder, K.C., Tribology of
3
2h 2
⎧
⎪
λ ln ⎨
1 + m(1 − x) 1 + 3σ h 2 ⎪
2 ⎫
⎬
( ) rough surfaces: Parametric study and
comparison of lubrication models. SINTEF
( )
2
σ ⎪ [1 + m(1 − x)]2 + 3σ h2 ⎪⎭
2
report no. 22/69 -18, 1969.
⎩
¾ Christensen, H. and Tonder, K.C., The
The dimensionless load carrying capacity per unit hydrodynamic lubrication of rough bearing
width is given by surfaces of finite width. ASME-ASLE
W=
2 ⎧
2 3 h2 ⎪⎛⎜ m2 − 1 ⎞⎟ −1
⎨ tan ( A) −
J
ln(C) −
2⎫
J tan−1( A) ⎪
⎬
( ) Lubrication conference, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1970,
paper no. 70-Lub-7.
mσ ⎪⎜⎝ m ⎟⎠ 2m ln[C(1 + m)] ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ¾ Andharia, P.I., Gupta, J. L. and Deheri, G.
(4) M., “Effect of longitudinal surface
Frictional force at the runner surface is given by roughness on hydrodynamic lubrication of
( )
slider bearings”. Proceedings of Tenth
⎛ 3h 2 L ⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎫
2
1 + h 2 3σ ⎪
F =⎜ ⎟ ln ⎨
2⎬
+ International Conference on Surface
⎜ 2m ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎩1 + (1 + m) h 2 3σ ⎪⎭
2
( ) Modification Technologies, the Institute of
Materials, Singapore, 1997, pp.872-880.
⎛ 3 3σ LG ⎞ ⎧⎪ (1 + m )2 + 3σ h 2
⎜ ⎟ ln ⎨ ( ) ⎫⎪⎬ + 1 ln(1 + m)
2
¾ Andharia, P. I., Gupta, J. L. and Deheri, G. M.,
⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎪⎩ 1 + 3σ h 2
2
( ) ⎪⎭ m
“Effect of surface roughness and hydrodynamic
lubrications of slider bearings”, Tribology
Transaction, Vol. 44, No.2, 2001, pp. 291-297.
(5)
Lastly, frictional force at the bearing surface is obtained
as
⎛ 3h2 L ⎞ ⎧⎪1 + (1 + m)2 h2 3σ ⎫⎪
F =⎜ ⎟ ln⎨
2
⎬+
( )
⎜ 2m ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎩ 1 + h2 3σ
2
(
⎪⎭ )
⎛ 3 3σ G L ⎞ ⎧⎪ 1 + 3σ h2
⎜ ⎟ ln⎨
2
( ) ⎫
⎪ 1
+ ln(1 + m)
2⎬
⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎪⎩ (1 + m)2 + 3σ h2 ( ) ⎪⎭ m
(6)
263
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Corrosion and Protection Research Laboratory, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xican 710072, China)
ABSTRACT some blind attempts have been made to control FF damage [7].
The fretting fatigue behavior of the Ti811titanium alloy, as On the basis of the above background, this paper presents a
influenced by temperature, slip amplitude, and contact pressure, study of the effects of temperature, fretting slip amplitude, and
was investigated E\using a high frequency fatigue machine and contact pressure on the FF behavior of Ti811 alloy at elevated
a home-made high temperature apparatus. The fretting fatigue temperature.
failure mechanisms were studied by observing the fretting
surface morphology features. The results show that the EXPERIMENT PROCEDURES
sensitivity to fretting fatigue is high at both 350°C and 500°C. FF specimens and fretting pads were obtained from Ti811
The higher the temperature is, the more sensitive the alloy is to titanium alloy bars ( 16 mm). Ti811 alloy is almost all
fretting fatigue failure. Creep is an important factor that D-phase and contains 7.9% Al, 1.0% Mo, 0.99% V, 0.05% Fe,
influences the fretting fatigue failure process at elevated 0.1% C, 0.01% N, 0.001% H, 0.06% O, and balance, Ti. The
temperature. The fretting fatigue life of the Ti811 alloy does not material was treated by double annealing (910 °C for 1 h, cooled
change in a monotonic way as the slip amplitude and contact in air, 580 °C for 8 h, cooled in air). The resulting
pressure increase. This is due to the fact that the slip amplitude microstructure is an equiaxial D-phase and intergranular
affects the action of fatigue and wear in the fretting process, and E-phase. The mechanical properties of the alloy are: Êb=931
the nominal contact pressure affects the distribution and MPa, Ê0.2=890 MPa, G=23% and <=46%.
concentration of the stress and the amplitude of fretting slip at A PLG-100C high-frequency fatigue machine was used to
the contact surface, and thus further influences the crack conduct FF tests. The load was set in pull-pull. The contact state
initiation probability and the driving force for propagation. between the pad and specimen was flat to flat, with a
Keywords: Fretting fatigue, Elevated temperature; Titanium rectangular contact area of 2 mmu 6 mm. Relative slip between
alloy; Wear; Creep the specimen and pad was introduced by the difference in elastic
deformation between them. The relative slip amplitude could be
INTRODUCTION changed by adjusting the fretting pad length. The contact
Fretting fatigue (FF) occurs whenever a small amplitude pressure of the pads to the specimen was controlled using the
oscillatory motion between the two contacting bodies is stressing ring. The FF susceptibility of the titanium alloy to the
combined with an applied cyclic axial load. Damage caused by temperature was evaluated by the S-N curves. The cycle load
FF leads to premature crack nucleation and results in a was in a sinusoidal form at 110 Hz with a stress ratio of 0.1. Test
reduction of fatigue life as compared with plain fatigue. FF temperatures of 350 and 500 °C were adopted to simulate the
exists widely in many industries, such as the aviation, space, working conditions of aircraft engine compressors. An
traffic, and nuclear industries. FF damage is universal and electrical resistance furnace was used for heating and the
prevalent in the aviation industry [1, 2]. temperature was controlled at 350r1 or 500r1 °C using a
The Ti811 titanium alloy has many advantages, including feedback temperature controller with a rectifier and a K-type
low density, high Young’s modulus, excellent vibration thermocouple.
damping capacity, good thermal stability, and good welding and
molding performance; particularly, its ratio of tensile strength to RESULTS and DISCUSSION
density is the highest among industrial titanium alloys. As a
result, this alloy has become one of the important materials Effect of temperature on fretting fatigue life
selected for rotating components of the high temperature parts Fig.1 shows the plain fatigue (PF) and FF S-N curves of
of advanced aircraft engine compressors [3]. However, titanium
alloys are also characterized by poor tribological properties, 750
such as a high and unstable friction coefficient, severe ć3)
Maximum fatigue stess ³PD[03D
700
adhesive wear, susceptibility to fretting, and poor FF resistance ć))
[4]. As a result, the reliability and service life of titanium alloy 650
6]. However, very little attention has been paid to the FF 450
behavior of Ti811 alloy at elevated temperature. But the FF 400
process is very complex and is affected by multiple factors,
350
including frictional wear, fatigue, and corrosion (including
oxidation). It has been reported that up to 50 variables might 300
1 10 100
influence the FF process. So the mechanism of FF damage at
elevated temperatures is not understood in depth; as a result, Cycles to failure, /h
* Corresponding author. Tel: +86 13193391986; Fax: +86 29 88492344; Fig.1 S-N curve of plain fatigue and fretting fatigue of
E-mail address: yhzhangxh@nwpu.edu.cn Ti811 alloy at 350°C
264
Investigation of Fretting Fatigue Behavior of Ti811 Alloy at Elevated Temperature
Ti811 alloy at 350°C. All FF samples fractured in the fretting and nonfretting areas (Fig. 3(a)). Observation by SEM indicated
contact area. The length of the fretting pads was 15 mm. The that the damage in the fretted surface consisted of delamination
nominal contact pressure was 85MPa between the fretting pads (Fig. 3(b)). Debris was generated in the fretting contact area
and the samples. The results indicated that the alloy was because of the delimitation. Under high temperature conditions,
susceptible to FF damage. The fatigue limit was reduced by the debris would be expected to oxidize into hard abrasive
40% because of the fretting damage in the contact area. The grains of TiO2, which would accelerate the abrasion and in turn
fretting damage accelerated the initiation and incipient affect the process of FF damage. In addition, the abrasive grains
propagation of cracks, and thus imposed an obvious effect on of TiO2 would be subsequently forced into the crack mouths by
the fatigue limit. Compared with the effects at low stress levels, the fretting pad when cracks were generated in the fretting area.
the fretting damage was not obvious at high stress levels. The presence of debris in crack mouths would accelerate the
Because the axial cyclic load was in the dominant position at propagation of the cracks by wedge action.
high stress levels, cracks were easily initiated and the fatigue Effect of slip on FFL
life was shortened for both the PF specimen and the FF
specimen. So the contrast between the plain fatigue life and the
fretting fatigue life (FFL) was small.
The working temperature of compressor components
increases along the sequence of compressors in an aircraft
engine. The maximum temperature is about 500°C. Fig. 2
shows the FF S-N curves of the Ti811 titanium alloy at room
temperature, at 350°C, and at 500°C. The results show that the
FF limit decreased and the FFL was reduced at the same cyclic
stress when the temperature is increased. Especially at high
stress levels, the FFL was reduced more significantly.
50
below 425°C. The creep sensitivity of the alloy increased at
temperatures above 425°C owing to an increased number of slip 40
systems and the initiation of intergranular sliding. Though the
FF specimen fractured in the fretting contact area under a test 30
condition of 530 MPa (maximal cyclic stress) and 500°C, most
of the cracks that were produced by plain fatigue existed outside 20
the fretting area of the specimen. The results further illuminated
the fact that creep produced by the synergism of the stress and
temperature severely affected the FF at high temperature and
10 ,
stress. 0
,
The surface of the titanium alloy was oxidized at high 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
temperature. Black fretting spots were generated in the fretting Slip amplitudeP
area as a result of the high strain and deformation induced by the
friction. An obvious boundary was formed between the fretting Fig. 4 Slip amplitude on FF life of Ti811 alloy
265
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
wear on the surface increased when gross slip occurred. Not enlarged and the plastic deformation of the contacted
only was the probability of forming propagating cracks reduced, microasperities increased at the surface of the material when the
but also the cracks formed could be removed. The position of contact pressure was increased, the true contacted area
the stress concentration was at the edge of the contact area in the increased and the true contact pressure was reduced, and so the
case of partial slip, but this position changed to the central probability of forming propagating cracks was reduced and the
section of the contact area in the case of gross slip (Fig. 5(a)). FFL increased. Gross slip and intensive wear occurred in the
Simultaneously, the surface energy of the contact area was
contact area when the contact pressure was low. Under these
altered by the oxidized debris. Hence the degree of stress
conditions, the nucleation pit of the microcracks might be
concentration in the material surface could be reduced, and the
fatigue effect of the partial contact could be reduced. Therefore removed and the probability of forming propagating cracks
the FFL increased when the relative slip was large. reduced. The debris which collected at the interface might
In the range of small relative slip, the contact condition was reduce the direct action between the surface and the tangential
partial slip. The sticking region (the region where the pads and force by becoming compacted into powder beds. The
the material surface were immobile relative to each other) was non-fretting area of the contact surface was narrow and the
enlarged and the slip region decreased (Fig. 5(c)). Elastic contact pressure was concentrated at the boundary between the
deformation occurred in tiny peaks on the material surface in the slip region and the non-slip region when the contact pressure
sticking region; this was caused by the tangential displacement. was in a certain range, and so the number of cracks initiated in
The area and degree of wear on the surface were small in the this area was low, and the FFL was low. In addition, the relation
case of partial slip. The probability of forming propagating between the changes of the contact pressure and the slip
cracks was reduced, and so the FFL increased. A mixed state amplitude was one of coupling adjustment. The true slip
existed when the range of relative slip was between those of amplitude was smaller when the contact pressure was larger
gross slip and partial slip. The sticking region was surrounded under the condition of the same fretting-pad span and cyclic
by a slip region (Fig. 5(b)). The tangential friction force varied stress. In contrast, the results in the previous paragraph indicate
wildly during the slip. The rather large tangential friction force that the FFL increased when the slip amplitude was small.
acted iteratively on the contact area, which was the boundary
between the slip region and the sticking region. A very large
100
partially compressive stress appeared in front of the slip region,
and the maximal tensile stress occurred behind the slip region.
Fretting fatigue lifeF\FOHh
,
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Normal pressure03D
266
Investigation of Fretting Fatigue Behavior of Ti811 Alloy at Elevated Temperature
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China(Nos.50771070 and 50671085) and
National High Technical Research and Development program
of China (No. 2007AA03Z521)
REFERENCES
[1] Chakravarty. S, Koul. A. K, The effect of surface
modification on freting fatigue in Ti alloy turbine
Fig. 7 FF surface feature of Ti811 under different pressure: components, Journal of metals, 47 (1995) 31-37.
(a) Macrograph of normal pressure170 MPa; [2] Lindley, T.C. Fretting fatigue in engineering alloy. Int. J.
(b) Micro-morphology of normal pressure170MPa Fatigue, 19 (1997) 39-49.
(c) Macrograph of normal pressure 45MPa [3] Zhao, R. Q, Liu, B. N. Effect of alloying composition on the
(d) Micro-morphology of normal pressure 45MPa mechanical properties of Ti811 alloy rods. Rare Metal
Materials and Engineering, 23 (1994) 59-65.
[4] Liu, D. X, Tang B, He, J W. MoS2 composite films on
titanium alloys prepared by ion beam enhanced deposition.
The Chinese Journal on Nonferrous Metals, 11 (2001),
454-460.
[5] Zhao, R. Q, Zhu, K. Y., Li, Z. C. Thermal stability and creep
behavior of Ti811 alloy rods. Development and Application
Fig. 8 FF fracture feature under 45 MPa pressure
of Materials, 10 (1995) 16-21.
[6] Zhang, W. F., Liu, X. L., Zhao, W. G., Investigation on
oxidation behaviors of titanium alloy at temperature from
CONCLUSIONS
500ć to 650ć. Transactions of Materials and Heat
The Ti811 titanium alloy studied here was susceptible to FF Treatment, 24 (2003) 55-61.
damage at both 350°C and 500°C. The sensitivity to FF [7] WU, L. L., Holloway, B.C., Beesabathina, D.P., Analysis of
increased when the temperature increased. Creep was the diamond-like carbon and Ti/MoS2 coatings on Ti6Al4V
dominant factor in the FF damage at the elevated temperature. substrates for applicability to turbine engine applications,
The FF life changed non-monotonically with increasing slip Surface and Coatings Technology, 130 (2000) 207-213.
amplitude because the slip amplitude affected the action of
fatigue and wear in the FF process. The FF life changed
non-monotonically with increasing contact pressure because the
267
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Teng Jie (College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chen Ding (College of Materials Science and
Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P.R.China) Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082,
P.R.China)
Chen Zhenhua (College of Materials Science and
Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P.R.China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The spray deposited Al–Si/SiC composites, with Si
literature[4].The brake pad material used in the present study
contents between 9% and 20% and 15vol% SiC particles were
contains of 10% phenolic resin, 10% powder rubber, 45%
fabricated by a novel spray deposition technology. The coupled
reinforcing metal and inorganic fiber, 30% friction adjusting
brake pad material was prepared by a novel dry-powder
agent (along with other constituents). Dry sliding wear tests
processing route. The tribological couple was investigated by
were carried out on a MM1000-type ring on ring machine in
using a ring-on-ring test at room temperature under dry
air at room temperature. The wear rate was calculated from the
conditions. Moreover, the effect of silicon content and
weight-loss measurements. To investigate the wear mechanism,
thermomechanical treatment on the dry sliding friction and
the worn surface and subsurface wear sample were examined
wear properties of the Al-Si/SiCp composites were
in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and optical
determined.It has been found that the wear rate decreases with
microscopy (OM).
the increase of hardness of composites due to silicon content
increasing. The wear resistances of the composites are
improved dramatically through thermomechanical treatment, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
compared to as-sprayed composite, due to increasing hardness The variations of wear rate of the composites as function of
and elimination of porosity. The wear mechanism of aluminum Si content obviously show that the wear rate of the composites
matrix composite brake rotor is abrasive wear and decreases with increasing Si content. The primary Si phases
delamination wear, accompanied oxidative wear. And it is that act as load-supporting elements greatly affect the wear
greatly affected by the formation of friction plastic property of the as-sprayed composites [5]. Silicon
deformation due to plowing effect. The wear mechanism of particles resist against destructive action of abrasive and
brake pad is abrasive wear including filler breaking-off, protect the surface. So the plouging-grooves in worn surface
reinforced fiber fracture and interfacial debonding due to are much shallower and finer at higher silicon content
plowing effect, and heat wear. condition. Furthermore, it can be seen that the hardness of
Keywords: Al-Si/SiCp composite; Spray deposition; composites increases with increasing Si content. The wear rate
is often considered to be inversely proportional to the hadness
Microstructure; Dry sliding wear; Wear mechanism
of the composite, according to the well-known Archard’s law
[6].
INTRODUCTION Thermomechanical treatment processing can greatly
In the car-making industry, any reduction in the weight improve the wear resistance of composites. The hardness of
of moving parts lowers the level of vibration and fuel composites is increased after T6 heat treatment, it is
consumption, leading eventually to a more efficient vehicle. advantageous in improving deformation–adhesion resistance.
The properties of metal matrix composites (MMCs), such as In addition, heat treatment reduces propensities for crack
increased wear and temperature resistance, as well as low nucleation at both Al/Si and Al/SiC interface [7], which results
density, have been the subject of many studies[1-3]. in improved wear resistance.
Consequently, MMCs can compete with the traditional Porosity in the as sprayed composite is a kind of serious
materials in many tribological applications such as braking microstructure defect that affects the wear resistance of
system for automobiles. materials [8]. Cracks can be precedently created from these
The brake pad material is a composite material consisting porosity during wear test. Therefore, the porosity is equal to
of metal fiber, resin and friction adjusting agent. The wear and crack sources. But the porosity in the as-sprayed composite can
frictional behavior of brake rotor and brake pad material is be eliminated through densification, which improves the wear
very complex. We need to regard brake rotors and pads as a resistance. In addition, it is well
tribological couple that is different from others. This study was known that the wear behavior of hard particle reinforce
carried out to define a characterization methodology, so as to composite depends primarily on the type of interfacial bonding
identify the wear mechanisms of this tribological couple, and between the Al matrix and reinforcement. Densification
to evaluate the behavior of these new materials. Effects of the enhances the bonding strength between particles and the matrix.
silicon content and thermomechanical treatment on the dry Therefore, the improvement in wear resistance of as-densified
sliding wear behaviour of spray-deposited Al–Si/SiCp composite can be attributed to the combined effects of the
composites were investigated. Effect of modification of the elimination of porosity and enhancement of bonding strength,
brake pad material was also studied. which causes improvement in hardness and better wear
resistance of composite.
EXPERIMENTAL Modification of the brake pad material improves the
In this investigation, Al-Si/SiCp composites with hardness and heat resistance of the brake pad materials. The
different silicon used to make brake rotors were investigated, brake pad modificated is a good match for the brake rotor.So
and the details of the composites were described in the wear rates of the brake rotor and brake pad can be greatly
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Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of a Tribological Couple: Spray-Deposited Al-Si/SiCp Composites/Brake Pads
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Wear Behaviors of a Cu-Based Bulk Metallic Glass under Various Gas Atmosphere
China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT 2. Experimental
Wear behaviors of Cu45Zr48Al7 bulk metallic glass are
investigated by ball-on-disk method at room temperature. The Master ingots of the Cu45Zr48Al7 alloy were prepared by
alloy exhibits different wear resistance under air, low vacuum arc-melting a mixture of pure Zr (99.8 at.%), Cu (99.9 at.%),
(102 Pa) and pure nitrogen atmosphere. Oxidation occurs Al (99.99 at.%) and Ag (99.9 at.%) in a Zr-gettered argon
clearly during wearing under all the atmospheres studied here. atmosphere and each ingot was arc-melted at least four times.
However the oxidation degree decreases as the atmosphere Then, the rod samples of 5 mm in diameter with nominal
transforms from air to low vacuum, then to pure N2 gas. composition of Cu45Zr48Al7 were prepared by copper mould
Meanwhile wear resistance also decreases correspondingly. It casting. The structure of the samples was examined using a
seems that oxides brought from wearing, such as ZrO2 and Thermo ARL X’tra diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation. The
Al2O3, significantly enhanced the wear resistance of the thermodynamic parameters of the sample were analyzed on a
Cu-based alloy. PerkinElmer Pyris Diamond differential scanning calorimeter
Keywords: Metallic glasses, Wear, Oxidation under a continuous argon flow at a heating rate of 0.33 K/s.
The Vickers hardness of as-prepared samples was measured
under 100 g load by a Vickers diamond pyramidal
1. Introduction microhardness tester (MH5, China) at room temperature.
Owing to their unique physical, mechanical and chemical The ball-on-disk apparatus was used for wear testing. The
properties bulk metallic glasses become the research focus specimen, Cu45Zr48Al7 BMG rods with 5 mm in diameter, was
[1–8]. Today several Zr-based BMGs already show the cut into disks with 1 mm thickness. The surfaces of these disks
potential applications in biomedical materials, this largely were polished with 1200 grit wet SiC paper. The disk
enhances the possibility of industrial applications. Hiromoto et specimens were worn against a rotation silicon nitride ball with
al. [9-12] firstly reported the electrochemical behavior of diameter of 3 mm under the normal force 1.47 N. Each test
Zr65Cu17.5Ni10Al7.5 BMG and found that the BMG exhibited a was held on for 120 min with 1200 r/min rotation speed. The
similar polarization resistance to that of pure titanium. Horton mass lose for each specimen was calculated by accurately
and Parsell [13] demonstrated the biocompatibility of the weighing the specimens before and after wear tests with an
Zr65Cu17.5Ni10Al7.5 BMG as good as that of titanium, and electronic balance of ±0.00001 g precision. According to
Stefano Buzzi et al. [14] further demonstrated that the surfaces Archimedes’ law, the density of the Cu-based BMG was
of the Zr–Cu–Fe–Al glasses containing zirconium oxide also measured using densitometer (Meteler-Toledo XS105). The
yields good biocompatibility. However, the friction and wear worn surfaces of the specimens were observed using a JEOL
properties are of direct concern when the BMGs are used as JSM-5610 scanning microscope equipped with Oxford EDS
biomedical materials such as artificial bone. Many metallic (Energy Dispersive X-ray Microanalysis), and the oxygen
glasses, especially Zr-based BMGs, exhibit excellent content of the alloy surface is measured simultaneously.
tribological and wear-resistant properties [15-23]. Several
studies reported that metallic glasses have higher wear 3. Results and discussion
resistance compared to its crystallized counterpart [15-18]. In
addition, most of the Zr-based BMGs developed to date Figure 1 shows the DSC scan of the as-cast Cu45Zr48Al7
contain the element Ni, which usually elicits an allergic BMG alloy, and the insert shows the corresponding XRD
response from the human body [24, 25]. Recently several pattern. Only broad diffraction peaks were detected from the
Ni-free Cu–Zr–Al bulk glassy alloys [26] were developed, XRD pattern, indicating that the specimen is monolithic
which exhibit good plasticity together with a high yielding amorphous structure. The glass transition temperature (Tg),
strength making them attractive for medical applications. crystallization temperature (Tx) together with plastic strain (ε)
Considering the various using surroundings, like vacuum or are summarized in Table 1. Both the density () and Vickers
other atmospheres, the wear properties of the alloys under hardness (Hv) measurements are done repeatedly ten times to
these atmospheres are significant and should be studied. In this ensure reproducibility of the results. And the average values of
study, dry sliding wear behavior of the Cu45Zr48Al7 alloy was the density and Vickers hardness are also shown in Table 1. It
investigated under air, low vacuum (102 Pa) and pure nitrogen is found that the alloy exhibits good thermal stability with high
atmosphere respectively using ball-on-disk method. values of Tg (698 K) and TX (758 K) and high hardness.
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed:
zgq@zstu.edu.cn (Dr Guoqing Zhang)
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Wear Behaviors of a Cu-Based Bulk Metallic Glass under Various Gas Atmosphere
Cu45Zr48Al7
Ę
Endothermal
Intensity (arb. unit)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
becomes. Oxidation degree decreases with the atmosphere [12] S. Hiromoto, T. Hanawa, Electrochim. Acta 47 (2002)
transforming from air, low vacuum to pure nitrogen, which 1343.
bring on wear resistance decrease. So it is oxidation make the
[13] J.A. Horton, D.E. Parsell, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
Cu45Zr48Al7 alloy exhibit different wear property under various
754 (2003) CC1.5.1.
atmospheres.
[14] Stefano Buzzi, Kaifeng Jin, Peter J. Uggowitzer, Samuele
Tosatti, Isabel Gerber and Jörg F. Löffler, Intermetallics 14
4. Conclusions (2006) 729.
In the present work, dry sliding wear behaviors of [15] G. Li, Y.Q. Wang, L.M. Wang, Y.P. Gao, R.J. Zhang, Z.J.
Cu45Zr48Al7 BMG is investigated by ball-on-disk method Zhan, L.L. Sun, J. Zhang, W.K. Wang, J. Mater. Res. 17 (2002)
under various atmospheres at room temperature. It is found 1877.
that the volume lose, wear coefficient and frictional coefficient [16] T. Gloriant, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 316 (2003) 96.
of the alloys increase obviously with the changing of the [17] C.Y. Tam, C.H. Shek, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 384 (2004) 138.
atmosphere from air to pure nitrogen, but wear resistance [18] Rex C.Y. Tam, C.H. Shek, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 347
decreases. The SEM images illustrate that more severe scars (2004) 268.
appear when worn under low vacuum and pure nitrogen gas. It [19] X.Y. Fu, D.A. Rigney, M.L. Falk, J. Non-Cryst. Solids
is also found that remarkable oxidation occurs on the alloy 317 (2003) 206.
surface, which is the main reason for the wear property
[20] A.R. Yavari, W.J. Botta Filho, A.D. Rodrigues, A.L. Greer,
changing of the Cu45Zr48Al7 bulk metallic glass under various
atmospheres. The results demonstrate that metal oxides, such J.L. Uriarte, G. Huenen, G. Vaughan, A. Inoue, J. Non-Cryst.
as ZrO2 and Al2O3 produced on the alloy surface, can improve Solids 304 (2002) 44.
the wear resistance of the Cu45Zr48Al7 BMG alloy. [21] M.Z. Ma, R.P. Liu, Y. Xiao, D.C. Lou, L. Liu, Q. Wang,
W.K. Wang, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 386 (2004) 326.
Acknowledgements [22] Zeynep Parlar, Mustafa Bakkal and Albert J. Shih,
Intermetallics 16 (2008) 34.
The authors would like to thank financial support from the [23] Marco E. Siegrist, Esther D. Amstad and Jörg F. Löffler,
Department of Education of Zhejiang Province (Grants Nos. Intermetallics 15 (2007) 1228.
20070434), and Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials [24] P.J. Uggowitzer, R. Magdowski, M.O. Speidel, ISIJ Int.36
and Manufacturing Technology (Zhejiang Sci-Tech University), (1996) 901.
Ministry of Education is gratefully acknowledged. [25] J.C. Wataha, P.E. Lockwood, A. Schedle, J. Biomed.
Mater. Res. 52 (2000) 360.
[26] D. Wang, H. Tan, Y. Li. Acta Mater 53 (2005)2969.
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[27] Holmr. holm: ‘Electrical contacts’; 1948, Stockholm,
[1] A.L. Greer, Science. 267 (1995) 1947. Gerbers.
[2] W.L. Johnson, MRS Bull. 24 (1999) 42. [28] J. F. Archard, J. Appl. Phys. 24 (1953) 981.
[3] A. Inoue, Acta Mater. 48 (2000) 279.
[29] I. M. Hutchings: ‘Tribology: friction and wear of
[4] H.S. Chen, Acta Metall. 22 (1974) 1505.
engineering materials’; 1992, London, Edward Arnold.
[5] C.T. Liu, M.F. Chisholm, M.K. Miller, Intermetallic. 10
[30] S. H. Whang and B. C. Giessen, J. Met. 33(9) (1981) A66.
(2002) 1105.
[6] W.H. Wang, C. Dong, C.H. Shek, Mater Sci Eng R. 44 [31] S. H. Whang and B. C. Giessen: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on
(2004) 45. ‘Rapidly quenched metals’, Vol. 2, (ed. T. Masumoto and K.
[7] M.F. Ashby, A.L. Greer, Scripta Mater. 54 (2006) 321. Suzuki), 1403–1406; 1982, Sendai, Japan Institute of Metals.
[8] M. Telford, Mater Today. 7 (2004) 36. [32] S.K. Yen, M.J. Guo, H.Z. Zhan, Biomaterials 22 (2001)
[9] S. Hiromoto, A.P. Tsai, M. Sumita, T. Hanawa, Corr. Sci. 125.
42 (2000) 1651. [33] S.K. Yen, S.W. Hsu, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 54 (2001)
[10] S. Hiromoto, A.P. Tsai, M. Sumita, T. Hanawa, Corr. Sci. 412.
42 (2000) 2193. [34] C. C. Chang and S. K. Yen, Surface and Coatings
[11] S. Hiromoto, A.P. Tsai, M. Sumita, T. Hanawa, Corr. Sci. Technology 182 (2004) 242.
42 (2000) 2167.
272
A Study of the Correlation between Gear Wear and Vibration
falling-in error.
Keywords: Gear, Wear, Vibration Analysis, Simulation Test
K C
n2
1 INTRODUCTION
Gear is the most widely used machinery, wear and vibration
analysis are two main conditions monitoring techniques for gear
maintenance and fault diagnosis [1]. These two techniques have N2 m2
their advantages and disadvantages. When these two techniques
are conducted independently, only part of machine faults can be
diagnosed [2]. However, many practical experiences has shown
that integrating these two techniques in a machine condition
monitoring program can provide greater and more reliable
information of machine fault diagnosed[3-6]. Many scholars
had done some researches to combine gear wear and vibration to
Fig.1 The dynamic model of one gear pair
diagnose the machinery faults [7-9]. In 2003, Z. Peng and N. J.
Kessissogloub had investigated the correlation of vibration
m1 and m2 are the masses, n1 and n2 are the speed,
analysis and wear debris analysis by using an experimental
test ring consisting of a worm gear box, and found that z1 and z2 are the number of teeth of two different gears in
combining the vibration analysis and wear debris analysis can one gear pair, fig.1 shows the dynamics model of one gear
improve the ratio of the machinery faults diagnosed [10-11]. pair. The dynamics equation of a couple of gear can be written
Wear influence vibration, and vibration influence wear [12]. As as follows [15]:
common, the correlation between gear wear and vibration MX CX K g t X K g t E1 K g t E2 t (1)
analysis is believed to be directly proportional, but the result is
Where M is the equivalence mass of the gear pair, and
lack of enough proofs. For example, Mohammad Asaduzzaman
M m1m2 m1 m2 ; X is the displacement along the line
Chowdhury and Md. Maksud Helali’s researches show that the
values of wear rate of a mild steel decreases with the increasing of action; E1 is the average quiescence elasticity distortion
of frequency of vibration and the wear rate decreases with the
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
under load; E2 t is called error function, which is rotation error. Gear wear may increase or decrease the value of
represented by the relatively displacement among two different the gear pair vibration.
gears caused by gear’s error and fault. 2) Let the vibration error caused by gear wear be meshing
From equation (1), the sources of gear vibration are from error, that is the value of Bn is variable and the value of A
two parts, which are K g t E1 and K g t E2 t . K g t E1 is constant, then the value of the part 1, 2 of equation (4) is
represents the source of the general gear engaging vibration, constant and the value of the part 3, 4 part of equation (4) is
which has no relation with those gear errors or faults. changing. Let k n , the part 3 of equation (4) by using of
K g t E2 t represents the source of the variation gear Bessel function could be described by following equation (5).
E2 t is consisted of two parts, which are gear mesh error u ª¬cos kZ g Z0 t cos kZ g Z0 t º¼ (5)
From equation (4), some analysis can be obtained as follows: The place of oil collected
1) Let the vibration error caused by gear wear be rotation
Spacer
error, that is the value of A is variable and the value of Bn
Fig.2 The system diagram of Gear wear simulation test
is constant, then, from equation (4), the value of K g t E2 t
would change with the value of A . Because the value of A The type of test gearbox is K727840ZW. The test gear is the
may be increased or decreased, a conclusion can be obtained second gear of the gearbox. The material of test gear is
that the value of the vibration of the gear pair may be increased 20CrMnTi, and the gear was case hardened to a depth of
or decreased, if the gear vibration error caused by gear wear is 0.2mm with a Rockwell hardness of C58/60. The number of
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A Study of the Correlation between Gear Wear and Vibration
teeth is 23. Fig. 3 shows the photos of eight types of test gears, Table 2 The detail of two test plans
which are named as T1 , T 2 , T3 , T 4 , T5 , T 6 , T 7 , T8 . T1 is Project Description
normal gear, the others are fault gear which T 7 , T8 are from 1 The constant load and speed are 60Nm and
800r/min. One vibration signal and one oil sample
factory, and the others are made in laboratory. These details of are sampled 40 minute interval. The number of
fault characters of gears are shown in the table.1. BP 45 is vibration signals sampled and oil samples collected
selected to be lubricating oil in these tests. is ten. The time of vibration signal sampled and oil
sample collected is same.
2 The variables loads are 20Nm, 40Nm, 60Nm, 80Nm
and 100Nm, the values of variable speed are
400r/min, 600r/m, 800r/m, 1000r/m, 1200r/m and
1400r/m. The operating conditions are assembled
with those variable loads and speeds shown above
(a) (b) (c) (d) with freedom. One vibration signal and one oil
samples are collected three work condition interval.
The number of vibration signals collected and the
number of oil samples collected are ten. The time of
vibration signal collected and oil sample collected is
(e) (f) (g) (h) same.
Fig.3 The photos of experimental gear: (a) T1 ; (b) T 2 ; (c) T3 ;
(d) T 4 ; (e) T5 ; (f) T 6 ; (g) T 7 ; (h) T8 Notes:
1) The running-in time of every test gear is one hour
2) The temperature of oil is controlled below 60ć
Table 1 the characters of experimental gears 3) When the work condition of machinery is changed, those
experimental data should be sampled when the machinery run
type characters in steady state.
T1 The texture of the tooth surface is in good condition.
4 ANALYSIS OF THE TEST DATA
T2 There is a pitting corrosion whose diameter is about
5mm in one tooth surface Because the life of gear is very long and the operating
condition of gear is very complex, it is impossible to simulate
T3 There are three pitting corrosion whose diameter ranges the gear’s life in laboratory. During the study, in order to
from 4mm to 5.5mm in one tooth surface. simulate gear life, the life of gear are supposed to be made up
T4 There are several pitting corrosions whose diameter of five phases, which are normal phase, slight wear phase,
ranges from 4mm to 5.5mm in several teeth surface moderate wear phase, severe wear phase and failure phase.
Then, the characters of typical work condition in different
T5 There is a spalling piece in every tooth surface. There
phase can be considered as the characters of gear in its life.
are some small ploughs in every tooth surface. The
Based on the hypothesizes above, supposed these eight
length of a spall piece in every tooth surface is from
simulation tests in every project is typical work phases through
2mm to 4mm and the width of the spalling piece ranges
gear life in different operating condition, the gear life in
from 0.5mm to 2mm.
different operating condition could be made up of eight
T6 There is a spall piece in every tooth surface, and the simulation tests in the paper in two projects.
length of those spall piece ranges from 5mm to 12mm Two parameters being dQ and V , were used in the paper.
and the width of the spall piece ranges from 3mm to
dQ represents the meaning of the change rate of abrasion
5mm. There are many ploughs in every tooth surface and
the deep depth of ploughs is up to 0.1mm. gross and the developing rate of abnormity wear [16]. V
represents the meaning of the variance of vibration signal, the
T7 There are many severe spalls in every tooth surface. The value of V represents the energy of the vibration signal.
length of spall pieces is about 20mm and the width of
According to the assumption mentioned above, the value of
spall pieces is about 8mm. There are some fusion
dQ of eight simulation tests in different project could be used
phenomena shown in gear surface.
to express the change rate of gear wear in gear life, and the
T8 There are two teeth broken in a gear, one tooth is broken value of V of eight simulation tests in different project could
from root line and the other is broken from root line be used to express the value of gear vibration in gear life. Then
the relationship of dQ ~ V shows the relationship of the
changing rate of gear wear and the value of gear vibration
3.2 Test Plans signal in gear life. In order to compare those two parameters
Two different test projects are proposed in the paper. The with two different units with each other, the value of two
operating conditions of project 1 are with constant speed and parameters was unitary. The operating condition of vibration
load and the operating conditions of project 2 are with variable signal collected is same in two test plans, which speed load are
speed and load. Table.2 describes the two test projects in detail. 800r/m, and load are 60Nm. The graduation in x axis
There are eight tests in every project. The type of test gear in represents different phases in gear life and the graduation in
y axis represents the unitary value of gear wear characters or
two projects are T1 , T 2 , T3 , T 4 , T5 , T 6 , T 7 , T8 . There are sixteen
vibration characters. The magnified multiple of the vibration
test gears used in simulation tests. signal is 316.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
4.1 Constant load and speed The values of V are 0.08198 mm/s2, 0.032807 mm/s2 and
The experimental results of project 1 show in fig.4. The 0.611525 mm/s2 separate. Then a similar conclusion as above
operating condition is in constant load and speed. Fig.4 can be attained, which is the change trend is the same, more
represents the relationship of dQ ~ V through the gear life. worse gear wear, bigger the value of V . But there some
From normal wear to pitting corrosion of gear, the change rate exceptions, especially in the condition of pitting corrosion.
of gear wear rate dQ increase stably, from 0.13065, 0.17671
to 0.19191. But from slight spalling fault, serious spalling fault
to some teeth broken of gear, the changing rate of gear wear
rate increase rapid, from 0.246 in slight spalling fault to
0.39539 in some teeth broken. The value of dQ is bigger and
bigger during the gear life, which denotes that the gear wear
velocity becomes bigger. But the change indirection of the
values of vibration signals isn’t same as the changing rate of
gear wear rate. During the condition of pitting corrosion, the
value of vibration signals changes from 0.241305 mm/s2,
0.120596 mm/s2 , to 0.23451 mm/s2, the value of vibration
signals become less. So, from the figure 4, the conclusion can
be achieved as follow: during the work condition with stable
speed and load, the changing direction of the change of gear
wear rate is same with the change direction of the change of
gear vibration signal, more worse gear wear, more bigger the
value of the vibration signal. But there are some expectations,
for example, during the pitting corrosion, the value of the
vibration signal become less when the value of the change rate Fig.5 The relationship chart of dQ ~ V among the gear full
of gear wear become bigger. life with variable load and speed
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A Study of the Correlation between Gear Wear and Vibration
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
278
Study on the Relationship between Microstructural Change in Friction-Induced Deformation Layer and
Friction Behavior of Austenitic Stainless Steel
friction coefficient between tribo-pairs lubricated by respectively. Fig.4 c), d) show the worn surface of pin samples
drawing-oil under different normal loads. The change of under 200N, 300N with gear oils, respectively. It can be seen
friction coefficient can be divided into A and B stages. At A that the wear loss of MASS lubricated by stainless steel
stage, friction coefficient reduces with the increase of test time drawing-oil is smaller than that lubricated by gear oil. This
under different normal loads. Moreover, the friction coefficient indicates that the lubricity of stainless steel drawing-oil to
increases with increasing normal load. At B stage, the friction MASS is excellent.
coefficient tends to be stable, but fluctuates remarkably. In
addition, the fluctuation range of friction coefficient increases
with increasing normal load. At the same time, friction
coefficient is still proportional to the normal load.
Fig.3 b) presents the friction coefficient between
tribo-pairs lubricated by gear oil under different normal loads.
The friction coefficient has same change law with that presents
in Fig.3 a), and its value is larger because of the poor lubricity
of gear oil. By the way, the experiment had to break after a few
minutes due to the same reason when normal load was 300N.
0.20
a)
A B
0.16
300N
400N
Friction coefficient
0.12
0.08
200N
0.04
0 1000 2000 3000
Test time/s
b)
0.35 300N
Friction coefficient
0.30
0.25 200N
0.20
0.15
0 1000 2000 3000
Test time/s
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig.5 a), b) show the SEM morphology of worn surface of Frictional stress could induce microstructure change in the
MASS samples under 300N, lubricated by stainless steel subsurface layer of MASS samples. This affects the friction
drawing-oil and gear oil respectively. It can be seen that and wear behaviors of MASS. Therefore, on the basis of
different lubricants result in different wear behavior. above results, XRD was used to detect the phase
Lubricant with good lubricity for MASS can reduce the transformation in the friction-induced deformation layer.
adhesive wear and the subsequent abrasive wear remarkably. Fig.6 illustrates the method of electropolishing. The specific
In addition, Fig.5 a), b) present adhesion and spalling occur method is that thinning 20m every time starts from the
on the frictional surface of MASS. frictional surface until no martensitic diffraction peaks
present.
Friction surface
280
Study on the Relationship between Microstructural Change in Friction-Induced Deformation Layer and
Friction Behavior of Austenitic Stainless Steel
750
900
600 J(200)
J(311)
Intensity
450 J(220)
Intensity
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 40 60 80 100
2T/degree
2T/degree
1000
J(111) Gear oil, 300N b)
800 J(111) Stainless steel drawing-oil,300N b)
800
J(200)
600 J(311)
600 J(220)
J(222)
Intensity
90Pm
Intensity
J(200) D(110)
400 400
69Pm
J(311)
57Pm J(220) J(222)
200
200 49Pm D(211)
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
282
Abrasive Wear Behavior of Several Metallic Materials under Simulated Sand-Dust Environment
Abrasive Wear Behavior of Several Metallic Materials under Simulated Sand-Dust Environment
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The friction and wear behaviors of five metallic materials wear tester equipped with an attachment for simulating
have been evaluated under simulated sand-dust condition. sand-dust environment is used to comparatively evaluate the
Compared with 2Al2 Al alloy, Z25 cast iron and 1045 steel, friction and abrasive wear behavior of five metallic materials.
52100 steel and C52100 Cu show different wear behaviors. (see Fig.1), aiming at providing some guidance to the selection
SEM observations indicate that the high micro-hardness is of metallic materials applied in sand-dust environment and the
responsible for the distinct wear behavior of 52100 steel while mitigation of the wear losses of mechanical systems therein.
the formation of the transfer film on the counterface and the
“frictional composite” account for the unexpected wear
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
behavior of C52100 Cu. The wear tests prove that the sand
sizes of smaller than 97 m and 150~356 m are both out of 1. EFFECT OF APPLIED LOAD ON WEAR BEHAVIOR
the critical size range of 52100 steel and C52100 Cu while In the tests, the sand dosage of 30 mg/cm3 was used., The
those are just in the critical size range of the other three metals. increasing wear rates of 2Al2 Al, Z25 cast iron and 1045 steel
Keywords: metallic materials; abrasive wear; simulated with the load (Fig.2), agreeing well with that reported
sand-dust environment; frictional composite layer; wear debris elsewhere [1,2], can be attributed to the increase of specimen
INTRODUCTION
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
the applied load, abrasive sands were fragmentized into more sand particles in the contact zone as compared with
smaller size particles which can be embedded into the matrix 150~356 m sand-dust condition. More particles would
more effectively to form the “frictional composite”. The produce larger friction resistance leading to larger frict
frictional composite consists of the matrix material, coefficients (Fig. 5a). It has been demonstrated by previous
fragmentized sands and wear debris [3], and can enhance the researches [4,5] that materials experience severer wear in the
abrasive wear resistance of materials. presence of larger size abrasives when the particle size is
within the corresponding critical size range. As seen in Fig. 5b,
large size abrasive sands lead to a drastic increase in the wear
rate of Z25 cast iron, 2Al2 Al and 1045 steel as compared with
smaller size sands. This is due to that the pressure exerted on
each large sand particle was greater than that exerted on the
small one since there were less large size particles in the
contact zone to bear the load, so the sliding surfaces of the
frictional pair experienced deeper ploughing, cutting, and
severer damage as being abraded by large size abrasive sands.
In addition, when the particle size goes beyond the
corresponding critical size then materials are insensitive to the
abrasive size [4,5]. This is why 52100 steel and C52100 Cu
show relatively minor difference in the wear rate under
different size sand-dust condition (Fig. 5b).
284
Wear Behavior of Plasma-Nitrided 2Cr13 Martensitic Stainless Steel under Air and Vacuum
Wear Behavior of Plasma-Nitrided 2Cr13 Martensitic Stainless Steel under Air and Vacuum
Yang Jianqun (Harbin Institute of Technology, China) Liu Yong (Harbin Institute of Technology, China)
Ye Zhuyu (Harbin Institute of Technology, China) Yang Dezhuang, He Shiyu (Harbin Institute of
Technology, China)
Extended Abstract
The wear behaviour of the plasma-nitrided 2Cr13 steel and vacuum (10-3 Pa). The plasma-nitrided 2Cr13 steel was
disks under air and vacuum have been investigated using a selected as the disk with dimension of Φ70mm×10mm. The
pin-on-disk type tribometer with dry sliding condition. The unnitrided pins with a spherical end (diameter in 10 mm) of the
unnitrided pins of the same material were used for the wear same material were used as the counter couples. As standard
couples. Microhardness measurements, X-ray diffraction parameters for the friction tests a normal force of 20 N, a
analysis, optical microscopy were used to examine the sliding velocity of 0.8 m/s and 2000 m sliding distance were
microhardness profile, the surface phases crystal structure and chosen.
morphology of the specimens. After wear testing, the scanning Metallographic cross-sections were investigated by optical
electron microscopy of the wear tracks on the disk and pin microscope. Nital solution was used as an etchant to reveal the
specimens was performed to reveal the wear mechanism. The case microstructure. X-ray diffraction (XRD) using CuKα
surface profile of wear tracks of the disk specimens was radiation was employed to determine the phase composition.
examined by a profilometer. The microhardness was measured used a HVS-1000 type
The friction wear test results show that in contrast to that in digital microhardness tester under a load of 100 g and a dwell
air, the wear rate of pin and disk specimens in vacuum reduces time of 20 s. The wear tracks on the disk and pin specimens
by 8 and 2 times approximately, respectivety. The worn surface were examined by scanning electron microscopy and a
morphology of the pin and disk specimens under air and profilometer.
vacuum is distinctly different. It is supposed that the oxidative
and delamination wear dominate the wear process in air, 3. MAIN RESULTS
whereas the adhesion wear are the principal wear mechanisms
in vacuum. 3.1. MICROSTRUCTURE CHARACTERIZATIONS
Keywords: 2Cr13 steel, Nitriding, Vacuum, Fricton and wear Fig.1(a) shows the cross-sectional metallograph of the disk
specimens. The case depth is measured to be approximately
1. INTRODUCTION 165 μm, but note that the microstructure over the case depth is
different from that within the first 10μm from the surface. Fig.
The 2Cr13 martensitic stainless steel is often used to
1(b) gives the micrograph of the disk specimens core. The
fabricate the gears in aerospace field because of its high
microstructure is tempered sorbite which consists of small
plasticity and other beneficial properties. The gear contact
granular iron carbide and ferrites and has excellent strength
faces appear wear damage usually during gear engagement
and ductility, but mophology of the core still is original
process. The serious wear will result in the inactivation of the
martensitic.
gears [1, 2]. Hence, nitriding is usually used to enhance the
wear resistance of the working surface of the gears and prolong
their service lifetime. Plasma nitriding has been successfully (a) (b)
employed to modify the surfaces of various stainless steels to
obtain excellent tribological properties [3-5]. There have been Nitrided layer
reports on the wear characteristics of nitrided martensitic steels
[6, 7]. However, systematical study about the tribological
behavior of plasma-nitrided 2Cr13 martensitic stainless steel
Substrate
under air and vacuum is hardly found in the literature.
The purpose of the present investigation is to study the wear
100μm 20μm
behavior of plasma-nitrided 2Cr13 martensitic stainless steel
and wear mechanism under air and vacuum conditions.
Fig.1 Morphology of the disk specimens
2. EXPERIMENTAL (a) the cross-section and (b) the core
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(d) (e)
286
Sealing Performance and Wear Mechanism of PTFE Oil Seal
1
South China University of Technology Guangdong Guangzhou 510641,China;
2
Guangzhou Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Guangzhou 510700,China
ABSTRACT
Modified PTFE oil seal is studied: non-linear finite
element model of sealing interface is established to simulate the
distribution of contact stress and the grinding condition. The
friction and wear properties of PTFE composite are investigated
in different loads under dry and oil-lubricated conditions. The
worn surfaces of the tested samples and grinding ring are
observed with optical microscope, as an effort to analyze the
wear mechanisms. The result shows that forced location of oil
seal can be visually displayed by finite element analysis. Radial
force increases with increasing magnitude of interference.
Simulant results fit well with the actual situation. Under dry
condition, friction coefficient increases with load increasing at
low speed and decreases at high speed but is stable and affected
little by loads under oil-lubricated condition.
Keywords: Oil seal, Finite element model, Friction and wear
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of PTFE lip seal
properties
INTRODUCTION
Polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE) is widely used as a wear 1 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF OIL SEAL
resistant material because it shows excellent low friction 1.1DESCRIPTION OF CONTACT BETWEEN OIL SEAL
coefficient when it slides against metal surface. But the wear AND SHAFT
rate of PTFE is unacceptably high without filling modification. In free state, inner diameter of oil seal is smaller than that
PTFE can be reinforced by inorganic material such as glass of shaft. After an oil seal is equipped on shaft, rebound force of
fiber, carbon fiber, graphite or MoS2 to get high tensile strength, the oil seal will cause contact pressure. [5-6] Contact pressure
compressive strength and elastic modulus.[1] Dirk Weber has distribution is mainly discussed in this paper after installation,,
studied the geometry optimization of PTFE lip seals and therefore, the skeleton and accessorial dust lip of oil seal can be
predicted the wear properties.[2] But the contact width of the lip ignored in modeling but degrees of freedom of peripheral field
is too short and easy to break. Hai Sui studied the wear and on axial lip presented in Fig.2 shall be restricted. Shaft moves
friction of PTFE seals.[3] He got tribological factor on a test ring along Y-axis to represent installation process. Hex shape
with pin-on-disc apparatus. A finite element analysis (FEA) element, presented in Fig.3, is meshed in oil seal model and
was applied to calculate the change of contact stress during dry quad-dominated shape element in axial model.
running of the axis. Mark Shuster reported surface morphology
of oil seal and shaft through SEM and EDX analysis to improve
the shaft surface for better seal life. [4] All the wear coefficient
they obtained was determined by tribology and wear experiment.
Rubber seal shows too large tangential resistance after
startup and can’t endure high or low temperature, so
hydrodynamic PTFE oil seal is applied in this research. The
effect of dynamic structure with wide contact between PTFE
oil seal and axis can keep enough oil-film thickness and avoid
leakage. This structure of PTFE oil seal without spring as
displayed in Fig.1 is insensitive to the eccentricity of axis.
Meanwhile, PTFE oil seal can be used in exchange for rubber
seal.
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
180 2R 2 4
Where B is width of the PTFE material sample, R is radius of
the steel ring, b is width of scratch mark.
x
The wear coefficient w is calculated from the relationship
x V
w , where V is the volume loss, L is the sliding
LN
distance and N is the applied load
Fig.4 Von Mises stress of axial lip
Fig.5 Contact pressure of axial lip
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.1 DESCRIPTION OF COMPOSITE PREPARATION
Filler like glass fiber, carbon fiber, graphite or MoS2 can Fig.6 Schematic diagram of M2000 friction and wear tester
288
Sealing Performance and Wear Mechanism of PTFE Oil Seal
Table 1 Working condition of samples Table 2 Radial force of PTFE composite oil seal
Sample Rotation Working Inner Maximal Emulational Experimental
Load(N) diameter contact stress radial radial
No. Speed(r/min) Condition
(mm) (MPa) force(N) force(N)
A 150 dry 60 0.5346 106.06 93
B 300 dry 61 0.3405 57.79 60
61.4 0.2892 53.59 55
C 600 dry 62 0.2355 41.24 47
D 150 dry
E 300 dry
F 600 dry
G 300 Oil-lubricated
H 600 Oil-lubricated
( UPLQGU\
:HDUUDWHPPAP1
UPLQRLO
( OXEULFDWHG
(
(
(
(
/RDG1
˄D˅
Fig.8 Wear rate of samples
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
4 CONCLUSION
(1) This PTFE composite material shows high friction
coefficient at high speed and light load, contrarily, low friction
coefficient at heavy load. However, the wear rate is low at light
(a) load and high at heavy load.
(2) In the oil seal, root of bending part and lip are subjected to
larger pressure. A pair of shear force is easily generated at the
top and bottom surfaces. So enough thickness of the seal shall
be guaranteed to avoid fracture. The contact length and radial
force increase with decreasing diameter of the oil seal. The
contact stress of oil seal with large diameter exhibits triangular
distribution that is more beneficial to create hydrodynamic
pressure and to seal in more effect.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Pro. Rongguang Liang of
suggestions and Guangzhou mechanical engineering research
institute of product manufactured help.
REFERENCES
[1] Marcelo Kawakame, Jose Divo Bressan., 2006, “Study of
wear in self-lubricating composites for application in seals of
(b) electric motors,” Journal of materials processing technology,
Fig.11 Transfer film on counterpart ring surface at high speed 179, pp.74-80.
(a) dry friction (b)oil-lubricated [2] Dirk Weber, Werner Haas., 2007, “PTFE lip seals with
different sealing edge designs, experiments and simulation,”
(1) The friction and wear experiment (Fig.7) indicates that sealing technology, 2, pp.7-12.
friction coefficient increases with load increasing at low speed [3] Hai Sui, Heiko Pohl. Uwe Schomburg, et al,1999, “Wear
but decreases at high speed under dry condition. Owing to and friction of PTFE seals,” wear, 224, pp.175-182.
cooling effect and lubricating film on friction surface, [4] Mark Shuster, Ray Seasons Doug Burke.,1999, “Laboratory
composite material can isolate from metal shaft. Meanwhile, oil simulation to select oil seal and surface treatment,” wear,
film filled in unsmooth surfaces which can decrease pressure of 225-229, pp.954-961.
unit area. Therefore compared to dry friction (Fig.8) composite [5] A. Gorrino, C. Angulo, J. Canales.,2007, “Theoretical
material has remarkably improved friction and wear behavior analysis of the pumping effect of rotary hydrodynamic seals
under oil lubrication. with elastomeric lips,” tribology international, 40, pp.896-905.
290
Sealing Performance and Wear Mechanism of PTFE Oil Seal
[6] Chun-Ying Lee, Chao-Sung Lin, Rui-Quan Jian et al, 2006, [9] Thomas Ø. Larsen, Tom L. Andersen, Bent Thorning, et al,
“Simulation and experimentation on the contact width and 2006, “The effect of particle addition and fibrous reinforcement
pressure distribution of lip seals,” tribology international, 39, on epoxy-matrix composites for severe sliding conditions,”
pp.915-920. wear, pp.1-12.
[7] Chen Zhan, Wang Jiaxu, Zheng Xiaoguang, et al, 2002, [10] Hong-Bin Qiao, Qiang Guo, Ai-Guo Tian, et al, 2007, “A
“Study on friction and wear properties of PTFE,” Chinese study on friction and wear characteristics of nanometer
journal of mechanical engineering, 38, pp.74-77. Al2O3/PEEK composites under the dry sliding condition,”
[8] Bin-Bin Jia, Tong-Sheng Li, Xu-Jun Liu, et al, 2007, tribology international, 40, pp.105-110.
“Tribological behaviors of several polymer–polymer sliding [11] W.WIELEBA, 2007, “The Mechanism of Tribological
combinations under dry friction and oil-lubricated conditions,” Wear of Thermoplastic Materials,” archives of civil and
wear, 262, pp.1353-1359. mechanical engineering, 7, pp.185-199.
291
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Fretting Corrosion Wear of Synergy between Mechanical and Electrochemical for Biomaterials in Hanks Balanced Salt Solution
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than that of PPM, which means that the fresh surface becomes
base, i.e., it would dissolve even in lower potential where the
normal surface is in cathode.
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Fretting Corrosion Wear of Synergy between Mechanical and Electrochemical for Biomaterials in Hanks Balanced Salt Solution
mechanical damage of materials because of its lubricative effect the mechanical effect in fretting corrosion, the ratio of the
sometimes) and increment of local electrochemical corrosion increment of electrochemical dissolution due to mechanical
due to fretting process (e.g. the fretting loss comes from crevice effect (W̉́/(W˿-W̉)) to the total synergistic interaction (W˿
corrosion), could be ignored [12]. So W˿ could be described by -W̉) is not so much. Actually, they are 17.05% (Co–Cr–Mo
Eq. (3) as follows [8]: alloy) and 43.48% (Ti–6Al–4V).
Contrarily, the ratio of the increment of mechanical damage
Wc = W̉ + Ẃ + W̉́ + Ẃ̉ (3) due to electrochemical corrosion (W ́ ̉ /'W) to the total
synergistic interaction (W˿ˉW̉) is very high, and they are
If the last two factors in Eq. (3), which could be recognized as 82.95% (Co–Cr–Mo alloy) and 56.52% (Ti–6Al–4V alloy).
the synergistic interaction of mechanical effect and Compared to the mechanical damage under steady conditions,
electrochemical corrosion, are defined as 'W, the expression of the wear volume loss of materials caused by mechanical effect
the wear volume loss of implant materials in physiology saline in fretting corrosion due to electrochemical dissolution
could be simplified as following: increased by 2.26 and 1.87 times for Co–Cr–Mo alloy and
Ti–6Al–4V alloy, respectively.
W˿ = W̉+ Ẃ+'W (4) It can be said that the fretting corrosion of these materials is
a wear-domained synergistic interaction of electrochemical
Then, the increment of wear volume loss due to the synergistic corrosion and mechanical damage. Although the
interaction of electrochemical corrosion and mechanical electrochemical corrosion is not the most important factor for
damage 'W should be implant materials loss, the promotion of corrosion to
mechanical damage and synergistic interaction with mechanical
effect greatly increase the materials loss.
'W = W̉́ + Ẃ̉ (5)
Comparing the fretting corrosion resistance of these two
materials each other, there is no much difference among their
Based on the values of W ̉ , W ˿ , W ́ and W ̉́ from
steady corrosion rates because of their good passivation
experimental results and data in Table 1 and 2, 'W and Ẃ̉
capacities. Data from industrial field indicate that the wear
could be calculated, and then the values of 'W/W˿, W̉́/'W volume of Co–Cr–Mo alloy is much higher than Ti–6Al–4V
and Ẃ̉/'W could also be obtained. Here 'W/W˿(%) is the alloy. This may come from more synergistic interaction in
ratio of the synergistic interaction of electrochemical corrosion materials damage of Co–Cr–Mo alloy. Furthermore, sometimes
and mechanical effect to the total wear volume of materials in crevice corrosion is the primary mode of to damage materials in
fretting corrosion. W̉́/'W (%) and Ẃ̉/'W (%) are the ratio fretting corrosion and at the same time Co–Cr–Mo alloy is most
of electrochemical corrosion and mechanical effect to the vulnerable to it. Co–Cr–Mo alloy is the most wear-resistant one
synergistic interaction, respectively. All those data are listed in and Ti–6Al–4V alloy is insensible to crevice corrosion, which
Table 4. Here a, b and c are introduced to represent the result in smaller wear volume loss in fretting corrosion [13,14].
acceleration of mechanical effect to electrochemical corrosion,
the acceleration of electrochemical corrosion to mechanical 3.5 Discussion on synergistic mechanism
process, and the ratio of electrochemical corrosion increment The characteristics of dynamic corrosion are quite different
and mechanical damage increment to synergistic interaction: from those of static corrosion, especially the greater dissolution
rate for dynamic corrosion due to the exposure of active fresh
W me Wem W me 'W W me surfaces during mechanical actions. The corrosion resistance
a ,b ,c (6) decreases obviously due to the mechanical damage of fretting,
We Wm Wem 'W Wem
and consequently the materials are more sensitive to fresh
surface or local corrosion. Fig. 5a shows SEM photographs of
In hanks balanced salt solution the ratio of wear volume loss due wear scar at Co–Cr–Mo alloy after 36,000 cycles fretting under
to mechanical damage and electrochemical corrosion to total pure water. Many Grooves in the fretting zone could be found
wear volume loss are 55.70 and 46.50% for Co–Cr–Mo alloy under higher magnification. Fig. 5b shows the morphology of
and Ti–6Al–4V alloy, respectively (Tables 3 and 4). The rates Co–Cr–Mo alloy after 36,000 cycles fretting, while Fig. 5c
of static corrosion (W ́ ) for materials are 4.95 × 10-8 mm3 shows the morphology of Ti–6Al–4V alloy after 36,000 cycles
(Co–Cr–Mo alloy) and 7.7×10-8 mm3 (Ti–6Al–4V alloy), and fretting. In both cases, the non-fretting zone is quite different
surprisingly the rates of electrochemical corrosion increased by from the fretting zone and over there the material was protected
586 and 390 times, respectively, because of mechanical effect in by the compact passivation films on surface. But in the fretting
fretting corrosion. Although the electrochemical dissolution zone, there are so much Grooves because the fretting process
process of test materials was significantly promoted and the damaged the passivation films and exposed to fresh surface.
corrosion rates were increased by hundreds of times because of
Table 4 Contribution of corrosion and mechanic effect to interaction for three materials in hanks balanced salt solution
under fretting corrosion (10-5mm3)
Material Wm WC (in hanks We (static) Wm e We m ƸW (interaction)
ncrement) (in pure water) solution) (fretting) (fretting)
Co-Cr-Mo 1.37 3.05 4.95×10-4 0.29 1.41 1.70
Ti-6AI-4V 0.78 1.47 7.70×10-4 0.30 0.39 0.69
Material ƸW/WC Wm e /ƸW We m /ƸW a=Wm e /We b=We m /Wm C=Wm e /We m
(ˁ) (ˁ) (ˁ) (times) (times) (ˁ)
Co-Cr-Mo 55.70 17.05 82.95 586 1.02 20.56
Ti-6AI-4V 46.50 43.48 56.52 390 0.5 76.92
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig.5 SEM photographs of wear scar at Co-Cr-Mo and Ti-6AI-4V alloy in pure water
(a) (b)
Fig.6 SEM photographs of wear scar at Co-Cr-Mo and Ti-6Al-4V alloy in saline solution
(a) (b)
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Fretting Corrosion Wear of Synergy Between Mechanical and Electrochemical for Biomaterials in Hanks Balanced Salt Solution
Grooves and channels due to mechanical damage, they will corrosion and mechanical damage. Although the
be other types of active positions for electrochemical corrosion. electrochemical corrosion is not the most important factor
Figs. 6a, which are the fretting corrosion morphology of for implant materials loss, the promotion of corrosion to
Ti–6Al–4V alloy under the free potential, show pits and mechanical damage and synergistic interaction with
corrosion holes in fretting furrow. The similar phenomena could mechanical effect greatly increase the materials loss.
be found in the fretting corrosion morphology of Co–Cr–Mo
alloy at condition (Fig. 6b). Some corrosion products and References
dispersive pits or corrosion holes could be found in fretting [1] B. Tritschler, B. Forest, J. Rieu, Fretting corrosion of
furrow. Furthermore, the shear stress is much higher in the materials for orthopaedic implants: a study of a
fretting contact zone, and then this area is more sensitive to metal/polymer contact in an artificial physiological
dissolution. The plastic deformation due to shearing stress of medium, Tribol. Int. 32 (1999) 587–596.
fretting increases the electrochemical activity of materials in [2] M. Viceconti, O. Ruggeri, A. Toni, A. Giunti,
fretting zone, which subsequently results in much more Design-related fretting wear in modular neck hip
dissolution of materials. prosthesis, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 30 (1996) 181–186.
Adhesion wear, particle wear and/or fatigue wear is the [3] P. Kovacs, J.A. Davidson, K. Daigle, Particulate debris from
major effect of mechanical damage in fretting corrosion medical implants: mechanisms of formation and biological
processes, and all of those three types of wear could be greatly consequences, ASTM STP 1144, in: K.R. St. John (Ed.),
influenced by electrochemical corrosion. Fig. 7 shows the American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
morphologies of Co-Cr-Mo alloy (coupling with the same 1992, pp. 160–176.
material) in hanks solution after 36,000 cycles, in which the [4] LI Ji-wu: Fretting Corrosion Property of Zr-4 alloy in
surface morphology of material shows typical characteristics of Na2SO4 Solution,Tribology, 2007, 27(05): 406–410.
adhesion wear (Fig. 7a). In this figure it could be found that [5] A. Iwabuchi , J.W. Lee b, M. Uchidate: Synergistic effect
some materials have been corroded heavily. Furthermore, in of fretting wear and sliding wear of Co-alloy and Ti-alloy
which stripped wear scraps could be found. Fig. 7b shows the in Hanks’ solution, Wear 263 (2007) 492–500.
peripheral zone of fretting zone where there are corroded [6] A. Iwabuchi, T. Tsukamoto & Y. Tatsuyanagi:
particles, which shows the characteristics of particle wear. Electrochemical Approach to Corrosive Wear of SKD61 Die
Corrosion products could be found at the edge of cracks. Steel in Na2SO4 Solution, Wear 156 (1992) 301.
In fretting corrosion another effect of corrosion on
mechanical damage is the influence of wear-debris (sometimes [7] P. Jemmely, S.Mischler & D.Landolt: Tribocorrosion
there are corrosion products) on the fretting process, especially Behaviour of Fe-17Cr Stainless Steel in Acid and Alkaline
on the contact modes. This influence may be positive or Solutions, Wear 255 (2003) 466.
sometimes negative. If wear-debris/corrosion products [8] A. Iwabuchi, Y.Sugawara, T. Nakamura & T. Shimizu: Fretting
distribute uniformly along the contact surface of test material Wear Property of Zr-alloy in Na2SO4 solution, Proc. 3rd Int.
and its counterparts, they may isolate test material from wear Symposium on High Performance Tribo-system, Taegu, Korea,
counterparts and subsequently decrease the damage of
May (2000) 12.
mechanical effect to material. But on the other hand, if those
wear debris are much harder than test material and distributed [9] A. Iwabuchi, T. Sasaki & K. Hori: Tribological Properties of
unevenly in the contact surface, they may cause particle wear SUS304 Steel in Seawater, JSMEInt’l, Jour. Ser. I, 35
and cause much higher wear volume of test material. (1992) 117.
Furthermore, the contact surface might be much smoother due [10] A. Iwabuchi, T. Sonoda, H. Yashiro & T. Shimizu: Application
to electrochemical dissolution, especially in fretting corrosion of Potential Pulse Method to the Corrosion Behavior of the
under anodic potential, which will decrease the mechanical
Fresh Surface Formed by Scratching and sliding in Corrosive
damage to material .
Wear, Wear 225-229 (1999) 181.
4. Conclusions [11] S. Barril, N. Debaud, S. Mischler & D. Landolt: A
We examined the fretting wear property of biomaterials in tribo-electrochemical apparatus for in vitro investigation of
hanks balanced salt solution. The following conclusions are fretting–corrosion of metallic implant materials, Wear 252
drawn: (2002) 744–754.
(1) Fretting corrosion rate is greater than the static corrosion [12] J. Geringera, B. Foresta, & P. Combradeb: Fretting
rate by more than three order of magnitude. corrosion of materials used as orthopaedic implants, Wear
(2) The wear volume loss of materials in hanks solution should 259 (2005) 943–951
come from the synergistic interaction of mechanical [13] Jay R. Goldberga, Jeremy L. Gilbert: The
damage and electrochemical corrosion. The ratios of weight electrochemical and mechanical behavior of
loss due to synergistic interaction to total wear volume loss passivated and TiN/AlN-coated CoCrMo and
are 55.70% (Co–Cr–Mo) and 46.50% (Ti–6Al–4V). The Ti6Al4V alloys: Bomaterials 25 (2004) 851–864.
part of electrochemical dissolution in fretting corrosion [14] S. Barril, S. Mischler, D. Landolt: Influence of fretting
processes is less than 20% of total wear volume loss. regimes on the tribocorrosion behaviour of Ti6Al4V in 0.9
(3) The fretting corrosion of these two implant materials is a wt.% sodium chloride solution, Wear 256 (2004) 963–972.
wear-domained synergistic interaction of electrochemical
297
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Z. B. Cai ( Tribology Research Institute, Traction Power M. H. Zhu* ( Tribology Research Institute, Traction
State Key Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong University, Power State Key Laboratory,Southwest Jiaotong
Chengdu 610031, China) University, Chengdu 610031, China)
J. Yu (Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials Technology S. X. Qu (Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials
(Ministry of Education), Southwest Jiaotong University, Technology (Ministry of Education), Southwest Jiaotong
University, Chengdu 610031 China)
Chengdu 610031 China)
Z. R. Zhou ( Tribology Research Institute, Traction Power
State Key Laboratory,Southwest Jiaotong University,
Chengdu 610031, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
In this study, the torsional fretting behaviors of configuration of ball-on-flat were carried out on a new
ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) against torsional fretting tester (Fig.1). Flat UHMWPE specimens
Al2O3 femoral ceramic head ball and medical TC4 titanium (20mm×10mm×10mm) were polished to an average roughness
alloy ball (both with a diameter of 28 mm) were investigated of Ra=0.2 μm. Medical Al2O3 femoral ceramic head ball and
on a new torsional fretting tester. Angular displacement medical TC4 titanium alloy ball (both with a diameter of 28
amplitudes were varied from 0.2º to 90º with a constant mm) were selected as the against counter-bodies. In this study,
rotating velocity of 0.2 º /s, and the numbers of cycles varied torsional fretting tests were performed under the normal load
from 1 to 103. The kinetics behaviors of the UHMWPE were of 100 N at a constant rotary speed of 0.5 º/s. The torsional
characterized by using the frictional torque-angular angular displacement amplitudes were varied as 0.2º, 1º, 5º,
displacement (T-θ) curves. The wear morphologies and 30º, and 90º, and the number of cycles was varied from 1 to
damage mechanisms of UHMWPE were studied based on 1000. Fretting scars were measured by a profilometer
examinations of scanning electron microscope (SEM) and (AMBIOS XP-2) as a function of the number of cycles. The
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). It was found that the morphologies of wear scar were examined by scanning
torsional contact stiffness and friction dissipated energy electron microscope (SEM, Quanta200) and X-ray
initially rose and then reached steady-state gradually. Sticking photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Axis ultra).
was appeared at the centre zone of all fretting scars.
Detachment of particles, radial ripples, micro-cracks and
ploughs were observed with a higher displacement amplitude
value. The physical model of torsional fretting wear was built up.
Keywords: Fretting damage; Fretting wear; Torsional fretting;
UHMWPE
INTRODUCTION
The number of total joint arthroplasty procedures has
steadily increased worldwide over the past 10 years. In the
United States alone, over 500,000 total knee and total hip
replacements are performed annually, primarily on patients
older than 65 years [1]. The use of artificial joints for the Fig.1 Schematic diagram of the torsional fretting tester under a
treatment of degenerative diseases of the hip and knee is ball-on-flat contact
becoming widespread. Nowadays, there are several
bio-implant materials available in total joint replacements. The
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
best combinations are ultra high molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE) for the cup and alumina, titanium Torsional fretting behavior can be explicitly revealed by
alloys, stainless steel or CoCrMo alloy for the head. Wear of the friction torque-angular displacement amplitude curves (T-
UHMWPE components in total joint replacements is aclinical curve). Fig 2 displays the T- curves under the angular
concern and it has been extensively studied over the last three displacement amplitudes of 0.2º, 1º and 90º, respectively. At
decades. But the wear modes for the different researches lower torsional angular displacement amplitude of 0.2 º, the
mostly focused on rolling wear, reciprocating tangential sliding loops of the T- curves presented in shape of linear at whole
and pin-on-disc sliding. As a basic motion fashion, torsional test progress (Fig.2 (a) and (b)), which indicated the
wear occur at a lot of joints in human body such as hip joint, deformation of contact surface was coordinated with elastic
shoulder joint, temporomandibular joint and so on. However, deformation and the fretting run in the state of partial slip. The
there are few studies on torsional wear of the relational loops were open with the increase of the angular displacement
arthroplasty material, especially on torsional fretting wear. amplitude (Fig.2 (c) to (f)), corresponding with the fretting
state transferred from partial slip to gross slip. In addition, it
EXPERIMENTAL DETAIL was obvious that the contact stiffness was monotonically
increased as a function of the number of cycles. In Fig.2, it
Torsional fretting tests of the UHMWPE in contact also indicates that the friction torques and contact stiffness for
* Corresponding author .Tel & Fax:+86-28-87601304;
E-mail address: zhuminhao@swjtu.cn .
298
Torsional Fretting Behaviors of UHMWPE against Different Counter-Bodies
the UHMWPE/Al2O3 (U/A) contact were obviously lower than Slighter damage occurred at lower angular displacement
that of the UHMWPE/TC4 (U/T) contact. This means that the amplitude than that of higher torsional angle. A simple physic
(U/A) contact presented lower friction coefficients during the model for torsionalfretting wear of the UHWMPE was set up.
torsional fretting processes.
(a)θ=5e (b)θ=5e
(a)θ=0.2e (b) θ=0.2e
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
J.L. Mo (Tribology Research Institute, Traction Power M.H. Zhu* (Tribology Research Institute, Traction Power
State Key Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong University, State Key Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong University,
Chengdu 610031, China) Chengdu 610031, China)
Z.J. Liao (Tribology Research Institute, Traction Power Z.R. Zhou (Tribology Research Institute, Traction Power
State Key Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong University, State Key Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong University,
Chengdu 610031, China) Chengdu 610031, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Rotational fretting tests in a configuration of ball-on-flat
have been successfully realized by developing a new fretting
device based on an ultra-low-speed reciprocating rotational
driver. The rotational fretting tests of LZ50 steel flats against
52100 steel balls were performed under different testing
parameters, i.e. the angular displacement amplitudes of 0.25°
to 1° and the normal loads of 5 N to 20 N. The frictional
kinetics of rotational fretting and the characteristic of wear
damage for LZ50 steel were discussed in detail. The results
showed that the rotational fretting behavior of the LZ50 was
strongly dependent upon the angular displacement amplitude Fig. 1 Schematic of the rotational fretting mode
and normal load. Friction force-angular displacement (Ft- )
curves can be used to characterize the rotational fretting
Experimental
running behavior, which exhibited three basic types of the
parallelogram, elliptical and linear cycles by varying the A new rotational fretting device with a ball-on-flat
angular displacement amplitudes or normal loads. Under the configuration was developed by using an ultra-low-speed
condition of the angular displacement amplitude of 0.25° and reciprocating rotational driver (rotational speed: 0.001~30
the normal load of 10 N, the rotational fretting run in the r/min, resolution of rotational angle: 0.01 º), as shown in Fig. 2.
regime of partial slip, which corresponding elastic deformation Medium carbon steel LZ50 (compositions: 0.55%C, 0.30%Si,
coordination at the contact interface. With the increase of the 0.78%Mn, P<0.03%, S<0.03%, Ni<0.30%, wt%) was chosen
angular displacement amplitude and the decrease of normal as the flat specimens, which was ground and polished to the
load, the fretting running state transferred from the partial slip roughness (Ra) of 0.05 m. Chromium bearing steel ball (AISI
to the gross slip. The micro-examinations indicated that the 52100 steel) with diameter of 40 mm and surface roughness Ra
plastic deformation, abrasive wear, oxidative wear and of 0.04 m was used as sphere specimen. Rotational fretting
delamination were the main damage mechanism for LZ50 steel tests were carried out under different parameters: i.e. normal
under the gross slip conditions. A special phenomenon which loads of 5 N, 10 N and 20 N; rotational angular displacement
different from that observed in the tests of the normal amplitudes of 0.25º, 0.5º, 1º, 2º, 5º, 10º and 30º; a constant
reciprocating fretting (tangential fretting), i.e. wear debris rotational speed of 0.2 º/s; number of cycles varied from 1 to
generated was accumulated in the centre zone of the wear scar 1000. All the fretting tests were conducted in ambient
under the condition of gross slip, was observed in this paper. atmospheric condition (20±5 ć and 50±5% RH) without
Keywords: Friction and wear, Fretting, Fretting wear; lubrication. Fretting scars were evaluated by profilometer
Rotational fretting (AMBIOS XP-2), optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron
microscopy (SEM, QUANTA2000) and energy dispersive
INTRODUCTION spectroscopy (EDX, EDAX-7760/68 ME).
According to the directions of relative motions, only four
simple fretting modes can be defined under a ball-on-flat Results and discussion
contact: tangential, radial, rotational and torsional fretting [1]. Under the angular displacement amplitude of 0.25° and
Many studies have been devoted to fretting wear, but most of the normal load of 10 N, the tangential friction force vs angular
them have been focused on tangential mode. Rotational displacement amplitude curve (Ft- curve) exhibited linear
fretting can be defined as the relative motion which induced by cycles, suggesting the rotational fretting run in the regime of
reciprocating rotation under the oscillatory vibratory partial slip. With the increase of the angular displacement
environment (Fig. 1). And therefore it is common in modern amplitude, the fretting running state transferred from the
industrial or biomedical applications, e.g., ball-and-socket joint, partial slip to the gross slip, and the Ft- curve changed from
wheel-axle of train, yoke-axle, hip joint and knee joint of linear to parallelogram loops (Fig. 3). With the decrease of
human bodies [2], etc. However, few studies on rotational normal load, the fretting running state transferred from the
fretting have been reported. Briscoe et al [3-5] reported the partial slip to the gross slip (Fig. 4). Therefore, the rotational
fretting wear behavior of PMMA polymer against steel under fretting behavior of the LZ50 was strongly dependent upon the
combined rotational and torsional contact conditions. It was angular displacement amplitude and normal load. The Ft-
found that the resulting contact zone kinematics has a great curves can be used to characterize the rotational fretting
influence upon the accumulation, the compaction and the running behavior.
displacement of the debris particles from the contact. The coefficients of friction (COF) curve presented a short,
* Corresponding author :Tel. and fax: +86-28-87601304 fast ascent stage and then reached a steady-state stage under
E-mail: zhuminhao@swjtu.cn
300
An Experimental Study on the Rotational Fretting Wear Behavior of LZ50 Steel
the partial slip condition (^=0.25, Fn=10 N, see Fig. 5). The that observed in the tests of the normal reciprocating fretting
COF curves under higher angular displacement amplitudes of (tangential fretting mode). The mechanism for this special
0.5° and 1° were found to decline with fluctuating in phenomenon is still not clear, which is worth further study.
0.6
descending stage and reach the steady-state stage gradually.
The COF value of LZ50 steel increased with the increase of 0.5
Coefficient of friction
the angular displacement amplitude in Fig. 5.
0.4
0.3
0.2 e
^=0.25
e
0.1 ^=0.5
e
^=1
0.0
20 40 60 80 100
Number of cycles
Fig. 5 Coefficient of friction of LZ50 steel under
different angular displacements of 0.25°, 0.5° and 1°: Fn=10 N,
N=100 cycles
1.4
1.2
1.0
Height (μm)
0.8
0.6
A B
0.4
0.2
0.0
Fig. 2 Schematic of the rotational fretting rig (1. Ball -0.2
10
Height (μm)
0.8
8
0.6
D
Tangential force (N)
6 C 0.4
4 0.2
2 0.0
0 -0.2
-2 -0.4
100m -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
-4 C Width (μm) D
e
^=0.25
-6
^=0.5
e (b) =0.5°
-8 e
^=1
-10
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fig. 6 Morphologies and profiles of wear scars of LZ50 steel
e
Angular displacement ( ) under different angular displacements: Fn=10 N, N=100 cycles
Fig. 3 Ft- curves of LZ50 steel under different angular
displacements of 0.25°, 0.5° and 1°: Fn=10 N, N=100 cycles ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
12 This work was supported by the State Key Development
8 Program of Basic Research of China (2007CB714704), the
Tangential force (N)
-8
REFERENCES
Fn=5 N
Fn=10 N [1] Zhu, M.H., Zhou, Z.R., 2001, “An experimental study on
-12
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 radial fretting behaviour,” Tribology International, 34,
Angular displacement (degrees)
pp.321-326.
Fig. 4 Ft- curves of LZ50 steel under different normal loads
[2] Bergmann, G., Deuretzbacher G., Heller M., et al, 2001,
of 5 N and 10 N: =0.25°, N=100 cycles
“Hip contact forces and gait patterns from routine
The micro-examinations indicated that a slight damage activities,” Journal of Biomechanics, 34, pp.859-871.
occurred at the contact interface under the partial slip condition [3] Briscoe, B.J., Chateauminois A., Lindley T.C., et al, 2001,
(Fig.6(a)), which appeared a morphology in shape of “Fretting wear behaviour polymethyl-methacrylate under
annularity and the relative motion was coordinated by elastic linear motions and torsional contact condition,” Tribology
deformation. However, plastic deformation, detachment of International, 31, pp.701-711.
particles, ploughing traces and oxidation reaction were found [4] Briscoe, B.J., Chateauminois A., Lindley T.C., et al, 2000,
under the gross slip conditions (Fig. 6(b)). Therefore, the “Contact damage of poly (methyl-methacrylate) during
plastic deformation, abrasive wear, oxidative wear and complex micro-displacements,” Wear, 240, pp.27-39.
delamination were the main wear mechanism for LZ50 steel in [5] Chateauminois A., Briscoe, B.J., 2002, “Measurements of
the slip regime. In Fig. 6(b), wear debris generated was found Friction-induced surface strains in a steel/polymer
to be accumulated in the centre zone of the wear scar under the contact,” Tribology International, 35, pp.245-254.
condition of gross slip, which was significantly different from (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
needs it.)
301
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
contact temperatures, the frictional coefficients of PTFE/PEEK 3.2 Morphological examination on transfer film
composites filled with PTW are lower than those filled with CF. The SEM micrographs of the transfer film are shown in
The friction coefficients of the CF/PTFE/PEEK composites Fig.3. It can be seen that the transfer film of CF/PTFE/PEEK
decrease with the increasing contact temperature. However, the composites is rough. On the contrary, a smooth transfer film
friction coefficients of the PTFE/PEEK composites filled with was gained for PTFE/PEEK composite filled with PTW, which
PTW increase from 160°C to 240°C. promised to provide an excellent anti-wear property for the
PTFE/PEEK composite.
0.17
0.16
0.14 CF+PTFE+PEEK
200N,1.4m/s
0.13
0.12
0.11
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical seals play an important role in preventing
leakage, saving energy and controlling environmental pollution.
Mechanical seals are the most widely used types of rotating Fig.1 Microcosmic model of end face friction mechanism
shaft seals in industrial field. According to statistics in China,
mechanical seals are adopted in 80%~90% of centrifugal From above, in boundary friction regime, the friction forces
pumps. Among the sealing devices of the rotary machines in are mostly composed of solid friction force and boundary
industrially advanced countries, the usage amount of friction force. In mixed friction regime, the friction forces are
mechanical seals is about 90% of all sealing devices. In the mostly composed of solid friction force, boundary friction force
contacting mechanical seals, the sealing function is realized and fluid friction force. In fluid friction regime, the friction
through the intimate contact and the relative movement force is mostly caused by fluid friction. When the normal load
between the rotating ring and the stationary ring under the remains constant, the fluid friction force is less than the
pressure of the sealed fluid and the compressive force of the boundary friction force, which is less than the solid friction
spring. The friction of the seal faces is the most important force. So when the locking force Pg of the end faces is a fixed
phenomenon in working process of contacting mechanical value, the relationship among the friction factors is ffluid˘fmixed
seals. The frictional characteristic of the end faces of ˘fboundary, and the relationship among the wearing capacities is
mechanical seals is a key factor that can decide their operating Gfluid˘Gmixed˘Gboundary.
life and sealing performance.
FRICTION REGIME OF END FACES OF MECHANICAL
FRICTION MECHANISM OF END FACES OF SEALS
MECHANICAL SEALS MAIN The working state of mechanical seals depends greatly on
The microcosmic model of friction mechanism of the end the friction regime of the end faces. Mechanical seals may
work in dry friction regime, fluid friction regime, boundary
*Boqin GU: E-mail: bqgu@njut.edu.cn
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Research on Friction Characteristic of End Faces of Mechanical Seals
305
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Sommerfeld, Gumbel, Hershey .etc applied this similarity Table 2 Relationship between friction regime and relative film
number of the friction characteristic in the field of the sealing thickness
technology [4]. The duty parameter could express the friction Friction regime Relative film thickness O
characteristic of mechanical seals. Its magnitude indicates the Fluid friction !3
operating condition of mechanical seals and the carrying power Mixed friction O=1a3
of the liquid film. The duty parameter of mechanical seals was Boundary friction 0.4O1
defined as the ratio of the viscosity force of the liquid film Dry friction O0.4
between the end faces to the locking force of the end faces Pg.
Pvb Pn ˄1˅
G EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION of FRICTION
Pg 60 pg FACTOR OF GY70 MECHANICAL SEAL
Pg
pg psp E ps ˄2˅
TEST DEVICE
Aa
The friction factor of GY70 mechanical seal was measured
Where P is Fluid dynamic viscosity (Pas), v isAverage slide on the developed mechanical seal testing machine [8], as shown
speed of the seal surfaces (m/s), bis Effective seal width of the in Fig.5. A torque sensor is connected in series with the
seal ring (m), n is Rotational speed (rpm), pg isLocking force electromotor and the shaft, with which the friction torque
of the end faces (Pa), AaisArea of the seal surface (m2), pspis between the rotating ring and the stationary ring of the
Spring pressure (Pa), E is Balance factor, ps is Medium mechanical seal under different operating conditions is
pressure (Pa) . measured. The friction factor can be calculated according to
The method that the friction regime is judged by the duty Eq.(5).
parameter G has been put forward by Chen [5]. When
Mf ˄5˅
G!1u106, 2u108G5u108 and 5u108G1u106, the f
frictional pairs work in fluid friction regime, boundary friction p g rm Aa
regime and mixed friction, respectively. Where Mf —Friction torque (Nm).
MAYER METHOD
The relationship between the contact pressure coefficient Kg
of the end faces and the clearance height h formed by the
roughness of the end faces is shown in Fig.4, which was
obtained from the experiment by Mayer. The boundary or
mixed friction regime of mechanical seals can be judged from
Fig.4.
TEST CONDITIONS
Several GY70 type balanced mechanical seals were tested.
Tab.3 lists the main parameters of the mechanical seals and test
conditions.
Fig.4 Mayer's judgement rule of friction regime Table 3 Main parameters of the mechanical seals and test
conditions
RELATIVE FILM THICKNESS METHOD Type GY-70
The friction regime can also be judged by the relative film Rotating ring Hard alloy YG8
thickness O. The relative film thickness was defined as the ratio Material Stationary ring Carbon M106K
of the average thickness of the liquid film h0 between the end Auxiliary seal ring Fluorubber
faces to the total surface roughness of the end faces V. O ring
h0 h0 Diameter of seal face d2 /d1 79/68
O ˄3˅
Balance factor 0.83
V Ra Ra
2 2
1 2 Structural Roughness of rotating ring
The relationship among the average thickness of the liquid parameter Ra1 /Pm 0.11
film between the end faces of mechanical seals h0, the duty Roughness of stationary ring
parameter G, the friction factor f and the average radius of the Ra2 /Pm 0.20
end faces rm can be expressed by Eq.(4) [6]. Test medium Water
2 È rm G ˄4˅ Test pressure ps /MPa 0a0.6
h0 Test
f Rotational speed n/ rpm 0a3 000
condition Medium temperature
The relationship between the friction regime of mechanical Room
seals and the relative film thickness is listed in Tab.2 [7]. temperature
306
Research on Friction Characteristic of End Faces of Mechanical Seals
f
f
rotational speed is shown in Fig.6 The bigger the spring 0.06 0.06
pressure, the bigger the friction factor. When the rotary speed is 0.04 0.04
smaller, the spring pressure has a significant influence on the 0.02
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
0.02
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
friction factor. When the spring pressure increases to a certain
n/rpm n/rpm
value, the friction factor becomes small at various rotational (a) ps=0.15MPa (b) ps=0.30 MPa
speeds. The bigger the spring pressure, the less the gap between 0.12 0.12
the end faces is and the larger the contact-rate of the micro-
0.10 0.10
convex body of two end faces and the adhesive force are, which
causes friction factor to increase. 0.08 0.08
0.06 0.06
f
0.14 0.14 0.04 0.04
0.12 0.12 0.02 0.02
0.10 0.10 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
0.08 0.08 n/rpm n/rpm
f
f
0.06 0.06
f
0.06 0.06
0.04
0.04 0.04
0.04
0.02 0.02 0.02
0.02 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
psp /MPa psp /MPa ps /MPa ps /MPa
(c) ps=0.45 MPa (d) ps=0.60 MPa (a) n=1116 rpm (b) n=1740 rpm
—å—n=1116rpm —Ú—n=1740rpm —æ—n=2340rpm —ç—n=2940rpm 0.14 0.14
0.12 0.12
Fig.6 Relationship between spring pressure and friction factor 0.10 0.10
Fig.7 illustrates the relationship between the rotational 0.08
f
0.08
f
speed and the friction factor under certain medium pressure and 0.06 0.06
certain spring pressure. When the spring pressure is less, the 0.04 0.04
bigger the rotational speed, the bigger the friction factor. But 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
when the spring pressure is larger than 0.0866 MPa, the friction ps /MPa ps/MPa
factor did not change with the rotational speed. Mayer (c) n=2340 rpm (d) n=2940 rpm
discovered that the friction factor dose not change with the —å—psp=0.0039MPa —Ú—psp=0.0394MPa —æ—psp=0.0630MPa
rotational speed in the boundary friction regime [2], which is —ç—psp=0.0866MPa —ƹ—psp=0.1102MPa
supported and validated by above experimental analyses. Fig.8 Relationship between medium pressure and friction factor
Fig.8 illustrates the relationship between the medium
pressure and the friction factor under certain spring pressure and DUTY PARAMETER METHOD
at certain rotational speed. When both the rotational speed and When the spring pressure psp=0.0866 MPa and the medium
spring pressure are smaller the medium pressure has a weaker pressure ps=0.45 MPa, the values of duty parameter G at
influence on the friction factor, as shown in Fig.8 (a) and (b). different rotational speed were calculated according to Eqs. (1)
When the rotational speed or spring pressure is bigger, the and (2), as shown in Tab.4. Thereby, the friction regime of the
bigger the medium pressure, the less the friction factor. The end faces is boundary friction when the rotational speed n
larger the medium pressure, the stronger the fluid hydrostatic =1116 rpm. And the friction regime of the end faces is mixed
pressure effect and the thicker the fluid film, which causes the friction when the rotational speed n =1740a2940 rpm. These
friction factor to reduce. results are different from the results judged by friction factor
method.
JUDGEMENT OF FRICTION REGIME OF END FACES
OF GY70 MECHANICAL SEAL Table 4 Values of duty parameter G at different rotational
speed n
FRICTION FACTORING METHOD Duty parameter G Rotational speed n/ rpm
When the spring pressure psp=0.0866 MPa, the medium 0.406u107 1116
pressure ps=0.45 MPa, and the rotational speed n is between 0.633u107 1740
1116 rpm and 2940 rpm, the friction factor f=0.100a0.106 0.851u107 2340
based on Fig.2. So the friction regime of the end faces of GY70 1.069u107 2940
mechanical seal is boundary friction judged from Tab.1.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
In different friction regimes, the thickness of the fluid film is is bigger [11]. ëìîïðòó thought that the boundary friction
also different. Eq.(1) indicates that the thickness of the fluid regime will not appear when the sliding velocity is higher than 5
film h is the function of P and v according to the duty m/s and the pressure is less than 0.98 MPa [12]. These points of
parameter method. This was obtained by the research on the view disagree with the research results of the friction
sliding bearing based on the fluid dynamic theory. In fact, characteristic of the end faces of GY70 mechanical seal
Mechanical seal is the contact seal of the parallel end faces, and presented in this paper.
there is no obvious wedge-shaped gap like the sliding bearing.
In normal circumstances, the thickness of the fluid film hèf ( P, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
v ), and the friction regime dose not change with P and v. So the This research was partially supported by the Jiangsu Planned
duty parameter method is not suitable for most mechanical seals. Projects for Fostering Talents of Six Scientific Fields No.
Ge Jianzhi and so on [9] also presented that the friction regime 07-D-027 and the High—tech Industrial Development Project
of the end faces of mechanical seals is influenced by the fluid of Universities in Jiangsu Province No. JHB05-29.
hydrodynamic pressure and the fluid hydrostatic pressure, so
the friction regime judged by the single duty parameter G is not REFERENCES
entirely correct.
[1] Wei, Long, 2004, Sealing Technology, Chemical Industry
Press, Beijing.
MAYER METHOD
[2] Mayer, E, 1981, Mechanical Seal, Chemical Industry Press
When the spring pressure psp=0.0866 MPa and the medium Beijing.
pressure ps=0.45 MPa, the contact pressure coefficient [3] Gu, Yongyuan, 1990, Fluid sealing, China Petrochemical
Kg=1.022. The clearance height h=0.38 Pm [10]. So the friction Press , Beijing.
regime of the end faces is boundary friction judged from Fig.1. [4] Gu, Yongyuan, 1991, “Friction Coefficient and Duty
Parameter of Mechanical Face Seals”, Journal of the
RELATIVE FILM THICKNESS METHOD University of Petroleu, 15(3), pp. 71-83.
When the spring pressure psp=0.0866 MPa and the medium [5] Chen, Guohuan, 1979, “Relation between Liquid
pressure ps=0.45 MPa, the relative film thickness O=0.41a1.02 Hydrodynamic Effect and the Seal Duty Parameter,”
at the rotational speed n =1116a2940 rpm according to Eqs. (3) Chemical Machinery, 6(1), pp.1-8.
and (4). The friction regime of the end faces is boundary [6] Will, P.A., 1984, “Effects of Seal Face Width on Mechanical Seal
friction judged from Tab.2. Performance-Hy-drocarbon Tests,” Lubrication Engineering,
40(9) , pp.522-527.
[7] Zeng , Tao, 2000, “Analysis of Influence Factors of Friction
CONCLUSIONS Performance on Mechanical Seals”, Lubrication
In different friction regimes of the end faces of mechanical Engineeringˈ25(3), pp. 06-61.
seals, the friction factor is also different. For GY70 mechanical [8] Wei, Long, Gu, Boqin, Sun, Jianjun, et al, 2006,
seal, the bigger the spring pressure, the bigger the friction “Development of the Computer Aided Testing Device for
factor. When the spring pressure is lower, the bigger the Mechanical Seals”, Lubrication Engineering, 31(4),
rotational speed, the bigger the friction factor. But when the pp.136-139.
spring pressure is larger than 0.0866 MPa, the friction factor is [9] Ge, Jianzhi, Li, Keyong, 1993, “A Study on Lubrication
almostly not affected by the rotational speed. When both the Regime and Friction Moment of Mechanical Face Seal”,
rotational speed and spring pressure are smaller, the medium Fluid Machinery, 21(1), pp.1-6.
pressure has a weaker influence on the friction factor. When [10] Summer ˉ Smith, J., D., Practical Mechanical Seal,
the rotational speed or spring pressure is bigger, the bigger the machinery industry Press, Beijing.
medium pressure, the less the friction factor. [11] Wang, Rumei, 2004, Questions and Answers to Practical
The research results obtained by four methods for judging Mechanical Seal Technolog, China Petrochemical Press ,
friction regimes of the end faces of mechanical seals indicate Beijing.
that when the spring pressure psp = 0.0866 MPa, the medium [12] ëìîïðòó, ô.õ., 1968, Mechanical (end face) seal and
pressure ps = 0.45 MPa and the rotational speed n = 1116a2940 dynamic seal, Chemical Industry Press, Beijing.
rpm, GY70 mechanical seal works in boundary friction regime.
Wang Rumei thought that the boundary friction regime
appears when the rotational speed is less and the spring pressure
308
Failure Mechanism of Hadfield Steel Crossing
F. C. Zhang*, B. Lv, T. S.Wang, C. L. Zheng, Q. Zou, M. Zhang, M. Li / State Key Laboratory of Metastable Materials
Science and Technology, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004
(Extended Abstract)
In this paper failed Hadfield (high manganese austenite) TRACKING AND INVESTIGATION RESULTS
1~2×107 tons, wear in the medial stage among the passing drawing of Hadfield steel crossing used at different stages. At
trough loads from 1×107 to 9×107 tons, and fatigue spalling in present, China's production on the high-quality manganese
the final served stage after the passing trough loads of steel crossing, the first stage is early use, overload capacity
8~9×107 tons. Accordingly, some new methods were put was 1×107 tons, the ability to work hardening the surface of
forward, which leaded to increase the lifetime of the crossing the Hadfield steel crossing had not been effectively played,
and enhance the safety of the railway system. this stage the failure of Hadfield steel crossing was the plastic
deformation, which caused crossing surface collapse for about
Keywords: Crossing, Hadfield steel, failure
2 mm in the first stage. The second stage is the use of the
INTRODUCTION medium-term, the surface of the Hadfield steel crossing
Although the Hadfield steel has been used as crossing for effectively worked hardening. At this point crossing into the
more than 100 years, the reports on the failure analysis of stage of normal service, the main performance of the crossing
Hadfield steel crossing were very few in the literature. The at this stage was surface wear, and the wear collapse of the
only reported one of the view was that the failure of Hadfield crossing was about 3 mm, its passing loads were from 1×107 to
steel railway crossing was surface cracks. Cracks were caused 9×107 tons. The third stage is the use of the late, overload
by the casting defects. Cracks initiated in the casting defects amounted to 9×107 tons, pocked spots appeared on the surface
and expanded along with the intensive defects and the of crossing at first, and then peeling off fatigue appeared, the
direction of the slip caused by the crossing surface depth of the Peeling off fatigue was 1̚2 mm. Once the
work-hardening. The casting defects within the crossing were crossing appeared fatigue spalling, its region rapid expansion
the non-metallic inclusions and shrinkages [1]. and the crossing immediately failed. The total amount of
surface subsidence for the failure crossing was about 6 mm.
* F. C. Zhang, Professor in Yanshan University, E-mail˖
zfc@ysu.edu.cn, Phone: 86 335 8063949. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
from the worn surface of the Hadfield steel crossing. There are
no obvious difference for both the nanocrystalline layer and
matrix under the same load seen from the nano-scratch
morphology, such as 0.5 N, 1.0 N and 2 N. Nevertheless, there
are obvious difference for the nano-scratch width and depth
Fig. 2 Subsurface hardness distribution between these two regions, e.g. the width and the depth for the
The mechanical properties of the Hadfield steel crossing
nanocrystalline layer are 1.1 μm and 19.1 μm, respectively,
includes: Yield strength 365 MPaˈTensile strength 793MPaˈ
which is much smaller than 1.24 μm and 22.7 μm of matrix.
Elongation rate 31%ˈarea Rate reduction 27%ˈToughness
Moreover, the friction coefficient of the nanocrystalline layer
196J/cm2 and hardness 230HB. Figure 2 shows the subsurface
(1.8) is obviously smaller than that of the matrix (2.2) and the
hardness distribution curve of the Hadfield steel crossing after
difference between them is about 20%. The hardness of the
the failure. It is clear that, the surface of the Hadfield steel
nanocrystalline layer is 9.4 GPa, which is higher than that of
crossing clearly appeared work-hardening.
the matrix (6.5 GPa) and the difference between them is also
MICROSTRUCTURE
about 20 %. However, the Young’s modules of the
From the results of metallographic analysis, the subsurface
nanocrystalline layer (182 GPa) is lower than that of the
of the Hadfield steel crossing had fatigue cracks. The cracks in
matrix (216 GPa) and the difference between them is about
the surface originated from austenitic grain boundaries or
20%, too. According to the rule of material wear resistance,
inclusions and expanded along austenite boundary, as shown
the wear resistance is proportional to the hardness of material
in Fig.3. The TEM image of the crossing surface structures is
directly, whereas, inverse proportional to the friction
shown in Fig.4. From the TEM image one can see that, the
coefficient and the Young’s modules. This is an indication that
surface structures of the crossing were nanocrystalline
the formation of the nanocrystalline layer in the worn surface
structures. The nanocrystalline formation was due to the
may improve the wear resistance of the crossing.
cumulative surface deformation of crossing, resulting in
formatting high density twins, dislocation and vacancy. The
existence of large number of vacancies promoted the crystal
dislocation climbing shift and the diffusion of atoms in the
process of dynamic recrystallization of deformation structures.
Thus the surface of the crossing produced discontinuous Fig. 5 Morphologies of the nano-indenter; (a) scratch and (b)
dynamic recrystallization at a very low temperature [2]. indenter
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the New Century Excellent
Foundation of China (Grant No. NCEF-05-0260), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 50671091)
Fig. 3 Subsurface microstructure morphologies of wear and the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (Grant
Hadfield steel crossing No. E2006001026).
REFERENCES
[1] Zhang, M.ˈWang, W.B.ˈZhou, Y.X.ˈAn, Q.ˈ2005ˈ“Effect
of the casting defect within the railway frog crossing of
high manganese steel on its application,” Foundry
Fig. 4 TEM microstructures of Hadfield steel crossing surface technology, 26, pp.174-177.
at depth of 100 μm (a) and 1 mm (b) [2] Zhang, F. C., Lv, B., Zheng, C. L., Li, M., Wang, T. S.,
NANOINDENTION AND NANOSCRATCH Zhang, M., 2008, “Microstructure in Worn Surface of
Fig.5 shows the nanoscratch and the nanoindenter Hadfield Steel Crossing,”5th International Conference on
morphologies of the nanocrystalline layer at the 100 μm depth Advanced Materials and Processing, Haerbin, accepted.
310
Synthesis and Tribological Behavior of Surface Coated Cu Nanoparticles in Liquid Paraffin
Ling Zhang a,b (a State Key Laboratory of Solid Lei Chen a (a State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication,
Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese
Chinese Academy of Science, Lanzhou 730000, PR Academy of Science, Lanzhou 730000, PR China)
China
b
Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Science,
Beijing 100039, China)
Hongqi Wan a,b (a State Key Laboratory of Solid (a State Key Laboratory of Solid
a,*
Jianmin Chen
Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics,
Chinese Academy of Science, Lanzhou 730000, PR Chinese Academy of Science, Lanzhou 730000, PR
China China)
b
Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Science,
Beijing 100039, China)
Huidi Zhoua (a State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication,
Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese
Academy of Science, Lanzhou 730000, PR China)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Vvolume/%
30
radiation was used as the exciting source with the binding Diameter/nm
DISPEISION CAPACITY
The surface modified Cu nanoparticles can be dispersed in
several organic solvents, including chloroform, benzene, and Fig. 2 TEM image of surface modified Cu nanoparticles and
methylbenzene. Under heat and ultrasonication they can the corresponding histogram of particle size distribution
dispersed in the base oil. In contrast, unmodified Cu particles
can hardly be dispersed in these solvents. So the modification (insert)
improved the dispersion capability of Cu particles and made it
feasible to be an additive in oil.
0.9
B
Transmittance
0.6
0.3
312
Tribological Behaviors at High Load of MoS2 Films in Vacuum
Xinxin Ma/ School of Materials Science and Gang Wang/ School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin
150001, China 150001, China
Guangze Tang/ School of Materials Science and Yong Liu/ School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
150001, China
Shiyu He/ School of Materials Science and Engineering, Dezhuang Yang/ School of Materials Science and
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin
150001, China
0.25
ABSTRACT 0.20
Friction coefficient
MoS2 films about 1μm in thickness have been deposited on 0.15
0.00
0.080
0.075 friction coefficient 2000
0.070 sliding distance
0.065
1800
0.060
0.055
Sliding distance (m)
Friction coefficient
0.050 1600
0.045
0.040 1400
0.035
0.030 1200
0.025
0.020
1000
0.015
0.010
0.005 800
0.000
10 20 30 40 50
Load (N)
Fig. 6 SEM micrographs showing the worn surface
Fig. 1 The friction coefficient and wearing life as a morphologies of MoS2 films after 220s under 30N and 1.6m/s
function of load under 1.6m/s in vacuum in vacuum
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
REFERENCES
Modulus (GPa)
300
8
6
250 single source for molybdenum and sulphur,” Thin Solid Films, 496, pp.
200
4 150 293-298.
2 100
0
50
0
[4] Paul D. Fleischauer, Jeffrey R. Lince, 1999, “A comparison of
-50 0 50 100 150 200
Time (second)
250 300 350 400
oxidation and oxygen substitution in MoS2 solid film lubricants,”
Tribology Intermational, 32, pp. 627-636.
Fig. 10 The nanohardness and modulus as a function of friction [5] Z. Z. Xia, J. P. Tu, D. M. Lai, L. L. Zhang, Q. Wang, L. M. Chen,
W. X. Chen, 2006, “Microstructure and tribological characterization of
time under 30N and 1.6m/s
magnetron sputtered MoS2 film deposited using nested structure
material,” Surface and Coatings Technology, 201, pp. 1006-1011.
MoS2(002)
d
c
MoS2,” Wear, 237, pp. 1-11.
b
[7] L. E. Seitzman, R. N. Bolster, I. L. Singer, 1996, “IBAD MoS2
0
a
20 40 60 80 100
lubrication of titanium alloys,” Surface and Coatings Technology, 78,
2 theta (degree)
pp. 10-13.
[8] P. Skeldon, H. W. Wang, G. E. Thompson, 1997, “Formation and
Fig.11 The XRD diagram of the MoS2 films at different
characterization of self-lubricating MoS2 precursor films on anodized
friction time under 30N and 1.6m/s aluminum,” Wear, 206, pp. 187-196.
[9] Ronghui Wei, Haibin Yang, Kai Du, Wuyou Fu, Minghui Li,
Qingjiang Yu, Lianxia Chang, Yi Zeng, Yongming Sui, Hongyang Zhu,
INTRODUCTION Guangtian Zou, 2007, “Preparation of type-II MoS2 film by chemical
bath deposition onto Si coated with electrolessly Ni,” Materials
The MoS2 film has been applied extensively in aerospace Science and Engineering B, 138, pp.259-262
field as a kind of solid lubricant, which has good chemical [10] N. Barreau, J. C. Bernede, 2002, “Low-temperature preparation of
stability and heat stability[1,2]. MoS2 crystallizes in three MoS2 thin films on glass substrate with NaF additive,” Thin Solid
different types of structures, namely 2H, 3R and 1T-MoS2 Films, 403-404, pp. 505-509.
[3,4]. The lattice structure consists of a monolayer hexagonal [11] Haidou Wang, Binshi Xu, Jiajun Liu, Daming Zhuang, 2005,
sheet of Mo atoms, which lies in between two hexagonal “Microstructure and tribological properties on the composite MoS2
sheets of S atoms, i.e. (S–Mo–S) layers and are held together films prepared by a novel two-step method,” Materials Chemistry
Physics, 91, pp.494-499.
strongly by covalent bonding. In the hexagonal poly-type
(2H-MoS2) two such layers form a unit cell. The interaction (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
between (S–Mo–S) layers in the direction [00l] is loosely needs it.)
bound to each other only by weak Van Der Waals forces. Such
314
Experimental Study on Running-in of Steel Fiction Pair of Block on Disk in Oil with Micro-and-Nano Diamond Powder
College of Mechanical and Automobile Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China, 510640
ABSTRACT
h0
- h0 , h1 , h , the height of the block[m]. Fig.2 Design diagram of compounding slide blocks
- O , the proportion of the oil film thickness to the synthesis RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
roughness of friction pair.
- U, the relative velocity of the two surfaces of friction
pair[m/s]. 1.2 Friction coefficient
- p , the pressure of oil film[Pa/m2]. The linear fit
1.0
S a , the 3D-roughness of the pair surfaces[ Pm ].
Friction coefficient
-
0.8
- S sk , the 3D-skewness of the pair surfaces. 0.6
- HRC , the hardness of the pair surfaces. 0.4
315
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
316
Experimental Study on Running-in of Steel Fiction Pair of Block on Disk in Oil with Micro-and-Nano Diamond Powder
Fig.8 The block surface after the running-in in oil with micro-and-nano diamond powder
Fig.10 The disk surface after the running-in in oil with micro-and-nano diamond powder
317
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
318
Thermomechanical Properties and Tribological Behavior of CaCO3 Whisker Reinforced Polyetheretherketone Composites
319
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
2.0
0%
5% Fig.3 and 4,respectively. All materials show a large change in
15%
25%
storage modulus at the glass transition temperature(Tg).At low
1.5
and high temperature, the increase of CaCO3 whisker content
contributes to a rise to the dynamic stiffness.The storage
J
O
D
V
V
W
U
D
Q
V
L
W
L
R
Q
dL/L0
1.0
modulus of 25%CaCO3/PEEK at temperatures 200ć is about
0.5
2.5 times larger than neat PEEK.CaCO3 whisker reinforcement
leads to an appreciable increase in stiffness, in particular at
0.0
temperatures below Tg. Damping peaks could be observed in
the tanδ curves shown in Fig.4 for all composites, which
-0.5
corresponded to the glass transitions of PEEK. CaCO3 whisker
0 50 100 150 200 250
does not influence the damping value remarkably. In
0%
select a representative value of CTE for comparison,the bulk 5%
linear CTE of 25%CaCO3/PEEK is roughly 60% of that of 0.16 15%
25%
pure PEEK at 120ć( below Tg) and 170ć(above Tg).The
average CTE of 25%CaCO3/PEEK in a temperatures range of 0.12
tan¥
25-120ć is about half lower than PEEK. Inclusion of CaCO3
whisker in PEEK definitely improves the thermal stability of
PEEK. 0.08
180 0.04
0%
160 5%
15%
140
25% 0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
120 t/ć
a /h
J
O
D
V
V
W
U
D
Q
V
L
W
L
R
Q
60
5 0%
5%
15%
4 25% 0.5 10
¹/10-6 mm3.(Nm)-1
µ
8
EĄ/GPa
3 0.4 ¹
6
2
0.3
µ
4
1
0.2
2
0
0.1 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0 10 20 30
CaCO 3 content/%
t/ć
Fig.3 Temperature dependence of storage modulus for Fig.5 Friction coefficient(μ) and wear rate(ω) of
PEEK composites in various CaCO3 content CaCO3/PEEK composites
320
Thermomechanical Properties and Tribological Behavior of CaCO3 Whisker Reinforced Polyetheretherketone Composites
Filled in PEEK, the CaCO3 whisker improved the [2] Zhang,R.J.,Feng, X.C.,2002,ĀTribological research
hardness,stiffness,thermal stability and load-carrying capacity, advance of PEEK and its compositesā,Chinese Journal of
and contributed to abate the ploughing, plastic deformation of Materials Research, 16,pp.1-8.
composites, and the adhesion between the materials and [3] Lin,Y., Gao, C.,2006,ĀTribological research on polyether-
counterparts, finally led to decreaseof frictional coefficient and etherketone(PEEK) self- lubricating composites and
a significant improvement of the wear resistance. Nevertheless, applicationsā, Lubrication Engineering, 2,pp.171-176.
the blends with more amount of CaCO3, partial whiskers [4] Briscoe,B.J., Stuart, B. H., Sehastian, S., 1993,ĀThe
became accumulated. Weaker interfacial adhesion between the
failure of poly(ether-ether-ketone) in high speed contactsā.
polymer matrix and whisker induced partial whisker debonded
from matrix into wear debris to be the “third body”. The third Wear,162-164,pp.407-417.
body abrasion led to the increased wear again. [5] Hanchi,J.,Eiss,N.S.,1997,ĀDry sliding friction and wear
of short carbon-fiber-reinforced polyetheretherketone
4. CONCLUSIONS (PEEK) at elevated temperatures ā ,Wear,203-204,pp.
380-386.
In whisker reinforced thermoplastics, thermomechanical
[6] Yu,L.,Yang,S.,Liu,W.,2000,ĀAction of transfer film in
properties were governed by polymer matrices, but
improving friction and wear behaviors of iron- and
significantly influenced by fillers. CaCO3/PEEK composites
showed a large change in CTE at Tg, but CTEs of PEEK copper-filled poly(etheretherketone) compositesā,Journal
composites at temperatures below and above Tg were much of Applied Polymer Science,76,pp.179-184.
lower than pure PEEK. For 25%CaCO3/PEEK the average [7] Wang,Q.,Xue,Q.,Liu,W.,2000, Ā The friction and wear
CTE in a temperatures range of 25-120ć is about half lower characteristics of SIC and PTFE filled PEEKā, Wear,243,
than PEEK. CaCO3 whisker showed an significant effect on pp.140-146.
the dynamic stiffness at low and high temperatures. The [8] Werner,P.,Altstadt,V.,Jaskulka,R.,2004, Ā Tribological
increase of whisker content contributed to a rise to the storage behaviour of carbon-nanofibre reinforced poly(etherether
modulus. The tribological performance of CaCO3/PEEK ketone)ā,Wear,257,pp.1006-1014.
composites was found to be considerably better than neat [9] Bicakci,S.,Cakmak,M.,2002,ĀDevelopment of structural
PEEK.With an increase of CaCO3 whisker content in
hierarchy during uniaxial drawing of PEEK/PEI blends
composites, coefficient of friction continuously decreased,
from amorphous precursorsā,Polymer,43,pp.149-157.
while wear rate of composites showed minima for about l5%
CaCO3 inclusion with an approximate 7 times improvement in [10] Bijwe,J.,Sen,S.,Ghosh,A.,2005, Ā Influence of PTFE
comparison with the unfilled one. The effectiveness of the content in PEEK-PTFE blends on mechanical properties
reinforcing CaCO3 whisker contributes to increase the thermal and tribo-performance in various wear modesā,Wear,258,
stability, stiffness and load-carrying capacity of PEEK pp.1536-1542.
composites, to abate the effects of adhesion and thermal [11] Zhang,Z.,Breidt,C.,Chang,L.,2004, Ā Wear of PEEK
softening of composites, which conforms to affect the composites related to their mechanical performancesā,
tribological properties in a beneficial way. Tribology International,37,pp. 271-277.
[12] LIN,Y.,GAO,C.,LI,N.,2006,ĀInfluence of CaCO3 whisker
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS content on mechanical and tribological properties of
This work was supported by Doctor Conferring Points polyetheretherketone compositesā,Journal of Materials
Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China(grant No. Science & Technology,22,pp.584-588.
20060386008),Fujian Provincial Natural Science Foundation [13] Ota,Y.,Inui,S.,Iwashita,T.,1996, Ā Preparation conditions
(grant No.2008J0152) and Science Foundation of Fujian for aragonite whiskers by carbonation processā, Journal
Education Bureau(grant No.JA07011). of the Ceramic Society of Japan,104,pp.196-200.
REFERENCES
[1] Stolarski,T. A., 1992,ĀTribology of polyetheretherketoneā,
Wear,158,pp.71-78.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
322
Corrosive Fretting Wear Behavior of a Titanium Alloy TC11 in Artificial Seawater
acetone to remove all the products from the worn surface. The
morphology and composition of the wear scars, material
transfer, and wear debris were observed and analyzed by using
Hitachi-S3000N scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with
energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The wear depth was
measured by a non-contact optical profilometer (ADE Company,
USA).
The electrochemical measurements were carried out in a
three-electrode cell. The titanium alloy specimen was used as
the working electrode. A platinum plate and saturated calomel
electrode (SCE) were used as the counter and reference
electrode, respectively. Measurements were performed in
artificial seawater at a temperature of 20ºC using a CHI760B
potentiostat / galvanostat system at a potential scanning rate of
0.1 mV/s. Potentiodynamic anodic polarization curves were
automatically acquired and the corrosion potential (Ecorr) and Fig.2 Friction coefficient curves at different normal loads in
corrosion current density (icorr) were determined using the Tafel distilled water
extrapolation method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
INFLUENCE OF LOAD AND AMPLITUDE ON THE
FRICTION COEFICIENT OF TC11
Fig.2 shows the variation of friction coefficient curves
within 1 h at various normal loads under three amplitudes of
100, 200, and 300 m in distilled water. The friction coefficient
curves in artificial seawater under the same condition are shown
in Fig.3.
We find that the friction coefficient curve undulates
seriously in the fretting process and fluctuates from 0.2 to 0.6
with further sliding in the seawater, while it shows better
stability in the distilled water which fluctuates from 0.5 to 0.6
and even exhibits a straight line at 100 m. Although the
friction coefficient values are irregular as load increases, the
curves get more stable as the amplitude decreases in both the
aqueous mediums. It indicates that the amplitude has
remarkable effect on the friction coefficient of TC11/GCr15
tribopair in aqueous.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
notched and tiny debris would be generated inevitably in the INFLUENCE OF THE MEDIA ON THE FRICTION
fretting process. It is impossible for the tiny debris to be COEFFICIENT AND WEAR-LOSS OF TC11
expelled from wear scar surface completely on account of the The mean stable friction coefficient available is the
small amplitude. On one hand, the remains of wear debris may average of all the values after 5 min that is thought as the
act as abrasive to plough the matrix severely; on the other hand, relative stable period. The friction coefficient values and depths
the debris between the tribo-pair would separate two metal of the wear scars of TC11 under various conditions are listed in
surfaces and act as cushion or rolling balls to decrease Table 2.
coefficient in the aqueous medium.
Generally, extra surface-film attributed to some active Table 2 Friction coefficients and depths under different
elements maybe formed in seawater. When the tribo-pair runs in parameters
larger amplitude, the film, together with the initial exfoliated Friction
Load Amplitude Depth (μm)
debris, is easy to be secondary milled to granule, as shown in coefficient
(N) (μm)
Fig.4 (a). These granules can play the role of rolling balls to Water Seawater Water Seawater
reduce friction coefficient. Meanwhile, long amplitude results 100 0.55 0.25 18 17
in a relative small overlap zone and the granules are much easier
20 200 0.58 0.29 30.5 18
to be expelled from the wear scar, partial metal surface would be
exposed and metal-to-metal contact forms, the friction 300 0.55 0.5 70 56
coefficient would increase consequently. Thus the procedure of 100 0.56 0.34 22 18
forming granular debris and removing debris alternates 30 200 0.54 0.37 77 23
repeatedly. The friction coefficient fluctuates in the fretting
proceeding accordingly. 300 0.57 0.44 86 76
100 0.57 0.26 32 25
40 200 0.52 0.33 90 56
(a)
300 0.47 0.29 100 88
(a)
324
Corrosive Fretting Wear Behavior of a Titanium Alloy TC11 in Artificial Seawater
Fig.5 depicts two SEM photographs under different Fig.7 Polarization curves of TC11 with different states: (a)
amplitudes at 20N in seawater before cleaning. It can be seen Original sample; (b) After immersing for 168 h; (c) After
from Fig.5 (a) that a typical lamellar film, probably the corrosive fretting
lubrication film formed by active elements in the seawater, Table 3 Results of polarization experiments of TC11
appears on the wear scar at smaller amplitude of 100 m. Ecorr icorr
State
Besides some lamellar substances, there is still other granular /V / A.cm-2
debris on the surface at amplitude of 300 m, revealed in Fig.5 Original sample -0.007 2.4×10-6
(b). Results from the EDS analysis revealed that the element of After immerging -0.196 1.27×10-6
Fe, belonging to the upper ball, is detected in the wear scar. This After corrosive fretting -0.425 6.04×10-7
means a material transfer. Furthermore, elements of Ti, Cl, Na,
S, and Ca are also detected in the scar, seen in Fig.6. So it can be In seawater, the typical passivation behaviors can be
concluded that the wear scars generated in seawater are covered clearly observed in TC11 with all the three states, that is, the
by corrosion products accompanied with materials transferred electrode is anodically polarized to a more positive potential
from the opposite ball besides debris. Mentioned assumption whereas the value of the corresponding current remains limited.
and analysis above are verified. It demonstrates that the passive film can be easily formed on the
surface of titanium alloy in seawater.
It is worth noticing that the polarization curves of TC11
after both the corrosive fretting and immersion in seawater
present obvious shift towards to negative direction according to
that of the original sample, which implies increase of the
corrosion, evidenced in Fig.7. However, the icorr in seawater
exhibits reduction trend after immersion or fretting, among
which the icorr of TC11 after corrosive fretting in seawater
decreases 75%, compared with that of original sample and the
corrosion speed markedly reduced. It maybe assumed that the
passive film prevents corrosion in seawater.
WEAR MECHANISM
Fig.8 presents SEM images of wear scars in artificial
seawater at different amplitudes after cleaning. The obvious
scratch grooves parallel to the direction of friction were
Fig.6 corresponding spectrum of Fig.5 (a) observed in the scar at long amplitude of 300m, as shown in
Fig.8 (b). It exhibits typical plough and micro-cut effect and
Table 2 reflects that the wear losses of TC11 in seawater implies the wear mechanism of abrasive wear. However,
are always lower than those in distilled water. It implies a besides the scratch grooves, some corrosion pitting and
negative synergy ratio between corrosion and wear. It can be scalelike traces, the signs of fatigue scale off, were observed on
thought that the soft easy-shear tribofilm, formed by the active the friction zone at short amplitude of 100m, evidenced in
ingredients in seawater, plays a role of anti-friction to prevent Fig.8 (a). The wear mechanism is therefore possibly corrosion
and control the wear process. Although it is the corrosion fatigue associated with slight abrasive.
product, the anti-friction film can relieve and even eliminate the It maybe interpreted that longer amplitude results in
malicious destruction induced by the micro-cutting and plough larger sliding distance, the lamellar product is easier to be
effect at fretting, thus the effect of corrosion on wear exhibits a repeatedly milled into granular particle, and contribute to
negative synergy ratio. dominative plough and micro-cut action. The debris enwrapped
To illustrate the influence of wear on corrosion, a dynamic with lubricative film is difficult to run over the overlapped
scan from -1.5 V to +1.5 V (SCE) at scan rate of 0.1mV/s was friction zone at short amplitude, and the corrosion behavior
conducted on TC11 with three different states of original sample, occurred may accelerate the generation of sub-crack due to the
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326
Investigation on Rolling Contact Fatigue and Wear Properties of Railway Rail
(Extended Abstract)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
length of microcrack is short and propagate slowly the fatigue damage is relatively slight. The relationship
compared with PD3 rail material (Fig.4b). Due to the large between crack growth rate and surface wear rate has
wear volume of material, the fatigue microcrack of U71Mn been given by Pairs [3].The analysis shows that the crack
rail could be worn off in a certain extent before its growth depends strongly upon the stress intensity factor
propagation. So, U71Mn rail has better fatigue resistance and wear rate of material. When the surface wear rate of
performance. The hardness results of rail rollers of before material is more than the crack tip growth rate, the length
and after testing show that the hardness increase ratio of of crack is continuously shortened during the wear
U71Mn material is more than PD3 material’s and the process and until the crack disappears completely.
value is 20.89%. That is to say, the plastic deformation of Furthermore, it is also found that the severe side wear of
U71Mn is more serious in the rolling contact process. rail can alleviate the oblique crack damage of rail in
Furthermore, the fatigue crack would initiate along the Guangzhou-Shenzhen high-speed railway.
direction of plastic deformation and grow toward depth On the basis of the relationship between fatigue crack and
direction along a sharp angle. The good deformation wear, it is found that increasing wear rate of rail can
capacity could alleviate the initiation and propagation of alleviate its fatigue damage. Rail grinding is conducted as
fatigue microcrack in a certain extent. So the fatigue the measures to alleviate rolling contact fatigue damage
damage of U71Mn rail material appears slight. on the running surface of rail in a lot of railways [4]. So, it
6 is proposed that new rail asymmetrical grinding is used to
prevent and alleviate oblique crack damage of high-speed
5 PD3 railway by increasing rail wear artificially. The test results
U71M n in the field indicate that the rail asymmetrical grinding
Wear volume/g
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(a) PD3 rail
The work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No.50675183 and No.50521503)
and the National Basic Research Program of China
(No.2007CB714702).
REFERENCES
[1]Stuart Grassie,Paul Nilsson, Kjell Bjurstrom, et al.
Alleviation of rolling contact fatigue on Sweden’s heavy
haul railway [J].Wear, 2002, 253:42-53.
[2]Ekberg A, Kabo E. Fatigue of railway wheels and rails
(b) U71Mn rail under rolling contact and thermal loading-an overview [J].
Fig.4 SEM photographs of wear scar of rail roller Wear, 2005, 258(7-8):1288-1300.
The experimental results show that PD3 rail has better [3]P. C. Paris, F. Erdogan. A critical analysis of crack
wear resistance compared with U71Mn rail, but the fatigue propagation laws [J]. Journal of Basic Engineering, 1963,
crack damage is more serious. Furthermore, the fatigue 85:528-534.
crack growth rate of PD3 rail is more than U71Mn rail’s. [4]Kapoor A, Fletcher D I, Franklin. The role of wear in
So, it is concluded that the abilities of wear resistance and enhancing rail life [J]. Tribology Research and Design for
fatigue resistance are different characteristics of rail Engineering Systems, 2003 Elsevier B V, 331-340.
material. It is inferred from the experimental results that [5]WANG Wenjian, CHEN Mingtao, GUO Jun, et al. Rail
the relationship between rolling fatigue damage and wear grinding technique and its application in high-speed
can be seen as competitive and restrictive coupling railway [J]. Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University,
mechanisms. In other words, while the wear is serious, 2007, 42(5):574-577(In Chinese).
328
Superlubricity Characteristics Using Ceramic Composite Mineral Powder as Lubricating Oil Additive
Superlubricity Characteristics Using Ceramic Composite Mineral Powder as Lubricating Oil Additive
*
Yuzhou Gao1, , Wengang Chen1,2, Huichen Zhang1
1
Dalian Maritime University(Electromechanics and Materials Engineering College Dalian 116026, China)
2
Southwest Forestry University(College of Communication, Machinery and Civil Engineering Kunming 650224, China)
1. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
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330
Superlubricity Characteristics Using Ceramic Composite Mineral Powder as Lubricating Oil Additive
Etch
time Si Fe C O Mg
˄min˅
0 2.9229 4.2293 63.7673 28.6873 0.3879
6 0 38.5565 23.4591 37.3395 0.6450
12 0.254761 44.4084 18.0288 36.7338 0.5744
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China under Grant No.50472025.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Hernandez Battez, J.E. Fernandez Rico, A. Navas Arias,
et al. 2006, “The tribological behaviour of ZnO
nanoparticles as an additive to PAO6,” Wear, 261,
pp.256-263.
[2] Wang L B, Wang B, Wang X B, et al. 2007, “Tribological
investigation of CaF2 nanocrystals as grease additives,”
(d) Tribology International, 40, pp.1179-1185.
[3] Chen S, Liu W M. 2006, “Oleic acid capped PbS
nanoparticles: Synthesis, characterization and tribological
properties,” Materials Chemistry and Physics, 98,
pp.183-189.
[4] Yu Y, Gu J L, Kang F Y, et al. 2007, “surface restoration
induced by lubricant additive of natural minerals,” Applied
Surface Science, 253, pp.7549-7553.
[5] Qi X W, Yang Y L, Fan B L. 2007, “Influence and
mechanism of the formation of self-repair coatings with
magnesium silicate hydroxide powder additives of different
concentration,” Lubrication engineering (in chinese), 32(6),
pp.46-49.
[6] Chen W G, Gao Y Z, Zhang H C, et al. 2008, “Influence of
heat-treated serpentine powder on wear properties of metal
surface,” Journal of the chinese ceramic society, 36(1),
pp.30-34.
(e) [7] Gao Y Z, Zhang H C, Xu X L, et al. 2006, “Formation
mechanism of self-repair coatings on the worn metal
Fig. 5 The high-resolution XPS spectra of the C1sǃO1sǃFe2pǃ surface using silicate particles as lubricant oil additive,”
Mg1s and Si2p of the worn surface lubricated with composite Lubrication Engineering (in chinese), 10, pp.39-42.
powder as additive(a)C1s, (b) O1s, (c) Fe2p, (d) Mg1s, (e) Si2p [8] Chen W G, Gao Y Z, Zhang H C. 2007, “Research on Heat
Treatment of the Self-repairing Additive and its
Dispersibility,” Lubrication engineering (in chinese), 32(8),
3 CONCLUSION pp.52-55.
The composite oil additives can achieves an ultra low [9] Ouyang J M, Bai Y, Yu G, et al. 2004, “XPS Spectra of
friction coefficient of 0.007 for the 1045 steel friction pairs and Langmuir Blodgett Films and Their Electroluminescence,”
lowers the weight loss of the friction pairs. And the worn Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis (in chinese), 24(4),
surface is smooth with only a small amount of scratches on the pp.499-501.
local area of the worn surface. XPS results after test show that [10] Huang W D, Zhan R J. 2003, “Raman Spectra and XPS
the carbon was concentrated on the worn surface besides Fe, O, Analyses of the Diamond like Carbon Film Deposited by
Si and Mg. The reason of the appearance of the carbon-rich Surface Wave Plasma,” Spectroscopy and Spectral
layer and oxygen rich layer is the catalysis of the additive. The Analysis (in chinese), 23(3) , pp.512-514.
existence of the modified layer and the ultrafine grinding action
332
On the Wear-Resistance of Zinc-Based Composites Reinforced by Modified Silicon Phase
1.Department of Materials, Nanjing University of Information Science &Technology, Jiangsu, Nanjing 210044,China
2.Amorphous and Information Composites Lab, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology,
Jiangsu, Nanjing 210044,China
(Extended Abstract)
1.INTRODUCTION
Zn-Al alloys have been successfully used to substitute
some copper alloys for the manufacture of certain easily
worn-out parts due to their good antifriction performance[1]. If
some kind of hard inorganic phases scatter in a pretty tough
metal matrixē the abrasion performance of the materials
could be improved[2]. Although Si was added in zinc
aluminum alloy to form a hard silicon phase[3-4], but it
seriously cut apart the alloy matrix. It decreases not only the
toughness of the alloy, but also the wear-resistance[5]. 1-Furnace shell , 2-Thermal insulation layer , 3-Heating coils,
Therefore in this paper, we deal with the effect of modified 4-Specimens holder, 5-Thermocouple, 6-Furnace lining, 7-Specimens,
8-Abrasive wheel,9-Driving shaft
silicon phase on the wear-resistance of zinc- based alloys.
Fig. 1 Sketch of the wear tester
2. EXPERIMENTAL
The test alloy was ZA30Si2 alloy, which basic composition
were Al (29~31 wt %), Si (1.8 ~2.4 wt %) and Zn. The test
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
material was prepared with pure zinc ingot (Znø99.99wt %) and
the Al-Si matrix alloy. An electric resistance crucible furnace Fig.2 shows microstructure of ZA alloy containing silicon.
was used for alloy melting. The melting temperature was at Fig.2(a) is microstructure of ZA alloy containing silicon
720-760 ć. The molten metal was treated with self-made treated with 2wt% modifier, while Fig.2(b) is microstructure of
modifier containing K, Na and the rare earth elements in the ZA alloy containing silicon without modifier treatment. It can
working temperature range. After that, the treated melt was
be seen from the figures that some blocky phases exist in the
poured into a steel mold to form a test sample.
Impact toughness test was conducted with JB-30 tester and matrix of ZA alloy without modifier treatment. But as the alloy
tensile test was performed with 1-5-5 tensile tester. The is treated with a certain amount of modifier, the shape of block
Hardness test was placed on HBRV-3000 tester. The silicon phase turns to flower-like.
morphology of silicon phase was observed with KYKY1000
scanning electron microscope. Fig.3-Fig.6 show the mechanical properties and
Wear test was performed in a wear tester with a grinding wear-resistance of ZA30Si2 alloy. It can be seen from Fig.3
and Fig.4 that the impact toughness and the tensile strength of
* ZHAO Haofeng, Dr.,Prof., Nanjing University of Information
ZA30Si2 alloy increase to maximum as the modifier addition
Science &Technology ,email: neuhfz@163.com reaches 2.5 wt%. This phenomenon relates the shape change of
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silicon phase. It means that as the modifier addition reaches 2.5 9.0
8.0
2
7.5
aK/J/cm
7.0
6.5
6.0
180
170
(a) Treated with modifier
160
s b /MPa
150
140
130
54
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On the Wear-Resistance of Zinc-Based Composites Reinforced by Modified Silicon Phase
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we found that K,Na and rare earth elements
can turn the primary blocky silicon into flower-like in
ZA30Si2 alloy . The hard flower-like silicon can adhere
strongly to the alloy matrix and prop up load to resist the
abrasion during friction.
REFERENCES
(a) morphology
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
1.INTRODUCTION
Low-alloyed steel processes many features, such as lower
cost, enough strength and good toughness, so they are used
extensively in many fields, such as in mine, metallurgy,
chemical industry, electric power works, architecture industry 1-Furnace shell ,2-Thermal insulation layer ,3-Heating
and engineering machine industry [1]. But this kind of steel has coils,4-Specimens holder,5-Thermocouple, 6-Furnace lining,
lower wear-resistance[2,3]. In order to improve the 7-Specimens, 8-Abrasive wheel,9-Driving shaft
wear-resistance of this steel to meet some special purpose, it is Fig.1 Sketch of self –made wear tester
necessary to investigate the relationship between properties and
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
microstructure of this steel[4]. Therefore this paper focuses on
Fig.1 shows the microstructure of Cr2Cu steel. It can be
the effect of inoculants elements on the microstructure and
wear-resistance of low-alloyed Cr2Cu1 steel. seen from the figures that some branch grains become uniaxial
branch grains with help of inoculants. Fig.1 (a) shows the
2. EXPERIMENTAL morphology of branch grains without inoculants, while Fig.1 (b)
The test material was prepared with low carbon steel shows the morphology of branch grains with inoculating
(C,0.1-0.25wt %), chromium plate (Cr ø99.99wt %) and copper elements.
plate (Cu ø99.99wt %). Basic composition of the test sample
was Cr (1.5~2.5 wt %),Cu (0.8 ~1.2 wt %),C(0.1-0.25 wt %)
and Fe for the rest. An electric arc furnace was used for steel
melting. The melting temperature was at 1600 ć. The molten
metal was treated with self-made inoculants containing rare
earth elements (Nd, Ce and Pr) at 1600 ć .After then the treated
melt was poured into a dry sand mold to form a test samples.
Wear test was performed in a wear tester with a grinding
wheel, as shown in Fig.1. The rotational speed of the grinding
wheel was 240rmin-1 and the normal pressure was 70N. The
sample must be cleaned and dried before and after wear test and
336
On the Wear-Resistance of Low-Alloyed Steel Modified by Inoculants
50
48
46
HRc
44
42
40
modified grains. The more the grains, the more the boundaries,
which can resist the abrasion of abrasives during friction. It was 60
5.5 REFERENCES
5.0
2
K /J/cm
4.5
[1]Kulka, M., Pertek, A., 2003, “Microstructure and properties
of bonded 41Cr4 steel after laser surface modification with
4.0
re-melting,” Applied Surface Science , 214, pp. 278-288.
3.5 [2]Yang, R.,Li, L. and Li ,Y. ,1999, “Study on a new low alloy
3.0 high strength and high toughness and wear resistance
steel, ”Iron and Steel, 134, pp.23-28.
2.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 [3]Li, W., 2006, “Progress of wear-resistant steel and iron
W /wt% technology,” Foundry, 11, pp.11-13.
[4]Tong, J., 2003, “Progress of investigation on wear-resistant
Fig.3 Relationship between toughness impact K of Low-alloyed steel,” Water Conservancy and Electric Power Machinery, 2,
steel alloy and inoculants content W pp.5-8.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
338
Research on Worn Mechanism of Disc-Brake Pair Materials for Drilling Rig
spalling trace of surface film can be found on friction surface higher, and is prone to sinter on friction surface of brake
due to fatigue and extended fatigue crack from friction surface block[5]. Binding, embedding and sintering are the reason that
to subsurface depth due to friction heat and surface stress. In Fe-abundant surface film emerge on friction surface of brake
spalling area of surface film, the obvious fracture crack can be block during friction process.
found on surface film because of matrix crack, and the thermal The Carbon-abundant area is the zone where graphite and
cracking and thermal oxidization occur on matrix material aramid fibre comparatively gathered, and its surface film is
influenced by friction heat, which is shown by matrix shape of smooth and grayish-black with breadcrust phenomenon. The
friction surface and analysis of EDAX. reason of its formation is that heading of organic fibre on
friction surface with higher activity is liable to absorb graphite
and other carbide granules. Meanwhile, it enhances the
possibility that oxygen diffuses into its interior through fibre,
which makes oxidization expand into its depth, and exiguous
abrasive grindings forming after oxidization film cracking and
spalling have bigger surface energy and deposit on its surface
incessantly, which produces surface film with carbon-abundant
structure. Surface film of carbon-abundant area is smooth with
lubricating effect, which is favorable to improving wear
resistance of brake pair.
The components of spalling area are basically the same as
that of original surface of brake block. Spalling area is also the
regeneration zone where the surface film is spalled, and its
surface is rough and uneven with loose and denuded state.
3.1.2 SEM ANALYSIS OF WEAR SURFACE WHEN
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM TEMPERATURE IS 300ć
The SEM topography graph of wear surface of brake block
at thermal equilibrium temperature 300ć is shown in Fig.2.
Likewise, Surface film distributes uniformly and continuously
on friction surface under high temperature. Frictional surface is
divided into mixture area, Fe-abundant area and spalling area
Fig.1 SEM topography of brake block wear surface at thermal
by EDAX analysis.
equilibrium temperature 150ć
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
granules running away caused by loosing due to fatigue as well In addition, instantaneous high temperature results in
as unspalling hard granules and mineral fibre, some are in thermal decomposition of organisms in subsurface of brake
loose state and distributed with many incompact granular block in friction process, and escaped gaseous molecules
grindings and cracks due to fatigue. Moreover, because organic generate high pressure under instantaneous compression and
fibre is drawn, sheared and spalled, heading and drawing, spray over friction surface, so pore or crack appearV[6,7], bigger
shearing traces can be found on some spalling surface. thermal stress within material interior is produced due to
In addition, more severe oxidization, carbonization and temperature gradient of friction surface, which makes minute
thermal decomposition occur on wear surface of brake block cracks appear. With the expansion of cracks, friction surface of
under high temperature. brake block splits and accordingly accelerates wear of brake
3.2 WEAR MECHANISM ANALYSIS OF WEAR block.
SURFACE FOR BRAKE BLOCK
It is shown in above analysis that wear of brake block is 4 ANALYSIS OF WORN MECHANISM FOR BRAKE
divided into the following processes. DISC MATERIAL
(1) At the beginning of wear, surface friction temperature of 4.1 XRD ANALYSIS OF FRICTION SURFACE
brake pair is lower, surface wear between brake block and brake The X-ray diffraction spectrums of original surface of
disc is mainly abrasive wear, while the hard granules of friction brake-disc and its frictional surface when thermal equilibrium
surface of brake block plough on surface of brake disc, the temperature is respectively at 150ć and 300ć are shown in
hard peaks from friction surface of disc-brake also plough on Fig.3. The figure indicates that their phrases are basically same
soft friction surface of brake block. Because the combined and stable, distributes evenly before and after wear, which main
strength between hard granule and matrix of brake block is constituents are iron-base solid solution of -Fe and Cr, carbide
lower, it may become the third body under many collisions, Fe3C and Fe5C2, and a small amount of intermetallic compound
which accordingly aggravates wear of brake pair, especially NbNi, NbNi5 and carbide SiC. But a small amount of -(Fe,Ni)
wear of brake block. At this stage, the worn of brake pair is phrase is generated due to friction heat.
mainly abrasive wear.
(2) With the rise of frictional temperature, friction surface of
brake block begins to soften and expand, abrasive wear is
intensified, abrasive grindings admix sufficiently and
aggregate in process of grindings transferring to sides of brake
block and excavating, adhere and daub to brake block surface
incessantly, and the uniform and continuous surface film is
formed. Moreover, because temperature is relatively higher at
central area of friction surface of brake block, oxidation is prone
to take place at congregating place of steel fibre and thus
oxidizing layer come into being; while the activity of headings
of organic fibre is relatively higher at congregating place of
organic fibre, it is prone to absorb graphite and carbide granule,
thus surface film with carbon-abundant structure come into
being. At the same time, because of alternate stress of friction
surface of brake block and loss of adhesion due to thermal
decomposition of cohesive material, matrix surface of brake Diffraction angle 2Ù
block is prone to crack, which brings about fracture of surface (1) Original surface; (2), (3) Wear surface when temperature is
film, produces more granules, and intensifies abrasive wear. At at 150ć and 300ć
spalling area, loss of adhesion causes constituents in friction
surface of brake block to shed, producing granule and spalling Fig.3 The X-ray diffraction spectrums of original surface of
pits on wear surface. Surface film shedding of brake block is brake-disc and its frictional surface when thermal equilibrium
mainly fatigue spalling at this stage. temperature is at 150ć and 300ć
(3) During high-temperature wear period, severely
influenced by friction heat, obvious softening and plastic flow Alloying Cr, Mo plays a role of solid solution and
can be found on friction surface of brake block, and its consolidation, the Fe-based solid solution of -Fe and Cr is a
anti-shearing ability is weakened, adhesive wear is intensified. soft matrix phase with fine plasticity and ability of crack arrest
At the same time, most of organisms of friction surface pyrolyze which helpfully improves performance of anti-thermal fatigue.
under frictional high temperature and mix with abrasive dusts, Carbide Fe3C, Fe5C2, SiC and intermetallics NbNi, NbNi5, are
thus the hybrid with larger surface cohesive energy is formed, hard phases with high hardness dispersing in solid solution of
and adhere not only to brake-disc surface but to brake-block -Fe and Cr, which can improve the alloy hardness and
surface, which form surface film. Exiguous Fe-oxide granules mechanical properties of brake-disc surface, and also can make
can be deoxidized into nascent ferrum with higher activity the material age-hardening under high temperature and enhance
under high friction temperature, which is prone to adhere to property of resistance to wear. In addition, -Fe turns into -Fe
steel fibre-abundant place of brake block surface, forming the under frictional heat and frictional austenite phase -(Fe, Ni)
zone of Fe-oxidation[5]. At high temperature, thermal +-Fe + carbide forms, which is helpful to improve plastic
decomposition of cohesive material in brake block is deformation of friction surface and strengthen its property of
strengthened, shedding of constituents due to loss of adhesion anti-thermal fatigue. Plastic deformation of frictional surface
becomes more serious, organic fibre is in semi-fluid state at this also brings about distortion of crystal lattice in surface material,
time and obvious drawing, shearing and carbonization and which results in rising of ferritic microhardness of friction
oxidization of organic substance can be found. Surface film surface material and strengthens hardness of friction surface,
spalling of brake block is mainly adhesive tear at this stage. which is beneficial to improve anti-wear property of brake disc.
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Research on Worn Mechanism of Disc-Brake Pair Materials for Drilling Rig
4.2 SEM AND EDAX ANALYSIS OF FRICTION The oxide contents in surface film at 150ć is higher than that at
SURFACE FOR BRAKE-DISC 300ć, which shows that oxidation wear of the former is serious
The analysis of friction surface and elementary composition than the latter. This is because some metal oxides can be easily
is carried out by employing SEM and EDAX, to reveal wear deoxidized by the reducing atmosphere formed in thermal
form and failure mechanism of brake-disc when thermal decomposition of organic matter under higher friction heat,
equilibrium temperature is at 150ć and 300ć which inhibits oxidation of metal. In the meanwhile, the effect
of friction heat can make surface and subsurface of brake disc
4.2.1 SEM ANALYSIS OF WEAR SURFACE WHEN generate deformation, which results in Nb, Mo and other solute
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM TEMPERATURE IS 150ć atoms aggregating to friction surface. The directional
The SEM morphologies of worn surface are shown in Fig.4 aggregation of alloy elements in friction surface is beneficial to
when thermal equilibrium temperature is at 150ć. Surface film enhance strength of surface film and reduce temperature of
distributes obviously on wear surface of brake-disc with plastic friction interface[8].
state, which is rolled and coated in surface of brake-disc to form
one or more layers of stepped construction. Because of friction
heat, cooling and surface stress, there appears cracking, lifting
and spalling on surface film, which results in surface film
unevenly distributing In addition, three-body abrasive particles
appear in the process of friction, which causes obvious
three-body wear.
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is at 150ć and 300ć, and their X-ray energy spectrums are disc, fibrous grindings is the organic fiber sheared in brake
shown in Fig.9. When thermal equilibrium temperature is at block, while the components of dense powdery grindings is
150ć, grindings appears by flake, fibrous and powder. With basically the same as that at 150ć, which shows that oxidation,
EDAX analysis, the components of flake grindings are basically fatigue and abrasive wear occurs in process of wear likewise.
the same as that of surface film of brake disc, which is caused by 4.4 WEAR MECHANISM ANALYSIS OF WEAR
surface film cracking and scaling. Powdery grindings is from SURFACE FOR BRAKE DISC
small worn particles of metal oxide, mineral fiber, small hard
grains, graphite and organic degradation products in brake From above XRD, SEM and EDAX analysis, it can be
blocks, while the slender fibrous grindings is organic fibers drawn the following conclusions.
sheared in brake block, which they are the worn products of (1) In the initial stage of wear, due to slight rise of
oxidation, fatigue and abrasive wear. temperature, friction surface is not prone to oxidize, and it is
hard joints in brake block that plough the surface of brake-disc,
which is a two-body abrasive wear mechanism.
(2) With the rise of friction temperature, localized oxidation
occurs, and the oxides deform, fracture, sinter, adhere and been
compacted into furrows under effect of load, which eventually
form oxide layer. After oxide layer is broken and scaled under
surface cycle stress, oxide abrasive grains occur and three-body
abrasive grains appear, which results in greater plastic
deformation of friction surface, the interaction of oxidization
and abrasive wear come into being.
(3) With the rise of frictional temperature, oxidation wear
Fig.7 The pattern of SEM of abrasive dust for brake pair when aggravates, and its cracking and regenerating become a major
the thermal equilibrium temperature is at 150ć behavior of wear. Because of friction heat, wear of brake block
begin to intensify. Wear products coming from brake block and
brake-disc mixed up together to form mixture with some surface
adhesive and cohesive energy. The surface film grows up
rapidly and extends soon. Besides, as effect of cycle contact
stress surface film appears fatigue flaking.
(4) After entering friction stage of high-temperature, wear
of brake disc is mostly adhesive and oxidation wear. Due to
softening of friction surface of brake disc and brake block, the
plastic deformation becomes more serious and roller
compaction is as primary mode, and friction surface appears
broad and deep trace of roller and has little furrows. Meanwhile,
Fig.8 The pattern of SEM of abrasive dust for brake pair when in process of friction, as effect of high temperature, oxide
the thermal equilibrium temperature is at 300ć grindings of iron is easily deoxygenated to elemental iron by H2,
C and CO. The activity of nascent iron is high and easily been
sintered together with grindings[5], which makes the surface
film more dense and smooth, and scaling of surface film is
mostly adhesive tear.
5 CONCLUSIONS
(1) The wear process of brake block and disc is a dynamic
process of surface film generating, growing, cracking, spalling
and regenerating. Meanwhile the oxidizing, ploughing, rolling,
adhesive and other actions occur in process of surface film
generating, which is the comprehensive effects of abrasive,
oxidizing and adhesive wear.
(2) When friction temperature is lower, the brake block wear
mechanism is abrasive wear and the brake disc wear mechanism
is oxidization and abrasive wear, and spalling of surface film is
mostly fatigue flaking. When friction temperature is higher, the
Energy/kev
brake block wear mechanism is adhesive wear and the brake
Fig.9 X-ray energy spectrum of abrasive dust for brake pair
disc wear mechanism is adhesive and oxidization wear; and
when thermal equilibrium temperature is at 150oC and 300oC
spalling of surface film is mostly adhesive tearing. Moreover,
thermal cracking, thermal oxidization, carbonization and
When thermal equilibrium temperature is at 300ć, a lot of
cyclization of organic substance can increase wear of brake
crumb, granular, flake grindings and slender fibrous debris
block and leave pore or crack on friction surface, finally bring
distributes on dense powdery grindings. With EDAX analysis,
about crack on surface of brake block and thus fatigue wear
grindings is mainly the worn products of brake block, and wear
occurs.
of brake block is serious at high temperature and wear of brake
disc tends to be stable, among the grindings, crumb and granular
grindings are the hard particles such as Al2O3, SiO2, SiC and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TiO2 running away from worn surface of brake block, flake The research is supported by Funding Project for Academic
grindings is surface film scaling from worn surface of brake Human Resources Development in Institutions of Higher
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Research on Worn Mechanism of Disc-Brake Pair Materials for Drilling Rig
Learning under the Jurisdiction of Beijing Municipality. [5] Jia, X., Zhou, B.L, Chen, Y.T,1995, “Study on worn surface
layers of the friction pair vonsisting of semimetallic friction
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friction characteristic of plasma sprayed Fe-Ni-Co-WC
brake-friction material and analysis of its friction and wear
coating,”. Tribology, 16, pp.150-155.
mechanism,” Proceedings of the 5th National Symposium on
[2] Wang, X.H., Zhang, S.W., Fan, Q.Y., 2002, “Experimental
Tribology, Partĉ, pp.591-596.
study in screening and matching of disc brake pair materials
[7] Zhang, M.Z., Liu, Y.B., Yang, X.H., 1999, “The progress in
of drilling rig,” Tribology. 22, pp.197-201.
the tribologial investigation of automotive friction
[3] Zhang, S.W., Wang, X.H., Fan, Q.Y., 2001, “Investigation of
materials,” Tribology, 19, pp.379-384.
the tribological performance of friction pair for disc brake of
[8] Hui, W.H., Zhang, P., Liu, J.J., 1994, “A study on wear
drilling rig,” Science in China(Series A), 44, pp.253-258.
resistance of new type Ni-Fe-W-S alloy brush plating layer,
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new concept of the disc brake design,” Oil Fleld Equipment,
24, pp.22-25.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Composite materials containing a matrix (hard phase) and coefficients λm , λ i ; temperature of melting of the
inclusions of a softer material (soft phase) arranged at the grain components; as well as the characteristics of the alloy: initial
boundaries of the hard phase are widely used for increasing the
bulk concentration of the soft phase n 0 ; mean distance
working capacity of frictional units, for example, for making
coatings in sliding bearings. The model is developed to study between inclusions 2 R . The amount of the soft phase
the extrusion of the soft phase on the surface of the antifriction squeezed out on the surface of the alloy is under investigation.
alloy in frictional interaction. The model is used to analyze the When solving this problem, we assume that there are two
influence of the mechanical and geometric characteristics of the main mechanisms of the extrusion of the soft phase on the
hard and soft phases of an antifriction alloy (yield limits of these surface of the antifriction alloy in frictional interaction: the
phases, temperature of melting of the components, size and extrusion of the soft phase to the surface of the alloy from a
concentration of inclusions, etc.) on the amount of the solid subsurface layer in which the plastic flow of the soft phase
lubricant formed on the surface of the alloy in operation and occurs. and melting of the light melting component near the
providing the self-lubrication and protecting the friction contact surface. The extrusion of the soft phase is caused by the
surfaces against seizure and scoring. On the basis of the analysis matrix deformation which can be both elastic and plastic in this
performed, the recommendations are given for creating new subsurface layer. It is assumed that in the region of plastic
wear- and score-resistant alloys. deformation of the matrix, the soft phase completely exudes
Keywords: self-lubrication, antifriction alloy, composite from the alloy. In the region of elastic deformation of the matrix,
the amount of the soft phase squeezed out on the surface is
defined by the deformation of inclusions. Accordingly, the
INTRODUCTION solution of the problem includes the following three steps:
Different composite materials (for example, antifriction - determination of the temperature and stress fields in the alloy
aluminum alloys) are used for increasing the working capacity taking into account the inhomogeneity of the fields near the real
of frictional units. The antifriction effect of such materials is contact spots;
based on squeezing the soft phase out, which leads to the - determination of the regions of plastic flow of the matrix and
formation of a surface film protecting the friction surfaces inclusions;
against seizure and scoring (self-lubrication effect) [1,2]. This - calculation of the amount of soft phase appearing on the
effect is particularly significant in critical regimes of friction in surface of the alloy due to deformation and due to the melting of
which the contact pressure and temperature are high, whereas the light-melting components.
the amount of liquid lubricant is not sufficient for p0
hydrodynamic lubrication.
The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of the rigid indentor V
composition of an antifriction alloy on the amount of the solid
lubricant appearing on the surface in operation. grains
of the
hard phase
h
PROBLEM FORMULATION inclusions
of the
soft phase
Consider a layer of thickness h made of an antifriction alloy.
The layer is adhered to a rigid base. A rough rigid indenter with
the mean distance between asperities l and mean radius of the rigid base
asperity tip Ra slides along the surface of the layer with the Fig.1 Scheme of contact of the antifriction alloy and the
indentor
velocity V (Fig. 1). The values of the nominal pressure and
temperature at the contact surface, p0 and T0 , friction CALCULATION OF THE STRESS AND
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS INSIDE THE
coefficient μ , and heat-sharing ratio k are known. The COMPOSITE LAYER
following characteristics of the materials of the matrix
We assume that the layer of thickness h is much smaller than
(subscript m ) and inclusions (subscript i ) are also assumed to the other two dimensions of the layer. The thickness h
be specified: Young’s moduli E m , Ei and Poisson’s
considerably exceeds the roughness characteristics Ra and l
ratios ν m ,ν i ; coefficients of thermal expansion α m , α i ;
which, in turn, are much larger than the characteristic contact
compression yield stresses σ m , σ i ; heat conductivity
y y
size. The velocity of relative sliding of the surfaces V is
344
Modelling of Self-Lubrication in Frictional Interaction
smaller than the critical velocity Vc of thermoelastic instability larger than the mean size of inclusions R0 . In this case, the
for the system under consideration. extrusion of the soft phase is predominantly caused by the
For determination of the averaged stresses and temperature in plastic deformation of the matrix in this layer. The mean
the antifriction layer, we assume that the alloy is uniform and thickness δ of the solid lubricant film on the surface sharply
has the averaged elastic and thermal characteristics. increases as the initial concentration of the soft phase n 0
At a sufficient distance from the surface at which the influence
of the surface roughness is insignificant, the temperature and increases (Fig. 2, curve 2) or the yield limit of the matrix σ my
stresses in the alloy can be regarded as functions of only vertical decreases. The yield limit of inclusions σ iy insignificantly
coordinate z (the origin is located at the contact surface and influences the amount of the solid lubricant.
the z -axis is directed downwards). In this case, the temperature
- for comparatively small loads ( p0 < 10 ÷ 20 MPa) and high
distribution in the alloy is described by the stationary
heat-conduction problem. The elastic displacements in the layer yield limit of the matrix ( σ my > 150 ÷ 200 MPa), the layer of
satisfy the differential Lamé equations with the temperature
terms. plastic flow of the matrix does not exist or its thickness hm is
In the neighborhood of a separate asperity the surface comparable with the size of inclusions R0 . In this case, the
roughness leads to inhomogeneous stress and temperature fields
at depths comparable with the mean distance between extrusion of the soft phase is considerably influenced by the
asperities [3]. To determine the stress state in this case, a contact elastic deformation of the matrix. The mean thickness of the
lubricant film δ nonmonotonically depends on the initial
of separate rigid asperity of radius Ra with the elastic concentration of the soft phase n0 (Fig. 2, curve 1) and attains
half-space whose properties coincide with those of the
antifriction layer was considered. The method to calculate the the maximum for some value of n0 . The yield limit of the
stress and temperature fields near the contact spots is presented matrix insignificantly influences the thickness of the lubricant
in [4,5]. film.
345
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
An Asperity-Contact Based Oxidation Model for Fretting Wear with the Presence of Debris
J. Ding, S. B. Leen, E. J. Williams, P. H. Shipway
School of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT divided into two schools: one applies methods such as
The phenomena of near-surface plastic deformation and the Archard’s equation [4], the dissipated energy [5], which define
change of microstructure during the fretting process appear to wear as the material volume that has been removed from the
play an important role in fretting damage evolution, including contacting surfaces and give a measure of wear on the whole
fretting wear and fretting fatigue. However, it is difficult to contact. The second, more recent school [6-7] involves the
incorporate such micro-damage mechanisms into conventional application of Archard's equation or the dissipated energy
macroscopic damage prediction models. In this study an method locally, in computational (continuum) mechanical
attempt is made to address this issue, with the aim of including models, to predict not only the amount of wear but also the
the evolution of micro-damage into the modelling of fretting shape of the wear scars. However, so far, nearly all such
wear with the presence of wear debris, and in particular, to link macro-scale models for fretting damage have neglected the
such phenomena as near-surface plastic deformation and issue of micro-scale damage, although it can be expected to
oxidation with macroscopic wear behaviour. Wear debris play an important role on the evolution of macro fretting
entrapped within the contact during fretting is here treated as a damage.
hardened and oxidised layer structure. As wear proceeds, the In this study an effort is made to link micro-scale damage
debris layer is assumed to continuously penetrate into the to macro-scale wear phenomenon, in particular, with the
substrate by oxidation that is incurred by frictional heating and presence of debris. The fretting contact with the presence of
local plastic deformation; meanwhile the top of the debris layer debris is simplified and illustrated in Fig. 1. A debris layer Q3,
is assumed to be removed by the abrasive action from the is assumed to be built up between two wearing bodies Q1 and
counterbody. A multiscale modelling approach of fretting wear Q2. Q3 represents the compacted debris often observed in the
is therefore presented, which integrates a macro-wear contact interface. There are two interfaces which connect the
simulation tool and a micro-asperity model. The finite element debris layer Q3 to the first bodies Q1 and Q2. For the first
based macro-wear simulation tool predicts local distributions interface between the bottom surface of the debris layer and Γ1,
of contact pressure and slip, and determines the material a rigid connection is assumed. The top surface profile of the
removal from the fretting interface. The former information, debris is referred to as Γ3. The interaction between Γ2 and Γ3 is
together with local thickness of the debris layer, form the described by the frictional contact model. The fretting wear
inputs to the asperity model, so that cyclic plastic deformation process is assumed here to consist of two simultaneous
underneath the debris layer can be calculated. By knowing processes:
the local plastic deformation, the movement of the debris layer a. movement of the debris layer (Γ1) into the substrate by a
into the substrate within the macro-wear simulation tool can be plastic-strain assisted oxidation process;
determined according to a plasticity-enhanced oxidation model. b. removal of the top debris layer (Γ3) by an abrasive
The constants required by the multiscale modelling approach process from the asperities of the counterpart.
will be identified from fretting tests, and then the simulated
results will be validated again testing measurements. y
Keywords: Fretting wear, Asperity, Contact, Oxidation,
Friction x
Γ2
INTRODUCTION Q2 Γ3
Fretting is a small-amplitude oscillatory relative motion
that produces surface damage at the contacting locations of Q3
engineering components. The size of fretting damage can be Γ1
divided into macro-scale or micro-scale. The macro-scale Q1
damage includes wear and fatigue. Wear involves the loss of
material from the rubbing surfaces as well as the change of Fig. 1 The fretting contact model with a debris layer
surface geometry. Fatigue involves crack initiation and
propagation from the fretted region. The micro-scale damage
from fretting normally consists of the change of microstructure
Reuchet and Remy [8] observed that the oxide scale
and local plastic deformation. Micro-scale damage also
includes some reaction with the environment (e.g. oxidation) thickness formed on fatigue specimens was dependent
which can significantly change surface deformation behaviour. on the plastic strain amplitude, and suggested that the
After an initial heavy wear period dominated by abrasion, the kinetics of the oxide scale formation can be described
fretting scar is actually covered by a compacted and oxidized as:
debris layer.
§ Δε p ·
In the literature a number of models and approaches have l = α dt = α 0 ¨¨1 + A ¸¸ t (1)
been proposed to evaluate macro-scale fretting damage. For 2
fretting fatigue, for example, critical plane fatigue damage
© ¹
parameters [1,2] and fracture mechanics techniques [3] have where α0 and A are material constants, Δε p is the
been relatively successful. For fretting wear, methods are
applied plastic strain amplitude, and t is time. The
*Jian Ding - jian. ding@ nottingham .ac.uk differential format of this equation is used here to
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
346
An Asperity-Contact Based Oxidation Model for Fretting Wear with the Presence of Debris
describe the movement of Γ1 for a time period of dt at a abrasion, as described by the following equation:
given x position, as follows: dh( x) = kp ( x)dδ ( x ) (5)
§ Δε p ( x ) · where k is a taken here (as a first approximation) as the
α 0 ¨¨1 + A ¸
2 ¸¹
measured (global) Archard wear coefficient, p(x) is the
dl = © dt (2) contact pressure and dδ(x) is the slip increment.
2 t The wear process described above is implemented
Plastic deformation near the oxide layer-substrate by the finite element method. Fretting tests in Ti-6Al-4V,
interface is considered to be incurred by local asperities involving at different normal loads, strokes and numbers
pressing into the debris layer and moving tangentially. A of cycles, were conducted to capture the evolution of the
single asperity sub-model, as illustrated in Fig. 2, is debris layer geometry, as well as the mechanical
employed to simulate the plastic deformation underneath characteristics.
the debris layer. λ is the width of the asperity model, and
MAIN BODY HEADINGS
R is the radius of the asperity. λ and R can be estimated
from the surface (roughness) characteristics of the - EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
- ASPERITY-BASED OXIDATION WEAR MODEL
contacting surfaces. The compacted oxidised debris is - RESULTS
simulated here as a hard coating with an instantaneous - DISCUSSION
thickness l. The asperity is subjected to a normal load of - CONCLUSIONS
P and cyclic tangential displacement moving along the
whole surface of the asperity model, i.e. a distance λ. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
P The technical and financial support of the EPSRC and
Roll-Royce plc are gratefully acknowledged.
±δ
REFERENCES
Debris layer l
[1] Szolwinski M.P. and Farris T.N., Mechanics of fretting
fatigue crack formation, Wear, 1996, 198, 93–107.
[2] Lykins C.D., Mall S. and Jain V.K., Combined
Substrate
experimental–numerical investigation of fretting fatigue
crack initiation, Int. J. Fatigue, 2001, 23, 703–711.
[3] Giannakopoulos A.E., Lindley T.C. and Suresh S., Aspects
λ of equivalence between contact mechanics and fracture
mechanics: theoretical connections and life-prediction
methodology for fretting-fatigue, Acta Mater 1998,46,
Fig. 2 Asperity contact model 2955–2968.
[4] Archard J.F., Contact and rubbing of flat surfaces, J. Appl.
The link between the asperity sub-model and the Phys. 1953, 24, 981–988.
global model shown in Fig. 1 is as follows. Assuming, [5] Fouvry S., Liskiewicz T., Kapsa Ph., Hannel S. and Sauger
for a given location x of the global model, the local E., An energy description of wear mechanisms and its
pressure is p(x), the local slip amplitude over one cycle applications to oscillating sliding contacts, Wear, 2003, 255,
is δ(x), and the thickness of the debris is l(x). The 287-298.
relation between the local pressure p(x) and the normal [6] McColl I.R., Ding J., Leen S.B., Finite element
load applied to the asperity model P is given as follows: simulation and experimental validation of fretting
wear, Wear, 2004, 256, 1114-1127.
P = λp(x) (3)
[7] Paulina C., Fouvry S., and Meuniera C., Finite
Thus, the local plastic strain Δεp(x) at the position x can element modelling of fretting wear surface
be estimated by evolution: Application to a Ti–6A1–4V contact,
δ ( x) Wear, 2008, 264, 26-36.
Δε p ( x ) = − Δε p,ref × (4)
λ/2 [8] Reuchet J. and Remy L., Fatigue oxidation
where Δε p,ref is the (equivalent) plastic strain range interaction in a superalloy—application to life
prediction in high temperature low cycle fatigue,
per cycle obtained from the asperity model. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 1982, 14,
The top oxide debris layer is continually removed by 141-149.
347
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Rolling Contact Fatigue of Silicon Nitride Balls under Pure Rolling Condition
Zhou Jing-ling/ College of Mechanical Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, china
Chen Xiao-yang/ Research Institute of Bearings, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, china
Zhang Pei-zhi/ Shanghai Institute of Materials, Shanghai 200437, china
Wu Guo-qing/ College of Mechanical Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, china
Extended Abstract A new type accelerated rolling contact fatigue test rig was
The rolling contact fatigue (RCF) life of ceramic balls is a reliable constructed, where a ball sample could be tested with three
technique to assess whether or not they are suitable to be used in contact points and in pure rolling condition. A schematic
rolling bearings. A newly developed pure rolling fatigue test rig diagram of the test rig is shown in Fig. 1.
with three contact points for bearing balls was used to perform
RCF tests and the fatigue properties of GCr15 steel balls and
two kinds of Si3N4 ceramic balls(GSN-200 and NBD-200)
produced with different technologies were compared. Ball surfaces
were examined after failure with optical microscopy and scanning
electron microscopy. It was identified by tests that the failure
Fig. 1 Schematic Diagram of Fatigue Test Rig
mode of ceramic balls was surface spall. The main factor of
2.2 TEST SAMPLES
ceramic ball failure was principal tensile stress. Life tests data, Balls of three materials were prepared. They were the GCr15
summarized in accordance with the Weibull theory, showed that steel balls ,the Silicon Nitride balls (GSN-200) produced by the
the life of GSN-200 balls was close to that of GCr15 balls, GPS(Gas Pressure Sintering) method and the Silicon Nitride
whereas the life of NBD-200 balls was much longer than those balls (NBD-200) produced by the HIP(Hot Isostatic Pressing)
of GSN-200 and GCr15. Under the same working condition, the method, respectively. The balls were of diameter 12.7 mm. All
temperature rise of all ceramic balls was lower than that of steel the specimen balls were of Grade 10.
balls, and their crack propagation rates were slower than that of 2.3 TEST CONDITION
steel balls. The force diagram acting on the specimen is shown in Fig.2.
Keywords: ceramic ball, pure rolling contact, RCF life The maximum contact stress values on the specimen ball
surface and the sample size are listed in Table 1.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ceramic materials have been found to be well-suited for use
as rolling elements in bearing assemblies. The RCF life of
bearing balls is a main method, to evaluate the performance of
bearing materials and their production technology. In general,
Fig. 2 Specimen Ball force Diagram and Stress Map
the RCF life of ceramic balls is a reliable technique to assess
Table 1 Contact stress and test parameters
whether or not they are suitable to be used in rolling bearings.
Specimen Contact Contact Maximum contact
A newly developed pure rolling fatigue accelerated test rig with Sample
material load load P2= P3 stress³Hmax (GPa)
three contact points for bearing balls is described. This test rig size
P1(N) (N)
has been used to perform rolling contact fatigue (RCF) tests for
GCr15 2000 1428 5.07 16
GCr15 steel balls and two kinds of Si3N4 ceramic balls (GSN-
GSN-200 1412 993 5.07 18
200 and NBD-200) produced with different technologies.
GSN-200 2000 1428 5.67 6
2 EXPERIMENT
GSN-200 2460 1730 6.07 5
2.1 TEST RIG
NBD-200 1412 993 5.07 8
* Project supported by Science and Technology Development Foundation NBD-200 2000 1428 5.67 8
of Shanghai, China(Grant No.07-102)
Corresponding author: WU Guo-qing, ph. D., Prof., E-mail: wu.gqing Truncated testing method was used in order to reduce test
@163.com
348
Rolling Contact Fatigue of Silicon Nitride Balls under Pure Rolling Condition
time. When the maximum contact stress value is 5.07GPa, the A tested ball under 6.07GPa was sectioned and polished to
prediction rated life[1] L10 for steel balls is 2.5h(2.5*106 r). investigate the crack propagation behaviour. Fig. 4(a) was a
According to the standard of bearing tests, the test time is surface view of the failure ball. Line A denoted the section
fivefold L10. Hence the ending time of steel balls was set at position. The section was cut through the sphere center. The
12.5h. The ending time for ceramic balls was also 12.5h for sectional view is given in Fig. 4(b). The subsurface cracks lay
comparison purpose. Similarity, when the maximum contact underneath undamaged contact path instead of directly
stress values were 5.57GPa and 6.07 GPa, the ending times for underneath the spall. It is conjectured that spall eventually
the ceramic ball were set at 11h and 8h respectively. occurred after many cycles of operation.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULT
The test lives were analyzed by mathematical statistics.
Weibull distribution is a generally accepted life model. The
two-parameter Weibull distribution was adopted by Lundberg (a) Overview of the failure ball (b) Detailed crack network and crack propagation path
and Palmgren[1] to fit empirical bearing fatigue life data. Fig.4 Surface and section observation under 6.07GPa
The test data are shown in Fig.3, where n denotes sample The subsurface crack section indicates that the crack
size. In Fig.3(a), the fatigue lives of ceramic and steel balls growth path was from subsurface to surface. These cracks
under contact pressure 5.07GPa are compared. The results originated from volume defects of the material, and propagate,
7
showed that the L10 (1.588*10 number of stress cycles)of GSN- to from fatigue spalls under the action of principal tensile
7
200 ceramic balls was less than that of steel(2.002*10 number stresses. Fig. 4(b) shows a detailed subsurface crack network
of stress cycles), although L50 and L63 were greater than that of and how a spall was formed in the lubricated rolling contact
steel under the same contact pressure. No remarkable condition.
difference in the fatigue life between the tested GSN-200 balls 5 CONCLUSIONS
and steel balls was found. The Weibull slope showed that the The following conclusions can be drawn from the tests and
scatter in ceramic balls was greater than that in steel balls discussion:
because of defects of the ceramic material. In Fig.3(b), the (1) The life of tested GSN-200 balls was close to that of
fatigue life of GSN-200 ceramic balls are shown under contact GCr15 balls. The scatter in the former was greater. The
pressures of 5.07GPa, 5.67GPa and 6.07GPa. The fatigue life combination properties of the GSN-200 balls were better than
values decreased with increasing Hertz contact stress. steel balls. The life of NBD-200 balls was much longer than that
Of the eight NBD-200 ceramic balls tested, only one failed of GSN-200, but the former was more expensive than the latter.
under a contact pressure of 5.67 GPa, whereas no one failed It is suggested to use GSN-200 balls as bearing balls when life
under a contact pressure of 5.07 GPa. Because of the small requirements are not stringent, and to use NBD-200 balls in very
number of failures generated, or the lack of it, no result was important applications where high performance is required. It is
obtained by Weibull statistics. It was shown that the life of also recommended that the manufacturing process of GSN-200
NBD-200 balls is much longer than that of steel balls. balls should be improved to reduce their subsurface defects so as
to prolong their fatigue life.
(2) The ceramic balls failed by the maximum principal
tensile stress. The compressive strength and shear modulus of
ceramic balls were strong, whereas their tensile strength was
weak. The reason was that the defects (pores and cracks ect.) and
inhomogeneity in the ceramic materials made them sensitive to
tensile stress.
(a) Ceramic and steel balls (b) GSN-200 ceramic balls REFERENCES
Fig. 3 Fatigue life plot [1] Harris T A. Rolling bearing analysis[M], 3rd edition. New
4 DISCUSSION York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1991.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
350
Influence of Different External Pressure on the Thermo-Mechanical Coupling of the Rough Surface during Sliding Contact
nonconfouming contacts. But this model is a steady model of In order to simplify calculation, a thermomechanical
heat conduction. Gong and Komvopoulos [26] conducted a analysis is presented for an elastic plane sliding against an
fully coupled finite element analysis of an elastic-plastic elastic, rough surface characterized by Brown fractal geometry,
layered medium with a patterned surface in contact with an the model is as Figure 2. In Fig. 2, A2, B1 are the friction
elastic-plastic sphere, and then developed a thermomechanical surfaces of the solid A and B, respectively, and A1, B2 are the
analysis of sliding contact between a semi-infinite elastic solid back surface of the frictional surface of the solid A and B,
possessing a smooth surface and a rigid fractal rough surface respectively, A3, A4, A5, A6, B3, B4, B5, B6 are the sides of the
[1]. Kadiric et al. [27] presented a numerical model to solid A and B, respectively, e1, e2 are the thickness of the solid
calculate temperature profile, displacements, and stresses A and B, respectively, l, L are the length of the solid A and B,
resulting from a moving band shaped contact of a layered respectively.
half-space with a homogeneous rough or smooth cylinder. In 2.2 Heat transfer
this model, steady state heat transfer was considered and the To apply the thermal model with a FEM, it is assumed
contact was assumed to be infinitely long in the direction of that:
cylinder axis which enabled the assumption of stain in two (1) The coefficient of friction remains constant during
dimensions to be only considered. Robert and Ravi [28] used a sliding;
semi-analytical and finite element simulation to analyze the (2) The amount of heat generation by wear is very small
sliding interaction between elasto-plastic spherical asperities. relative to the heat generated by friction, we neglect the effect
They considered the influence of the average tangential and of material wear. Thus, the frictional heat flux q can be figured
normal forces, but neglected the interaction between asperities out as
and the effect of the frictional heating on stress and deformation. q ( x, y , t ) P p ( x, y , t ) v ( x, y , t ) (1)
The result showed that the effect of interference distance and where, p(x,y,t) is the interface contact pressure between the
the associated frictional temperature rise on pressure and solid A and B which can be obtained by solving the
VonMises equivalent stress distribution were great [29]. thermal-structure coupling problem of the brake; is the
In this paper, the rough surface is characterized based on coefficient of friction; v(x,y,t) is the relative sliding velocity;
3D fractal theory. A three-dimensional thermo-structure (3) The materials of the contact solids are homogeneous
coupling model for the rough surface sliding friction is and their thermal properties are invariant with temperature.
established. The model integrates the heat flux coupling (4) It is assumed that in the contact region the local
between the sliding surfaces and allows the analysis of the instantaneous temperatures of the solid A and B are equal and
effects of elastic deformation of contact solids and all of the the contact interface is an ideal plane. So the partition of
correlation between asperities. The purpose of this work is to frictional heat flux between the solid A and B is assigned
discuss and analyze the effect of the different external applied naturally according to their thermophysical properties of
pressure on the highest contact temperature, the maximum material.
surface contact pressure and the biggest equivalent VonMises Thermal initial condition is as follows.
stress during frictional sliding contact between rough surfaces. (2)
TA TB T0 T f at t 0
2. Mode and Formulation where, T0 is the initial temperature of solid A and B. Tf is the
2.1 The Rough Surface Model and the Friction Pair environmental temperature.
Since the geometric structures of rough surface affect The thermal boundary conditions of the model are
engineering, especially through contact problems, a realistic described as follows.
representation of rough surface, other than the traditional The surfaces B1 of the solid B is partially in contact with
statistical methods, is strongly necessary for obtaining accurate the solid A. In the contacting region there is frictional heat flux
information about the stresses and strains at contact interfaces. generation. But outside the contact region, the surface is
In this study, the rough surface is simulated based on the subject to the thermal radiation and forced convection
three-dimensional Brown fractal surface [16, 30]. Figure 1 condition. Thus the boundary condition of the surface B1 of the
shows the solid model with a Brown fractal rough surface. solid B can be expressed as
w TB
kB [1 g (m)]hB1 (TB Tf ) g (m) K c (TA TB ) (3)
w z
[1 g (m)]VA(TB4 Tf4 ) g (m)qB
where
1 in the domain of solid A or B
g m ®
¯0 out of the domain of A or B
Fig. 1 the solid model with a fractal rough surface and where kB is the thermal conductivity of solid B, Tf is
the environmental temperature, hB1 is the convection
coefficient, qB is the heat flux entering into solid B from the
contact region and can be obtain from the heat flux coupling
condition, Ê is the Stefan- Boltzman constant, A is the area of
the surface of the solid B out of the contact region. Kc is the
thermal conduction coefficient of the contact interface between
solid A and B.
As for solid B, the surface of solid A (A2) is a frictional
working surface. In the contact region there is frictional heat
flux generation. But outside the contact region, the surface is
subject to the thermal radiation and forced convection
Fig. 2 Geometric contact model condition. This can be expressed as
351
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
w TA For the 3-D case, then the thermal strain vector is:
[1 g (m)]hA1 (TA Tf ) g (m)qA
kA
w z (4) ^ `
H th D (T T0 )>1 1 1 0 0 0@T (7)
(a) Solid A
352
Influence of Different External Pressure on the Thermo-Mechanical Coupling of the Rough Surface during Sliding Contact
353
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
the nominal flat has been performed. The effect of frictional [9] Chang, W. R., Etsion, I., Bogy, D. B., 1987, “An
heating, elastic deformation and the correlation between Elastic-plastic Model for the Contact of Rough Surface,”
asperities on the temperature rise, contact pressure, and stress ASME J. Tribol., 101, pp. 15-20.
field was examined for different external applied pressure. [10] Zhao, Y., Maietta, D. M., Chang, L., 2000, “An Asperity
Based on the presented results and discussion, the following Microcontact Model Incorporating the Transition from
main conclusion can be drawn. Elastic Deformation to fully Plastic Flow,” ASME J. Tribol.,
1) The highest temperature of the frictional contact surface 122, pp. 86-93.
was approximate proportion to the increase with the external [11] Aramaki, H., Cheng, S., Chung, Y., 1993, “The Contact
pressure increasing. But some differences existed. The between Rough Surfaces with Longitudinal Texture. Part I.
difference became more distinctness with the increase of the Average Contact Pressure and Real Contact Area,” ASME J.
sliding distance and the temperature rise. The value of the Tribol., 115, pp. 419-424.
flash temperature had a relation to the form and the number of [12] Kogut, L., Etsion, I., 2002, “Elastic-plastic Contact
asperities, all of the correlation between asperities, the region Analysis of a Sphere and a Rigid Flat,” ASME Journal of
of the maximum contact stress, the whole stress distribution Applied Mechanics, 69, pp. 657-662.
and the number of the average contact pressure in region of [13] Kogut, L., Etsion, I., 2003, “A Finite Element Based
the highest flash temperature. It is a synthetical function of Elastic-plastic Model for Contact of Rough Surface,” STLE
multiple factors results in the highest temperature. Tribology Transaction, 46, pp. 383-390.
2) Because of the elastic deformation, the instantaneous [14] Lin, L. P., Lin, J. F., 2006, “A New Method for
maximum contact pressure did not increase in proportional to Elastic-plastic Contact Analysis of a Deformable Sphere
the applied pressure increased. With the applied pressure and a Rigid Flat,” ASME J. Tribol., 128, pp. 221-229.
increasing, the temperature of contact subject and the [15] Jamil, A., Kambiz, F., 2005, “Elastic-plastic Contact
deformation rose, which made the number of the contact Model for Rough Surfaces Based on Plastic Asperity
asperities increase and the interaction between asperities Concept,” International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics,
strengthen. All these made the contact state vary continuously. 40, pp. 495-506.
The maximum contact pressure tended to increase with [16] Gong, Z.Q., Komvopoulos, K., 2003, “Effect of Surface
increasing the applied pressure. And its fluctuation amplitude Patterning on Contact Deformation of Elastic-plastic
also increased. For the same frictional contact model, the Layered Media,” J. Tribol., 125(1), pp. 16-25.
biggest VonMises equivalent stress of contact subjects [17] Hyun, S., Pei, L., Molinari, J. F., Robbins, M., 2004,
becomes bigger resulting from the increase of the applied “Finite-element Analysis of Contact between Elastic
pressure. But its whole variations trend is not changed as of Self-affine Surfaces,” Phy. Rev. E., 70, 026117.
the multiple factors. [18] Robert, L. J., Itahak, G., 2006, “A Statistical Model of
Elasto-plastic Asperity Contact between Rough Surfaces,”
Acknowledgements Tribology International, 39, pp. 906-914.
This research is supported by the National Natural Science [19] Pugliese, G., Tavares, S.M.O., Ciulli, E., Ferreira, L.A.,
Foundation of China (NSFC) under grant No: 50375028 and 2008, “Rough Contacts between Actual Engineering
50775039, the Education Council of FuJian Province China
Surfaces. Part II. Contact Mechanics,” Wear, 264, pp.
under grant No: JB07008 and the Foundation of Fuzhou
1116-1128.
University under grant No: XJJ-0603.
[20] Wang, Q., Liu, G., 1999, “A Thermoelastic Asperity
Contact Model Considering Steady-state Heat Transfer,”
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[1]Gong, Z. Q., Komvopoulos K., 2005, “Thermomechanical
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Anslysis of Semi-infinite Solid in Sliding Contact with a
Frictional shear, and Parameter Correlations,” ASME J.
Fractal Surface,” ASME J. Tribol., 127, pp. 331-342.
Tribol., 122, pp. 300-307.
[2] Song, M., 2001, “Study on the Contact Models of Rough
[22] Huang, J. H., Ju, F. D., 1985, “Thermomechanical
Surfaces,” Mechanical Science and Technology, 20(5), pp.
737-750. (In Chinese) Cracking Due to Moving Frictional Loads,” Wear, 102, pp.
[3] Vandenberg, S., Osbome, C. F., 1992, “Digital Image 81-104.
Processing Techniques, Fractal Dimensionality and [23] Liu, G., Wang, Q., Liu, S., 2001, “Three-dimensional
Scale-space Applied to Surface Roughness,” Wear, 159, pp. Thermoelastic Asperity Contact Model for Two Nominally
17-30. Flat Surfaces in Contact,” ASME J. Tribol., 123, pp.
[4] Zhou, G. Y., Leu, M. C., Black D., 1993, “Fractal Geometry 595-602.
Model for Wear Prediction,” Wear, 170, pp. 1-14. [24] Liu, S., Wang, Q., 2001, “A Three-dimensional
[5] Srinivasan, R. S., 1997, “A Form Tolerancing Theory Using Thermomechanical Model of Contact between
Fractals and Wavelets,” J. of Mech. Design, 119, pp. Non-conforming Rough Surfaces,” ASME J. Tribol., 123,
185-192. pp. 17-26.
[6] Pei, L., Hyun, S., Molinari, J. F., Robbins, M. O., 2005, [25] Liu, G., Wang, Q., Ao Y., 2002, “Convenient Formulas for
“Finite Element Modeling of Elasto-plastic Contact Modeling Three-dimensional Thermo-mechanical Asperity
between Rough Surfaces,” Journal of the Mechanics and Contacts,” Tribology International, 35(7), pp. 411-424.
Physics of Solids, 53, pp. 2385-2409. [26] Gong, Z.Q., Komvopoulos, K., 2004, ‘‘Mechanical and
[7] Yang, J., Komvopoulos, K., 2005, “A Mechanics Approach Thermomechanical Elastic-Plastic Contact Analysis of
to Static Friction of Elastic-plastic Fractal Surfaces,” ASME Layered Media With Patterned Surfaces,’’ ASME J. Tribol.,
J. Tribol., 127(2), pp. 315-324. 126, pp. 9–17.
[8] Prasanta, S., Niloy, G., 2007, “Finite Element Contact [27] Kadiric, A., Sayles, R. S., Loannides, E., 2008,
Analysis of Fractal Surfaces,” Journal of Physics D: “Thermo-mechanical Model for Moving Layered Rough
Applied Physics, 40, pp. 4245-4252. Surface Contacts,” ASME J. Tribol., 130(011016), pp. 1-14.
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Influence of Different External Pressure on the Thermo-Mechanical Coupling of the Rough Surface during Sliding Contact
[28] Rober, L.J., Ravi, S.D., Hasnain, M., Manoj M., 2007, “An [30] Mitjan, K., Joze, V., 2001, “Comparison of Different
Analysis of Elasto-plastic Sliding Spherical Asperity Theoretical Models for Flash Temperature Calculation
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[29] Hasan, S., Alaettin, O., 2008, “Thermomechanical 831-839.
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Fractal Surface,” Tribology International, 41(4), pp. “Stress Analysis of Thermal Fatigue Fracture of Brake
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Tribol., 129, pp. 536-544.
355
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
356
Effect of Transverse Surface Topography on Cavitation Erosion
the depth of the groove, d; the front edge angle, D, and the field of view are counted. The average numbers of cavitation
back edge angle, E. The details of the parameters of the test pits on specimen No.1 and No.2 are 0.3/mm2 and 0.1/mm2.
specimens are listed in Table.1. Make a comparison between specimen No.1 and No.2, and
it will be found that the most significant difference is the width
of the grooves. Specimen No.1 has narrower grooves on its
surface.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The above experimental results have shown that the shape are shown in Fig.7. The dimension of the calculation field was
and distribution of the transeverse surface grooves in the same as the water tunnel, but the grooved section was
sub-millimeter scale affect the degree of cavitation erosion. shorten to 10mm (the original length of the sample is 30mm)
But the reason why these difference occur were still uncertain, in order to reduce the amount of calculation.
so numercial methods were employed to analyze. Effect of the
width and wavelength of the grooves are considered separately. Table 2 Groove parameters of the simulation models
No. O / m d / m w / m
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 1 0 0 0
2 400 25 50
(1) Numerical methods and models 3 400 25 75
The flow pressure and velocity were calculated based on 4 400 25 100
the continuity equation (Eq.1) and momentum equations (Eq.2), 5 400 25 150
which are also called Navier-Stokes equations. These 6 400 25 200
equations are applicable for any continuous medium. 7 400 25 300
8 200 25 150
w ( Uu ) w ( Uv) w ( Uw)
0 (1) 9 800 25 150
wx wy wz
The left boundary is set to be pressure inlet and the
w ( Uu ) wp wW xx wW yx wW zx corresponding entry velocity in the simulation cases was 20m/s.
° div( Uuu) The right boundary is set to be pressure outlet, and the outlet
° wt wx wx wy wz
pressure is set to be 1atm. The top and bottom boundary were
°° w ( Uv) wp wW xy wW yy wW zy solid walls. The Reynolds numbers in these cases were 7.2×105.
® div( Uvu) (2)
So the standard k-H turbulent model was employed. The
° wt wy wx wy wz
convergence criterions of the calculations are that the residual
° w ( Uw) wp wW xz wW yz wW zz
° errors fall down to below 10-5.
div( Uwu)
°¯ wt wz wx wy wz
358
Effect of Transverse Surface Topography on Cavitation Erosion
located in the middle of the grooved section. The vortex in the (the cavity just keep state under this pressure), a little rise in
grooves get smaller and smaller as the increase of the grooves’ pressure, will accelerate the collapse speed greatly.
width, and at the point where the width-depth ratio (w/d)
equals to 6 (w=150m), the flow in the groove changes from 0.6
collapse duration tc / ms
the grooves, as the enlargement of the flow path, the flow 0.4
velocity slows down and the pressure drops while that around
the trailing edge is just the opposite way. The vortexes in the 0.3
grooves make this more complex, and difference in pressure
distribution can be found in Fig.9. 0.2
w =100 Pm p / Pa
w =150 Pm Fig.10 pressure-collapse duration curve
0.08
High pressure
region Look back to the effect of pressure distribution on
0.04 cavitation erosion in the high pressure region, and it is
obviously that the higher the pressure is, the faster the cavities
Low pressure
collapse. So a low pressure is preferred when prevention of
0.00
region cavitation erosion is needed.
A significant critical point, at which the width of the
-0.04 grooves is about 150m, should be paid more attention to.
60 61 62 63 64 65 When the grooves’ width of the grooves is smaller than that,
Position in x direction / mm the pressure rise around the fore part and the pressure drop
Fig.9 Pressure distribution 50m away from the surface of the around the aft part comparing to the smooth case are
grooved section remarkable, while the width is larger than that, the averaged
pressure on surface with grooves is almost the same as that of
As shown above, the overall pressure distribution closed to the smooth one. Surface with 150m wide grooves is the best
the surface has been changed by the grooves. Compared to the one to prevent cavitation erosion among the 7 models above
smooth case, effect of the grooves is to increase the pressure according to the previous discussions.
around the fore part (“low pressure region”) and reduce that Another significant feature in pressure distribution is the
around the aft part (“high pressure region”). As the rise of local pressure fluctuation generating around each groove. The
pressure in the low pressure region will diminish the cavitation, local pressure fluctuations caused by the surface grooves (w:
which means the amount of the cavities will be reduced, it may 50~300m, d: 25m) can be up to about 10 kPa. According to
decrease the erosion degree downstream. Fig.11, if the cavities encounter with pressure rise of this
The pressure distribution in the vicinity of the surface is the magnitude when the outside pressure are around the critical
key factor which affects the degree of cavitation erosion. point, their collapse process will be accelerated greatly. So the
Generally speaking, the higher the pressure is and the greater local pressure fluctuation could affect the erosion too. As the
the pressure fluctuation is the serious the erosion is[12, 13]. In higher the pressure is the quicker the cavity collapse, the rise
the high pressure region, cavities will suffer from the pressure of the local pressure rise induced by the sharp topography will
to compress and collapse. Rayleigh-Plesset equation (Eq.4) is accelerate the collapse process of the cavity.
adopted to analyze the relationship between the pressure and
the collapse process of the cavities. Rayleigh-Plesset equation
u =20m/s, w=150Pm, d =25Pm
is the fundamental equation in bubble dynamic. It can describe 0.16
x Grooves(60.2~64.2mm)
the variation process of spherical bubbles in the state liquid.
Absolute Pressure / MPa
3 2 p R pf 4 PR 2V s
RR R (4) 0.12
2 U UR R
where R is the radius of the bubble, PR is the pressure out of the 0.08 High pressure
cavity, P is the pressure far away from the cavity, s is the region
surface tension between the liquid and the gases inside the smooth
cavity and is the viscosity of the liquid. 0.04 O =200 Pm
Rayleigh-Plesset equation is obtained base on the O =400 Pm
assumption that the bubbles keep spherical during the variation O =800 Pm
0.00 Low pressure
process, which does not meet the case when the collapse region
occurs in the vicinity of the solid surface exactly, but the
calculation results can still be used to determine the collapse -0.04
60 61 62 63 64 65
duration roughly. Fig.10 shows the relationship between the Position in x direction / mm
pressure outside the cavity and collapse duration. It indicates Fig.11 Pressure distribution 50m away from the surface of the
that as the increase of the pressure, the collapse duration grooved section
decreases and when the pressure is around the critical pressure
359
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
360
The Theory of Debris Group in Ferrographic Analysis
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, 221008, China
*Corresponding author. E-mail: nano@cumt.edu.cn. Fig. 1 The procedure and content of ferrographic analysis
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
For the wear debris produced on a certain wear condition, IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF DEBRIS GROUP AND
their individual appearances such as shapes and sizes may be THEIR APPLICATIONS
different because of the complexity of wear process. When a The rotary ferrograph offers a rapid and simple method of
wear particle is found on a ferrogram, the appearance of this debris separation. A measured volume of the oil sample is
wear particle only indicates that a given kind of wear type has applied by pipette to a glass slide located on a rotating magnet
once existed. But whether this kind of wear type is still assembly. Particles of debris are radially deposited as three
existing, or if it is existing, how severe the wear condition is is concentric rings by the combined effects of rotational, magnetic
unknown to us. In other words, the individual characteristics of and gravitational forces. The rotary ferrograph combines
a single wear particle have no direct relation to wear condition. magnetic and centrifugal separation, so it does not suffer from
But according to experiments, the appearances of some debris interference due to carbonaceous material in the sample.
(namely a group of debris) are almost invariant and closely Removal of the lubricant by solvent washing and drying gives a
related to the operating condition. So, the wear condition of stable well-separated deposit pattern ready for examination
machines should be determined by studying all the debris as a under the optical or electron microscope.
whole rather than focusing on debris individually. The The magnetic head of rotary ferrograph and the ferrogram made
reasonable way for us to conduct wear condition monitoring and by rotary ferrograph are shown in Fig. 2. When the oil sample
fault diagnosis is to observe the whole ferrogram fully and drops at the centre of the rotating magnet at a constant speed, it
thoroughly, and thus get the information of how many debris will follow the rotation of the magnet and spread out along
categories are existing and what about their size distributions parabolic tracks in all the 360º directions which are tangential to
etc., then analyze these information synthetically and get the the magnetic flux. And the areas of the three rings in 360º have
results about wear condition monitoring and fault diagnosis. the equal probability to capture the wear particles although the
It is the characteristic of a group of wear debris that has close parabolic routes of individual debris are in random directions.
connection with operating condition of wear systems. This And along any direction, wear debris are deposited on the
relationship is exactly the most useful in wear condition ferrogram according to size with large particles resting at the
monitoring and fault diagnosis. What has been discussed above entry point and gradually getting smaller towards the exit
is the main idea of the theory of debris group. point.
362
The Theory of Debris Group in Ferrographic Analysis
with the same distance to rotary center form an equal possibility debris group characteristic. Theoretically, only one kind of
depositing area. Strictly speaking, there is no equal possibility debris group can be defined on a given ferrogram. The size of
depositing area on the ferrogram made by analytical the debris group has a maximum limit, which includes all the
ferrographic instrument, but approximately the spots with the particles on the ferrogram. In order to reduce the work load of
same distance to the entry can be taken as an equal possibility analyst as far as possible, relatively smaller debris group is
depositing area. selected in practice. That is to say, a method should be
Based on the concepts of debris group and equal possibility proposed to determine the minimum size of the debris group.
depositing area illustrated above, two important properties of Once the minimum limit of the size of a debris group has been
debris group can be obtained. determined, any group of wear particles whose size is equal to
Property I: All debris groups in the same equal possibility or bigger than this minimum limit is also a debris group. They
depositing area of a certain ferrogram can be seen as one debris are all equal in value in application of the theory of debris group.
group. In following space, a ferrogram made by using rotary
Property II: The debris groups on different ferrograms can ferrography modeled KTP as shown in Fig. 3 has been used as
be regarded as the same debris group if three factors are fully an example to illustrate the determination of the minimum limit
satisfied: the ferrograms are made by the same type of of a debris group.
ferrographic instrument; the ferrograms are made with the
same oil sample and ferrogram making processes; and the
debris groups are in the same equal possibility depositing area. Inner ring
These two important properties of debris group bring us a
lot of convenience in auto-identification of debris and drawing Middle ring
out parameters of debris group characteristic.
When drawing out the parameters of debris group
Outer ring
characteristic of a certain debris group, all debris categories
included in this debris group must be identified and their
quantified characteristics should be measured. Some debris
categories can be identified by using one microscopic method,
such as optical microscopy, while other debris categories can be D
identified by using other microscopic methods, such as SEM
(scanning electron microscopy) and LSCM (laser scanning Fig. 3 Ferrogram made by using rotary ferrograph
confocal microscopy). For example, if a debris group which
includes some debris categories can not be identified by using In Fig. 3, a circular sector with central angle D can be
only one microscopic method, more than one microscopic formed by two radiuses from the center of the concentric rings.
methods must be used to draw out the parameters of debris When D=2S, the biggest debris group is defined. Since this
group characteristic. It is very difficult or even impossible in circular sector has included every kinds of equal possibility
some cases to locate the debris group at exactly the same spot depositing areas (spot with same distance to the center), a
when shifting from one microscopic method to another. practical debris group should be a circular sector with 0<D<2S.
According to the Property I of debris group, it only needs to It has been discovered in our practice that when the area of
locate the debris group in the same equal possibility depositing groups of wear particles are equal to or bigger than 105 Pm2 (this
area instead of at exactly the same spot. Although this also is exactly the area of a visual field under the magnifying power
requires technique, it is applicable. In this way, the various of 400× of a ferrographic microscope), the parameters of debris
debris categories included in that debris group can be identified group characteristic drawn out of these groups of wear particles
and the parameters of debris group characteristic of that debris tend to be stable. According to the property II of debris group,
group can be drawn out. any visual field with magnifying power less than 400× can also
And when analyzing oil sample containing metallic fully represent the area with equal depositing possibility on
nonferrous debris, magnetic fluid is used as a magnetization which it located. Forming one visual field on every spot of
agent to collect nonferrous debris in a stable depositing ratio. equal possibility depositing area, three families of visual field
But in order to avoid changing the deposition ratio of ferrous will be obtained. A debris group is thus defined by three
debris by magnetic fluid, two ferrograms are needed to make. envelopes of these three families of visual fields. This debris
One ferrogram (ferrogram A) is made directly without using group is composed of countless visual fields, although
magnetic fluid, while the other ferrogram (ferrogram B) is theoretically it is exactly the smallest debris group. The envelope
made by using magnetic fluid to magnetize the nonferrous of the visual field family on one ring is illustrated in Fig. 4.
debris after ferrous debris have been removed from the oil
sample by a magnet. In this way, the parameters of debris group Radius
characteristic including both ferrous and non-ferrous particles
can be drawn out from the ferrous debris group on ferrogram A Debris
and nonferrous debris group of ferrogram B. According to the deposition
Property II of debris group, as long as the three factors are fully ring
qualified, these two debris groups can be regarded as one debris
group. The parameters of debris group characteristic drawn out
Family of
from these two ferrograms (ferrogram A and B) can be regarded
visual field
as coming from one debris group.
HOW TO DETERMINE A PRACTICABLE DEBRIS Fig. 4 The envelope of visual fields family on one ring
GROUP In actual practice, two simplifications can be made to decrease
A debris group is a group of wear debris which embodies the visual fields needed for observing.
363
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(1) As shown in Fig. 4, there are many overlapping parts in debris group.
the adjacent visual fields of the family of visual field on every The simplified debris group is mostly used in routine wear
deposition ring, which introduces a lot of repeated analysis condition monitoring. It has been proved in practice that the
work. To avoid the repetitious work, the visual fields can be accuracy of wear condition monitoring is not reduced while the
selected one by one to form a rectangle area as illustrated in Fig. efficiency is increased greatly through above simplifications.
5 (four visual fields form a rectangle area in one deposition
ring). Thus, the total number of visual fields to define a debris THE METHOD OF DEBRIS GROUP ANALYSIS
group is decreased to twelve, with every ring having four visual
The method of debris group analysis is a newly developed
fields.
method to conduct quantified qualitative ferrographic analysis.
Radius Based on the theory of debris group, it can be seen as a
comprehensive application of the theory of debris group. The
Debris procedure to conduct this method can be divided into the
deposition following three steps:
ring Visual field (1) Determine the suitable size of debris group. In this step,
it is recommended that in routine wear condition monitoring the
simplified debris group should be defined and in other cases the
debris group should be defined by the standard size. The
Rectangle area magnifying power of the ferrographic microscope should be
also taken into account to determine the suitable size of debris
group. In general, the magnifying power of 400× or 300× is
Fig. 5 The definition of a debris group preferred during wear particles observing.
(2) Constitute the parameters of debris group characteristic
(2) It has been found that the middle deposition ring almost according to the demands of ferrographic analysis. In this step,
has no value in conducting condition monitoring and fault several parameters of debris group should be constituted and
diagnosis. All information obtained from middle ring can also these parameters of debris group should meet the following
be obtained from the outer edge of inner deposition ring and the demands:
inner edge of outer deposition ring. So, the four visual fields ÚSince the parameters of debris group characteristic are
form a rectangle area in middle deposition ring can be rejected. quantified parameters used to express the debris group
Now, through above simplifications the smallest debris characteristic, they should be constituted by measurable
group is defined by eight visual fields from inner and outer physical factors of wear debris such as shape, size, color, and
deposition ring. This is the standard size of a practicable debris optical density etc.
group. The debris group defined by the wear debris in these ÚThe debris group can be determined by the parameters
eight visual fields is named as Standard Debris Group. The together or solely, and thereby distinguish one debris group
standard debris group can be further simplified in routine from others. This is to say, the debris group expressed by these
condition monitoring as follows: parameters of debris group characteristic which corresponds to
(1) It has been found that the outer deposition ring gives a certain wear condition, will not be confused with other debris
useful information only when special wear types occurred, such groups which correspond to other wear conditions. With this
as corrosive wear. Such information can also be obtained from restriction, it is ensured that one kind of debris group
inner deposition ring although it is not as obvious and accurate corresponds to just one kind of wear condition.
as that of outer deposition ring. It is no use to conduct debris ÚSince the debris groups can have various sizes, to ensure
group analysis including the outer ring every time because these the constituted parameters of debris group characteristic can be
special cases do not often occur after all. The debris group used in all debris groups, they must be normalized to relative
analysis of outer deposition ring is necessary only when there parameters, such as percentage. This will also bring us great
are some reflections of these kinds of wear in inner deposition convenience to popularize the results or make comparisons.
ring. The debris group can be objectively regarded as a group of
(2) It is well known that the most important thing in debris organized in certain pattern. Drawing out the parameters
conducting wear condition monitoring and fault diagnosis is the of debris group characteristic can be seen as to analyze the
continued sampling of wear systems and comparing. When a individual characteristics of all debris included in the debris
system is operating normally, the generated amount of rubbing group and then synthesize them to get overall results. The
wear debris is fairly constant. When the system enters into an mathematical tools applied in this process should have the
abnormal wear mode the quantity and size of wear debris functions not only to analyze the individual characteristics with
increasing noticeably. In general, the wear system remains on an acceptable reliability, but also to synthesize the overall
normal wear condition for a long period of time, and the debris results from individual characteristics. The Mathematical
group characteristics of the samples obtained in this period are Statistics seems qualified to solve this problem. Furthermore,
almost unchanged during that time. There is no need to conduct since there are many uncontrollable factors which will bring
debris group analysis of the whole debris group for those about random error in our analysis process, it will be an
normal samples. It is recommended that the debris group in important part in our analysis to effectively control the random
routine condition monitoring after the running-in finished is errors. The theory and method of random error analysis in
defined by 1~2 visual fields, and one of them must be located at Mathematical Statistics provide us with useful means to
the spot where the biggest depositing ratio occurs (namely the improve our constituting and drawing out of parameters of
innermost edge of the inner deposition ring) to ensure debris group characteristic.
representativeness. These 1~2 visual fields defined an (3) Select suitable mathematical tools to establish the
incomplete debris group are called Simplified Debris Group. relationship between the parameters of debris group
The debris group analysis of whole debris group is necessary characteristic and the wear condition. In the process to conduct
only when abnormal information is obtained from the simplified machine condition monitoring by using ferrography, there are
364
The Theory of Debris Group in Ferrographic Analysis
many fuzzy characteristics, such as the wear condition which is fuzzy decision-making in Fuzzy Mathematics can be employed
usually marked as “normal”, “caution” and “danger”; and the to conduct wear condition monitoring and fault diagnosis.
number of debris which is usually measured as “dense”, “much”,
“less” and “little” etc.. The most important is that the change of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
wear condition is a gradual process with obvious intermediary
This project is supported by the National Natural Science
characteristics, and it is also a process with outstanding fuzzy
Foundation of China (No. 50802111) and part by Natural
characteristics. To solve this problem with fuzzy factors and
Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province of China (No.
intermediary characteristics, the method of Fuzzy Mathematics
BK2008130).
seems to be suitable. It has been proved in our practice that the
methods of fuzzy decision-making and opinion concentration in
Fuzzy Mathematics give us powerful means to conduct wear REFERENCES
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Statistics provide us useful means to draw out the parameters of
system in ferrographic analysis,” Wear, 222, pp.1-20.
debris group characteristic And as the change of wear
condition in a machine is a gradual process, the methods of
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The method of employing magnetic fluids as a 2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
magnetization agent to collect nonferrous wear debris in
ferrography has been attempted. The magnetic fluid constituted 2.1 THE PREPARATION OF MAGNETIC FLUID
Fe3O4 magnetic particles has been prepared using a
precipitation reaction. Tetrachloroethylene is used as a carrier Magnetic fluid is a stable colloidal solution of subdomain
liquid which is convenient for mixing with lubricating oil. magnetic particles approximately 10 nm in size coated with a
Oleic acid is used as a surfactant which enables magnetic stabilizing surfactant or dispersing reagent which is then
particles to adhere to the surface of nonferrous wear debris. dispersed into carrier liquid[3]. Such solutions having both fluid
Then the nonferrous wear debris was magnetized and and magnetic properties have lead to numerous industrial
deposited on ferrogram with stable depositing ratio. With the applications[4]. The magnetite was used as the magnetic
help of magnetic fluids, the ferrographic analyst would achieve particle of the magnetic fluid in this experiment, it was
the operating condition of the machine more accurately. prepared using the usual precipitation reaction that occurs upon
Keywords: ferrography, nonferrous debris, magnetic fluid, mixing FeCl2 and FeCl3 in an alkaline medium(sodium
magnetization hydroxide). The chemical formula for the action is
Fe2++2Fe3++8OH–ψFe3O4+4H2O. Surfactant Oleic acid was
1 INTRODUCTION
used to prevent magnetite particle from coagulation. Being
The ferrography technology is a valuable method used to dried, the magnetite was dispersed into carrier liquid
determine both the quantity and quality of wear debris Tetrachloroethylene and the magnetic fluid was synthesized.
contained in lubricating media[1]. Since ferrography is a kind of
oil analysis technology which separates wear debris from a
lubricant by magnetic force, due to the magnetic field, the 2.2 WEAR TEST AND FERROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
ferrous debris align themselves in chains along the length of
The procedure of wear test and ferrographic analysis
the slide with the largest particles being deposited at the entry
experiments is shown in Fig. 1. Lubricated and room
point in analysis ferrograph (for rotary ferrograph, the center of
temperature wear tests of copper block on steel ring are
the ferrogram is taken as the entry point, the outer edge of the
performed to generate wear debris on MM200 wear test
ferrogram is taken as the exit point)[2]. Nonferrous debris,
machine, the used oil is collected to harvest wear debris for the
unaffected by the magnetic field, are randomly deposited on
ferrographic analysis. The wear debris contained in the oil
the ferrogram either by the pull of their gravity for some large
sample were deposited on ferrograms using rotary ferrograph
debris or by the weak magnetism for the debris embedded with
instrument modeled KTP. After debris deposition, each slide
small ferrous particles. If nonferrous debris can’t be deposited
was washed with acetone to remove excess oil and hold debris
or deposited on ferrogram randomly, it will be difficult for
in position. In this process, ferrogram A was made without
analysts to find them and conduct reasonable analysis. In order
using magnetic fluid while ferrogram B was made using
to collect wear debris of nonferrous metal material more
magnetic fluid. The ferrograms were later examined using
effectively and deposit them on ferrogram in stable depositing
optical microscope with bichromatic light. Then their images
ratio, these nonferrous debris must be made magnetic. In this
are captured by a high resolution CCD camera and transferred
work, the method of employing magnetic fluids as a
to a computer for image processing and analysis.
magnetization agent has been attempted.
REFERENCES
[1] Cheng Jian, Yang Zhiyi, 1998, “Fuzzy synthetic
decision-making system in ferrographic analysis”, Wear,
222, pp.1-20.
[2] Anderson DW,1982, “Wear particle atlas (revised)”. Naval
Air Eng. Center Report, No. NAEC-92-163.
[3] Liu Tonggang, Yang Zhiyi, 2007, “Investigation on
synthesis of magnetic fluids containing carbon-coated iron
nanoparticles”, Proceedings of MNC2007, pp. 977-980.
[4] Berkovsky, B.M., Medvedev V.F., Krakov, M. S., 1993,
Magnetic Fluids Engineering Applications, Oxford
Fig. 3 Image of ferrogram B using magnetic fluid University Press, Oxford.
367
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Extended Abstract sample was 40 mm× 30 mm×6 mm. The diameter of the
The cavitation-erosion is induced by the collapse of bubbles rotating-disk was 300 mm. 4 samples were fixed on the
in the water. In the cavitation-erosion of hydro-machinery, it is rotating-disk and they were equispaced. In order to produce
generally accepted that the collapse of bubbles in water is enough bubbles in close proximity to sample surface, the
attributed to the sharp rise of the pressure induced by the height of the samples was 1 mm out of the disk surface. The
fluctuation of the fluid. However, it is proposed in this research rotating speed of the disk was 2800 r/min in the experiments
that the collapse of bubbles is attributed to the interaction and consequently the central velocity of the samples was 30
between micro-particles and bubbles in fluid. The cavitation m/s. The temperature of the water in the experiments was kept
-erosion experiments conducted in a rotating-disc flow shows at room temperature by the low temperature circulation water
that the most of micro-particles suspended in the water were tank.
damaged by the collapse of bubbles after cavitation-erosion,
and played indispensable roles to induce the collapse of 3 Experiment result
bubbles in the fluid. In the experiments, damage of the micro 3.1 Damage of micro-particles induced by bubble collapse.
particles was evaluated by a transimission electron microscope In order to investigate the action of bubble collapse on micro-
(TEM) and the collapse of bubbles was estimated by the particles during cavitation-erosion, single crystal SiC micro-
erosion pits on the solid surface. particles with diameter between 0.5 and 4 μm were applied and
Keywords: collapse of bubbles, cavitation-erosion, particles. suspended in the de-ionized water. Microstructure and
composition of SiC particles were analyzed with a high
1 Introduction resolution transimission electron microscope (HRTEM, Philips
Cavitational activity in close proximity to solid boundaries TECNAI-20) and an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS,
is known to lead to material damage, which called as cavitation EDAX Phoenix) respectively, and the result was shown in Fig.
-erosion. Cavitation-erosion is the main cause of damages in 1. Before the test, almost every particle was a single crystal
hydraulic machinery, such as the water-turbine generator sets, with smooth and sharp edges, shown as Fig. 1 a, and it was
the marine propellers, and so on. The generation of well crystallized, shown as Fig. 1 b. After 15 minutes testing in
cavitation-erosion involves bubbles or cavities generation, the experiment, the lattices of about 40% micro-particles were
collapse of bubbles and material damage induced by the damaged and a typical microstructure was shown as Fig. 1 d.
micro-jets and shockwaves [1-4]. Cavitation-erosion can be The figure clearly shows wavelike contours composing of a
induced by an acoustic field and a fluid flow field. However, series of ridges and troughs paralleling each other in some
they are different in the mechanism on generation of cavities places. An enlarged dislocated area was shown as Fig.1 e.
and collapse of bubbles. In fluid field, when a volume of liquid From the figure, dislocations always agglomerated in the
is subjected to a sufficiently low pressure it may rupture and troughs and happened along the direction of troughs. Each
form a cavity with a relatively low gas pressure. Such a low dislocation corresponded to a distortion area around. Therefore,
pressure cavitation bubble in a liquid will begin to collapse due from the high density dislocations in the figure, the lattices in
to the higher pressure of the surrounding medium. [1-2] In SiC particles were distorted sufficiently after the test. However,
acoustic field, microscopic gas bubbles which are present in a SiC usually is brittle and has poor deformability with few
liquid will be forced to oscillate due to an applied acoustic dislocations. When the bubble collapse appears, the pressure
field. If the acoustic intensity is sufficiently high, the bubbles may be several hundred atmospheres at its point. Therefore,
will first grow in size, and then rapidly collapse. Because the this experiment result should be attributed the very powerful
acoustic cavitation is more controllable, it has been applied to attack induced by the bubble collapse for a short duration.
investigate phenomena in cavitation, and the total process of Composition analysis of SiC before and after the test also
cavitation in acoustic field has been observed and proved by had been done by EDS, as shown in Fig. 1 c and f respectively.
experiments. [3-4] However, there is no experiment which Compared with the spectrum of the particle before the test,
directly proves the above process of the cavitation in a fluid there was an oxygen peak after the test, showing the particle
flow field. was oxygenated. The atoms might enter into the greatly
In order for cavitation inception to occur, the cavitation distorted lattice of SiC or exist in some silicon oxide
"bubbles" generally need a surface on which they can nucleate. transformed from silicon carbide. But the above two processes
This surface can be provided by impurities in the liquid or by hardly occurred at room temperature because of the quite high
small undissolved microbubble within the liquid. [5-8] In our thermodynamic stability of SiC. The previous studies showed
study, the cavitation in a flow field has been investigated. The that at the point of total bubble collapse, the temperature of the
kelvin
investigation focused on the interaction between micro vapor within the bubble may be several thousand .
-particles and bubbles in the cavitation. Therefore, the oxidation of SiC particles should be induced by
the bubble collapse.
2 Experiment
3.2 Effect of micro-particles on bubble collapse. In order to
The purpose of the experiments was to find out the interation study the effect of the particles on the bubble collapse,
between the micro-particles and bubbles in the cavitation- de-ionized water added with particles was used in the
erosion of hydro-machinery. In the experiement, a typical experiments. Cavitation-erosion on the disk surface was
rotating-disk testing machine was employed. The material of applied to evaluate the bubble collapse. The particles were
the samples used in the experiments was Q235 steel without made of CeO2 with different nominal diameter, such as 1.2 μm
heat treatment. The surface of the sample had been grinded and and 1.8 μm. Some pictures of the particles observed by SEM
the average roughness was 0.7-0.8 μm. The size of each are shown in Figure 2. The concentration of the particles was 1
*email: jdwang@tsinghua.edu.cn
368
Interaction between Micro-Particales and Bubbles in Cavitation-Erosion of Hydro-Machinery
kg/m3. The running time is 10 min respectively. The induced by the micro-particles in the water. To valudate this
experiment results show that the micro-particles had idea, bubbles were introduced directly below the disk in the
remarkable effect on the generation of the erosion pits, shown de-ionized water. The result showed there was no erosion on
as Fig. 2 (b) and (c). However, there was no erosion pits on the the disk yet. Therefore, the above concept should be doubted.
disk when only de-ionized water was employed, shown as Fig. A reasonable explanation may be that the micro-particles were
2 (a). This result is generally attributed to more bubbles a key role to induce the bubble collapse.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 1 TEM and EDS images of SiC particles. (a-c) Morphology, lattice image, and EDS analysis of the SiC particle before the test. (d) Lattice image
of the SiC particle after the test. (e) Enlargement of the boxed area in Fig. 1 d. (f) EDS analysis of the wavelike contours in Fig. 1 d
a b c
Fig. 2 Cavitation-erosion results on the disk surfaces in (a) de-ionized water, (b) de-ionized water suspended 1.2 μm particles and (c) de-ionized water
suspended 1.8 μm particles
369
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Extended Abstract
370
Magnetization of Friction Surfaces and Wear Particles under Tribological Processes
371
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
*
Xie L.-J. 1 , Schmidt C. 2, Biesinger F. 3, Schmidt J. 2, Pang S.-Q. 1
1
School of Mechanical and Vehicular Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
2
Institut für Produktionstechnik (wbk), Universität Karlsruhe(TH), Germany
3
Institut für Werkstoffkunde I, Universität Karlsruhe(TH), Germany
the future FEM will become an effective tool for the tool wear V T , H V 0 ¨¨1 ¨¨ ¸¸ ¸¸ (1)
study and partly take the place of experimental methods. © T ¹ ¹
© 0
The realization of tool wear estimation with FDM or FEM is 'G0
based on wear mathematical models. Except for with T 0 , where m=1.78, n=0.53, 'G0 0.58ev ,
H
semi-empirical tool wear models such as Taylor’s tool life kIn ( pl0 )
equation, there are other types of wear models, such as E. H
H0 7.29 u 105 s 1 , and V 0 1352 MPa . k is Boltzmann
*email: rita_xie2004@163.com
372
Wear Progress Prediction of Carbide Tool in Turning of AISI1045 by Using FEM
373
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
0.06
where w is the displacement vector of the tool face node due 0.1
to wear, i the nodal label, j the calculation cycle number. In 0.04
374
Wear Progress Prediction of Carbide Tool in Turning of AISI1045 by Using FEM
[4] HSK Inc., 2001, ABAQUS Scripting Manual Version 6.2, [8] HSK Inc., 2001, ABAQUS/Standard User’s Manual Version
U.S.A. 6.2, U.S.A.
[5] Schulze V, Vöhringer O., 2000, “Influence of alloying [9] Kitagawa, T., Maekawa, K., Shirakashi, T. and Usui, E.,
elements on the strain rate and temperature dependence of 1988, “Analytical prediction of flank wear of carbide tools
the flow stress of steels”, Metallurgical and Materials in turning plain carbon steels, part 1: characteristic equation
Transactions A, 31A. of flank wear”, Bull. Japan Soc. of Prec. Engg, 22 (4),
[6] HSK Inc., 2001, ABAQUS/Explicit User’s Manual Version pp.263-269.
6.2, U.S.A. [10] Schmidt, C., 2002, “Development of a FEM-based tool
[7] Xie, L. J., 2003, Estimation of two-dimension tool wear wear model to estimate tool wear and tool life in metal
based on finite element method, Dissertation, Universität cutting”, Diplomarbeit, Universität Karlsruhe (TH).
Karlsruhe (TH).
375
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Friction and Wear Properties of Fe7Mo6-Based Alloy under the Lubrication of Ethyl-Alcohol
T. Murakami/AIST, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8564, Japan H. Mano/ AIST, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8564, Japan
Y. Hibi/ AIST, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8564, Japan S. Sasaki/Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo 102-0073,
Japan
(Extended Abstract)
376
Friction and Wear Properties of Fe7Mo6-Based Alloy under the Lubrication of Ethyl-Alcohol
0.026 μm for the Fe7Mo6-based alloy, 0.010 μm for Fe and disk specimens were reduced to 0.3 2.4 ks after starting their
0.021 μm for Mo disk specimens. The true Knoop hardness of friction tests. This result might have been due to the formation
the disk specimens was 8.11 GPa for the Fe7Mo6-based alloy, of low friction Fe-Mo alloy.
0.87 GPa for Fe and 2.59 GPa for Mo. The friction and wear Figure 4 shows the wear rates of the disk specimens and
properties of each disk specimen were investigated using a their paired ASTM 52100 steel ball specimens. It was found
reciprocating Optimol SRV tribometer against ASTM 52100 that the Fe7Mo6-based alloy disk specimens exhibited lower
steel balls with a diameter of 10 mm, the hardness of 7.1–8.8 wear rates than the Fe and Mo disk specimens.
GPa and the surface roughness of 0.05 μmRa. In each friction We will explain the results of the SEM, EDS and XPS
test, the paired steel ball was oscillated on the disk specimen at analyses of each specimen in this presentation.
a frequency of 10 Hz, an applied load of 10 N and a stroke
length of 1 mm, at 298 K, for 3.6 ks. The temperature was
measured using a thermocouple just under the surface of the
disk specimen stage as shown in Fig. 1, and the temperature
was controlled using a temperature-controller. In addition, the
purity of the ethyl-alcohol prepared in this study was 99.5
volume percent.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the friction and wear properties of Fe-Mo
type alloy disk specimens were investigated against ASTM
52100 steel balls under the lubrication of ethyl-alcohol using a
Fig. 3 Friction coefficients of Fe7Mo6-based alloy, Fe and
reciprocating Optimol SRV tribometer. The results obtained in
Mo disk specimens
this study were shown as follows.
After the friction tests, all of the disk specimens and their
1. Fe7Mo6-based alloy disk specimens with a composition of
paired balls were cleaned in a mixture of 50vol% acetone and
Fe-42at% Mo exhibited more stable and lower friction
50vol% petroleum benzene using an ultrasonic cleaner for 1.2
coefficients than Fe and Mo disk specimens.
ks. Then the wear volume of each disk and ball specimen was
2. The friction coefficients of Mo disk specimens rapidly
evaluated using a surface profilometer and an optical
increased 1.8 ks after starting their friction tests. Then, the
microscope, respectively. The wear rates were obtained by
friction coefficients of Mo disk specimens were rapidly
dividing the wear volume by the load and the total sliding
reduced 2.4 ks after starting their friction tests.
distance. In addition, the surface microstructures of the wear
tracks of each disk specimen and its paired ball were
investigated using a JSM-7400F scanning electron microscope
(SEM) with an energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) REFERENCES
attachment and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). [1] Murakami, T., Kaneda, K., Nakano, M., Mano, H.,
Korenaga, A., Sasaki, S., 2007, “Friction and wear
properties of Fe-Mo intermetallic compounds under oil
RESULTS lubrication,” Intermetallics, 15, pp.1573-1581.
[2] Murakami, T., Kaneda, K., Nakano, M., Korenaga, A.,
Figure 3 shows the friction coefficients of each disk
Mano, H., Sasaki, S., “Tribological properties of
specimen. The friction coefficients of the Fe7Mo6-based alloy
Fe7Mo6-based alloy under two ionic liquid lubrications,”
disk specimens were between 0.3 and 0.4, which were much
Tribology International, in press.
lower than the friction coefficients of the Fe disk specimens.
[3] Wang, H.Z., Lu, Q.M., Ye, C.F., Liu, W.M., Cui, Z.J., 2004,
The Mo disk specimens exhibited the friction coefficients as
“Friction and wear behavior of ionic liquid
low as the Fe7Mo6-based alloy disk specimens in the early
alkylimidazolium hexafluorophosphates as lubricants for
stage of the friction test. However, the friction coefficients of
steel/steel contact,” Wear, 256, pp.44-48.
the Mo disk specimens rapidly increased 1.8 ks after starting
[4] Guillermet, A.F., 1996, in Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams,
their friction tests. This result would have been because the
Second Edition Plus Updates on CD-ROM, eds by
low friction MoO3 films were mostly removed from the Mo
Massalski, T.B. et al., ASM international.
disk specimens. Moreover, the friction coefficients of the Mo
377
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Seizure of PEEK and Its Composite at High Sliding Velocity in Oil Lubrication
*
T. Akagaki1, , M. Kawabata2
1
Hachinohe National College of Technology (Inooka 16-1, Tamonoki, Hachinohe, Aomori 039-1192, Japan)
2
Tribotex Inc. (Yamguchi 45-7, Nagakusacho, Obu, Aichi 474-0052, Japan)
INTRODUCTION
Thermo-couple
Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) is a high performance Drain
thermoplastic polymer. PEEK has some excellent properties
such as high strength, high toughness, heat resistance, thermal
stability, easy processing and chemical inertness [1]. PEEK has
also superior tribological properties as well as poly–tetra Fig.1 Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus
-fluoro-ethylene (PTFE). Recently, PEEK composite thrust
bearing has been developed and operated under oil lubricated
condition in hydroelectric power station [2]. Table 1 Properties of testing materials
A large number of papers on the tribological properties of Material Hardness Ra (m)
PEEK material have been published [3-5]. Most of the studies Ring SF540A HV189 0.15±0.06
on the friction and wear behavior of PEEK materials have been WJ2 HV26 0.14±0.08
conducted under un-lubricated condition. However, there have Block PEEK HRR126 0.23±0.08
been little works on the seizure behavior and wear mechanism PEEK Comp. HRR124 0.18±0.02
of PEEK material at high sliding velocity in oil lubrication [6-7].
In order to enlarge the application field of PEEK materials in Table 2 Experimental conditions
practice and to establish the maintenance guidelines of machine
Sliding velocity 19.0 (m/s)
elements such as PEEK composite bearing, it is essential to
understand the seizure behavior of PEEK material in oil (1) Increasing load :
lubrication. Load Increase up to 1177N at 1N/s
In this study, the seizure behaviors of PEEK and its (2) Constant load: 294, 588, 883,1177 N
composite were studied under severe lubricated condition such Test duration ̚ 30 min. under constant load
as high load and high sliding velocity in oil lubrication and Non-additive turbine oil (ISO VG46),
compared with that in a conventional bearing metal (WJ2). The Lubricant Flow rate: 65cc/min.
Oil temperature: 30±3ć
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
378
Seizure of PEEK and Its Composite at High Sliding Velocity in Oil Lubrication
Friction coefficient
temperature of oil supplied was kept at 30±3ć with a controller. 19.0 m/s, Oil lub.
coefficient is small and constant. In WJ2, when exceeding the 19.0 m/s, Oil lub.
load of ~800N, the increasing rate of the ring temperature
becomes higher due to seizure. The friction coefficient shown in 0.04
Fig.2 was plotted in relation to the ring temperature shown in
Fig.3. The obtained result is shown in Fig.4. In the PEEK
materials, although the ring temperature increases up to ~100ć 0.02
or so, friction coefficient is small and stable. This is probably
because the PEEK materials don’t soften and severe plastic
deformation doesn’t occur, as the ring temperature is smaller 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
than the glass transition temperature of 143ć. Further, the Ring temperatureˈć
contact between the polymer and metal is often predominantly
elastic and then thin EHL film might be formed effectively. Fig.4 Relationship between friction coefficient and ring
Thus low friction might be maintained in the PEEK materials. temperature in the test under increasing load and sliding
In WJ2, however, seizure occurs when the ring temperature velocity of 19m/s
exceeds ~80ć or so. A large amount of transfer deposits from
the block was commonly observed on the ring surface in seizure SEIZURE TEST UNDER CONSTANT LOAD
of WJ2. It is considered that transfer easily occurs in Fig.5 shows the relationship between the friction coefficient
metal-metal combination when oil film becomes thin at high and the run time obtained in the test under the constant load of
temperature and leads to seizure. 883N and the sliding velocity of 19m/s. As the applied load for
Thus seizure load for the PEEK materials couldn’t be WJ2 is a little higher than the seizure load obtained in the
determined by the increasing load test up to 1177N. increasing load test, seizure occurs soon after the test starts.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Although the applied load for the PEEK materials is smaller in the unfilled PEEK. This might be because carbon fiber filler
than the maximum value in the increasing load test, seizure is resistant to the plastic deformation and flow. When the
occurs in both PEEK and PEEK composite after sliding for a applied load was small and the ring temperature became
long time. The run time of the PEEK composite required for the constant at lower value less than ~100ć, seizure didn’t occur.
transition to seizure is longer than that in the PEEK. Thus it is said that the seizure behavior is sensitive to the
temperature.
0.10
EFFECTS OF OIL FLOW RATE ON SEIZURE
WJ2
PEEK As described in the previous chapter, the seizure behavior
0.08 PEEK Comp. was very sensitive to the temperature. Therefore, it is expected
Friction coefficient
19.0 m/s, 883N that the flow rate of oil plays an important role in seizure
0.06 behavior. In order to confirm this idea, the flow rate of oil was
varied in the range from 0 to 65cc/min. The flow rate of 0cc/min
means that the oil is supplied at 65cc/min before the test and
0.04
then the oil supply is stopped immediately after the start of the
test. The experiment was conducted under the lower load of
0.02 588N and the sliding velocity of 19m/s. Fig.7 shows the
relationship between the friction coefficient and the run time.
0 Fig.8 shows the relationship between the ring temperature and
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 the run time. At the flow rate of 0cc/min, friction coefficient
Run time , sec increases rapidly after the start of the test as well as the ring
Fig.5 Relationship between friction coefficient and run time in temperature. This behavior is almost the same as dry friction.
the test under constant load of 883N and sliding velocity of Above the flow rate of 21.5cc/min, friction coefficient is small
19m/s
and constant. The ring temperature is also constant at ~85ć or
so. Thus the friction behaviors of the PEEK composite are
strongly dependent on the flow rate of oil. This is because the
0.10 flow rate strongly affects the ring temperature. Whenever the
WJ2 temperature is constant and small, low friction is maintained. At
PEEK the flow rate of 6.5cc/min, seizure occurs after sliding for a long
0.08 PEEK Comp.
time. This is the similar trend to Fig.5. The ring temperature
Friction coefficient
0.04 0.08
0 cc/min.
6.5 cc/min.
0.02 21.5 cc/min.
0.06 64.5 cc/min.
Friction coefficient
380
Seizure of PEEK and Its Composite at High Sliding Velocity in Oil Lubrication
films from PEEK material, as shown in Fig.10 (e) and (f). These
220
0 cc/min.
transfer films consists of parallel band-like deposits. They are
200
180
6.5 cc/min. less than ~4m in thickness. These SEM observation results
Ring temperature, ć
21.5 cc/min.
160 64.5 cc/min. suggest that the surface temperature is very high and the
140
19.0 m/s, 588N softening and partial melting of the layers occur in seizure. Thus,
PEEK Comp.
120 it is concluded that seizure in the PEEK composite causes
100 severe plastic flow and tearing fracture of PEEK material due to
80 thermal softening and partial melting at high temperature.
60
40
20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Run time , sec
0.12
0 cc/min.
0.10 6.5 cc/min.
21.5 cc/min.
64.5 cc/min.
Friction coefficient
0.04
0.02
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Ring temperature , ć
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Seizure of PEEK and Its Composite at High Sliding Velocity in Oil Lubrication
REFERENCES
[1] Japanese Society of Tribologists, 1991, Tribology of New
Materials, Yokendo Press, Tokyo.
[2] Y.Matsueda, M.Tomizawa, T.Ochiai, Y.Tamiya, H.goto,
2000, “The latest technology in hydraulic turbine generator
/ motor generator,” Mitsubishi-electric co. technical report,
(d) Carbon fiber debris. 11, pp.6-10.
[3] Z.P.Lu, K.Friedrich, 1995, “On sliding friction and wear of
Fig.11 SEM micrographs of wear debris generated in seizure of PEEK and its composite,” Wear, 181-183, pp.624-631.
PEEK composite under the constant load of 1177N and sliding [4] J.Hanchi, N.S.Eiss,Jr, 1997, “Dry sliding friction and wear
velocity of 19m/s of short carbon-fiber-reinforced polyetheretherketone at
elevated temperatures,” Wear, 203-203, pp.380-386.
CONCLUSIONS [5] Q-J. Xue, Q-H. Wang, “Wear mechanisms of
(1) The friction behavior in PEEK materials was strongly poly-ether-ether-ketone composite filled with various kinds
dependent on the ring temperature. of SiC,” Wear, 213, pp.54-58.
(2) The transition process to seizure in the PEEK materials [6] T.Akagaki, M.Kawabata, K.Kato, 2002, “Evaluation of wear
could be roughly divided into three periods depending on the condition of PEEK composite bearing using wear debris
ring temperature. Until ~100ć, low friction was maintained. analysis,” Proceedings of Int. Conf. on HYDRO2002, Kiris,
Thereafter friction coefficient increased gradually with the Turkey, pp.61-68.
increase of the ring temperature. Finally seizure occurred when [7] T.Akagaki, T.Yamauch, M.Kawabata, 2006, “Mechanism of
the ring temperature exceeded ~130ć for the PEEK and at seizure of PEEK composite in lubricated sliding contact,”
~180ć for the PEEK composite. In contrast, WJ2 transited Proceedings of ASIATRIB 2006 KANAZAWA, JAPAN,
pp.709-710.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Zhiyong He*, Xiaofeng Wang, Ying Fan, Zhenxia Wang, Xiaoping Liu, Zhong Xu
Research Institute of surface Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030034, China
Extended Abstract
384
Tribological Behavior of Chromium Alloyed Layer Prepared on Surface of TiAl
385
Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, CHINA
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
386
Wear Characteristics under Boundary Lubrication Contacts in Phosphorated Starch Based Electrorheological Fluids
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS [3] Lingard, S., Bullough, W. A. and Ho, L. S., 1991,
Figure 2 shows a series of tests were performed with “Hydrodynamic pressure generation with an
different specimens to quantify the evolutionary nature of the electrorhelogical fluid”, Wear, Vol. 142, pp. 373-381.
wear rate. For all tests, a normal force of 66.6N was applied
and the test rotational speeds were 0.7m/s. By using the -3
1.6x10
different materials of pin, changes of wear rate were plotted in AL1050
terms of the sliding distance. The results shows that the wear C1220
rates are decreased with the increment of sliding distance with -3 S45C
REFERENCES
[1] Choi, S.B., Lee, H. G. and Chang, E. G., 2001, “Field test
results of a semi-ative ER suspension system associated
with skyhook controller” Mechatronics, 11(3), pp.
345-353.
[2] Wereley, N. and Pang, L., 1998 “Nondimensional analysis
of semi-active electrorheological dampers using
approximate plate models”, Smart materials & structures, Fig. 5 Morphology of wear surface by SEM
7(5), pp. 732-743.
387
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Abrasive Wear Mechanisms of Multi Component Ferrous Alloys Abraded by Soft, Fine Abrasive
Particles
2.00
wear mechanisms acting on actual rolls during hot strip rolling
by using a new, simple, fast, reliable and safe methodology. 1.50
Wear mechanisms acting for laboratory imposed conditions are
quite similar to those encountered in field examination of hot 1.00
rolling roll surfaces after hot rolling of plain carbon strips. The
0.50
tribological conditions produces, among other mechanisms,
abrasive wear, as indicated by fines scratches (smaller than 0.00
carbides) in the worn surfaces. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Although the influence of microstructure and abrasive Eutectic Carbide Volume Fraction (%)
nature on the micro-abrasion of multi-component ferrous
alloys have been recently investigated [5-6] some aspects are Fig. 1 Effect of eutectic carbide volume fraction and matrix
still to be elucidated, in particular the wear mechanisms micro hardness on the wear coefficient
produced by small, soft abrasive particles
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effect of micro The wear coefficient was not influenced by either the
structural parameters (eutectic carbides and matrix hardness) nature and amount of eutectic carbides or by the hardness of
the matrix. Matrix alloys (carbide free alloys) showed a
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
388
Abrasive Wear Mechanisms of Multi Component Ferrous Alloys Abraded by Soft, Fine Abrasive Particles
389
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The Analyzes of Mutual Influence of Contact Spots in Sliding Contact of a Periodic Surface and a
Viscoelastic Foundation
Lyubicheva A.N./Institute for Problems in Mechanics RAS, Russia, Moscow, Vernadskogo st., 101,1
(Extended Abstract)
390
The Analyzes of Mutual Influence of Contact Spots in Sliding Contact of a Periodic Surface and a Viscoelastic Foundation
391
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1. College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Daqing Petroleum Institute, Daqing, 163318, China.
2. State Key Laboratory of Materials-oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology,
Nanjing 210009, China
ABSTRACT and reinforcing effects [10-14]. Zhang et al. studied the effects
In this paper, the surface of nano-La2O3 and nano-TiO2 were of micro-rare earth on the friction and wear behavior of PTFE
modified by amino silane coupling agent (KH-550). The composites, and found 15%-20% micro-rare earth show good
tribological properties of PTFE composites filled with various wear-reducing properties [14]. Cheng’s team has systemic
amount of surface modified nano-La2O3 and nano-TiO2 under studied the effects of various fibers modified by rare earth
dry condition were investigated respectively. FT-IR analysis and element with Sol-gel method on the tribological behaviors of
mechanical tests were also used to see the different effects of PTFE composites [11]. They found that rare earth is effective in
nano-fillers. Meanwhile, some insights into the wear reducing the wear rate and friction coefficient of PTFE
mechanism of these PTFE nanocomposites were discussed composites. Dou et al. found that nano-rare earth is helpful to
based on the examination of the worn surfaces and transfer films. choke back the aggregation of nano-cupreous [15]. Nano-TiO2
Results indicate that modified nano-La2O3 and nano-TiO2 is widely used as enhancer for polymers in many fields.
can both decrease the wear rate and friction coefficient of PTFE However, until now, the information about the surface
remarkably, and nano-La2O3 is better than nano-TiO2. With modification of nano rare earth and the properties of nano-rare
5wt% nano-La2O3 filling, PTFE nanocomposites show the earth filled PTFE is much lacking. In this paper, the interest is to
lowest wear rate and friction coefficient, which increase pure see the different effects of nano-La2O3 and nano-TiO2 with
PTFE wear resistance 408 times, and the wear resistance is 12 surface modification on mechanical and tribological properties
times higher than that of 5% nano-TiO2 filled PTFE. The of PTFE nanocomposites. Also, mechanisms that contribute to
element of La in nano-La2O3 has a special electron structure the properties of PTFE nanocomposites are studied. The studies
(-4f0-14), which is chemical activity and better to the increase of are better to the development of high resistance polymer
tribological properties of PTFE filled with nano-La2O3. The nanocomposites.
bonding strength of matrix and filler of PTFE composites filled
with modified nano-La2O3 can be increased. A coherent and EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
smooth transfer film can be formed on the counterpart surface MATERIALS AND PREPARATION OF THE PTFE
when PTFE filled with modified nano-La2O3 was sliding in dry NANOCOMPOSITES
condition. PTFE powder of about 25m was supplied by Dupont.
Keywords: PTFE, nano-lanthanum oxide, nano-titanium Nano-Lanthanum Oxide (La2O3) of about 80nm was supplied
dioxide, tribological property by Jiang Fei Rare Earth Co., Ltd. Nano-TiO2 (70-90nm) was
supplied by Degussa. Coupling agent KH-550 were used and
INTRODUCTION the content was 1wt.% of nano-fillers. For the preparation of the
Improvements in properties of nanocomposites can be coupling solution, ethanol and deionized water and other
found, even at relatively low nano-filler content. Polymer reagents were of analytical grade. Put the cleaned nano-fillers
matrix nanocomposites have attracted considerable attention into prepared coupling solution, and magnetic stirring for 30
and interest worldwide during the last decade [1-5]. However, min. Then filtering and cleaning with acetone to no dissociative
owing to its peculiar small structure and higher surface energy, coupling agent. Modified nano-fillers powder was put into
nanoparticles often show easy aggregation trend and poor vacuum drying oven at 80°C for 6h. Fourier transform infrared
dispersion in polymer matrix. Moreover, the surface of most spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis was used to see the differences
inorganic nanoparticles is hydrophilic, while most polymers are between modified and unmodified nano-fillers. Nano-fillers and
hydrophobic. Antipathic and poor interaction between the PTFE powder were weighed as needed and blended fully. The
matrix and nanoparticles would appear. Therefore, surface mixture was compressed at 25°C, 70 MPa for 5 min. The
modification of nanoparticles is necessary to protect them samples were sintered to 380 °C and kept for 4 hours, then
against aggregation, increase the interaction between cooled at 40ć/hr to the room temperature.
nanoparticles and matrix, and improve the properties of MECHANICAL TESTS
nanocomposites [6-9]. The tensile tests were conducted on a Universal Tester
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is widely used as a kind of (Model CMT5254). The beam rate is 50 mm/min. The notched
special engineering plastic due to its self-lubricating capacity, Izod impact tests were performed on an impact test machine
high chemical inertness and excellent thermal stability. (Model XJJ-50). Notched impact strength, tensile strength was
However, poor wear resistance and severe creep deformation tested according to Chinese National Standard GB1043-93,
limit its wider use. Many researches have been conducted to GB1040-92 at room temperature respectively. Each value
improve the tribological performance of pure PTFE by adding obtained represented the average of five samples.
micron or nano size fillers [3-4]. FRICTION AND WEAR TESTS
There is a growing interest in studying the effects of rare The tribological tests were carried out by ring on ring
earth in polymers due to its easy processing, obvious function contact style in a MPX-2000 friction and wear tester. The
AISI1045 steel counter face (32 and 20 mm for external
wanghyjiji@163.com
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
and inner diameter) and the sample rings (26 and 22 mm
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Different Nano-Fillers on the Tribological Properties of PTFE Nanocomposites
for external and inner diameter) were polished to Ra = by filling modified nano-La2O3 and nano-TiO2. Nano-La2O3 is
0.15-0.3m and cleaned with acetone. Sliding was better than nano-TiO2 in increasing the wear resistance and
performed under ambient conditions (25°C, humidity: decreasing the friction coefficient of PTFE. With 5% percent
50±5%), time of 60 min, sliding velocity of 1.4 m/s, loads nano-La2O3 filling, PTFE nanocomposites show the lowest
wear rate and friction coefficient, which increase PTFE wear
of 100 N. Three replicated tests were carried out and the resistance 408 times, and is 12 times higher than that of 5%
average of three test results was reported. The worn nano-TiO2 filled PTFE. This outstanding property can be
surface and transfer behavior were investigated by a attributed to the unique electron structure of nano-rare earth,
QUANTA-200 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and coherent and smooth transfer film formed on the counterpart
optical microscope. surface.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Fig.3 The wear rate of nano-La2O3 and nano-TiO2 filled PTFE
The mechanical properties of PTFE nanocomposites filled
composites
with different nano-fillers are shown in the table.1. It can be
observed that nano-La2O3 after modification can increase
Treated nano-La2O3 can increase the mechanical properties
synchronously the tensile and notched impact strength of PTFE
of PTFE, and reduce the higher friction force of pure PTFE
nanocomposites. Modified nano-TiO2 increased slightly the
during sliding, which is caused by higher adhesive wear. It is
tensile strength, but decreased the notched impact strength of
reported that nanoparticles can act as nano-ball rolling effect on
PTFE nanoomposites. Compared with nano-TiO2, rare earth
the frictional surface which can effectively reduce the friction
element has a special electron structure (-4f0-14) which is
coefficient and wear rate of PTFE [17]. However, when the
chemical activity. Moreover, the diameter of La atom and the
content of nano-La2O3 is over 5%, the wear rate of PTFE
length of it’ covalent bond are longer than that of Ti atom. These
composites shows slightly increasing trend with the content
effects will improve the compatibility of nano-La2O3 and PTFE.
increasing. The reason may be that the size of nano-La2O3 is
The interaction leads to a strong covalent force on the interface
tiny, if the amount is excessive (e.g. more than 5%),
between nano-La2O3 and matrix, and therefore increases the
agglomeration, and poor dispersion in PTFE would take place
interfacial adhesion between nano-La2O3 and PTFE matrix.
which cause the properties degradation.
Table 1 The mechanical properties of PTFE nanocomposites
MORPHOLOGICAL EXAMINATION ON THE WORN
SURFACE AND TRANSFER FILM
To understand the effect of nano-fillers on the trobological
behaviors of PTFE nanocomposites, the worn surfaces of pure
PTFE and modified nano-fillers filled PTFE nanocomposite
were studied by SEM (Fig.4). Some obvious tearing phenomena
FRICTION AND WEAR PROPERTIES appear on the worn surface of unfilled PTFE. This indicates that
The tribological properties of PTFE composites filled with adhesion is the dominant wear mechanism of pure PTFE in this
different nano-fillers are shown in Fig.2-3. It can be seen that study, the same as Li reported [4]. In contrast, with nano-La2O3
the wear rate and friction coefficient of PTFE decreased greatly filled PTFE, the worn surface is quite smooth. Modified
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
nano-La2O3 can reinforce PTFE, and strengthened PTFE nano-La2O3 is better than nano-TiO2 in improving the
structure. These effects increase the supporting ability of PTFE tribological properties of PTFE.
and reduce real contact area during sliding, which reduces the (b) With 5% percent nano-La2O3 filling, PTFE nanocomposites
adhesive wear of PTFE. Therefore, the worn surface of PTFE show the lowest wear rate and friction coefficient, which
composites filled with nano-La2O3 is smooth as we can see. increase PTFE wear resistance more than 400 times, and the
However, from Fig.4(c) slight ploughing phenomena and wear resistance is 12 times higher than that of 5% nano-TiO2
abrasive dust can be seen on the worn surface, which leads to filled PTFE.
higher wear rate of 5%nano-TiO2 filled PTFE composites. (c) Nano-La2O3 strengthened the bonding between the transfer
film and the counterpart surface. A coherent and smooth
transfer film was formed on the counterpart surface when PTFE
filled with 5%modified nano-La2O3.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No.20676062) and National High-Tech Research
Fig.4 SEM micrographs of the worn surfaces (u400): (a) pure Development Program (2006AA03Z455).
PTFE; (b) with 5%nano-La2O3; (c) with 5%nano-TiO2
REFERENCES
The optical micrographs of the transfer film that formed on
the counterpart surfaces of PTFE nanocomposites are shown in [1] Jeffrey J., Karl I.J., Rina T., 2005, “Experimental trends in
Fig.5. It can be seen that the transfer film of pure PTFE is rare polymer nanocomposites—a review”, Mate. Sci. Eng. A.,
and incomplete. Lots of nicks on the counterpart surface before 393, pp. 1-11.
testing still can be seen. On the contrary, a coherent and smooth [2] Kuo M.C., Tsai C.M., Huang J.C., 2005, “PEEK composites
transfer film was gained for PTFE composite filled with treated reinforced by nano-sized SiO2 and Al2O3 particulates”,
nano-La2O3, which promised to provide an excellent anti-wear Mate. Chem. Phys., 90, pp. 185-195.
property for the PTFE composite [18]. Under friction heat [3] Khedkar J., Negulescu I., Meletis E.I., 2002, “Sliding wear
during sliding, nano-La2O3 on the worn surface can easily behavior of PTFE composites”, Wear, 252, pp. 361-369.
absorb trace water from the air, and chemical combination [4] Li F., Hu K.A., Li J.L., 2002, “The friction and wear
generated, which strengthened the bonding between the transfer characteristics of nanometer ZnO filled
film and the counterpart surface. The transfer film of treated polytetrafluoroethylene ”, Wear, 249, pp. 877-882.
nano-TiO2 filled PTFE composite is thick and slightly rough. It [5] Wetzel B., Haupert F., Zhang M.Q., 2003, “Epoxy
has been demonstrated that a coherent and smooth transfer film nanocomposites with high mechanical and tribological
is important to improve the wear resistance of polymer performance”, Comp. Sci. Tech. 63, pp. 2055-2067.
composites during sliding [18]. From above, these may be the [6] Chang J.H., An Y.U., 2002, “Nanocomposites of
main reasons for 5%nano-La2O3 filled PTFE composites has the polyurethane with various organoclays: Thermomechanical
best wear resistance and lowest friction coefficient. properties, morphology, and gas permeability ”, J. Poly. Sci.
B: Poly. Phys., 40, 7, pp. 670-677.
[7] Wu C.L., Zhang M.Q., Rong M.Z., 2002, “Tensile
performance improvement of low nanoparticles
filled-polypropylene composites”, Comp. Sci. Tech., 62, 10,
pp. 1327-1340.
[8] Laine R.M., Choi J., Lee I., 2001, “Organic-inorganic
nanocomposites with completely defined interfacial
interactions”, Adv. Mater., 13, pp. 800-803.
[9] Tania D., 2006, “Polymer-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles:
Surface Modification and End-Functionalization”, J.
Nanosci. Nanotech. 6, pp. 2479-2486.
[10] Liang C.J., Li W.L., Hong Z.R., 1997, “Energy transfer
process from polymer to rare earth complexes”, Synthetic
Metals, 91:151-155.
[11] Bao D.D., Cheng X.H., 2006, “Evaluation of tribological
performance of PTFE composites filled with rare earths
treated carbon fibers under water-lubricated condition”, J.
Rare. Earth., 24: 564-568.
[12] ZHAN Z.H., 2004, “Application and Prospect of RE
Materials in Plastic Products and Coatings”, Chinese Rare
Earths, 25, 6, pp.80-86.
Fig.5 Optical micrographs of counterpart surface (u200): (a) [13] Xu G.X., 1995, Rare Earth, Metallurgical Industry
before testing; (b) pure PTFE; (c) with 5%nano-La2O3; (d) with Publishing Company, Beijing.
5%nano-TiO2 [14] Zhang Zhao Zhu, Xue Qun Ji, Liu Wei Min, 1999, “Effect
of rare earth compounds as fillers on friction and wear
CONCLUSIONS behaviors of PTFE-based composites”, J. Appl. Poly. Sci.,
(a) Both modified nano-La2O3 and nano-TiO2 can greatly 72,3, pp.361-369.
decrease the wear rate and friction coefficient of PTFE, and
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Different Nano-Fillers on the Tribological Properties of PTFE Nanocomposites
[15] Dou L.X., Gong L.H., Shen J., 2003, “Restriction [17] Wang Q.H., Xue Q.J., Liu H.W., 1997, “The friction and
Mechanism of Nano Rare Earth Compounds to Aggregation wear properties of nanometer SiO2 filled PEEK ”, Tribology
of Ultra-fine Particles(Ċ)-Aggregation of Ultrafine Copper Internal, 30, 3, pp. 193-198.
Particles and Their Dispersion Analysis”, J. The Chinese [18] Bahadur S., 2000, “The development of transfer layer and
Rare Earth Soc., 21, pp. 71-76. their role in polymer tribology”, Wear, 245, pp. 92-99.
[16] L.H. Xue, Y.B. Sun, L.Y. Tie, Y. J. Lin, 1999, “Vibrational
Spectra of Hydrates and Carbonates of Hexagonal Rare
Earth Oxides”, Chinese Rare Earth Soc., 17, pp. 263-266.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Wang Jihui1, Gu Kali1, Yuan Chengqing2, Sun Xianming1, Hu Sheng1, Hu Xiaozhong1, Li Jian1*
ABSTRACT and heat. Any system component that comes into contact with
The aim of this work is to study the tribological properties hydrogen peroxide solution must be made of the materials
of the 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel (1Cr18Ni9Ti SS) in different compatible with hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, to prevent
concentrations of hydrogen peroxide. The passivation decomposition from occurring, 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS, as class 2
treatment of 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS was conducted at ambient material, must be thoroughly cleaned and passivated before
temperature for 6h in solution of up to 45 wt% nitric acid. The being placed in service, and it is a satisfactory material for
characterized techniques, including the electro-chemical hydrogen peroxide transfer pump or valve due to the excellent
measurement system (CS300) and X-ray photoelectron mechanical strength, machining ability and good
spectroscopy (PHI5702) were used to study the intercrystalline corrosion resistance.
electrochemical behavior and chemical composition of the The tribo-components used in hydrogen peroxide based
passive film on the 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS surface. The tribological propulsion system (e.g. turbo-pump bearing, seal and valve)
test of 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS/GCr15 steel rubbing pairs was carried need to operate at high speed, high load and in direct contact
out using a pin-on-disc tribometer. The friction coefficient and with hydrogen peroxide, making its early failure due to the
wear loss were collected and analyzed. TR240 profilometer, severe wear, which will produces a negative effect on the
automated 3D non-contact surface analysis (STIL) and reliability and durability of the rocket engine, and limit the
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were employed to reuse of the rocket engine seriously and increases launch cost.
measure and observe the surface morphology and Thus, it is urgent and important to realize the wear behavior and
microstructure on the worn surfaces of the tested samples. The failure mode of the various materials in high concentration of
results indicate that the corrosion resistance of nitric acid hydrogen peroxide solution.
passivated 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS increases significantly due to the Whether does the thin passive film, which forms on the
existence of passivation film which is mainly composed of 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS surface during passivation, render the surface
chromic oxide. Moreover, the 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS passivated with non-reactive to hydrogen peroxide and prevents the metal from
diluted nitric acid exhibits lower friction coefficient and higher decomposing the peroxide? Or improve the tribological
wear resistance than unpassivated one in hydrogen peroxide. It properties of the material in hydrogen peroxide solution?
is estimated that the main wear mechanism is a mixture of Moreover, whether will the worn surface, wear debris and
adhesive wear, abrasive wear and oxidation wear for the elevating temperature affect the stability of high concentration
passivated and unpassivated 1Cr18N9Ti SS in different hydrogen peroxide? The questions described above are still up
concentration of hydrogen peroxide. However, the adhesive in the air before a great amount of experiments were
wear experienced a large alleviation in 90% H2O2 compared conducted. Therefore, in order to better understand the
with other concentration. underlying mechanisms responsible for the wear behavior of
Keyword: 1Cr18Ni9Ti; Hydrogen Peroxide; Passive film; 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS in hydrogen peroxide solution and the role of
Corrosive wear the surface passive film in friction and wear processes, in the
present work, this study focused on the passivation treatment
of the 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS in nitric acid and wear of the
1 Introduction 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS with or without passivation treatment in
various concentration hydrogen peroxide. The passive film and
The major advantages of high concentration hydrogen worn surface of 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS were characterized by XPS,
peroxide as a rocket propellant are non-toxic, high density, SEM and 3D micro-measure.
storable, low vapor pressure and high specific heat. It
decomposes exothermically by the following equation
H2O2=H2O+1/2O2 (ƸHú=-98.2KJ/mol), making it an ideal 2 Experiment details
oxidizer for more environment-friendly propulsion system, so
recently it is receiving renewed interest and wide use as a 2.1 Materials
monopropellant or as the oxidizer for bipropellant systems[1-6].
Especially the combinations of hydrogen peroxide/kerosene The concentration of hydrogen peroxide used in this
(or alcohol) have become bipropellant of the most competitive study is 30%, 60% and 90% respectively, (SHANGHAI
power due to inherent safety, storability, and excellent HABO CHEMICAL Technology Co., Ltd). The 1Cr18Ni9Ti
operational efficiency [7-11]. stainless steel is manufactured to a plate with the size of
Since hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidizing agent and 50mm×8mm×8mm, whose surface roughness Ra is
easily subjected to vigorous decomposition in the presence of 0.5±0.05m. The couple is GCr15 with hardness of 60±1HRC
various organic compounds, transition metals, contamination and diameter of 8mm. The chemical composition and
mechanical properties of 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel is given in
table 1.
*Corresponding author˖E-mail address:lijianwuhan@tom.com
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Study on Surface Passivation Treatment and Tribological Properties of 1Cr18Ni9Ti Stainless Steel in Hydrogen Peroxide
Treatment
Parameter Degreasing and Cleaning Pickling Passivation propellant condition
ultrasonic cleanout HF HNO3 HNO3 H2O2
Solution / wt %
in acetone 3% 10% 45% 90%
Temperature/ ć Room temperature 16-28 16-28 Room temperature
Time 15min < 20 min 6h 6h
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
398
Study on Surface Passivation Treatment and Tribological Properties of 1Cr18Ni9Ti Stainless Steel in Hydrogen Peroxide
Therefore, the results show that chromium oxide is the from 20% to 35%. Meanwhile, the wear volume loss
main component in the passive film on stainless steel. Iron determined in different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide
oxide, hydrous iron or chromium oxides, and iron or for passivated or unpassivated stainless steel are higher than in
chromium hydroxide etc, are present in trace amounts in the deionized water. The wear loss firstly increases and then
passive film, which is in agreement with the previous study. decreases with the increase of the hydrogen peroxide
The high corrosion resistance is related to the high amount of concentration, as can be seen in Fig.4(a). The wear loss reach
chromium oxide on the surface. maximum value at the concentration of 60%. However, the
wear loss has a slight reduction when the concentration rises
3.4 Friction and wear behavior up to 90%. Base on these analyses, it can be found that the
passivated 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel offered a higher wear
The curve of friction coefficient for passivated and resistance compared with the unpassivated one in deionized
unpassivated 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS disk sliding against GCr15 ball water and different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide, and
in deionized water and various concentrations of hydrogen the wear occurred in hydrogen peroxide is more serious than in
peroxide is shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen that the average deionized water. It may be related with the strong oxidation of
friction coefficient of the passivated 1Cr18Ni9Ti in initial the hydrogen peroxide.
run-in stage in deionized water was about 0.4561, which is In addition, Fig. 4(b) gives the wear volume loss for
GCr15 ball under the same condition described above.
lower than that of the unpassivated stainless steel (approx.
Basically, it is observed that the variation of the wear volume
0.5967). Whereas, during the experiment phase of last 10 min,
loss for GCr15 ball is in agreement in 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless
the average friction coefficient for passivated and unpassivated steel disk in Fig.4 (a).
stainless steel in deionized water reached a similar value, both
of them were 0.5390 and 0.5543 respectively. In 30% and 60% 0.18
H2O2, the passivated stainless steel /GCr15 exhibited a Before passvation
0.16 After passvation
relatively lower average friction coefficient than unpassivated
0.14
one at entire experiment phase, i.e. the initial average value are
3
Wear volume loss / mm
0.6399 and 0.5903 in 30% and 60% H2O2, reduce 11.9% and 0.12
19.1% respectively in comparison with the unpassivated one. 0.10
However, the decrease extent becomes 27.6% in 30% H2O2 0.08
and 42.5% in 60% H2O2 during the late test period. Moreover,
0.06
the friction coefficient is almost same for passivated and
0.04
unpassivated stainless steel in 90% H2O2 (see fig. 3(d)). The
result showed that the friction coefficient for nitric acid 0.02
passivated specimen show a lower value than unpassivated one 0.00
H2O 30%H2O2 60%H2O2 90%H2O2
in deionized water and different concentrations of hydrogen
peroxide except the friction coefficient obtained in 90% H2O2 Concentration of Hydrogen Peroxide
is almost same.
(a) 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS
0.9
䩱࣪ 0.040
0.8 (d)
䩱࣪ Against disk unpassived
0.7 0.035
3
0.6
Friction coefficient
1.0
(c)
0.030
0.8
0.6 0.025
0.4
0.9 0.020
0.8 (b)
0.7 0.015
0.6
0.5
0.7 0.010
(a)
0.6
0.5
0.005
0.4
0.000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 H2O 30%H2O2 60%H2O2 90%H2O2
Time/s Concentration of Hydrogen Peroxide
Fig.3 The curves of friction coefficient for 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS (b) GCr15 ball
disk passivated and unpassivated Against GCr15 ball in (a)
deionized water (b) 30%H2O2 (c) 60%H2O2 (d) 90%H2O2 Fig. 4 The bar graph of the wear volume loss for passivated
and unpassivated 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS disk against GCr15 ball in
deionized water and hydrogen peroxide
The wear volume loss for the passivated and unpassivated
1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel disk in deionized water and 3.5 Wear mechanism
different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide is shown in
Fig.4. It can be seen that passivated stainless steel display a In general, the presence of oxide film on the clean steel
lower wear volume loss than unpassivated one in deionized surface can greatly reduce the adhesive degree of that surface.
water, 30%, 60% and 90% H2O2. The decrease amount ranges For example, according to Buckley [15-16] if one monolayer of
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
oxygen is adsorbed on a clean steel surface the adhesivity (or on the worn surface of the 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel whether
maximum tensile load of the contact) is reduced by a factor of undergoing passivation or not. It indicated that abrasive wear
4. In this study, the passive film formed on 1Cr18Ni9Ti SS is the dominant wear mode, and adhesive wear take a
surface which exposure to nitric acid is obviously different alleviation in 90% H2O2 compared with that in deionized water
from the air-formed passive film, the former mainly consisted or 30% hydrogen peroxide, analysis suggested that active
of Cr2O3, with some apparent characteristics, such as oxygen content in hydrogen peroxide was significantly
enrichment of oxygen, enrichment of chromium and limited improved with a increase of the concentration of hydrogen
iron. In addition, compared with the air-formed passive film on peroxide. It was presumed that oxidation reaction is faster than
stainless steel, the nitric acid passivated specimen have a the remove of the oxidation film formed on the stainless steel
thicker passive film which is more complete, compact and surface in 90% H2O2 during friction process. As a result,
uniform than air-formed film. Probably this will be responsible adhesive wear is alleviated in 90% H2O2 due to presence of the
for the significant difference on the tribological properties oxide film which can prevent the two metals from taking
between passivated and unpassivated stainless steel. adhesion.
The presence of the passive film changes the condition of
the contact surface between the 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel and
GCr15 ball, protecting the two metals from suffering adhesion (a)
due to the interaction of the metal atom, which can get a lower
friction and wear. Under boundary lubrication conditions,
Cr2O3 reacts with water and forms chromium hydrate
(Cr2O3·xH2O), which is a soft, easy to shear substance and acts
as a lubricant [17]. Hence, in Fig.3 and Fig. 4, it is found that
the friction coefficient and wear loss for passivated stainless
steel is lower than that of unpassivated one except the friction
coefficient is almost same in 90% H2O2.
Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidant, it was found that
the chemical environment offer a remarkable influence on the
friction and wear of the stainless steel. The passive film is easy
to be damaged due to the relative low thickness and poor (b)
bonding strength and forms the metal substrate mirco-area
during friction process, as a result, a large numbers of small
bubbles will be observed in the experiment due to the
decomposition reaction of hydrogen peroxide. The reaction
occurred in this process has been referred to as the
Iron-catalyzed Haber-Weiss reaction, which can accelerate the
decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide into oxygen.
Meanwhile ferric ion will react with oxygen generating ferric
oxide on metal surface. The Haber-Weiss reaction process was
described in detailed as follows:
Fe 2+ + H 2 O 2 Fe 3+ + HO + OH -
Fe 2+ + HO Fe 3+ + OH -
(c)
H 2 O 2 +HO HO 2 + H 2 O
Fe 2+ + HO 2 Fe 3+ + HO 2 -
Fe 3+ + HO 2 Fe 2+ + H + + O 2
Fe 3+ + HO 2 - Fe 2+ + HO 2
Iron oxide formed in the reaction described above is easy
to be taken away from the surface of metal substrate during
friction process, the metal substrate show up again, the
reaction will occur repeatedly. Therefore, in this process, it
will suggest that the wear induce the corrosion, and the
corrosion further aggravate the wear. Obviously, the removal (d)
behavior of the material is related to the interaction of
mechanical and chemical processes, presenting a typical
tribo-chemical wear. It is noted that Iron oxide spall off as
debris with a hardness of 400HV [18], which is easy to cause
the abrasive wear on the stainless steel counterface due to the
iron oxide act as third body particles. It may probably be used
to explain the fact that 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel has a higher
volume wear loss in different concentrations of hydrogen
peroxide than in deionized water.
As can be seen from Fig.5, in 90% H2O2, a large amount
of ploughing grooves rather than adhesive trace were observed
400
Study on Surface Passivation Treatment and Tribological Properties of 1Cr18Ni9Ti Stainless Steel in Hydrogen Peroxide
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Supported by Key Basic Research Program of China
(e) (2007CB607603)
References
[1] The use of hydrogen peroxide for propulsion and power
[C]. American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics,
AIAA-99-2880.
[2] Mark C. Ventura.Long Term Storability of Hydrogen
Peroxide [R].AIAA 2005-4551.
[3] Andrews D. Advantages of hydrogen peroxide as a
rocket oxidant [J]. Journal of the British Interplanetary
Society, 1990, 43(7):319-328.
[4] Antony J Musker. Highly stabilisec hydrogen peroxide as
(f) a rocket propellant [R]. AIAA 2003-4619.
[5] E. J. Wernimont *and G. L. Garboden. Perimentation
with hydrogen peroxide oxidized
rockets[R] .AIAA-99-2743.
[6] Mark Ventura, PE. Rocket Grade Hydrogen Peroxide
(RGHP) for use in Propulsion and Power Devices -
Historical Discussion of Hazards[R].AIAA 2007-5468.
[7] Ge Lin, Qiancheng Ling, Fuyun Li. A study of thrust
chamber technology using hydrogen peroxide[J].Journal
of Rocket Propulsion, 2005, 31(3):1-4.
[8] Wanjun Wang, Songqing Tang. Green hypergolic
bipropellant using hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant[J].
Fig.5 SEM image of worn surfaces for unpassivated and
Chemical propellants β Polymeric Materials, 2004,
passivated 1Cr18Ni9Ti specimens˄1000×˅(a) passivation-H2O
2(5):30-34.
(b)passivation-30%H2O2(c)passivation-60%H2O2(d)unpassivat [9] Pengjun Wang. Design and application pf differential
ion-H2O(e)unpassivation-30%H2O2(f) unpassivation-60%H2O2
pressure orifice flowmeter in H2O2/kerosene engine test
[J].Journal of Rocket Propulsion, 2005, 31(4): 50-53.
4 Conclusions [10] Cong Yu , Zhang Tao etc. Propulsive Performance of a
(1) After nitric acid passivation treatment, the corrosion Hypergolic H2O2/Kerosene Bipropellant [J]. Journal of
potential takes a shift to more positive potential and the
Propulsion and Power .20(1):83-86.
passive current density greatly decrease from 71.7μA/cm2 to
[11] Liliang Dong. Current situation of hydrogen peroxide
7.89μA/cm2 for 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel. It is evident that
engine experimental technique[J]. Journal of Rocket
the corrosion resistance was improved due to existence of the
Propulsion, 2004, 30(6): 32-35.
stable passive film which is characterized by oxygen
[12] Rocketdyne, North American Aviation. Hydrogen
enrichment, chromium enrichment, and lack of iron. Moreover,
the passive film formed on 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel mainly Peroxide Handbook. AFRPL-TR-67-144, July 1967.
consist of chromium oxide, whereas iron oxide, hydrous iron [13] ASTM A380 ˉ 06. Standard Practice for Cleaning ,
or chromium oxides, and iron or chromium hydroxide is Descaling, and Passivation of Stainless Steel
present in trace amounts in the passive film. Parts ,Equipment, and Systems [S].
(2) Compared with unpassivated stainless steel, the [14] ASTM A967ˉ05. Standard Specification for Chemical
passivated specimen exhibits a lower friction coefficient in Passivation Treatments for Stainless Steel Parts [S]
H2O, 30%, 60% H2O2 and a almost same friction coefficient in [15] D. H. Buckley. Surface effects in adhesion, friction, wear
90%H2O2, it indicates that the effect of the passive film on the and lubrication. Tribology Series 5, Amsterdam,
friction coefficient is related with the concentration of (1981)288.
hydrogen peroxide, whereas the passivation treatment is in [16] D. H. Buckley, Influence of chemisorbed films on
favor of decreasing the friction coefficient. In addition, the adhesion and friction of clean iron. NASA Rep. TN
passivated stainless steel offers a higher wear resistance in D-4775. 1.
deionized water and hydrogen peroxide than unpassivated one. [17] Jianjun Wei, Qunji Xue. The friction and wear properties
(3) It reveals that the wear mechanism is a mixture of of Cr2O3 Coating with aqueous lubrication[J]. wear, 1996,
adhesive wear, abrasive wear and corrosive wear in H2O, 30%, 157-159.
60% and 90% H2O2 for the stainless steel before and after [18] Lifeng Gui, Minda Wu, Yuan Zhao. Hanbook of
passivation treatment, whereas it is noted that the adhesive Materials testing for mechanical engineering, corrosion
wear is largely alleviated in 90% H2O2 in comparison with and tribology[M]. Liao Ning: Liaoning Science and
other concentration. Technology Publishing House, 2002
401
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Zhang Yongzhen / School of Material Science and Qiu Ming / School of Mechatronic Engineering, Henan
Engineering, Henan University of Science & Technology, University of Science & Technology, Luoyang 471003,
Luoyang 471003, China China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
- The friction and wear tests were carried out by the pin-disc
The heat produced by friction influences the tribological high-speed tribometer (MMS-1G) [11].
properties greatly, especially under the high speed dry sliding, - SEM and EDS were used for micro-analysis.
where the temperature are high enough to cause obvious - Temperature measurements of the pin specimen during
change in microstructure of the materials. Based on above the sliding were carried out with three thermocouples. To
suggestions, researches were made on several metallic pairs find out the contact temperature exactly at the sliding
with different thermal properties. The experiments were surface extrapolation method was used [12].
carried out under the condition of sliding speed ranged from 30
m/s to 70m/s, contacting pressure ranged form 0.1MPa to 3 Results and discussion
MPa and the surrounding temperatures changed from room
temperature to 500 °C. The testing results have indicated that (1) Friction and wear characteristic at high-speed
In our works, the P-V behaviors of materials under dry
thermal behaviors influences tribological characteristics in sliding are made both on wear loss and frictional coefficient
very complicated way. It seems that tribological properties characteristics. Fig.1 gives the relationships between
behavior differently among different metallic pairs under high tribological properties and sliding speed of different pairs.
speed dry sliding, which seems closely to related to heat Clearly, with the increase in sliding speed, frictional
partition parameters(Hp), and get their best values at the point coefficients of all pairs decrease obviously, while the wear
of Hp about 0.5. And tribological properties are sensitive to rates increase greatly except that of aluminum
surface temperature. All measures to improve the friction heat composite/GCr15 pair. Authors suggest that the difference in
wear rate behaviors of aluminum composite were mainly due
conduction help to increase the tribological properties. to the well thermal stability of ceramics particles and the
Surrounding atmospheres also influence the tribological protection effects of aluminum oxide against further oxidations.
properties greatly, it seems that the existence of oxygen to be Moreover, for the pairs of C.G. iron/steel and G-steel/copper,
beneficial to obtain better tribological properties. there are tribological mechanism transitions, an critical speed
Keywords: High speed, Dry sliding, Friction heating, Friction value exists based on tribological characteristics, under the
condition of lower sliding speed, with the increase in sliding
characteristic, Wear mechanism speed, the increasing degree of wear loss is relative small and
decreasing degree of frictional coefficient is relative obviously.
INTRODUCTION If the sliding speed are over that critical values, the increase in
High speed sliding surfaces causes large amounts of wear loss become much more seriously, while the frictional
coefficient tends to a relative stable values.
friction heat produced and the sliding surfaces temperatures to
0.4
increase greatly [1,2]. As it is well known, rise in interface
M2 HSS/GCr15
temperature will result in the microstructure change, and TC4/GCr15
0.3
Friction coefficient
couples, their results could not be directly used to engineering 250 M 2 H SS/G C r15
-4
Wear rate / mm .(N.m) *10
design. The reason was that tribological behaviours in metallic TC 4/G C r15
G -steel/copper
-1
200
couples were somewhat controlled by thermal situations, C .G .iron/steel
A l comp/steel
especially under high speed condition. The thermal situations
3
150
402
High Speed Tribology: Some Developments on Thermal Behaviors
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial support for this work by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China under Grant No.50775066 and
(a) (b)
the National Basic Research ‘973’ Program of China under
Fig. 4 Friction coefficient (a) and wear rate (b) vs. PV relationships Grant No. 2007CB607603 is gratefully acknowledged.
Ĺ Worn surface features
SEM of worn surface of Ti6Al4V-Copper after sliding at REFERENCES
40 m/s and 0.67 MPa revealed crater, oxidized surface and [1] Jin, T., BrianRowe, W., McCormack, D., 2002, “Temperatures in deep
adhesive (Fig.5a). However, severe plastic deformation and grinding of finite workpieces,” Int. J. Mach. Tool. Manu, 42, pp.53-59.
melting damages could be notice on the worn surface after [2] Komanduri, R., Hou, Z.B., 2001, “Analysis of heat partition and
sliding of Ti6Al4V at the same condition (Fig.5b). temperature distribution in sliding systems,” Wear, 251, pp.925-938.
[3] Wilson, S., Alpas, A.T., 1999, “Thermal effects on mild wear transitions
EDS analysis clearly showed that the presence of O in dry sliding of an aluminum alloy,” Wear, 225-229, pp.440-449.
element on the worn surface of Ti6Al4V-Copper at 40-60 m/s [4] Dwivedi, D. K., 2004, “Sliding temperature and wear behaviour of cast
(Fig.6). This indicated that oxidation wear took place for Al-Si-Mg alloy,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 382, pp.328-334.
Ti6Al4V-Copper. On the other hand, the worn surface of [5] Wilson, S., Alpas, A.T., 1997, “Wear mechanism maps for metal matrix
Ti6Al4V-Copper at 50 and 60 m/s showed the presence of Fe composites,” Wear, 212, pp.41-49.
[6]-[12] are omitted.
element from the counterbody, but Fe element is inexistent at
403
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Cu-Graphite Composite within a Wide Range of Sliding Velocity
Wenlin Ma/State Key Lab oratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China;
Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, P.R. China
Jinjun Lu*/State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China
Extended Abstract
404
Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Cu-Graphite Composite within a Wide Range of Sliding Velocity
405
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
S.F. Ermakov
V.A. Belyi Meytal-Polymer Research Institute of NASB, MPRI, Kirov St. 32A, 246050 Gomel, BELARUS
A.V. Mikelionis
V.A. Belyi Meytal-Polymer Research Institute of NASB, MPRI, Kirov St. 32A, 246050 Gomel, BELARUS
Extended Abstract
406
Tribological Aspects of Control over Frictional Interaction between Solids in the Presence of Liquid Crystals
407
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Effects of the Concentration of Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Solution and NaCl Additive on the
Potential-Controlled Friction
408
Effects of the Concentration of Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Solution and NaCl Additive on the Potential-Controlled Friction
made of hot pressed Si3N4. The main physical and mechanical micelles are formed when the concentration of NaCl additive is
properties of the Si3N4 and 1Cr13 specimen are listed in Table higher than 500mM.
1. The 1Cr13 stainless steel was composed of İ0.15 wt% C,
İ1.00 wt% Si, İ1.00 wt% Mn, 11.5-13.5 wt% Cr, İ0.030
wt% S and İ0.035 wt% P. The stainless steel disc was
polished to a surface roughness of Ra=40 nm by lapping paste
of diamond particle with diameter of 1m. Prior to every
experiment the specimens were ultrasonically cleaned for 3
min in acetone, ethanol, distilled water to remove contaminants
on the surface and subsequently dried in a stream of air. The
lubricant used in the experiment was 1-10mM SLS aqueous
solution and their mixture solution with NaCl in the
concentration range of 10-1000mM. The compositions of the
lubricants were listed in Table 2. Total twenty-four kinds of
lubricants with different SLS and NaCl concentrations were
tested in the experiment. The pH value of the solution was 7.2
before the friction test. The temperature of the solution was set
as the same as room temperature, 23ć,during the whole test.
10 8
A
9 +
K _
B
1 2 3 4 5
11 GND
Table 2 Concentration of surfactant and NaCl in lubricant Fig. 2 A typical result of the friction coefficient under potential
SLS (mol/L) 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.01 control: (a) friction coefficient, control voltage and current
NaCl (mol/L) 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 during one cycle of test; (b) friction coefficient and potential in
the ascending stage; (c) friction coefficient and potential in the
3. Wear morphology descending stage
In order to observe the worn surface of the stainless steel
plate tested with a load of 10 N in 30 minutes, the rubbed Fig. 2 shows a typical test result of the ball-on-disc test under
stainless steel plates were taken away from the tribotester and potential control in 10mM SLS aqueous solution. The friction
cleaned in acetone, ethanol and water with an ultrasonic coefficient was simply converted from the measured friction
cleaner for 3 minutes respectively after the experiment. Then force by dividing with the normal force. Fig. 2(a) shows the
the worn scars of the stainless steel plates were examined on variations of friction coefficient, control potential and current
FEI Quanta 200 FEG Environmental Scanning Electron during one cycle of test. The friction coefficient curve consists
Microscope (ESEM). of three parts which correspond to the three stages of potential
application respectively. The first part is in the stage of low
friction coefficient (o) during which no external voltage is
imposed on the couple but a potential difference of about 0.9V
Results and discussion
is existed between the counter electrode and working electrode
All SLS aqueous solutions without NaCl additive and because they possess different electrode potential in SLS
their mixtures of NaCl with concentrations less than 500mM aqueous solution, and the average value of the friction
were clear and transparent before experiment. However, when coefficient is about 0.105. The second part is in the stage of
the concentration of NaCl additive was higher than 500mM the high friction coefficient (p) under positive potential of about
lubricant became milky liquid, which implies that SLS 4.9V, and the average value of the friction coefficient is about
409
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
0.4. The third part is in the recovery stage of friction response of friction to the potential change can be obtained
coefficient (n) under a negative potential of about -0.2V, and under a cyclic square-wave control potential.
the average value of the friction coefficient is about 0.084. As
shown in Fig. 2(a), friction coefficient rises rapidly when a
positive potential is imposed on the friction couple, and falls
rapidly when the positive potential is changed into a negative
potential. Fig. 2(b) shows the ascending process of friction
with a rising response time, tUĬV, which is defined as the
time period from the beginning of the application of positive
potential to instant at which the average value of friction
coefficient over the positive potential stage is reached. Fig. 2(c)
shows the descending process of friction coefficient with a
falling response time, tdĬVdefined as the time period
from the beginning of application of the negative potential to
the instant at which the average value of friction coefficient
over the open circuit stage is reached. Moreover, Fig 2(c)
shows that n decreases continually after friction coefficient is Fig. 4 Variation of friction coefficient under a cyclic square-
recovered to o until to a stable value in a short period of about wave of control potential
0.4s, which means that the negative potential is favorable to
the absorption of lauryl sulfate radical ions onto the friction Fig. 5 shows the response time of friction coefficient to
interface and to the formation of a stable boundary lubricant the change of the control potential for the lubricants with SLS
film. and NaCl concentrations as listed in Table 2. It should be noted
Fig. 3 shows a test result obtained in a relative longer that the points of 10-5M NaCl concentraion in the figure
running time in 10mM SLS aqueous solution. The potential represent the cases of no NaCl additive. It can be observed
difference between the counter electrode and working from Fig. 5(a) that the rising response time tr is about 0.2s for
electrode decreases from 1.4V to 1.1V in open circuit in the all the tested lubricants with the NaCl concentration less than
test, which may be affected by residual charges on the 500mM. When the NaCl concentration exceeds 500mM, the
electrodes in the preceding potential application. The time rising response time tr increases dramatically for all SLS
durations of open circuit, positive potential and negative solutions tested. Fig. 5(b) shows that the falling response time
potential are 180s, 240s and 180s respectively, and the td is about 1.1s for all SLS solutions with the NaCl
corresponding mean friction coefficient in the three control concentration less than 50mM. For the lubricant with 3mM
stages was about 0.105, 0.39 and 0.08 respectively, which SLS and 10mM NaCl, td, is only 0.15s. The falling response
implies that the boundary lubricant film formed by the lauryl time, td, increases rapidly once the concentration of NaCl
sulfate radical ions on the friction surfaces is removed under additive is higher than 100mM. The concentration of NaCl
the positive potential and is formed under the negative should be no more than 50mM for maintaining a rapid
potential, and the thickness of the lubricant film can maintain a response of friction to potential change.
relative stabe value in each control stage. Fig. 6 shows the ratio of friction coefficient under positive
potential to that in open circuit (p/o) and to that under
negative potential (p/n) for the lubricants with various SLS
and NaCl concentrations. As in Fig.5, the 10-5M NaCl
concentration means no NaCl additive. We can see that both of
p/o and p/n increase with the increase of NaCl
concentration in 1mM SLS aqueous solution as long as the
NaCl concentration is less than 50mM, and the maximum
values of p/o and p/n are 13.6 and 18.7 respectively,
appearing at the concentration of 50mM NaCl in 1mM SLS
aqueous solution. The maximum values of p/o and p/n are 5
and 8.3 respectively for the lubricant with the concentration of
10mM NaCl in 3mM SLS aqueous solution. Excepting case of
1mM SLS aqueous solution, p/o and p/n decrease or hardly
change with the increase of NaCl concentration for other SLS
Fig. 3 Friction coefficient under potential control for a long aqueous solutions. Therefore, a small quantity of NaCl additive
term test is favorable to the increase in the ratios of p/o and p/n when
the concentration of SLS is much less than its CMC, and the
In order to further investigate the effect of control NaCl additive is not favorable to the increase in the ratios of
potential on friction coefficient, the test was carried out under p/o and p/n when the concentration of SLS solution is close
a series of control potential of variable polarity. The control to its CMC (about 8mM at room temperature).
sequence is open circuit ė positive potentiaO ė negative It is well known that a lauryl sulfate radical ion possesses
potentiaOėopen circuit circularly. Fig. 4 shows that friction a negative charge in SLS aqueous solution. A potential
coefficient is about 0.1 in the first cycle in the open circuit difference can exist between the two electrodes and the
stage, and about 0.12 in the second and third cycle in the open working electrode is charged with negative charges when the
circuit stage. The p and n are about 0.39 and 0.07 two electrodes is in the state of open circuit, so some lauryl
respectively and have good repeatability. The curves of friction sulfate radical ions can be adsorbed on the working electrode
coefficient and potential are overlapped in time during the to form a boundary lubricative film and thus friction
switching of potential polarity, which means that good coefficient is low.
410
Effects of the Concentration of Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Solution and NaCl Additive on the Potential-Controlled Friction
Fig. 5 Response time of friction coefficient to the change of control potential for the tested lubricants (a) rising response time;
(b) falling response time
When a higher positive potential is imposed on the friction response time of friction coefficient to the potential change
couple, the counter electrode and the working electrode are indicate that the influence of NaCl additive on response time is
positively and negatively charged respectively, forming a not notable when the concentration of NaCl in SLS aqueous
positive electric field and a current in the circuit can be solution is less than 50mM, and while the NaCl concentration
measured (Fig. 2b), the action the electrochemical reaction near is greater than 500mM, both the rising response time and the
the electrodes under higher positive potential [10] and the field falling response time are increased obviously. These
force acting on the lauryl sulfate radical ions can remove the experimental results are in contrary to the change of time
boundary film from the working electrode and raise the friction constant. This may be explained by the effect of inorganic salt
coefficient. Moreover, the shorter the charging time of the on the critical micelle concentration (CMC) of SLS solution.
electrodes is, i. e., the smaller the time constant is, the faster the When CMC is lower with the increase in NaCl concentration,
forming of a positive electric field is, so the faster the increase the lauryl sulfate radical ions in the solutions are easy to
of friction coefficient is. When a negative potential is imposed accumulate to form micelles which are more difficult to move
on the friction couple after the positive potential stage, the in electric field than the lauryl sulfate radical ions. This gives
charges accumulated on the electrodes are discharged and rise to a slower response of friction to the potential change.
neutralized firstly, then the electrodes are recharged with
opposite charges, resulting in a plenty of positive charges on
the working electrode to form a negative electric field, so
quantities of lauryl sulfate radical ions are adsorbed onto the
surface of the working electrode to form a thick lubricative film
and the friction coefficient is lower than that in open circuit.
The counter electrode and the working electrode form a
plane capacitor, so the time constant is mainly decided by the
resistance of the solution. Fig. 7 shows the current under the
positive potential with the tested lubricants. The current
increases with increase of the SLS concentration, but it is
mainly affected by the NaCl concentration and increases with
the increase of the NaCl concentration, which indicates that the
resistance of solution decreases with increase of the NaCl
concentration in the mixture solutions. So the time constant Fig. 7 Current under the positive potential for the tested
decreases with the increase of the NaCl concentration too, lubricants
which implies that the response time of friction coefficient
decreases with the increase of the NaCl concentration in the The same sort of stainless steel plate was used for
mixture solutions. Actually, the experimental results of comparing the worn in the potential-controlled friction tests.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The wear scars of rubbed stainless steel plates, after tested solution is less than 50mM, but both the rising response time
under a positive and a negative potentials in 10mM SLS and the falling response time increase obviously when NaCl
solution for 30 minutes, are shown in Fig. 8 (a and b), concentration is greater than 500mM.
respectively. When a low negative potential of -0.2V was (2) A small quantity of NaCl additive is favorable to the
applied to the friction couple, the wear scar is slight and increase in the ratios of p/o and p/n when the concentration
shallow, and there is no electrochemical erosion on the surface of SLS solution is much less than CMC, and the NaCl additive
of the stainless steel (Fig. 8a). When a positive ptential of 4.9V is not favorable to the increase in the ratios of p/o and p/n
was applied to the friction couple, some obvious furrow can be when the concentration of SLS is close to its CMC.
observed and the rubbed surface was badly damaged in this (3) The current increases with the increase of the SLS
control mode as shown in Fig. 8b. The ESEM images of wear concentration, but it is mainly affected by the NaCl
scars testify that a low negative potential is also favorable to concentration, and increases with the increase of the NaCl
the decrease in friction and wear of metal/ceramic friction concentration in SLS aqueous solutions.
couple in SLS aqueous solutions. (4) Too high concentration of NaCl additive in SLS aqueous
solution neither improves the response of friction nor increases
the magnitude of friction coefficient change. So the
concentration of NaCl in SLS aqueous solution should be less
than 10mM for practical applications of potential-controlled
friction.
(5) Low negative potentials can not cause electrochemical
corrosion of metal, but bring about the advantages of lower
friction and wear as well as faster response.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The grants from the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (NSFC, No. 50525515, No. 50721004) are
acknowledged.
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Conclusions
[9] Q. Chang, Y. Meng, S. Wen, Influence of interfacial
The rising response time and the falling response time of potential on the tribological behavior of brass/silicon
friction coefficient to the potential change can be affected by dioxide friction couple, Appl. Surf. Sci. 202 (2002)
the concentrations of SLS and NaCl additive. The ratio of the 120-125.
friction coefficient in different control modes is also affected by [10] Y. Meng, B. Hu, Q. Chang, control of local friction of
the concentrations of SLS and NaCl additive. Based on the metal/ceramic couples in aqueous solutions with an
experimental results obtained in the study, the following electrochemical method, Wear 260 (2006) 305-309.
conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The influence of NaCl additive on response time is not
notable when the concentration of NaCl in SLS aqueous
412
Study of Wear and Corrosion Properties of Coated Ionic Liquid
Zhang Xiaohao1 , Zhang Xiangjun1, Liu Yonghe2, Mikhail Kosinsky2,Imad Ahmed2, Stefan Krischok2,
2
Juergen A. Schaefer
1. State Key Laboratory of Tribology (SKLT), Tsinghua University, China
2. Institute of Physics and Centre for Micro and Nanotechnologies, Technical University of Ilmenau, Germany
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Lateral pizeo
(a)
(b)
Fig.1 (a) Experimental configuration for friction tests: (b) Fig.3 Velocity influence of Si ball against Si substrate with
Schematic diagram of the double-leaf glass spring pure [BMIM][BF4] as lubricant
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2. Influence of the normal load: Measure the coefficient
of friction against different normal load. We kept all
other parameters constant and changed only the
Si ball: 2mm normal load (FN) from 50 mN to 500mN. The used
Steel ball:3mm
slip speed was 360 m/s, and again 10 cycles have
been measured.
Polished steel
Polished Si
Fig.2 shows the principle of the equipment. A ball slips on Fig.4 Normal load influence of Si ball against Si substrate
a smooth surface covered by the lubricant. In our equipment, with pure [BMIM][BF4] as lubricant
we measured both Si ball against Si and steel ball against
polished steel. 3. Influence of time: We measured the coefficient of
Before each experiment, we use actone, deionized water friction against slip cycles. 2500 cycles with a slip
and isopropanol to clean both the balls and substrates (5 speed of 720m/s were measured at a normal load of
minute each step). All the samples were cleaned using the 300 mN. The aim of these experiments was to study
same method. The experiments include 5 steps. whether the coated ionic liquids have reduced
1. Influence of speed: we measured the coefficient of corrosion propriety compared with the pure ones.
friction as a function of the slip speed for different Therefore, the most important quantities are the
normal loads. The other parameters are kept constant. changes of the coefficient of friction and the surface
The slip speed (v) was varied from 720m/s to 45 topography with slip cycles after long time
m/s. The used normal loads were 150mN, 200mN, measurements. Fig.5 and Fig.6 show the influence of
250mN, 300mN, 350mN, 400mN, 450mN and time for steel ball against steel substrate and silicon
500mN, respectively. We measured always 10 cycles. ball against silicon substrate. As visible in Fig. 6 the
Fig3 shows the typical result for the Si ball against friction coefficient for EAN is abnormally high.
414
Study of Wear and Corrosion Properties of Coated Ionic Liquid
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
REFERENCES
[1] Nainaparampil, J. J., B. S. Phillips, K. C. Eapen, and J.
S. Zabinski. 2005. Micro-nano behaviour of DMBI-PF6 ionic
liquid nanocrystals: large and small-scale interfaces.
Nanotechnology 16 (11): 2474-2481.
[2] Buhler, G., A. Zharkouskaya, and C. Feldmann. 2008.
Ionic liquid based approach to nanoscale functional materials.
Solid State Sciences 10 (4): 461-465.
Fig.11 EDX result of EAN 24% used in [3] Welton, T. 1999. Room-temperature ionic liquids.
steel-steel Solvents for synthesis and catalysis. Chemical Reviews 99 (8):
2071-2083.
The experimental results shown above indicate that in
[4] Earle, M. J., and K. R. Seddon. 2000. Ionic liquids.
Si-Si-[BMIM][BF4], Si-Si-[BMIM][BF4] 6%, Si-Si-[BMIM]
Green solvents for the future. Pure and Applied Chemistry 72
[BF4] 24%, Si-Si-EAN, Si-Si-EAN 6%, Si-Si-EAN 24%, (7): 1391-1398.
Steel-Steel-[BMIM][BF4], Steel-Steel-[BMIM][BF4] 6%, [5] Fischer, T., A. Sethi, T. Welton, and J. Woolf. 1999.
Steel-Steel-[BMIM][BF4] 24%, the corrosion of coated Diels-Alder reactions in room-temperature ionic liquids.
samples can be successfully reduced compared with the pure Tetrahedron Letters 40 (4): 793-796.
samples. However, for the Steel-steel-EAN, Steel-steel-EAN [6] Earle, M. J., P. B. McCormac, and K. R. Seddon. 1998.
6%, Steel-steel-EAN 24%, the scratch deepness of coated Regioselective alkylation in ionic liquids. Chemical
samples are even higher than for the pure ones. The reason is Communications (20): 2245-2246.
currently under investigation. [7] Xia, Y. Q., S. J. Wang, F. Zhou, H. Z. Wang, Y. M. Lin,
and T. Xu. 2006. Tribological properties of plasma nitrided
CONCLUSION stainless steel against SAE52100 steel under ionic liquid
In this paper we coated the ionic liquids with some other lubrication condition. Tribology International 39 (7): 635-640.
liquid and tested its friction and corrosion properties using a [8] Qiming Lu, Haizhong Wang, Chengfeng Ye, Weimin
tribometer and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The Liu Tribology International 37 (2004) 547̢552
work aims on reducing the corrosion caused by the ionic [9] Iglesias, P., M. D. Bermudez, F. J. Carrion, and G.
liquids opening the way to its use as vacuum lubricant. The Martinez-Nicolas. 2004. Friction and wear of aluminium-steel
result was gratifying. Compared to the pure ionic liquid, most contacts lubricated with ordered fluids-neutral and ionic liquid
of the coated samples had one order smaller of scratch deepness. crystals as oil additives. Wear 256 (3-4): 386-392.
[10] Zech, O., S. Thomaier, P. Bauduin, T. Ruck, D.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Touraud, and W. Kunz. 2009. Microemulsions with an Ionic
The authors would like to thank the group of Prof. Werner Liquid Surfactant and Room Temperature Ionic Liquids As
Kunz from university of Regensburg for providing the ionic Polar Pseudo-Phase. Journal of Physical Chemistry B 113 (2):
liquids. This work was funded by National Natural Science 465-473.
Foundation of China(NSFC) with Grant 50575123/50730007.
416
Deformation Behavior of Al-4Cu-2Mg Alloy during Cold Upset Forging
1,4,5AndhraUniversityCollegeofEngineering,Visakhapatnam –530003,India
2GITAMCollegeofEngineering,Visakhapatnam–530045,India
3RVR&JCCollegeofEngineering,Guntur–522019,India
baburaojinugu@yahoo.com
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Deformation Behavior of Al-4Cu-2Mg Alloy during Cold Upset Forging
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Deformation Behavior of Al-4Cu-2Mg Alloy during Cold Upset Forging
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422
Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Pure Aluminium and Al-Cu Alloys
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Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Pure Aluminium and Al-Cu Alloys
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Yufeng Li1, Jiahu Ouyang1,*, Yaming Wang1, Yu Zhou1, Takashi Murakami2, Shinya Sasaki3
1
Institute for Advanced Ceramics, Department of Materials Science (Harbin Institute of Technology,
PO Box 433, Harbin 150001, PR China)
2
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (Japan)
3
Tokyo University of Science (Japan)
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Tribological Properties of Spark-Plasma-Sintered Al2O3-SrSO4 Self-Lubricating Nanocomposites at Elevated Temperatures
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The effects of the SrSO4 content and the particle size on friction
coefficient and wear rate of Al2O3 matrix composites at (a) (b)
different testing temperatures is shown in Fig. 3. The friction
coefficient and wear rate of Al2O3-30SrSO4 composites are 0.29
and 1.1×10-3 mm3/Nm at room temperature, and they gradually
decrease to 0.18 and 4.2×10-5 mm3/Nm up to 600ć,
respectively, which are better than the tribological properties of
unlubricated Al2O3 ceramics with a friction coefficient of 0.58
and a wear rate in the order of 10-3 mm3/Nm. With the further
increase of the SrSO4 concentration, the friction coefficient and
wear rate of the Al2O3-50SrSO4 composite increase to 0.5 and (c) (d)
2.6×10-3 mm3/Nm at room temperature, 0.24 and 5.2×10-5
mm3/Nm at 600ć. Meanwhile, as contrasted with the
composite doped with nanosized SrSO4 solid lubricant, the
addition of microsized SrSO4 particles into the Al2O3-50SrSO4
composite has beneficial effects of improving the friction
coefficient and wear rate of the composite, which decrease to
0.39 and 1.7×10-3 mm3/Nm at room temperature, 0.22 and
4.6×10-5 mm3/Nm at 600ć. Fig. 4 Worn surfaces of Al2O3-30SrSO4 nanocomposite after
wear tests at different temperatures: (a) room temperature; (b)
200ć; (c) 400ć; (d) 600ć
(a)
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the worn surfaces of Al2O3 matrix
nanocomposite incorporated with 50 wt% nanosized and
microsized SrSO4 addition after wear tests at room temperature
and 600ć. At room temperature, with the increase of the
SrSO4 concentration, nearly no lubricating film is observed on
the worn surface of the Al2O3 matrix composite containing the
50 wt% nanosized SrSO4 solid lubricant as shown in Fig. 5(a).
Meanwhile, compared with the composite doped with
nanosized SrSO4 solid lubricant, the addition of microsized
SrSO4 particles into the Al2O3-50SrSO4 composite promote the
formation of the lubricating film on the worn surface as shown
in Fig. 5(b). From Fig.6, the SrSO4 content and the particle size
(b) has no significant effect on the worn surface morphology,
which is in good agreement with the results in Fig. 3.
(a) (b)
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Tribological Properties of Spark-Plasma-Sintered Al2O3-SrSO4 Self-Lubricating Nanocomposites at Elevated Temperatures
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Jianzhang Wang (State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100864, China )
Fengyuan Yan* (State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China)
Qunji Xue (State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China)
(Extended Abstract)
inhibits the direct contact of sliding surfaces. The test materials included UHMWPE and PTFE as well as
Keywords: Ocean exploitation; Sea water; Ocean tribology; three PTFE-based composites which were reinforced with 20
Indirect corrosive wear; Boundary lubrication wt. % Poly(phenyl p-hydroxybenzoate) (Ekonol), graphite and
carbon fiber (CF), respectively. The counterface materials
INTRODUCTION
were GCr15 and Ni-based alloy Ni-Cr-WC. In sea water, the
At present, human society is facing three large crises of
corrosion resistant performance of GCr15 is poor, while the
population explosion, resource shortage and environment
Ni-Cr-WC alloy has excellent corrosion resistant performance.
deterioration, one of the main ways to solve the crises is to
The sea water was prepared according to the standard ASTM
exploit and protect ocean. A blue revolution marked with
1141-98. The friction and wear behavior of five materials was
exploiting ocean is springing up all over the world. The tide of
evaluated on an MRH-03 model ring-on-block test rig. The
*Corresponding author. Tel: +86-931-4968078; fax:.+86-931-8277088
friction and wear tests were carried out at a linear velocity of
E-mailaddress:wangjianz@sohu.com
430
Tribological Behaviors of Some Materials in Sea Water
0.5m/s, load of 100 N. The aqueous medium lubrication in sea water are much lower than those in pure water. This
between the sliding surfaces was realized by continuously attributes to the formation of deposition film on the
dropping of the medium onto the sliding surface at a rate of counterface in sea water, which has some boundary lubricating
100-105 drops per minute (300-315ml per hour). effect and inhibits the direct contact between hard counterface
with soft test materials. The XPS analysis indicates that the
RESULT AND DISCUSSION main composition of deposition film are Mg(OH)2 and CaCO3
1. THE TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIORS OF FIVE MATERIALS (Fig.2)
SLIDING AGAINST GCR15
The wear rates and friction coefficients of the five materials Table 2 Tribological behaviors of five materials sliding against
sliding against GCr15 are shown in Table1. It can be seen Ni-Cr –WC alloy
clearly that the wear rates and friction coefficients of materials Material Friction Specific wear rate
in sea water are greater than those in pure water. This coefficient (10-7×mm3/Nm)
attributes to the corrosion of sea water to GCr15 counterface, Pure Sea Pure Sea
which causes the increase of counterface roughness (Fig. 1). water water water water
The increase in surface roughness of the counterface can UHMWPE 0.04 0.02 7.38 5.74
reduce the lubricating effect of aqueous medium [2] and PTFE 0.04 0.03 395 53.5
increase the plowing effect of steel to soft polymeric materials. PTFE+ Ekonol 0.02 0.02 19.6 13.2
Such wear model can be called indirect corrosive wear. PTFE+graphite 0.02 0.02 12.2 6.75
Table 1 Tribological behaviors of five materials sliding against PTFE+CF 0.05 0.05 5.68 4.17
GCr15
Material Friction Specific wear rate 2800
1100 Mg2s Ca2p
C/S
800
2200
water water water water 700
2000
UHMWPE 0.04 0.12 5.50 28.2 600
95 90 85 80
355 350 345 340 335
Binding energy (ev)
Binding energy (ev)
PTFE 0.04 0.05 355 830
PTFE+ Ekonol 0.04 0.10 38.0 338 Fig.2 XPS analysis on the worn surface of Ni-Cr-WC
PTFE+graphite 0.01 0.02 49.6 116 counterface in sea water
PTFE+CF 0.10 0.11 6.45 7.62
SLIDING AGAINST NI-CR –WC ALLOY The research is financially supported by National High
The wear rates and friction coefficients of the five materials Technology Research and Development Program of China
sliding against Ni-Cr-WC alloy are shown in Table2. It can be (“863” Program) (Grant No.2007AA03Z358) and National
seen that the friction coefficients of five materials in sea water Science Foundation of China (Grant No.50772115).
REFERENCES
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
432
Nanofretting Wear of Monocrystalline Silicon (100) against Spherical SiO2 Tip in Vacuum
Nanofretting Wear of Monocrystalline Silicon (100) against Spherical SiO2 Tip in Vacuum
Jiaxin Yu / Tribology Research Institute, National Linmao Qian* / Tribology Research Institute, National
Traction Power Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong Traction Power Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong
University, Chengdu 610031, China University, Chengdu 610031, China
Bingjun Yu / Tribology Research Institute, National Zhongrong Zhou / Tribology Research Institute, National
Traction Power Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong Traction Power Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong
University, Chengdu 610031, China University, Chengdu 610031, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT silicon (100). With a scanning probe microscopy, the grooves
With an atomic force microscopy (AFM), the tangential were observed on Si(100) surface even the displacement
nanofretting between spherical SiO2 tips and monocrystalline amplitude of nanofretting was as small as 29 nm. With a
Si(100) surface was carried out at various displacement nanoindenter, Zhang et al [6] indicated that the radial
amplitudes (0.5~250 nm) under vacuum condition. Similar to nanofretting damage in copper was mainly identified as the
fretting, the nanofretting of Si(100)/SiO2 pair could also be pileup of the wrinkles around indents, and in silicon was
divided into stick regime and slip regime upon the transition characterized as the initiation and propagation of the cracks on
criterion. However, it was found that the energy ratio the edges of plastic zone. Recently, Qian et al [7] presented
corresponding to the transition between two nanofretting their research results on the nanofretting behaviors of NiTi
regimes varied between 0.41~0.63, which was higher than the shape memory alloy. They found that nanofretting was
normal value of 0.2 in fretting. One of the reasons may be different from fretting in aspects of the variation of tangential
attributed to the effect of adhesion force, since whose force versus number of nanofretting cycles, the value of
magnitude is at the same scale to the value of the applied friction coefficient, and the wear mechanism. These
normal load in nanofretting. During the nanofretting process of differences were further attributed to the single-asperity
Si(100)/SiO2 pair, the adhesion force may induce the increase contact in nanofretting and multi-asperity contact in fretting.
in the maximum static friction force and prevent the contact Despite all that, the nanofretting behaviors of materials,
pair from slipping. The larger the curvature radius of spherical especially under vacuum condition, are still far from
SiO2 tip, the higher the applied load, or the higher the adhesion understood.
force is, the larger the transition displacement amplitude In this paper, the tangential nanofretting behaviors of
between two regimes in nanofretting will be. Different from monocrystalline silicon (100) against SiO2 microsphere were
fretting wear, the generation of hillocks was observed on investigated by an atomic force microscopy under vacuum
Si(100) surface under the given conditions in nanofretting wear. condition. The effect of adhesion on the nanofretting behavior
With the increase in the displacement amplitudes in slip regime of material was emphasized. The generation mechanism of
of nanofretting, the height of hillocks first increased and then silicon hillocks in nanofretting was discussed.
attained a constant value. Compared to chemical reaction, the
mechanical interaction may be the main reason responsible for MAIN BODY HEADINGS
the formation of silicon hillocks during the nanofretting in 0.6 1.6
Tangential force Ft-max (μN)
Tangential force Ft-max (μN)
vacuum. The results in the research may be helpful to (a) R=0.43μm (b) R=1.0μm
0.5 Fn=2 μN Fn=2 μN
understand the nanofretting failures of components in 0.4
1.2
Dr
MEMS/NEMS. 0.8
Dr
0.3
Keywords: Nanofretting; Monocrystalline silicon; Vacuum; 0.2 Dr Fn=1 μN Fn=1 μN
Dr
Atomic force microscopy; Hillock 0.1
0.4
0.0 0.0
INTRODUCTION 0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement amplitude D (nm)
12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement amplitude D (nm)
12 14 16
Due to the excellent mechanical and physical behaviors, Fig. 1 The maximum tangential force Ft-max in a cycle versus
monocrystalline silicon has been widely used as structural the displacement amplitude D (Ft-max–D) curves of
material in micro/nanoelectromechanical systems Si(100)/SiO2 pair under various normal load Fn for the SiO2
(MEMS/NEMS) [1]. In order to improve the reliability and tips with different curvature radii R
stability, a large quantity of MEMS need to be encapsulated in
vacuum environment, such as thermopile based sensors, Following the similar criterion in fretting regime [8], we
micro-mass spectrometer, resonators, gyroscope, and so on [2]. may divide the nanofretting into two regimes: stick regime and
Because of the temperature variation and mechanical vibration, slip regime. As shown in Fig. 1, Dr was the recorded transition
nanofretting of monocrystalline silicon may exist in the contact displacement amplitude to divide stick regime and slip regime
interfaces of these microdevices. Therefore, with the under given conditions. To obtain the real transition
development in MEMS/NEMS, the understanding and control displacement amplitude D*, the elastic tangential
of the nanofretting behavior of monocrystalline silicon in accommodation of the testing system must be subtracted from
vacuum has been becoming an important issue of concern [3]. Dr [8]. As shown in Table 1, it was found that under the same
After the concept of nanofretting was proposed by Zhou conditions, the SiO2 tip with larger radius induces a larger
and Qian [4] in 2003, only a few papers discussed the value of D*.
nanofretting behaviors of materials due to the limitation of the The energy ratio A=0.2 is an important criteria in fretting to
experimental technique [5-7]. Varenberg et al [5] reported their determine the partial and gross slip regimes [8]. However, in
studies on nanoscale fretting wear behavior of monocrystalline nanofretting, all the values of the energy ratio A in Table 1 are
*E-mail: linmao@swjtu.edu.cn, Tel.: +86 28 87600687 and larger than 0.2 for D = Dr. One of the possible reasons for the
Fax: +86 28 87603142 difference in energy ratio A between nanofretting and fretting
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Height H (nm)
1.5
0.5
Table 1 Calculation of the transition displacement amplitude R=0.43 μm
D* and energy ratio A corresponding to two SiO2 tips under 0.0 R=1.0 μm
Fn (μN) 1 2 1 2 Fig. 3 The height of the hillocks on the Si(100) surface plotted
Fa (μN) 0.4 0.4 1 1 as the function of displacement amplitude D for two tips
Dr (nm) 2.5 3 3.5 5.5
D* (nm) 2.04 2.48 2.57 4.19 From our experimental results, it was found that the
A 0.49 0.41 0.63 0.61 formation of hillocks was strongly depended on the
displacement amplitude D of nanofretting (Fig. 2 and 3). When
Table 2 Calculation of D* and A corresponding to two SiO2 the value of D was too small for SiO2 tip to slip, no damage
tips with various adhesion force Fa. was observed on the wear area. With the increase in D in slip
Fn (μN) 1 2 regime, the height of the hillocks first increased and then
Fa (μN) 0.4 2.2 3.3 0.4 2.2 3.3
attained a constant value. Therefore, the sliding and friction
Dr (nm) 2.5 3.5 5 3 4 6
seem to be the necessary conditions for the generation of
D* (nm) 2.04 2.42 3.42 2.48 2.80 4.35
hillocks.
A 0.49 0.59 0.62 0.41 0.57 0.63
In the mid of 1990s, Andoh et al [9] reported that such
silicon hillocks of 0.2 nm in height could be formed in
In order to understand the role of adhesion force in the atmosphere but not in vacuum or in dry nitrogen atmosphere.
nanofretting behavior of material, the same experiments were They therefore suggested that the formation of silicon hillock
repeated by using two other SiO2 tips (R=0.43μm) with the could be mainly attributed to the chemical reactions
adhesion force of 2.2 μN and 3.3 μN on Si(100) surface, atmosphere. However, the silicon hillocks with 1~2 nm in
respectively. During the nanofretting process of Si(100)/SiO2 height were also observed in our experiments under vacuum
pair, the adhesion force may induce the increase in the condition. Because of the absence of oxygen in vacuum, we
maximum static friction force and prevent the contact pair may conclude that compared to chemical reaction, the
from slipping. As a result, from Table 2, the values of mechanical interaction may play the main role in the formation
transition displacement D* increased with the increase in of hillocks in nanofretting.
adhesion force Fa under the same applied load Fn. It was also
noted that the value of energy ratio A increases with the
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
increase in Fa. Clearly, the energy ratio A is not suitable to
determine the nanofretting regime, especially for the tip with The authors are grateful for the financial support from the
high adhesion force. Instead, the transition displacement D* Natural Science Foundation of China (50625515, 50521503),
may be more reasonable to determine the transition between Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher
stick and slip regimes in nanofretting. Education (20050613023).
REFERENCES
R=0.43μm [1] Elwenspoeck M., Wiegerink, R., 2001, Mechanical
Microsensors, Springer, Berlin.
[2] Ko, W. H., 2007, “Trends and frontiers of MEMS,” Sensor
Actuat. A, 136, pp.62-67.
[3] Williams, J. A., Le, H. R., 2006, “Tribology and MEMS,” J.
R=1.0μm Phys. D 39, pp.201-214.
[4] Zhou, Z. R., Qian, L. M., 2003, “Tribological size effect
and related problems,” Chinese Journal of Mechanical
D=10nm D=25nm D=50nm D=100nm Engineering, 39(8), pp.22-26.
Fig. 2 AFM images of the wear scars on the Si(100) surface [5] Varenberg, M., Etsion, I., Perin, G. H., 2005, “Nanoscale
after nanofretting at various displacement amplitudes D. The fretting wear study by scanning probe microscopy,” Trib.
normal load Fn=2 μN; the number of cycles N=500; the Lett., 18, pp.493-498.
curvature radii R of the SiO2 tips are 0.43 μm and 1.0 μm [6] Zhang, J. Y., Qian, L. M., Zhou, Z. R., 2006, “Radial
nanofretting of single crystal copper and silicon under high
As shown in Fig. 2, when the nanofretting of Si(100)/SiO2 load,” Tribology, 26(1), pp.1-6.
pair run in slip regime, the formation of silicon hillocks was [7] Qian, L. M., Zhou, Z. R., Sun, Q. P., Yan, W. Y., 2007,
observed on the surface of Si(100). Fig. 3 shows the variation “Nanofretting behaviors of NiTi shape memory alloy,”
of the height of the silicon hillocks as the function of the Wear, 263, pp.501-507.
displacement amplitude D. While nanofretting run in stick [8] Fouvry, S., Kapsa, Ph., Vincent, L., 1995, “Analysis of
regime, no hillocks were observed on Si(100) surface and the sliding behavior for fretting loadings: determination of
height was zero. In slip regime, the height of silicon hillocks transition criteria,” Wear, 185, pp.35-46.
reached a constant value after the initial quick increase in D [9] Andoh, Y., Kaneko, R., 1995, “Microwear process,” Int.
from 10 to 50 nm. Tribol. Conf. on Tribol. Yokohawa, JAST Press, Japan,
pp.1913
434
Influence of Surface Finishing Operations on the Reciprocating Sliding Friction and Wear Response of WC Based Cemented Carbides
Influence of Surface Finishing Operations on the Reciprocating Sliding Friction and Wear
Response of WC Based Cemented Carbides
K. Bonny*, P. De Baets, W. Ost (Ghent University, Dep. *Corresponding author; Tel.: +32485523004; Fax.:
Mechanical Construction and Production, IR04, +3292643295; E-mail: koenraad.bonny@gmail.com or
Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, BE-9000 Gent, Belgium) koenraad.bonny@ugent.be
S. Huang, J. Vleugels, O. Van der Biest (Catholic W. Liu, B. Lauwers (Catholic University of Leuven
University of Leuven (K.U.Leuven), Dep. Metallurgy and (K.U.Leuven), Dep. Mechanical Engineering, PMA,
Materials Engineering, MTM, Kasteelpark Arenberg 44, Celestijnenlaan 300B, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium)
BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
From comparative dry sliding pin-on-plate experiments on Wendt Boart, Brussels, Belgium) or by wire-EDM on a
distinctive WC-Co and WC-Ni cemented carbides, machined ROBOFIL 2030SI (Charmilles Technologies, Switzerland) in
by grinding or wire-EDM, correlations are derived between deionized water (dielectric conductivity 5 μS/cm), with a
wear rate, wear volume and coefficient of friction on the one CuZn37 wire electrode (diameter 0.25 mm, tensile strength 500
hand and contact load, sliding distance, microstructure and MPa). The wire-EDM process was performed using one rough
surface finish condition on the other hand. The EDM induced cutting (regime E3) with high spark thermal energy to get a
surface modification turns out to deteriorate wear resistance, high material removal rate, and subsequently, several
especially during the wear-in stage of sliding. These findings consecutive finish cuts (e.g. in this paper E8, E21, E23) with
are in agreement with X-ray diffraction measurements of the globally decreasing energy input and pulse duration, aiming to
residual stress level in the WC phase. optimize surface integrity. For more details on EDM generator
Keywords: Dry sliding, cemented carbide, Tribology, wire-EDM settings, Ra and Rt surface roughness and chemical, physical,
mechanical and microstructural properties of the distinctive
cemented carbide grades, one is referred to [7,9,10]. The dry
INTRODUCTION
sliding tribological behavior of WC-Co and WC-Ni grade flats
Based on economic reasons but especially today on the basis against WC6Co(Cr/V) pins in air-conditioned atmosphere
of ecological considerations as well, there is a rising need for an (23±1 °C, 60±1 % relative humidity) was evaluated using a
adequate limitation of wear and corrosion damage of machines Plint TE77 tribometer, in accordance with ASTM G133. The
and construction tools with attention to the efficient application pin hemisphere displayed an average rounding radius and Ra
of scarce materials and resources such as energy. In this way and Rt roughness of 4.08 mm, 0.35 μm and 2.68 μm
there is an obvious industrial demand for advanced materials to respectively. Wear track surfaces were analyzed by scanning
be applied under heavy tribological circumstances and electron microscopy (SEM, XL30-FEG, FEI, Philips) and
preferably without lubrication as for instance for tools (chisels, quantified topographically using surface profilometry
cutting tools, metal forming dies, punches, etc.), various (Somicronic® EMS Surfascan 3D, needle type ST305). Contact
machine parts and in the fields of aerospace and automobile. loads were varied from 15 N up to 35 N. The stroke length of
WC-Co and to a smaller extent also WC-Ni based cemented the oscillating motion was 15 mm. A sliding velocity of 0.3 m/s
carbides are widely used in engineering industries for their was applied. The test duration was associated with a sliding
excellent mechanical properties and outstanding wear distance of 10 km. Before each test, the specimens were cleaned
performance. Furthermore, they are suitable to be machined by ultrasonically with distilled water and acetone. Each
electrical discharge machining (EDM) due to the binder phase experiment was performed using a new pin in order to pursue
which renders them sufficiently electrical conductive [1,2]. One analogous initial surface conditions.
of the key advantages of EDM is the possibility of creating
intricate shapes in a fully automated way, irrespective of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
strength or hardness of the base material. However, previous
research investigations have already demonstrated the Typical and representative wear data, obtained during
considerable impact of EDM parameters on surface quality, real-time monitoring of friction coefficient and combined
strength, hardness and fracture toughness, e.g. [2-4], as well as penetration depth for WC-Co flat/ WC-Co pin combinations are
on tribological characteristics, e.g. [5-10]. plotted as function of sliding distance for distinctive surface
This paper aims to elucidate the influence of different EDM finish variants in Fig. 1. Each curve is an average of at least two
cutting regimes on the tribological behavior of a number of wear experiments performed under identical conditions on
WC-Co and WC-Ni cemented carbide grades, with a 6 up to 12 samples of the same material. The error bars indicating the
wt.% binder content and carbide grain sizes ranging from 0.3 extent of the variations are excluded to make the figure better
up to 2.2 μm. Friction and wear characteristics of these grades, readable.
surface finished by wire-EDM or grinding, against WC-Co The penetration depth is noticed to increase abruptly during
cemented carbide under distinctive normal contact loads were the first meters of sliding, owing to the quickly growing contact
compared in dry linearly reciprocating sliding pin-on-plate surface area. Furthermore, the impact of EDM and the EDM
experiments. regimes on the penetration depth curves is quite pronounced.
The highest wear level is encountered with the rough EDM cut
EXPERIMENTAL specimens, whereas the ground cemented carbide samples
All WC-Co and WC-Ni cemented carbides were machined exhibit the smallest wear damage, Fig. 1. Moreover, penetration
and surface finished by grinding (JF415DS, Jung, Göppingen, depth is noticed to decrease with finer-executed EDM, up to
Germany) with a diamond grinding wheel (type MD4075B55, values nearby to those recorded for the equivalent ground
435
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
cemented carbide. It is worth noting that the largest penetration grains, as evidenced by X-ray diffraction measurements. The
depths were encountered with the WC10Co grade, whereas the surface roughness and the thickness of the recast layer,
lowest wear damage occurred with the WC8Ni(Cr) grade. This substantially less wear resistant compared to the bulk material,
trend should be related to the mutual differences in WC grain primary determine the wear process. Gradually finer EDM
size, binder phase and binder content of the distinctive grades finishing regimes reduce the wear rate down to values nearby
[11]. those for equivalent ground specimens. Amongst the
investigated grades, the most favorable tribological results were
0.8 E23 ground obtained for the WC-Ni grade, emphasizing the importance of
0.6
Surface stress [GPa] 0.4
0.2
further investigation in this direction.
0.0
-0.2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
WC12Co(Cr)
WC10Co(Cr/V)
WC12Co(V)
WC8Ni(Cr)
WC10Co
-0.4
-0.6 This work was co-financed by the Flemish Institute for the
-0.8
-1.0
promotion of Innovation by Science and Technology in
-1.2 industry (IWT). All support, scientific contributions and
-1.4 stimulating collaboration from the partners from Ghent
-1.6
-1.8 University (UGent) and Catholic University of Leuven
b -2.0 (K.U.Leuven) are gratefully recognized. Special thanks go to
Fig. 1 (a) Δd penetration depth versus sliding distance for CERATIZIT for supplying the hardmetal grades and pins.
wire-EDM’ed and ground WC10Co grade sliding against
WC6Co(Cr/V) at 0.3 m/s, under a 15 N contact load; (b) residual REFERENCES
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+ value is a tensile stress, a – value is a compressive stress machining of tungsten carbide-cobalt composites", J. Amer.
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The differences in tribological characteristics between the [2] Lauwers, B., Liu, W. and Eeraerts, W., 2004, "Influence of
surface finish variants is attributed to the occurrence of a heat the composition of WC-based cermets on the
affected zone (HAZ) and recast material, containing brittle manufacturability by Wire-EDM", Transactions of the
tungsten subcarbide and eta-phase (W3Co3C and W6Co6C) as NAMRI/SME, Vol. 32, pp. 407-414
well as surface cracks [2-4], after wire-EDM. Indeed, after [3] Jiang, D., et al., 2005, "Residual stress in hardmetals caused
rough EDM cutting (regime E3), the WC based cemented by grinding and EDM machining and its influence on flexural
carbide is covered by recast material and contains an strength", Proc. 16th Int. Plansee Seminar: Powder
approximately 30 μm thick HAZ, which is obviously less wear Metallurgical High Performance Materials, Reutte, Austria,
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each leaving a gradually thinner HAZ, i.e., about 20 μm, 10 μm condition and electrically discharge machining and depth of
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based cemented carbides, on which no heat affected zone was [5] Ishikawa, K., Iwabuchi, A. and Shimizu, T., 2003,
induced, and displays the highest values for rough cut cemented "Influence of EDM on the wear characteristics of WC-Co
carbides, but decreases when the cemented carbide is surface cemented carbide", J. Jpn. Soc. Tribol., Vol. 48, pp. 928-935
finished up to a finer EDM cutting regime. [6] Llanes, L., et al., 2001, "Influence of electrical discharge
The inferior wear resistance after wire-EDM can be correlated machining on the sliding contact response of cemented
with residual surface stresses in the WC phase of the cemented carbides", Int. J. Refr. Met. & Hard Mater., Vol. 19, pp. 35-40
carbide grades after grinding and EDM, Fig. 1(b). The [7] Bonny, K., et al., 2007, "Influence of surface finishing and
measurements were executed by X-ray diffraction on a Siemens binder phase on friction and wear of WC based hardmetals",
D500 XRD, using the d-sin2ψ method. The (300) WC peak, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 561-565, pp. 2403-2406
corresponding to a diffraction angle 2θ = 133.31° was applied [8] Bonny, K., et al., 2005, "Influence of Electro-discharge
in order to acquire the residual stress. It should be clear that a machining, microstructural and mechanical properties on
significant compressive stress is present in the ground materials, wear behavior of hardmetals", Proc. 16th Int. Plansee
owing to the mechanical impact during grinding, whereas a Seminar: Powder Metallurgical High Performance Materials,
tensile stress is measured on the EDM surfaces, as a result of Reutte, Austria, Vol. 2, pp. 863-877
the thermal impact. During the sliding wear experiments, the [9] Bonny, K., et al., "Influence of electrical discharge
tangential stresses are building up with the residual tensile machining on the reciprocating sliding wear response of
stresses in the wire-EDM surface, whereas the compressive WC-Co cemented carbides", Wear, DOI:
stress state of ground surfaces more or less eliminates the 10.1016/j.wear.2008.05.009
tangential contact stress. [10] Bonny, K., et al., 2007, "Reciprocating friction and wear
behavior of WC-Co based cemented carbides manufactured
CONCLUSIONS by electro-discharge machining", Materials Science Forum,
Dry reciprocative sliding experiments on WC based cemented Vols. 561-565, pp. 2025-2028
carbides combinations revealed that wire-EDM deteriorates the [11] Gee, M.G., Gant, A. and Roebuck, B., 2007, "Wear
wear performance considerably, due to a thermally induced mechanisms in abrasion and erosion of WC/Co and related
recast layer and residual tensile surface stresses in the WC hardmetals", Wear, Vol. 263, spec. iss. 1-6, pp. 137-148.
436
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Titanium Reinforced Polybenzimidazole Composites
Zhou Huidaa
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
438
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Titanium Reinforced Polybenzimidazole Composites
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
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Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Titanium Reinforced Polybenzimidazole Composites
441
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Friction and Wear Behavior of Laser Cladding NiAl/hBN Self-Lubricating Composite Coating
Shitang Zhang1,2, Jiansong Zhou1, Baogang Guo1,2 , Huidi Zhou1, Yuping Pu3, Jianmin Chen1
(1. State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Lanzhou 730000, China; 2. Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China;
3. Central Iron and Steel Research Institute, Beijing 100081, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
NiAl/hBN coating was successfully prepared on a Ni-based many excellent physical and chemical properties, these
superalloy substrate by means of laser cladding. The materials suffer from low ductility and toughness at ambient
microhardness profile of the composite coating along the depth temperature and, therefore, are difficult to fabricate by
direction was measured, while its cross-sectional conventional processing methods [13].
microstructures and phase compositions were analyzed by Laser cladding is an effective surface-modification
means of scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. technique and offers distinct advantages. Namely, the surface
Moreover, the friction and wear behavior of the composite coatings produced by laser cladding have some obvious
coatings sliding against Si3N4 from ambient to 1000 ć was advantages such as lower porosity, improved microstructure
evaluated using a ball-on-disc friction and wear tester, and the and minimal damage to the underlying substrate, as compared
worn surface morphologies of the composite coatings were with the coatings produced by plasma spraying. Thus it is
observed using a scanning electron microscope. It was found natural to see that Cr3C2-(Ni-Al)/Ag/BaF2-CaF2 eutectic
that the laser cladding NiAl/hBN coating on the Ni-based composite coating [14], Ni60/WS2 (nano-Ni- encapsulated)
superalloy substrate had high microhardness and good coating, MoS2/TiC/Ni composite coating and Ni/hBN
friction-reducing and antiwear abilities at elevated self-lubricating composite coating have been successfully
temperatures up to 1000 ć. The friction and wear behavior of prepared using laser cladding for high-temperature lubrication
the laser cladding NiAl/hBN coating was strongly dependent [7,8,10].
on test temperatures. The coating had a small friction With those perspectives in mind, the present work is to
coefficient and wear rate as it slid against the ceramic explore the feasibility of preparing NiAl-hBN composite
counterpart at elevated temperatures up to 1000 ć. The wear coating with the assistance of laser cladding. The
mechanism was characterized by mixed adhesion and abrasive microstructure of the composite coating was characterized by
wear as it slid against the ceramic ball below 300 ć and mild means of scanning electron microscopy, while its friction and
wear behavior was evaluated under dry sliding condition and
adhesion wear and plastic deformation up to 400 ć and above.
over a wide temperature range.
Keywords: Laser cladding; Nickel aluminide coatings;
hexagonal Boron Nitride; Wear mechanism
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION [1] C. Dellacorte, Surf. Coat. Technol. 86-87 (1996)
High temperature self-lubricating composites with good pp.486-92.
high-temperature antioxidation ability have been developed to [2] J.H. Ouyang, S. Sasaki, T. Murakami, K. Umeda, Wear
reduce friction and wear from room temperature to high 258 (2005) pp.1444-1454.
operating temperatures in many tribological systems [1, 2]. [3] H.M. Wang, Y. L. Yu, S. Q. Li, Scripta Mater. 47 (2002)
Since it is difficult or impossible for a bulk monolithic material pp.57-61.
to possess all the above-mentioned surface properties [3], [4] C. DellaCorte, J.A. Fellenstein. Trib. Trans., 40 (1997)
much attention has been paid to metallic matrix composite pp.639-642.
coatings which contain solid lubricants prepared by various [5] C.H. Ding, P.L. Li, G. Ran, Y.W. Tian, J.N. Zhou, Wear
processes, such as PS304 coating by plasma spray [4], PM304 262 (2007) pp.575-581.
coating by powder metallurgy [5], ZrO2(Y2O3)–CaF2–Ag [6] J.H. Ouyang, S. Sasaki, T. Murakami, K. Umeda, Wear
composites by spark-plasma-sinter [6], Ni60/WS2 258 (2005) pp.1444-1454.
(nano-Ni-encapsulated) coating and MoS2/TiC/Ni composite [7] A.H. Wang, X.L. Zhang, X.F. Zhang, X.Y. Qiao, H.G.
coating by laser cladding [7, 8]. Xu, C.S. Xie, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 475 (2008) pp.312-318.
As a promising candidate high-temperature solid lubricant, [8] J. Xu, W.J. Liu, M.L. Zhong, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200
hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) has been incorporated into (2006) pp.4227-4232.
various composite coatings using various surface-modification [9] O. A. Leo´n, M. H. Staia, H. E. Hintermann, Surf. Coat.
techniques, such as Ni-P-hBN autocatalytic composite coating Technol. 200 (2005) pp.1825-829.
[9], laser cladding Ni/hBN self-lubricating composite coating [10] S.T. Zhang, J.S. Zhou, B.G. Guo, H.D. Zhou, Y.P. Pu,
[10], and laser melting hBN/¢-Fe(Cr) and Fe2B/¢-Fe(Cr) J.M. Chen, Mater. Sci. Eng. A (2008),
coatings [11]. However, these coatings have inadequate doi:10.1016/j.msea.2007.12.015.
high-temperature antioxidation performance or a relatively [11] L. Avril, B. Courant, J. J. Hantzpergue, Wear 260
higher wear rate above 600 ć. (2006) pp.351-360.
Nickel aluminide intermetallics (e.g. NiAl) excel by their [12] T. S. Newport, NASA CR-198454, April 1996
high strength retention at elevated temperatures, combined [13] W.P. Liu, J.N. Dupont, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 34
with relatively low density and good oxidation and corrosion (2003) pp.2633-2641.
resistance [12], so, they are considered to be attractive [14] M. C. Jeng and Y. L. Soong, Surf. Coat. Technol. 2-3
materials for high-temperature coating applications. In spite of (1993) pp.145-150.
* Corresponding author. Tel: +86-931-4968018 (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
E-mai.laddress: chenjm@lzb.ac.cn needs it.)
442
Research on the Wear-Resisting Material Produced by Vacuum Evaporation Pattern Casting
ABSTRACT surface should withstand load and suffer the friction. In the
Vacuum Evaporation Pattern Casting (V-EPC) is one kind project, wear-resistance parts should have good superficial
of Manufacturing for selectivity strengthened metal-based resistance performance and good toughness inside. And the
compound materials. The research was done on producing the two sides should integrate well. In this way, the parts can serve
steel base wear-resisting compound materials strengthened by in friction, and also it can not be destroyed under impact load.
Sic, analyzing microstructure characteristic with metallography From this, to develop one kind of material production method
microscope, testing the wear-resisting performance and to make the material have good wear-resistance performance
dynamic mechanical propertie of the compound materials. The and good toughness inside is exigent [3-5].
following conclusions were drown from the experiments.˄1˅
In the process of composite preparation, the pouring 2 TESTING PROJECT
temperature was 1600ć, the vacuum degree was 0.045MPa, The steel based surface wear-resistance material was
the pouring was guided by the slow-fast-slow principle, and prepared by the vacuum Evaporation pattern casting. We
the pouring system was bottom-return pattern. (2) SiC particles determined the vacuum Evaporation pattern casting technique's
distributed uniformly, retaining approximately quondam technological parameter. Carried on the analysis of the silicon
granular form in the composite layer and retaining good carbide pellet's in compound materials appearance with the
bonding strength with matrix. The microhardness testing of JSM-5610V scanning electron microscope. The material
composite showed that the microhardness of composite layer wear-resisting performance was tested on the ML-100 abrasive
were higher than matrix. (3) The best components of wear- abrasion testing machine. The micro hardness of compound
resistant coating were SiC of 80 dimension and 40% volume level, the transitional layer and the substrate were tested on the
fraction , Cr powder of 1.5% volume fraction , the rest of EPS MHV2000 numerical code microhardness sclerometer. The best
particles. The grain wear testing showed the wear-resistant allocated proportion of compound materials was obtained with
capability of composite was better than that of matrix, and the the orthogonal testing method. The dynamic mechanical
wear- resistant modulus of composite was 2.980 times than properties of the material were tested on the Ý14.5 the
that of matrix. (4) The dynamic mechanical properties of Hopkinson pressure bar. Figure 1 is the technological process
vacuum Evaporation pattern casting steel matrix composites of experimental:
were tested on Ü14.5 split Hopkinson pressure bar. The
stress-strain curves of the steel matrix composites and the Confirming The wear-resisting Preparation
matrix at the strain rate of 800/s were drown. The stress-strain scheme coating composition
curves showed that the vacuum Evaporation pattern casting
steel matrix composites had better dynamic mechanical
properties than the matrix. Composite Brush Establishment
Keywords: Wear-resistant material; Vacuum Evaporation sample of model
Pattern Casting (V-EPC); Composite materials; SHPB; Dynamic
mechanical properties
Brush Boxing Vacuum Pouring
1 INTRODUCTION
The superficial attrition is the primary cause which these
machine parts expire. This not only affects the service life of
engineering products, also will increase the cost in production
Sampling Performance
and use. For example, the cost of metal wasted in the test
fragmentation and mine grinding account for half of the mill Fig.1 the technological process of experimental
run cost. According to the department concerned statistics, the
loss which because of the friction attrition creates amounts to 3 PREPARATION OF STEEL BASED WEAR-
40,000,000,000 Yuan every year. Therefore enhances the RESISTANCE MATERIAL
machine parts surface wear-resistance has been an important In the preparation, the wear-resisting coating formula plays
topic [1, 2]. the decisive effect on the quality of the material. The factors
At present, the commonly used wear-resistance material is include the enhancement matrix pellet's granularity and the
the overall alloy material generally. Although this method can content, the alloying element's content, the EPS pellet's content
enhance the material’s intensity and surface wear-resistance can affect the quality of the compound level. In order to
performance, it will cause the waste of alloying element optimize the wear-resisting coating formula, we used the
(interior doesn’t need to be alloyed). What’s more, this method orthogonal testing method to carry on the wear-resisting coating
will debase the toughness of material, which will have a the formula experiment. We took the three factors above
tremendous influence on the service life of the parts. In fact, mentioned as research factors. We took them three levels
not all the surface of the mechanical parts serving under the respectively, using L9(33) orthogonal array (not to consider that
attrition suffers from the friction. Only some part of the parts’ factor correlation) to arrange the formula experiment. The
experimental inspection target is the wear-resisting performance
*Corresponding author: E-mail:jianxiuliu@126.com of the compound levels.
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444
Research on the Wear-Resisting Material Produced by Vacuum Evaporation Pattern Casting
From the table, we can see the loss weight of the steel based
surface wear-resistance material is lower than the matrix. That
is to say, the compound material has better wear-resistance
performance. The wear-resistance performance is increased by
2.2-2.98. The mortality factor of the best specimen 2-2 is 9.901,
while the specimen 10-2 is 3.322. The mortality factors of 2-2 is
10-2’s 2.980 times. The steel based wear-resistance material's
mortality factor is higher than the matrix. That is to say the
wear-resistance performance of the compound material is
enhanced. The wear-resisting coating composition of the best
specimen 2-2 is: the silicon carbide granularity 80, the silicon
Fig.3 SiC of the composite layer× carbide content is 40%, the chromium powder content is 1.5%
The casting surface resistance to friction was enhanced,
because the SiC pellets enhanced the hardness of the matrix [7].
4.2 THE ATTRITION PERFORMANCE TESTING The SiC pellets disperse evenly in the surface layer, and
This wear-resisting performance test was carried on the combine with the matrix firmly. This structure can enhance the
ML-100 abrasive abrasion testing machine. We cut the casting material’s wear-resistance performance. The Cr and SiC help to
into small columns on line cutting machine tool. The diameter enhance the hardness [8]. There are many other compound such
of the columns is Ý6mm and the length is the 25mm. One end of as CrSi2ǃFeCǃFe7C3, and all the compound have high hardness,
the column test specimen is the compound material. According so they all can enhance the material’s wear-resistance
to the test condition of abrasive abrasion testing machine, we set performance.
a certain traveling schedule and a load. Each test specimen was
tested on the same condition. After testing, we compare the lost
4.4 THE IMPACT STRENGTH TEST
weight of all the specimens to make sure which one has the best
The impact property was tested on Ý14.5 Hopkinson
wear-resistance.
pressure bar. The principle of the bar can refer to reference. Cut
Before the experiment, the small columns test specimens
the casting into small columns on line cutting machine tool. The
were cleaned with alcohol, in the ultrasonic wave purifier. After
diameter of the columns is Ý8mm and the length is the 5mm.
drying in the air, weigh the columns on the electronic balance
One end of the column test specimen is the compound material.
weighing BS210S. After experiments, we should clean and
Turn on the test installation [9-10]. After the super dynamic
weigh again.
strain gauge preheating 15 minutes, we can carry on the
experiment may carry on the experiment. Analyzing the
4.3 ANALYSIS OF WEAR-RESISTING PERFOR- experiment data, we can get the stress - strain curve of the
MANCE TEST material at a certain strain rates. We got the stress - strain curves
According to the wear-resisting coating's orthogonal test of the compound materials and the matrix material at the strain
plan, we prepared 9 kinds of different coatings, and each coating rate of 800/s. Figure 4 shows the two curves.
formula produced 2 test specimens. We took out the better one From the picture, we can see the impact stress the compound
for the wear-resistant experiment. In order to compare the materials can withstand at the strain rate of 800/s is 1478 MPa,
wear-resistance of steel based compound material and the while the matrix is 1294 MPa. Obviously, the compound
matrix, we cut two small columns of matrix for the test. materials' dynamic mechanical properties had been enhanced. If
Mortality factor M=1/àW, andàW is the lost weight of the the compound and the matrix suffer the same impact lord the
specimen during the attrition test. àW= M1- M2. And M1 is the compound will show small strain. That is to say, the compound
weight before test, while M2 is the weight after test. Table 2 material has better dynamic mechanical property.
shows the results of the abrasive-wear test.
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REFERENCES
[1]LI Jian-ming, 1987, Wear-resisting and anti-attrition
material, China machine press, Beijing.
[2]SHAO He-sheng, ZHANG Qing,1988, Metal grinding
abrasion and anti-friction material, China machine press,
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[3]Xu DaQing, Luo Jirong, Huang Naiyu, 1999, “Structures
and properties of iron matrix composites with tungsten
carbide particle by EPC-V process,” Iron&Steel,02,
pp.29-32.
[4]Pans Schulz P, 2001, “Reactions of Carbon Fiddlers in Light
Fig.4 stress-strain curve of the composite material and Weight Metal Matrix Composites Analytically Motivated
matrix at the strain rate of 800/s Process,” Key Engineering Materials, 04,pp19-25.
1-composite material 2-matrix [5]Shen J X , Zhang X L,2003, “Erosive Wear and Vibration
Wear of Materials.Beijing,” Beijing Mechanical Industry, 06,
5 CONCLUSIONS pp.83-87.
(1)The wear-resistance performance of the compound [6]GAO Hong-xia, LIU Jian-xiu, YANG Gai-yun, “Coating on
material was tested on the ML-100 abrasive abrasion testing Wear Resistant Surface Cast Iron Prepared by EPC,” Special
machine. The data shows that the wear-resistance of the Casting & Nonferrous Alloys, 7, pp. 444-446
compound material was enhanced by 2.2-2.98. [7] HU Shi-sheng, 1991, “Hopkinson pressure bar technology,”
(2) Using the orthogonal testing method, we analyzed the Ordnance material science and engineering, 11,pp.40-47 .
component how to influent the wear-resistance performance. [8]Mechel. Alloying the Operating Layer of Ingot [J].
And the best component of the coating is: the silicon carbide Metallurgical Trans, 2004, 07:205-208
granularity is 80, the silicon carbide content is 40% (volume [9] I.V.Uskov. Improving the Wear Resistance of Steel
percent), the chromium powder content is 1.5% (volume Castings by Strengthening the Surface with Silicon ̚
percent), and the rest is EPS. Carbide and Chromium~Carbide Powders[J]. Soviet Journal
(3) From the SEM figure we can see that under the infiltrates of Friction and Wear, 2000, 09:113-117
dynamic action, the molten metal seepages to the pellet gap, [10] Gurin S S. Favrication of Fiber ̚ reinfore Metal ̚
carries on the heat change with the alloying element chromium Production of Highly Durable Cast Iron Moulds [J].
powder and the SiC pellet. After melting, the chromium powder Liteinoe Proizvodstvo, 2002, 09:74-78
carries on the full liquid diffusing and the interaction with the
446
Effect of Surface Topography on Friction and Wear of Cast Iron for Cylinder Liners
Effect of Surface Topography on Friction and Wear of Cast Iron for Cylinder Liners
J. Keller V. Fridrici
LTDS UMR CNRS 5513 – Ecole Centrale de Lyon LTDS UMR CNRS 5513 – Ecole Centrale de Lyon
(36 av. Guy de Collongue – 69134 Ecully cedex – France) (36 av. Guy de Collongue – 69134 Ecully cedex – France)
and F2A 1 Avenue de l’usine vincent.fridrici@ec-lyon.fr
47500 Fumel – France
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
This work aims to study and understand the influence of EXPERIMENTS AND SPECIMENS
the surface topography on wear of grey cast iron used for Friction tests which aim to simulate the contact between
heavy duty Diesel engines cylinder liners. A micro-alloyed piston ring and cylinder liner in a Diesel engine are performed
grey cast iron is tested with different surface topographies: two in laboratory. The test conditions reproduce the conditions
honed samples with different honing parameters, a polished observed at the top dead center, in boundary lubrication
sample and three model samples with well defined grooves on conditions. Tests are performed on a Cameron Plint TE 77 test
a polished specimen. rig. A ball of AISI 52100 steel (with a hardness of 66 HRC and
Reciprocating friction tests with the configuration steel ball a diameter of 25.4 mm) is put in contact with the cast iron
against a flat or a cylindrical sample, extracted from a cylinder specimen that is located in an oil bath at a controlled
liner, in lubricated contact, are carried out on a Cameron Plint temperature of 150 °C. The lubricant is a synthetic commercial
test rig (with commercial synthetic oil for Diesel engines). The oil of the type 5W30 for Diesel engines. The motion is linear
friction coefficient and the electrical contact resistance are and alternative with an amplitude of 11 mm and a frequency of
measured during all tests. The wear volume evolution of the 5 Hz. A normal load of 200 N is applied during the friction test.
cylinder liner part is determined. A micro-alloyed (with phosphorus and boron) pearlitic grey
The influence of the surface topography on the tribochemical cast iron is used. Different surface topographies are studied:
film formation and on the wear behavior of cast iron is two honed surfaces (with different honing parameters namely
identified. The surfaces exhibiting lots of surface asperities A and B), polished surface (Ra = 0.09 μm, called 0 type
have the highest wear, mainly due to a delayed formation of surface) and polished surfaces with well defined grooves
protective tribochemical film. In our conditions, the spacing obtained with a scratch device (03, 06 and 12 for respective
between the grooves on model specimens has no influence on distance between the grooves of 300, 600 and 1200 μm). The
the wear behavior of the cast iron specimens. main differences between A and B type surfaces are that B type
Keywords: Friction, tribofilm, wear, cast iron, honing surface presents more surface asperities (higher values of Rk
and Rpk) and less deep valleys (lower value of Rvk) than A
INTRODUCTION type surface, but A and B type surfaces presents the same
average roughness Ra = 0.49 μm.
In view of the evolution of international standards [1]
concerning pollution for internal combustion engines,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
parameters which define the cylinder liners in Diesel engines
should progress in the point of view of dimension/surface
structure as well as in the point of view of associated materials FRICTION
and intrinsic characteristics. Frictional losses between the Figure 1 shows the evolution of friction coefficient for 0, A and
piston skirt and the cylinder wall are significant, estimated at B type surfaces. For all types of surfaces, after an incipient
about 30% of the total piston/piston ring/cylinder assembly increase of friction coefficient, friction coefficient decreases
friction [2]. and reaches a stable and constant value.
The parameters which need to be controlled in order to achieve
minimum wear rates of the cast iron cylinder liner are the
hardness of the cylinder materials, their microstructure, their
surface topography and lubrication [3].
Concerning surface topography, classically, cylinder liners are
honed in order to induce rather smooth surfaces with deep
valleys that can play a role of lubricant tank. Surface
topography may be defined by a lot of roughness parameters
that take into account the presence of surface asperities and of
valleys and their dimensions (depth, spacing, width…),
through the Abbot’s curve.
In the present paper, we concentrate our study on the influence
of the surface topography on the tribological behavior (friction
evolution, tribochemical film formation, wear) of cast iron.
The effects of roughness on the evolutions of wear and friction Figure 1 evolution of friction coefficient
and the formation of the tribochemical film are discussed. for A, B and 0 type surfaces
447
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Honed surfaces exhibit a higher stabilized friction coefficient A type surface shows a decrease of wear volume compared to
(0.11 for A and B type surfaces) than polished surface (0.07 for B type surface. This decrease is almost completely due to a
0 type surface). For the grooved specimens (Figure 2), the better wear resistance at the beginning of the test. This higher
stabilized friction coefficient increases when the distance wear resistance is linked to the quicker formation of the
between the grooves decreases (0.07 for 12 type surface – protective film on A type surface (220 cycles for A compared
which is very close to 0 type surface – 0.09 for 3 and 6 type to 750 cycles for B). Thus, surface topography has a major
surfaces). Furthermore, some sharp increases and decreases in impact on wear resistance and it is necessary to get a surface
the friction coefficient are observed for these specimens. Study with a low Rpk (no surface asperities). This is confirmed by
of the electrical contact resistance (not shown here) proves that the fact that the wear of 0 type surface (without surface
there is a dynamic evolution of the tribofilm (there is formation, asperities) is lower than A and B type. This is mainly due to the
then elimination by friction, then reformation…) and there is a quick formation of tribofilm on 0 type surface (10 cycles).
link between a sharp decrease in contact electrical resistance
and an increase in the friction coefficient. This is due to the
fact that the tribochemical film evolves during the test and can
be removed in some portion of the contact area. When the
tribochemical film is removed and before it is re-formed, there
is a portion of metal / metal contact between the cast iron
specimen and the steel ball with low electrical contact
resistance and “high” friction coefficient. After some cycles,
due to tribochemical reaction, a new tribofilm is formed on the
whole contact surface and the friction coefficient decreases and
the electrical contact resistance sharply increases.
REFERENCES
[1] Directive 2005/55/EC from European Union
[2] Fenske, G.R., Fessler, R.R, Multiyear Program Plan:
Figure 3 evolution of specimen wear volume Reducing Friction and Wear in Heavy Vehicles, 1999.
for A, B and 0 type surfaces [3] Sudarshan, T.S., Bhaduri, S.B., 1983, “Wear in cylinder
liners”, Wear, 91 (3), pp.269-279.
448
Wear Resistance Analysis of Hardening Materials for Engine Cylinder
the TRRP of the cylinder liner, it is more difficult to form and surface layer density is and the finer subcrystal size is, the
retain lubricating oil film. Then mechanical wear increases and higher Surface layer strength and hardness are. Surface heat
the wear at the TRRP of the cylinder liner is more severe than treatment hardening is a hardening method that part surface
in cylinder skirt. layer is quenched to cause microstructure change with fast heat
During engine running, abnormal operations also cause up.
severe cylinder wear, such as the effect of lubricating oil filter
is bad, air cleaner is inefficient, engine works frequently in low Surface Material Component Change Hardening
temperature, inferior lubricating oil usually is used, etc. All Surface material component change hardening is a kind of
these can increase the wear of cylinder liner. Proper usage and metal process that changes material component in surface layer,
maintenance can decrease cylinder liner wear, for example, or operates heat treatments to improve mechanical
correct start and run, choosing proper lubricating oil, characteristics of surface layer material. In the course of
maintaining lubricating oil filter, remaining engine running in hardening, the element different from base metal is infiltrated
normal temperature, improving the quality of the maintenance into base metal with solid diffusion, and change chemistry
and repair, and so on, but they can’t increase the wear composition of surface layer. It can bring compound and solid
resistance of cylinder in essence. solution on parts surface different from metal base structure.
The cylinder block is the importance base part of engine, So the various performances of metal surface layer are
whose usage life directly determines engine’s life, even the advanced.
durability of the automobile. The hardening method for the
cylinder wear resistance is the key technology of engine repair Surface Material Deposition Hardening
[3-4]. It can reduce the repair cost, increase economy of the Surface material deposition hardening is reforming
engine operation, maintenance and repair, and extend the microstructure of surface layer or deposition material different
service life of engine. from metal base. This kind of hardening technology mainly
includes surface metallurgy hardening and surface film
SURFACE-HARDENING TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY hardening.
Surface hardening technology is a quite active field, Surface metallurgy hardening is a kind of hardening
whether in scientific research or in industrial production. In technology that the surface layer of parts is remelted and
recent 20 years, the surface hardening technology develops solidified to gain prospective components or structure. It
rapidly because it can reduce the repair cost and is efficient to usually applies high power density and high speed heating
449
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
process to melt metal or alloy plating on the surface, then (2) Iron Plating
solidify with fast cooling and gain hardening layer. By this The base metals of experimental parts is A3 steel, and
course of speediness melting and solidification surface apply non-etch low temperature iron plating process by
treatment, it make metal surface generate special layer. alternating and direct current.
Surface film hardening is to plate the surface film different After plating by 3 hours, the thickness of plating layer
from base material with physical or chemical methods, to form reaches to 0.8mm. And the plated parts are processed with
wear-proof film or corrosion-proof film. The difference design size.
between surface metallurgy hardening and surface film
hardening is that there is no apparent boundary between (3) Composite Iron Plating
surface layer and hardening layer for the latter. Because A3 steel is the base metals of test parts, and non-etch
juncture of surface layer and base material depends on physical composite iron plating process applied. A few of SiC
action, one key problem for surface film hardening is how to particulate is put into electroplate solution of ferrous chloride.
improve the binding force. During 3 hours’ plating, the solution is churned up every 5
Electroplating and electroless plating are common methods minutes to 7 minutes so that SiC particulates suspend
to increase wear resistance and corrosion resistance of the parts. adequately. When the thickness of plating layer reaches about
Lately, researchers gradually pay attention to electroless 0.8mm, the process is over. The plated parts need to process
phosphorus plating since nickel electroless plating has unusual according to design size.
merits. Especially nickel-phosphorus electroless plating is
applied to part repair of automobile, and its wear resistance Test Conditions
and corrosion resistance is obvious. After the pinion shaft is Grinding wheel is made of 45 steel, and its working surface
plated nickel-phosphorus to 13 18Pm and takes 2 hours to is plated chromium to ensure that it is identical with the
process heat treatment, its hardness is up to HRC62 and can chrome plated piston ring.
make differential mechanism to run smoothly with lower noise. Due to wide speed range in the experiment, the experiment
To improve wear resistance of the parts, surface hardening can’t be performed on the common wear test machine. So wear
process of the parts may choose one or several kinds of test bed is designed. Its features are high rotation speed,
methods from various surface treatment technologies. The stepless speed regulation and there is no resonance
surface hardening method of the parts should have high phenomenon in the whole speed range.
performance and low cost, namely high performance-cost
ratio. Experiment Parameters
The main reasons affecting the wear of the engine cylinder
EXPERIMENT ON CYLINDER WEAR RESISTANCE are load, speed and temperature etc. The condition of load and
speed affects the stress state of the cylinder wall obviously and
Prepare of Experimental Parts cause severe wear of the engine cylinder [11-12]. The relative
In order to improve wear resistance of engine cylinder, the speed and pressure between piston ring and cylinder wall are
surface hardening technology is analyzed. The crystals of iron determined as main wear factors of engine cylinder, and
plating layer are between scores of nanometers and hundreds abrasion value of cylinder is chosen as wear resistance target.
of nanometers, and dislocation density of the layer is very high, According to the wear rule of the engine cylinder and the
and have much big stress. Because of minute crystals relative speed and pressure between piston ring and cylinder
hardening and stress hardening, the iron plating layer has wall on 1mm~8mm below top dead center of cylinder in
higher hardness and better wear resistance. In addition, the expansion stroke, the ranges of experimental parameters are
composite iron plating is a composite plating technology based chosen, so that the wear resistance experiment of hardening
on low temperature iron plating in this paper. A few of SiC plating is close to the worst conditions of the engine cylinder.
particulate is put into electroplate solution of ferrous chloride. According to the relative speed and pressure between
The composite plating layer has obvious virtues, such as piston ring and cylinder wall on 1mm and 8mm below top
surface smooth, higher hardness, better wear resistance and a dead center of cylinder in expansion stroke, experimental
small quantity of netty crack for storing lubrication. So the parameters’ ranges of load and speed are chosen.
hardness and stress of composite plating layer are improved
(1) Relative Speed between Piston Ring and Cylinder
obviously.
Based on analysis and contrast of surface hardening Wall
methods, iron plating and composite iron plating are chosen to Suppose the engine crank run with even speed, and rotary
perform comparative experiment for perfect surface hardening angle D of the engine crank is
technology of engine cylinder. D 2Snt / 60 (1)
Where, t — time (minute)
(1) High Phosphorus Cast Iron n — rotate speed (revolution per minute, RPM), the
Since engine cylinder commonly is made of high rated rotate speed of TOYOTA 12R engine is 5400RPM.
phosphorus cast iron, high phosphorus cast iron is acted as the As shown in fig. 1, the displacement x of piston is
contrast material and standard material in order to analyze and x AcA AcO AC CO (2)
contrast the other three kinds of material performances and
increase the reliability of experiment results. r l r cos D l cos E
The raw and processed materials adopt actual cylinder liner Where, r — rotate radius of crank;
made from high phosphorus cast iron. To process with design l — length of connecting rod.
size of test parts, the part wear surface should be cylinder wall Thus the relative speed V between piston ring and
and the width and curvature of wear surface must be ensured. cylinder wall is
450
Wear Resistance Analysis of Hardening Materials for Engine Cylinder
Bs 1
3
Base on formula (6), the relative speed between piston ring
and cylinder wall on 1mm and 8mm below top dead center of 4
cylinder in expansion stroke is obtained. Namely, the speed
range of piston ring relative to cylinder wall is 5.6 m/s ~14.9
m/s. 5
(2) Relative Pressure between Piston Ring and Cylinder
Wall
Generally speaking, the load of engine cylinder wall is
F
from two forces, namely the effect of piston ring and touch of
piston skirt. The effect of piston ring to cylinder wall includes Fig.2 The wear test board schematic
the elasticity of piston ring and the force from combustion gas. 1 GRINDING WHEEL 2 SHAFT 3TEST PART
At top dead center of engine, the force of piston ring to 4 fastening screw 5 platform
cylinder wall is far bigger than touch pressure of piston skirt.
So the pressure of top ring to cylinder wall on 1mm and 8mm
EXPERIMENT RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
below top dead center of cylinder in expansion stroke is chosen
as the load range. According to the practical condition on performance
The elasticity PS of piston ring makes piston ring press on demands, equipment, process cost and compact operation etc.,
cylinder wall. This is called the first seal surface. In addition, the experiment research of the wear resistance is determined.
Then the iron plating and composite iron plating are used in
as mixture burns, there is the remaining pressure that is led by
experiment research on the wear resistance under simulating
throttle of piston ring and piston ring groove. It causes axis and engine running condition.
radial imbalance pressure. The axis pressure P2 makes piston
ring press on the side of piston ring groove. This is the second Contrastive Analysis of Relative Wear Resistance at
seal surface. At the same time, the radial pressure P1 greatly Constant Speed
increases the force on the first seal surface. In order to study When the speed is a fixed value of 10m/s, the pressure
the wear resistance of cylinder, it is primary that the radial takes different values, respectively 3MPa, 5MPa and 8MPa.
451
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
After test parts of every experimental level are washed and Table 2
dried, they are weighed three times and calculated averages to Abrasion Loss of Various Hardening Materials
obtain abrasion losses of various hardening materials, as at Constant Pressure (mg)
shown in table 1. Speed˄m/s˅ 6 10 14
High Phosphorus Cast Iron 18 34 51
Table 1 Iron Plating 62 26 34
Abrasion Loss of Various Hardening Materials Composite Iron Plating 48 16 20
at Constant Speed (mg)
Pressure˄MPa˅ 3 5 8
High Phosphorus Cast Iron 20 34 72
Iron Plating 16 26 70
Composite Iron Plating 10 16 37
Hardness Test
Firstly, the surface of hardened test parts should be
burnished. Secondly, the parts are measured three times by
micro-sclerometer with 400h. Then, the hardness average
values of every kind of hardening materials are calculated, as
shown in Fig.6.
Contrasted Fig.5 with Fig.3 and Fig.4, the rules of the wear
resistance and hardness of different hardening materials are not
accordant. For the hardness and wear resistance of composite
Fig. 3 Contrast on relative wear resistance of hardening iron plating and iron plating, their hardness are similar, but the
materials at Constant Speed
wear resistance have obviously different at high load. So the
composite iron plating is an adapted hardening material for
The wear resistance of composite iron plating is higher engine cylinder.
than the other two materials not only at the low and middle but
also at the high load. Especially at the high load, the relative
wear resistance of engine cylinder hardened by composite iron
plating still is twice as high as high phosphors cast iron. So it
is obvious that the relative wear resistance of composite iron
plating is better than common engine cylinder material.
452
Wear Resistance Analysis of Hardening Materials for Engine Cylinder
453
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fei Gao, Rong Fu, Baoyun Song / Dalian Jiaotong University, Dalian, China
Yves Berthier / Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon, Lyon, France
ABSTRACT
preparing the Cu-SO2 materials and investigated the
Effects of the speed sequence and SiO2 content of Cu-SiO2, relationship between friction speeds and friction and wear
sintered by powder metallurgy method, on friction and wear properties on a fixed-speed tester. The interactions of friction
properties have been investigated at fixed speeds. The results speeds were also considered in order to explore the effects of
indicate that the sequence of speeds employed in the tests plays sequence of the speed change on the friction and wear
great roles on the friction and wear properties. When the tests properties.
are executed from a lower speed to a higher speed, friction
coefficients decrease and oscillate dramatically as the speed 1. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL AND METHOD
goes up, resulting in a severe wear. On the contrary, as the
speed starts from a higher value, the friction coefficients are Electrolytic copper powders, which have a granularity of
stable and wear is small. These phenomena can be explained in 300 particle/inch and purity of higher than 99.7%, were used as
viewpoints of states of third body formed in the friction. The parent material. The additives are natural quartz SiO2 particles
third body formed at lower friction speeds is usually granular, of diameters from 0.07 to 0.8 mm. The two components were
which is responsible for the coefficient oscillations and larger mixed to form a mixture which has 3 ~ 18% of SiO2. The
wear loss. At higher speeds, the third body formed is rather mixture was molded under 600 MPa pressure into samples. The
dense, leading to stable friction coefficients and lower wear loss. samples, with a size of Ø17×16mm, were sintered at 850ć and
Keywords: Friction material, Third body, Friction, Wear 3.77MPa pressure for 80 minutes. Friction and wear tests were
conducted on a pin-on-disk tester which uses a friction disk,
INTRODUCTION made of H13 steel, of 300 mm in diameter, friction pressure
Powder-metallurgy copper composites, consisting of force of 233 N. For each friction speed, the tests were carried
copper matrix, friction and lubrication elements, are widely out in two different sequences of speed change: A. from slow to
employed as braking material for high-speed trains, due to their fast, and B. from fast to slow. The friction period at each
high friction coefficients and good wear-resistance[1-2]. fixed-speed was 40~60 seconds. The speed change was in the
Granular and hard SiO2 is often used as a component to range of 100~3000 r/min (tangential speed 1.6~47.1m/s). The
increase the friction and to improve the wear properties. It, wear loss, in terms of mass per consumed energy in Joule, was
however, often leads to oscillation in friction coefficient, and is determined by the weight loss measured using a balance. An
therefore deleterious for brakes which require stable friction OLYMPUS microscopy and a JSM-6360LV SEM were
coefficient. Much attention has been paid to the roles of SiO2 in employed to observe the surface morphology of the samples.
Cu-based materials. However, most of the works considered the
relative effects of SiO2 compared to that of other components 2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
[3-5]. Such approach is disadvantageous for study the role of
SiO2 in the mechanism of friction and wear because the 2.1 EFFECTS OF THE SPEED SEQUENCES ON FRICTION
presence of interactions of the multi-components. Further more PROPERTIES
most of the works was conducted on inertial friction testers. Fig.1 and 2 show the relationships between friction
Though the tests can simulate precisely the change of friction coefficient and content and granularity of SiO2, respectively, as
coefficients, they have major limitations in investigating the speed changes from low to high. The content and the
effects of a specific parameter independently when other factors granularity of SiO2 have insignificant effects on friction
such as braking speed, temperature and energy are involved coefficient. However, the friction coefficient obviously
simultaneously. Fixed-speed friction tests have the ability to decreases with the increase in friction speed. The range of the
measure the friction and wear properties at a specific speed as friction coefficient variation due to the speed change is about
well as to study the interactions between various speeds to help 0.4.
in the investigation of the effects of friction conditions on Fig.3 and 4 give the relationships between friction
friction and wear properties. coefficient and content and granularity of SiO2, respectively, as
This work utilized powder metallurgy technique in speed changes from high to low. Similarly, the content and the
0.8
)ULWLRQHIILFLHQW
Friction efficient
0.6
0.4
454
Effects of Speed Sequence on Friction Properties of Sintered Cu-SiO2
granularity of SiO2 have insignificant effects on friction hardness of the copper matrix, the third bodies clearly have
coefficient. In this case, however, the decrease in the friction much higher than hardness. Such hard third body layer covers
coefficient is only about 0.2, which is lower than that in the the friction surface of the material and raises the hardness of the
Friction efficticent
Friction efficient
are easily visible, the number and the size of the spots increased
360 significantly (Fig.7c). At 100 r/min, the dense third bodies,
formed at the initial high speed and high temperature, were
340 severely crushed (Fig.7d). The friction surface became covered
320 mainly by porous and particulate third bodies (Fig.5a).
The above description demonstrates that heat generated
300 instantaneously from high speed friction concentrates primarily
on the friction surface, and develops high-temperature zone
SiO2 content /wt% near the surface. The high temperature helps improve metal
plastic deformation and flow, thus promotes compacting
Fig.6 Effect of SiO2 contents on the hardness of third bodies friction debris to form dense third body layer (Fig.5b). The
455
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
layer bonds well with the matrix under the combined effects of the sequence of the speed change. The variation in the friction
high temperature and stress. On the other hand, with lowering coefficient is about 0.4 in the case that the speed changes from
of the friction speed, the temperature of the friction surface falls. a low speed to a high speed, while the difference is about 0.2
The third bodies become brittle and easy to peel off and break, when the speed changes from a high speed to a low speed.
0.4 0.4
speed sequence:from low to high speed sequence:from low to high
speed sequence:from high to low speed sequence:from high to low
Wear rate/g/MJ
0.3
Wear rate/g/MJ
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.6̚0.8 0.4̚0.6 0.3̚0.4 0.2̚0.3 0.1̚0.2 0.07̚0.1
0 5 10 15 20 SiO2 granularity/mm
SiO2 content/wt%
Fig.8 Relationship between content of SiO2 and total Fig.9 Relationship between granularity of SiO2 and
wear rate total wear rate
causing the dense third bodies formed at the initial high Under the condition of the friction speed changes from low
temperature to peel off by large sizes. Furthermore, due to to high, the third body consolidates from a granular and porous
limited plastic deformation at low temperature, friction debris state and becomes continuous and dense as the friction speed
can not be fully sheered and pressed, leaving less dense and increases. On the contrary, if the speed changes from high to
more particulate third bodies on the friction surface. low, the dense third body formed at high speeds experiences
From the above discussion, it follows that when friction is only gradual wearing process. It is the transformation of third
from high to low speed, the dense and hard third body layer body that causes the difference in friction properties. The third
protects the friction surface and hence stabilizes friction body formed at high friction speed is dense and stable, reducing
coefficient despite the gradual damage to the third bodies as the variation of friction coefficient as well as the wear loss,
while the third body formed at low speed is highly granular and
the friction speed declines. To the contrary, when friction starts
change greatly as the friction speed increases, resulting in a
from low speed to high speed, the friction is on more porous
third bodies formed at low speed. The friction surface is large variation in friction coefficient and higher wear loss.
therefore rough, giving rise to locking effect between the
micro-asperities and resulting in higher friction coefficient. As ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
friction speed increases, so does the temperature of the friction This work was supported by the Natural Science
surface. The elevated temperature improves the continuity and Foundation of China (Grant 50375025) and the Hi-Tech
density of the third bodies, and, at the same time, enhances the Research and Development Program of China (Grant
adherence of the friction debris to the friction surface. 2006AA03Z515).
Therefore, the third body layer is getting thicker and more
deformable, and acting as lubricant to lower the friction REFERENCES
coefficient considerably. [1] Raison, J., 1991, “Les materiaux de freinage,” Revue
generales des chemins de fer, (7-8), pp. 27-36.
2.2 EFFECTS OF THE SPEED SEQUENCES ON WEAR LOSS [2] Kennedy, F.E., Balbahadur, A.C., Lashmore, D.S., 1997,
Wear loss at different contents of SiO2 is shown in Fig. 7, “The friction and wear of Cu-based silcon carbide
where different speed sequences are applied. It is seen that wear particulate metal matrix composites for brake
loss is greatly reduced after the material going through applications,” Wear, (203-204), pp.715-721.
high-speed friction first. Figure 8 illustrates wear loss at various [3] Li, S.P., Xiong, X., et al., 2003, “Study on the behavior of
granularities of SiO2. It is shown again that the friction graphite and SiO2 in copper based friction materials,”
properties of the materials are significantly improved after Non-metallic Mines, 26, pp.51-53.
being tested at high speed. Clearly the speed sequences have [4] Yuan, G. Z., Yao, P. P., et al., 1999, “Effect of SiO2 and B4C
effects on the wear loss as well. The difference in the friction on the properties of Fe-Cu based friction materials,”
and wear properties is due to the different states of third body. Non-metallic Mines, 22, pp.112-113.
The third body formed at high speed is dense and it protects the [5] Liu B. W., Fan, Y., et al., 2001, “Effect of SiO2 and SiC on
friction surfaces, leading to improved wear-resistance. On the properties of Cu-Fe matrix sintered friction materials,”
other hand, when the third body at the friction surfaces Chinese Journal of Nonferrous Metals, 11, pp.110-113.
becomes granular, it is readily removed from the substrate, and [6] Eriksson, M., Jacobson, S., 2000, “Tribological surfaces of
as a result, a high wear loss is observed. organic brake pads,” Tribology International, 33,
pp.817-827.
3. CONCLUSIONS [7] Descartes, S., Berthier, Y., 2002, “Rheology and flows of
Third bodies formed at different fixed speeds are different. solid third bodies: background and application to an
The third body formed at low speed is porous and granular, MoS1.6 coating,” Wear, 252, pp.546-556.
while that formed at high speed is dense and is harder than [8] Sallit, I., Richard, C., Adam, R. and Robbe-Valloire, F.,
Cu-substrate. 1998, “Characterization methodology of a tribological
The friction coefficient of sintered Cu-SiO2 decreases with couple: metal matrix/brake pads,” Materials
increasing friction speed. The level of the decrease depends on Characterization, 40, pp.169-188.
456
The Fluid Dynamic Lubrication between Tooth Surfaces of High Order Contact
The Fluid Dynamic Lubrication between Tooth Surfaces of High Order Contact
L.Huran
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT (National Air and Space Agency) had carried out a program of
After an extensive research on the fundamental theory, the ART (Advanced Rotary Transmission). In which, they
theoretical basis for the Logix gearing will be presented in this presented a new kind of profile, so called NIF/HRC
paper. This includes the theory for gear meshing with high (Nun-involutes / High Rate of Contact) profile. So that
degree of contact. In comparison to previous studies, the theory increased the contact and bending strength of gearing
of this paper is more restricted going beyond third order dramatically. And therefore deceased the total weight of the
parameters into the fourth order, the teeth profile had one order whole engine. But the detail is very hard to get.
of contact higher than that of the Logix gearing. So that further
improved the contact strength of tooth profile. A large category THE HIGH ORDER OF CONTACT BETWEEN TOOTH
of gearings with high order of contact was presented, while the SURFACES
Logix gear is only one of them, or the special example in
realization of my theory. In the Logix gearing, the zigzag
curvature center curve of media rack does not always lay about
the pitch line and does not extend along the pitch line O
1
continuously and steadily. It goes forward and returns. So that, v
in terms of properties of the transverse engagement, the Logix n R 1
Y p1
gearing has not much improvement over the traditional Novikov 2 r
gearing (in which the transverse engagement is temporally). In X
1
my gearing the curvature center of basic rack extend along the v O0
pitch line continuously and steadily. The transverse engagement X
2
factor is larger than that of Logix gearing. Rp2
Keywords: gear lubrication, meshing, basic rack Y
1 O2 v 2
INTRODUCTION
Professor Novikov of former Soviet Union presented the point
contact circular gearing, so started the history of
“Concave-convex” contact transmission. Professor Neumann of
Germany presented the Neumann worm transmission [1]. Such Fig.2 Basic rack and the generation of the conjugate gears
researches improved the contact strength of tooth surface in
some degree. But circular gearing can only mesh temporally in
Illustrations of the notations in this figure:
the same transverse section. The contact of the profile of
Neumann worm transmission was still the “second degree x , y ------the coordinates of the basic rack
“contact. In the early 1990s, the Japanese scholar Komori T et nx ,n y ------the normal vector of the basic rack
al. presented a new gear profile having zero relative curvature X,Y ------the coordinates of the gear
at many contact points improved the contact strength of tooth NX,NY ------the normal vector of the gear
profile [2-3]. However, after the presentation of this new gear, I ------the angular displacement of the gear
so called “Logix” gear, there were not many significant
researches on this field. In recent years, some institutes in l ----- the transverse displacement
China had been attracted by this gearing approach and started Rp -----the radius of the pitch circle
to follow the research of this kind of gearing. But most
researches concentrated on the topics such as the foot-cut and THE CONDITION FOR THE GAP BETWEEN TOOTH
interference, which are applications of the ready-made SURFACES TO BE AN INFINITE SMALL OF 3RD
principles [4-5]. After an extensive research on the ORDER
fundamental theory, the theoretical basis for the Logix gearing According to the theories of gear meshing [6], supposing
will be presented in this paper. In comparison to previous that the profile of basic rack is: y y (x) , the corresponding
studies, the theory of this paper is more restricted going beyond
third order parameters into the fourth order, the teeth profile had profile and normal vector of the gear would be (see Fig.2)
one order of contact higher than that of the Logix gearing. So
that further improved the contact strength of tooth profile. In ªX º ª cos I sin I º ª x º
«Y » « sin I
cos I »¼ «¬ y »¼
the gearing proposed in this work the curvature centre of basic
rack extends along the pitch line continuously and steadily. The ¬ ¼ ¬
transverse engagement factor is larger than that of Logix
gearing. From the viewpoint of derivative geometry, the most ª cos I sin I º ª R pI º
« sin I « »
cos I »¼ ¬ R p ¼
simple and strict way to judge the closeness between two bodies (1)
is the concept of “contact”. ¬
In the end of last century, The NASA of United State,
457
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ª I º ª I 'º {N 1 }T {R1 }' ' 2I1 ' ( y ' 2 1 2 R p1I1 ' ) y ' ' ,
{)} R p « » , {)}' R p « » ,
¬ 1 ¼ ¬ 1 ¼ l x yy '
I1 ˈ
ª I ' 'º R p1 R p1
{)}' ' R p « », (8)
¬ 1 ¼ {N 2 }T {R2 }' ' 2I 2 ' ( y ' 2 1 2 R p 2I 2 ' ) y ' ' ,
Since that the original point of coordinate is the intersect point x yy '
of normal vector and the pitch line of rack. Where: I2
l x yy ' R p2
I =0ˈ (9) Let the second parameter equal zero:
Rp Rp
{N 1 }T {R1 }' ' {N 2 }T {R2 }' ' 0
So that, we have:
We have˖
ª1 0º l' l'
M I 0 « » (10)
I1 ' 0, I 2 ' 0, l ' 0
¬0 1 ¼ R p1 R p2
ª I ' sin I I ' cos I º ( x yy ' )' 0, 1 y ' 2 y ' ' 0 , (16)
M' I 0 « I ' cos I I ' sin I »
¬ ¼I 0 The coordinate of the curvature center:
ª 0 I 'º 1 y' 2
yc y 0
« I ' 0 » (11)
y' '
¬ ¼
458
The Fluid Dynamic Lubrication between Tooth Surfaces of High Order Contact
This means the curvature centre of basic rack must lie on the a a x ff '
pitch line. ³b
p (r u n)dx ³
b
p
1 f '2
dx 0 (27)
459
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Study on Friction and Wear Behavior of Glass Fiber and Fly Ash
Reinforced MC Nylon Composites
ABSTRACT In the present study, glass fiber and fly ash reinforced
The glass fiber and fly ash reinforced monomer casting monomer casting nylon composites (coded as GFFAPA) have
nylon composites (coded as GFFAPA) have been prepared by been prepared by anionic polymerization of caprolactam. The
anionic polymerization of caprolactam. The friction and wear friction and wear behaviors of composites with different
behaviors of composites with different proportion of glass fiber proportion of glass fiber and fly ash under dry condition and
and fly ash under dry condition and water lubrication were water lubrication were investigated through a ring-black wear
investigated through a ring-black wear tester. The worn tester.
surfaces were observed and analyzed using a scanning electron
microscope and a surface profilometer. The results show that
the tribological properties of composites were significantly 2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
affected by the proportion of glass fiber and fly ash. GFFAPA 2.1 MATERIALS
composites had lower friction coefficients and better wear Caprolactam was supplied by Baling Branch, Sinopec Inc.
resistance than MC nylon. The higher wear resistance of the China. Sodium hydroxide was supplied by Shanghai Chemistry
composite could be attained with the proportion of glass fiber Reagent Factory. Leukonat adhesive was supplied by Dalian
30% and fly ash 10%, which respectively decreased 57.8% and
Jinzhou Adhesive Factory. E-glass fiber was supplied by
89.9%. The main wear mechanism of composites with low
proportion of glass fiber and fly ash were adhesive and abrasive Nanjing Glassfiber Research and Design Government, which
wear while that of composites with high proportion of glass nominal diameter was 10m, ratio of lengthen to diameter was
fiber and fly ash were abrasive and fatigue wear. Compared 10:1, and surface treated with a commercial polyamide
with dry friction, the friction coefficient and wear rate of compatible coupling agent (KH-550). Fly ash was supplied by
composites Sg3+f1 respectively decreased 42.5% and 77.8% Tongling Hengfa Electric Power Inc., which nominal diameter
under oil lubricant, while the wear rate was bigger under water was 10m and surface treated with a commercial polyamide
lubrication than that with no lubricant. The wear mechanism compatible coupling agent (KH-550).
under water or oil lubricated condition was principally abrasive 2.2 COMPOSITE SAMPLES
wear.
Glass fiber and fly ash reinforced monomer casting nylon
Keywords: nylon 6, composite, Tribology, Friction, Wear
composites (coded as GFFAPA) were prepared according to
1. INTRODUCTION the following procedure: (i) melt caprolactam at 120ć and
evaporated at vacuum (10mmHg) for 30min; (ξ) mixed in
Polymeric materials are used widely in various
Sodium hydroxide, glass fiber and fly ash (dried at 120ć for
technological applications. Nylon 6 is known to be one of the
main engineering polymers and has been used in various 1h), stirred under magnetic force and continue evaporated at
mechanical components, electric appliances and business vacuum at 130-140ć for 60min; (ο) mixed in Leukonat
equipment as well as automotive industry. However, Nylon 6 adhesive and quickly casted into the mould, which was placed
components are inherently low wear-resistant, and thus, the in an oven at a temperature of 180°C;(π) after cooling in air,
usage is limited to relatively milder service applications. The specimen pins of the size 30mmh7mmh6mm were machined
potential for applications of Nylon 6 can be significantly from the blocks. Table 1 shows the mechanical properties of the
increased if friction and wear properties can be improved. GFFAPA composites.
Various studies [1-3] have demonstrated that the 2.3 SLIDING TESTS
tribobehavior of polymers is improved by the addition of fillers.
Friction and wear tests were performed at speeds of 200rm-1
Ge shi-rong et al. [4] reported that the tribological properties of
the composite were significantly affected by glass fiber content for 1h under loads of 200N with a MM-200 block-on-ring wear
under the given testing conditions, and the optimal reinforcing tester, made by Xuanhua Material Test Machine Co. Ltd.,
effect of PA 1010 was reached at the glass fiber content China. Samples were 30mmᱢ7mmᱢ6mm blocks, and sliding
between 25% and 30%. Li guo-lu et al. [5] reported the friction was performed on the 6mmh30mm face. The material of the
coefficient of glass bead filled composite was decreased, wear metallic ring was AISI 1045 steel, quenched and hardened to a
resistance of the composite was increased, where adhesive wear hardness of 40-45 HRC. Figure 1 shows the illustration of the
and abrasive wear were main wear behaviors. Wang Jun-xiang block-on-ring arrangement. The metallic ring and the block
et al. [6] reported that carbon fiber and CaF2 filler is more specimen were finished with 600 grade SiC paper, which
effective in improving the tribological properties of nylon 1010
provided a surface roughness of Ra = 0.10-0.15 and 0.4-0.6μm,
matrix. The wear rate and friction coefficient of
30%CF-10%CaF2 Nylon is reduced almost 5 times and respectively. The surfaces of the block and the metallic ring
approximately 25 percent than that of 30%CF Nylon, were cleaned with absorbent cotton soaked in acetone and dried.
respectively. Before and after the experiment, the block was cleaned with a
* Corresponding author.
brush to remove particles/wear debris. Before testing, all the
460
Study on Friction and Wear Behavior of Glass Fiber and Fly Ash Reinforced MC Nylon Composites
Figure 3 shows the friction properties of GFFAPA compared to dry condition. It could be seen that the friction
composites (Sg3+f1) under water and oil lubricated conditions coefficient and wear rate of composites in a water lubricated
461
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
environment were lower than that under dry condition, and There was also the character of fatigue wear as shown in
higher than that in an oil lubricated environment. The friction Figure 5. When fiber proportion was increased to 30% and fly
coefficient and wear rate of composites in a water lubricated ash to 10%, a patch consists of fine wear particles held together
environment is approximately half of that without lubrication. by thermo mechanical processes, specifically softening owing
The friction coefficient and wear rate of composites to frictional heat, and subsequent compression owing to normal
respectively decreased 42.5% and 77.8% under oil lubrication. load. The wear particles were accumulated and formed a
It indicated that GFFAPA composites had best tribological compacted patch. The patches were likely to shield the pin
properties under oil lubricated condition.For the presence of
water and oil, an anti-wear film was appeared, which reduced
the wear rate decreased.
a
0.4 0.08
friction coefficient
0.3
wear rate /g 0.06
friction coefficient
wear rate /g
0.2 0.04
0.1 0.02
b
0.0 0.00
1 2 3
Samples
462
Study on Friction and Wear Behavior of Glass Fiber and Fly Ash Reinforced MC Nylon Composites
463
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Wenhu Xu, Xinchun Lu, Guoshun Pan, Jianbin Luo, Chenhui Zhang
The State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
ABSTRACT Honglin Zhu etc[4] used CMP to polish the sapphire to get
Sapphire is an important substrate material widely used in a the required surface quality. Although CMP was proved to be a
range of applications such as optics, electrics, and IC industry. available method to polish sapphire, but the MRR of sapphire
In many of those applications, critical surface quality demands CMP is low because of the sapphire’s high hardness. It is
of sapphire are required. Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) necessary to combine CMP and other methods to improve the
has been proved to be a available method to produce high MRR. Ultrasonic machining (USM) is among the most
quality surface for sapphire substrate. But there are still some effective methods for machining hard and brittle materials,
disadvantages in traditional CMP system, for example, the such as glass and ceramics. Many people use USM to polish
material removal rate (MRR) is very low. In order to improve different kinds of materials. H. Hocheng and K.L. Kuo[5] used
the MRR, an ultrasonic vibration assisted CMP system is ultrasonic polishing for mold steel. H. Suzuki etc[6]used
developed. The polishing tool is vibrated along horizontal ultrasonic vibration assisted polishing machine for micro
direction at an ultrasonic frequency with piezo-electric aspheric die and mold. Rulin Shen and Jue Zhong[7]used
actuators. In our study, the MRR of sapphire is about twice as ultrasonic polishing for magnetic recording heads. We
much as the traditional method with the help of ultrasonic developed an ultrasonic vibration assisted CMP system in
energy. And the reasons of improving the MRR by the order to improve the MRR of sapphire. Proved by the
ultrasonic vibration assisted CMP are also discussed. experimental results, it can improve the MRR twice as much as
Keywords: ultrasonic vibration, chemical mechanical polishing, the traditional method.
sapphire substrate
EXPERIMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Sapphire is a single crystal form of ¢-alumina and widely
used in a variety of modern high-technology applications
because of their optical ,chemical and mechanical properties,
such as substrate material for high-power blue light emitting
diodes, laser diodes[1] and read–write laser sources for high
density information storage on magnetic and optical media.
sapphire is also used for visible and midwave infrared airborne
windows and radomes[2].
In all of those applications, stringent surface quality is Fig. 2 Schematic of ultrasonic vibration assisted CMP system
required. Now CMP is usually used to polish sapphire material
to satisfy the demands of the surface quality. Traditional CMP
system is shown in figure 1. During CMP processes, a wafer is
rotated about its axis while being pressed onto a rotating
polishing pad by a carrier and a carrier film. At the same time,
slurry is provided to the wafer and pad interface. The polishing
pad is typically made of soft compliant polymers and has a
porous and rough pad surface. Slurry is a solution containing
abrasive particles and reactive chemicals. The material
removal in CMP is a combination of chemical reaction of the
slurry chemicals with the wafer surface materials and the
repeated sliding, rolling, or indentation of the abrasive particles
against the wafer surface[3].
464
Experimental Study of Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Chemical Mechanical Polishing for Sapphire Substrate
about 20kHz and the amplitude is about 10 micrometers. The little when the pressure is 5 psi. Maybe the reason is that 5psi
polishing pad is ratated and the slurry flows between the pad is so large that it is not suitable for ultrasonic vibrating system.
and wafer. The polishing pressure is adjusted by the amount of
the weights mounted on the wafer holder.
465
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
REFERENCES
[1]J.W.Orton, C.T.Foxon, 1998, “Group III nitride
semiconductors for short wavelength light-emitting devices”,
Reports on progress in physics, 61, pp.1-76.
[2] M. Smith, K. Schmid, F. Schmid, C.P. Khattak, J.
Lambropoulos, 1999, “Window and Dome Technologies and
Materials IV”, in:R.W. Tustison (Eds.), Proceedings of
SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering, 3705,
Orlando, pp.2-326.
[3]Xia Xun, Ahmadi, 2002, “Surface removal rate in
chemical-mechanical polishing”, Particulate Science and
Technology, 20, p.187-196.
Fig. 7 developed ultrasonic vibration assisted CMP machine [4]Honglin Zhu, Luiz A. Tessaroto, Robert Sabia, Victor A.
Greenhut,Maynard Smith, Dale E. Niesz, 2004, “Chemical
mechanical polishing (CMP) anisotropy in sapphire,” Applied
DISCUSSION Surface Science, 236, p.120–130.
The reasons are as below why the ultrasonic vibration can [5]H.Hocheng, K.L. Kuo,2002, “Fundamental study of
improve the sapphire MRR greatly. ultrasonic polishing of mold steel,” International Journal of
1. The impact force between sapphire and the abrasives is Machine Tools & Manufacture , 42 , p.7–13.
enlarged by ultrasonic wave. [6] Suzuki, H, Moriwaki, T, Okino, T, Ando, Y, 2006,
2. The cavitation damage is caused by high frequency “Development of ultrasonic vibration assisted polishing
vibration. When the bubbles collapse, the stress pulse machine for micro aspheric die and mold”, CIRP Annals -
ranging from a few hundred to over 1000 MPa will strike Manufacturing Technology, 55, p.385-388.
the surface of sapphire time after time. So the surface [7] Rulin Shen, Jue Zhong,2007, “Ultrasonic Applied in Super
material will be removed after long time[8]. Precision polishing of Magnetic Recording Heads,” Electronic
3. Ultrasonic wave may change the surface or subsurface Packaging Technology, 2007. ICEPT 2007. 8th International
structures of sapphire so that the sapphire becomes easier Conference on , p.1-4.
to be removed. [8] W.J. Tomlinson, N. Kalitsounakis, G. Vekinis, 1999,
4. Ultrasonic vibration may enhance the shearing force “Cavitation erosion of aluminas”, Ceramics International, 25,
between sapphire surface and the polishing pad. p.331-338.
466
Friction and Wear of the Ceramic Coating Formed on Magnesium Alloy
*
Fei Chen1, , Hai Zhou1, Qingfeng Zhang1, Fanxiu Lv2
1
College of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology, Beijing 102617, China
2
School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Beijing 100083, China
INTRODUCTION
Microarc Oxidation (also named microplasma oxidation or Fig.1 Sectional microstructure of the coating
anodic spark deposition) is a surface treatment technology
developed recently, and has been arousing interest among 2.2 SURFACE MORPHOLOGY OF THE COATING
international researches [1~4]. It breaks the operating voltage The SEM images of the surface morphology of the
limits of traditional anodic oxidation. Using high-voltage micro-arc oxidation ceramic coatings that were prepared at
discharges, ceramic coating can be directly formed on the 300V, 3A for 20, 40 or 60 minutes respectively as shown in
surface of nonferrous metals, such as Al, Ti, Mg and so on, Fig.2. It can be seen that oxidized film surface is composed of
owing to the high instantaneous temperature in a microarc zone. melted parcels with different sizes, and a mass of micropores
Following steel and aluminum, ceramic has become the third are unevenly distributed in them. These micropores are the
generation of engineering materials for its special physical and channels through which solutions react with the alloy. Under the
chemical features, but meanwhile its poor plasticity and arc discharge, the formed oxides are melted, rapidly solidified
machinability limit its application as homogeneous. Through and jointed to each other. Original micropores are covered by
microarc oxidation, ceramic coatings with high quality are the new oxides. Therefore, as the microarc oxidation proceeds,
prepared and the perfect combination of the advantages of two the ceramic coating becomes thicker. In addition, obvious
types of materials is realized[5~7]. extended cracks can be seen on the surface. They are caused by
the thermal stress formed in rapid solidification of the oxide
1. EXPERIMENTAL melts.
The surface morphology of micro-arc oxidation ceramic
Experimental material adopted a Mg-Al wrought coating is formed after completing three phases of the microarc
magnesium alloy AZ31. A self-designed 30 KW pulse microarc oxidation, namely, anodic deposition, microarc formation and
oxidation device was used for surface treatment. It consists of partial arc discharge. The phase before creating spark discharge
pulsed ionizing power supply, electrolytic bath, rabbling system, is called as anodic deposition; it means the spark discharge
cooling system, equal-electrode workpieces and copperplate. starting that massive, dense, fine and well-proportioned white
The samples are Ü20 mm×5 mm round cakes. The electrolytic sparks are produced on the sample surface. Then the spark
solution composed mainly of Na2SiO3 (10 g/L) was prepared density is reduced and its color is changed from white to orange.
467
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
But the sparks are still dense and even, a dense layer is formed, [8~9].
smaller micropores are distributed on the layer surface, which is
called as microarc formation; the phase after bigger arc spots 2.3 COMPOSITION OF THE COATING
appear on the surface is called as partial arc discharge. Bigger Fig.3 shows the distribution of Mg and O elements in the
microarc oxidation ceramic coating. As shown in the figure, the
content of Mg element in the ceramic coating rapidly increases
within 0~10m, but it gradually increases after reaching 10m
in thickness, and stabilizes when hits the peak value after
reaching 30m, i.e. the substrate of magnesium alloy. The
distribution of O element shows a tendency from high to low. O
element is mainly contained within 5~20m of the ceramic
coating, reaches the max after 15m, and tends to zero after
30m. The distribution curve of Mg and O elements shows that
O element is mainly contained in the dense layer of the microarc
oxidation ceramic coating and combines with magnesium to
form MgO, which is verified in XRD examination.
(a) 20min
(b) 40min
(c) 60min
Fig.2 The surface morphology of the coating (a) 20min (b)
40min (c) 60min
468
Friction and Wear of the Ceramic Coating Formed on Magnesium Alloy
amorphous film phase structure after the anodic oxidation of improvement in its tribological behavior.
magnesium alloy in principle. Microarc oxidation makes
oxidized amorphous MgO into cubic through high-temperature
and –pressure instant sintering. Such structure can make the
dense layer denser to increase the hardness of magnesium
alloy[10].
0.5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
0.4 This work was supported by the Funding Project for
Excellent Talents Cultivation of Beijing Municipality
0.3 (20061D0500500151).
0.2
REFERENCES
0.1
2 [1] A.V. Apelfeld, O.V. Bespalova, A.M. Borisov, 2000,
“Application of the particle backscattering methods for the
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
study of new oxide protective coatings at the surface of Al
time / min
and Mg alloys”, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in
Physics Research B, 161-163, pp.553~557.
[2] Xue Wenbin, Deng Zhiwei, Lai Yongchun, 1998, “Analysis
Fig.6 Friction coefficient of magnesium substrate and microarc of phase distribution for ceramic coatings formed by
oxidation ceramic coating microarc oxidation on aluminum alloy”, Journal of
American Ceramic Socity, 81(5), pp.1365~1368.
Fig.7 shows the worn appearances of the two samples after [3] Xue Wenbin, Deng Zhiwei, 2000, “Growth regularity of
10 minutes glide. It can be seen that the grinding cracks on the ceramic coatings formed by microarc oxidation on
basis magnesium alloy are more obvious, mainly by furrowing Al-Cu-Mg alloy”, Thin Solid Films, 372, pp.114~117.
and sticking, while the grinding cracks on the microarc [4] L.Rama Krishna, K.R.C. Somaraju, 2003, “The tribological
oxidation ceramic coating are light, and the surface is less performance of ultra-hard ceramic composite coatings
affected by sticking and scraping. It can be concluded that both obtained through microarc oxidation”, Surface and
the anti-friction ability and anti-wear ability of magnesium alloy Coatings Technology, 163-164, pp. 484~490.
are improved after microarc oxidation. There’s notable
469
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
[5] Wang Y M, Jiang B L, Lei T Q, et al, 2006, “Fretting wear [8] Yousef Al-Abdullat, Sadami,Tsutsumi, Naoki Nakajima,
behaviour of microarc oxidation coatings formed on 2001, “Surface Modification of Magnesium by NaHCO3
titanium alloy against steel in unlubrication and oil and Corrosion Behavior in Hank’s Solution for New
lubrication”, Applied Surface Science, 252(23,30), Biomaterial Applications”, Materials Transactions, 42(8),
pp.1777-1780.
pp.8113~8120.
[9] S V Gnedenkov, O A Khrisanfova, A G Zavidnaya, 2000,
[6] M. Woydt, A. skopp, I. Dorfel, 1998, “Wear engineering
“Production of hard and heat-resistant coatings on
oxides/anti-wear oxides”, Wear, pp.218: 84~89. aluminum using plasma micro-discharge”, Surface and
[7] Wang Y M, Jiang B L, Lei T Q, 2006, “Microarc oxidation Coatings Technology, 123, pp.24-28.
coatings formed on Ti6Al4V in Na2SiO3 system solution: [10] Hideyuki Kuwahara,Yousef Al-Abdullat,Naoko Mazaki,
Microstructure, mechanical and tribological properties “, 2001, “Precipitation of Magnesium Apatite on Pure
Surface and Coatings Technology, 210(1-2), pp.82~89. Magne-sium Surface during Immersing in Hank’s
Solution”, Materials Transactions, 42(7), pp.1317-1321.
470
Thermal-Mechanical Couple Simulation of Solid Brake Disc in Repeated Braking Cycles
ABSTRACT FORMULATION
The brake system is an important part of the automobile
safety system. This system consists of two parts: a rotating HEAT FLUX
axi-symmetrical disk; and stationary pads, with In the course of braking, the frictional heat is generated on
three-dimensional geometry. The braking operation is a the surface of brake disc and brake pads.
process that converts the kinetic energy and potential energy of 1 I (1)
Δ E = Δ E + Δ E = (V 2 − V 2 )( m +
t k p 1 2 )
the moving automobile in to the other energies. Most of the 2 r2
mechanical energy is transferred into the heat. The frictional The heat flux into the disc rotor in each step can be
heat, which is generated on the interface of the disc and pads, calculated by the following equation [6]
can cause high temperature during the braking process. The I
frictional heat source is moving on the disc and its location is a aγ (m + )[ 2 V 1 − a ( t1 + t 2 )]
q = r2 (2)
time function. In order to simulate the friction heat behavior
10 π ( R 02 − R i2 )
accurately in repeated braking, we applied a moving heat
source which is defined by time and space variable on the where t is the time, a is the deceleration or acceleration, m
frictional surface. The object of present work is to determine is the total vehicle mass, r is the tire radius, and
is the relative
temperature distribution, thermal distortion and thermal stress braking energy, V1 is the initial velocity of vehicle.
in the solid disc by 3D modeling for the repeated braking. The
thermal fatigue will be discussed in the present paper also. HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
Keywords: Temperature field, Thermal stress, Brake Disc, The convective heat transfer coefficients of the solid disc
Repeated Braking, Thermal-structure brake are quoted from the experiential formulas by Rudolf
Limpert [6, 7]. For a solid brake disc, the convective heat
INTRODUCTION transfer coefficient associated with laminar flow can be
Disc brakes are widely used for reducing velocity due to approximated by
their characteristics of braking stability, controllability and hR = 0.70(ka D) Re0.55 (3)
ability to prove a wide-ranging brake torque. The disc-pad where, D is the outer diameter, Re is Reynolds number
brake consists of two parts: a rotating disk that is geometrically
axi-symmetric; and stationary pads having a three-dimensional
and ka is thermal conductivity of air.
geometry [Fig. 1].
THERMAL STRESS
The thermal strains at a given temperature T can be
assumed to be proportional to the temperature change, T.
ε = α (T − T0 ) = α (ΔT ) (4)
where T0 is a reference temperature where the strains are taken
to be zero, α is the thermal expansion coefficient.
The elastic deformation is satisfied by the Hook’s law. And
hence the thermal stress σ is described as
σ = Eα (ΔT ) = Eε (5)
Fig. 1 Scheme of disc brake
During braking, the kinetic and potential energies of a
moving vehicle are converted into thermal energy through
frictional heat generated between the brake disc and the pads.
95% of the mechanical energy is transformed into heat. Most
of the heat energy (99%) is dissipated through the brake disc
during this process. The high temperature gradient in the disc
could cause excessive thermal stresses. Particularly, the
temperature can exceed the critical value for a given material,
which leads to undesirable effects, such as the brake fade, Fig. 2 Heat flux, heat transfer coefficient and speed
premature wear and thermal cracks [1, 2].
Gao and Lin et al. analyzed the transient temperature field
and thermal fatigue fracture of solid brake disc in a 3D SIMULATION AND RESULT
thermo-mechanical coupling model [2, 3]. Lee and Valvano
used the computer modeling techniques to predict the brake SIMULATION
fluid temperature rise as well as other brake component The vehicle weight is 1900 kg, percent braking on the front
temperatures during both braking and heat soaking [4, 5].
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Heat flux
Convection
REFERENCES
[1] Makin, T.J., et al., 2002, “Thermal Cracking in Disc
Brakes,” Engineering Failure Analysis, 9, pp.63-76.
[2] Gao, G.H., & Lin, X.Z., 2002, “Transient Temperature
Field Analysis of a Brake in a Non-axisymmetric
Three-dimensional Model,” Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 129, pp.513-517.
(a) t= 25.96 s (b) t= 37.76 s [3] Gao, G.H., Huang, J.M., Lin, X.Z. & Tang, X.S., 2007,
Fig. 4 Temperature field of the brake disc “Stress Analysis of Thermal Fatigue Fracture of Brake
Discs Based on Thermomechanical Coupling,” Journal of
Tribology Transactions of the ASME, Vol. 129, No. 3, pp.
536-543.
[4] Lee, K.J., 1999, “Numerical Prediction of Brake Fluid
Temperature Rise during Braking and Heat soaking,”
Proceedings SAE 1999 World Congress, 1999-01-1483.
[5] Valvano, T., & Lee, K.J., 2000, “An Analytical Method to
Predict Thermal Distortion of a Brake Rotor,” Proc. SAE
2000 World Congress, 2000-1-0445.
Fig. 5 Temperature in the brake disc (r=128, =0, z=16,) [6] Arpaci, V. S., 1991, Conduction Heat Transfer, MA: Ginn
As the Fig.5 shown, the temperature is occurred before the Press, Nedham Heights.
end of the brake time, then cooling to lower temperature [7] Limpert, R., 1992, Brake Design and Safety, Science of
Automotive Engineers Inc, Warrendale, PA.
THERMAL DEFORMATION [8] Yevtushenko, A., & Ivanyk, E., 1995, “Determination of
From the Fig. 6, we can find that the frictional heat effect heat and thermal distortion in braking systems,” Wear, 185,
causes the disc to get coning: the maximum deformation pp.159-165.
occurred at the outer circle of brake and vary with the
temperature.
472
Preliminary Applications of King’s ART Technology in Industry
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
King’s ART Auto-Reconditioning Technology is based on constituent of King’s ART auto-reconditioner, is structured by
the physic-chemistry model and theory originated by State Key interconnected six member rings of complex ion (SiO4)4-
Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University and further tetrahedron that extends outward in infinite sheets. When Mg2+
developed by King’s ART Novel Materials R&D Co., LTD. . It cations in octahedron are bonded to the SiO4 sheets, they share
is an advanced technology which takes advantage of energy the apical oxygen atoms and the OH ions through weak
release and materials chemistry existing in the worn damaged electrovalent bonding. Such structure makes serpentine
regions to in-situ auto-recondition worn parts by phyllosilicates easily cleavage fracture to release desired
mechanochemical reaction, meanwhile form a protective layer dissociative oxygen and free water. When brought to wear
with excellent tribological properties on the tribosurfaces. This surfaces by lubricant, it undergoes a series of complex
paper mainly discusses the feasibility of industrial application mechanochemical reactions to in-situ form a protective layer
of the technology. The results show that it could improve drive with nanocrystalline phase structure composed of three
property of automobile engine with fuel consumption reduced elements of Fe, C and O on wear surfaces.
by 5% and the exhaust emission decreased by 23%; it can The entire process can be explained by 3-stage
decrease the wear loss of air compressor, strengthen the gas physic-chemistry model [2]: Oxidative Mechanical Polishing,
tightness, lower the machinery noise and save energy Lubricant Carbonization & Graphitization, and Mechanical
consumption; it also has some positive effect on mechanical Alloying. After the three consecutive stages, a nanocrystalline
devices such as rolling bearings and gear boxes by effectively layer gradually spreads on worn region of the tribosurfaces .
decreasing friction and wear loss.
Keywords: Protective layer, Auto-Reconditioning, Friction 2 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
and wear, Industrial applications 2.1 APPLICATION IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINE--CASE 1
We authorized Beijing Automobile Testing Center to
INTRODUCTION compare the fuel consumption and emission of a Jetta engine
Friction and wear reducing is an eternal topic of scientific before and after treated by King’s ART Technology in 2006.
research field. A less friction loss results in a stronger Testing Process was as follows: King’s ART
mechanical power and a higher efficiency. According to auto-reconditioner was added in mass ratio of 0.5% to the
incomplete statistics, about 1/3 to 1/2 of total energy is wasted general-purpose engine oil with the high quality Shell gasoline
due to friction and some 80% of machine parts failure results engine oil of SF level as comparison. The test car, equipped
from wear. Therefore, application of new tribological with three-way catalyst, has 4 cylinders with displacement of
technique to lower energy consumption and save oil resource 1.6L. The cylinder pressure was reduced to around 8.2 over
is a matter of great urgent. 130,000 kilometer driving. The benchmark data about fuel
From the point of view of surface engineering there are consumption and emission was got after the car loading with
three approaches of reconditioning of worn tribosurfaces, i.e., Shell gasoline engine oil ran for 200km strictly in accordance
1) preventive treatment such as heat treatment strengthening, with test specification. Replacing Shell lubricant with
film-deposition technique and mechanical strengthening, 2) general-purpose one containing King’s ART auto-reconditioner,
after-failure treatment including thermal spraying, brush relevant data was collected over 2000 km driving period with
plating and other surface finishing techniques, 3) in-situ other conditions remaining the same.
treatment [1]. The former two approaches belong to off-line Those data showed that: 1) The cylinder pressure was
strengthening technique with some inherent defects such as recovered to original level—12; 2) The overall fuel economy
complex procedure, long processing time and high cost. The rates were: 3.1% (urban district speed at 30-50km/h), 3.3%
last approach can in great extent overcome above-mentioned (intercity speed at 70-90km/h) and 3.7% (express way speed at
shortcomings, and hence is the rising research focus in the around 110km/h); 3) emission was reduced as shown in table1.
anti-wear restoration field. Table 1 Emission Comparison
King’s ART Co., Ltd develops an additive package of Shell gasoline engine oil containing King’s
reconditioning functionality for worn ferrous surfaces in light engine oil ART auto-reconditioner
of the physic-chemistry model and theory raised by Prof.
Yuansheng Jin. The package, i.e. King’s ART HC + NOx 0.180 0.138
auto-reconditioner, is formulated from a fine-powdery CO 0.74 0.563
multi-component mixture of Serpentine minerals, surfactants
and catalysts, which can dynamically rehabilitate the wear CASE 2
surface, as been demonstrated many times in both laboratory In December 2007, Yunnan Yuxi Bill Technology
tribotestings and real-world scenarios. This paper focuses on Management Co., Ltd treated 10 vehicles of various brands
preliminary industrial applications of this technology. and conditions using King’s ART Technology. The
comparisons before and after treatment are shown in table 2:
1 FORMATION MECHANISM It is obvious that treated by King’s ART technology, all
vehicles experienced reduction of fuel consumption at different
Serpentine phyllosilicates (Mg6(Si4O10)(OH)8),the main degree according to various conditions, the average fuel
* Corresponding author. Rm A305, 12 Shangdi Information Rd, economy rate was 5.23%, and the situations of emission were
Haidian District, Beijing 100085. E-mail: claytonchan@163.com significantly improved too.
Tel: +86-10-62978227, Fax: +86-10-82790179
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Table 2 Automobile Parameters before and after Treated by King’s ART Technology
Car Engine Volume of Mileage˄Km˅ Emission Fuel Consumption (L/100km)
No. Type Lub. Tank Before After HC/CO2 (before) HC/CO2 (after) Before After
1 gasoline 3.3L 140,104 507 940/0.33 750/0.23 8 7.7
2 gasoline 3.3L 61,785 671 563/0.19 440/0.10 5.8 5.1
3 gasoline 3L 130,942 563 1566/0.59 1096/0.42 10 9
4 gasoline 4L 70,258 536 730/0.08 511/0.056 15 15
5 gasoline 3L 84,297 334 677/0.71 550/0.50 6 6
6 gasoline 3L 159,740 307 770/5.42 539/3.80 8 7.8
7 diesel 7L 40,945 408 Smoke 2.56 Smoke 2.30 10 10
8 diesel 14L 693,516 2175 Smoke 2.86 Smoke 2.50 28 27
9 diesel 14L 315,866 2200 Smoke 2.54 Smoke 2.20 23 22.5
10 diesel 5L 81,575 1456 Smoke 1.04 Smoke 0.94 7 6.8
2.2 APPLICATION IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEM Anti-adhesion property testing indicated that the seizure
In April 2008, King’s ART auto-reconditioner was resistance of the friction pairs with the layer is about 2.5 times
experimented on a 4L-20/8 type gas compressor of higher than that without the layer, as shown in Fig.2.
Shijiazhuang Zhengtuo Gas Co., Ltd. 0.8
the crankcase oil at concentration of 0.04 g/L. After continuous 0.6 W ith layer
operation of 7 hours, frictional noise of the equipment was Pressure (MPa)
0.5
reduced from 88dB to 83dB. Then the crankcase oil was
intentionally empted and the equipment went on running for 0.4
The result showed that there was no wear on the surface of 0.1
tribological parts were maintained. Refilled with ordinary lube Fig. 2 Carrying Capacity Curves of Friction Pairs with and
oil again, the compressor continued to operate normally. without Protective Layer on S45C Steel Surface
The fulfillment of oilless lubrication in air compressor
indicated that due to generating nanocrystalline protective layer
3 CONCLUSION
on whole worn region, tribosurfaces was endowed with
excellent property of antifriction and wear resistance, and the Favorable results of preliminary application of King’s
friction coefficient was greatly reduced to the extent that slide ART Technology in industry justify the feasibility: it can
rod and bearing could stably run at lubrication condition improve drive property of automobile engine with fuel
without oil. consumption reduced by 5% and the exhaust emission
decreased by 23%; it can decrease the wear loss of air
2.3 APPLICATION IN JOURNAL BEARING OF compressor, strengthen the gas tightness, lower the machinery
HORIZONTAL SHAFT TYPE PUMP [3] noise and save energy consumption; it also has some positive
A horizontal shaft type pump with S45C steel shaft and effect on mechanical devices such as general bearings and gear
Babbit alloy journal bearing manufactured in Mitsubishi Heavy boxes by effectively decreasing friction and wear loss.
Industries, Ltd was selected. SAE 5W-40 oil was used as base To date, the application validity and effectiveness of the
lubricant in which King’s ART auto-reconditioner with 1wtă technology in some industries has been verified and relevant
concentration was blended. The lubricant was injected in oil data were collected. In light of wide existence of friction and
tank for immerging lubrication. respective industry having specific requirement for
Anti-abrasion property testing indicated that more serious auto-reconditioner, data got at present are far from sufficiency
plastic flow, plough, and more plastic crack-up exhibit on the for promoting the technology. Further industrial application
shaft surface without the protective layer than that with the testing is needed to establish the application database of King’s
protective layer, as shown in Fig.1. In terms of the measuring ART auto-reconditioner.
results of wear scar depth by a Talysurf Profilometer the
abrasive wear rate of the surface with protective layer is three REFERENCES
times lower than that without protective overcoat. [1] Zeng S. W. 2002, “Discussion on Maintenance Strategy,
Policy and Corresponding Maintenance Systems In
Manufacturing,” European Journal of Operational
Research, 138, 3, 554-568.
[2] Jin Y., Yang H., et al, 2006, “The generation mechanism of
nanocrystalline protective layer on worn ferrous metal
surfaces in presence of Mg6Si4O10(OH)8,” Proceedings of
ASIATRIB 2006 KANAZAWA, JAPAN, Invited Speech, p837.
[3] Jin Yuansheng, Kazuhiko Yamashita, 2006, “Investigation
a) b) of Applying Mg6Si4O10(OH)8 Reconditioner to Journal
Fig. 1 SEM Images of S45C Steel Surfaces without (a) and Bearing of Horizontal Shaft Type Pump,” Proceedings of
with (b) Protective Layer after Abrasive Test ASIATRIB, KANAZAWA, JAPAN 29
474
Wear Properties of Potassium Titanate Whiskers Reinforced ZL109 Alloy Composites
Wei Zhongshan (Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096)
Wu Shenqing (Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096)
Extended Abstract
Table 1
475
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
476
Mineralogical Mechanochemical Agent Assisted Reconditioning Effects and Mechanism on Worn Ferrous Surfaces
(Extended Abstract)
477
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Table 1
478
Experiment Research on the Friction Performance of O-Ring with Different Oil Swelling Ratios
Experiment Research on the Friction Performance of O-Ring with Different Oil Swelling Ratios
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT and compression the piston rod and for recording the pull and
In this paper, we studied the friction performance of pressure force real time. The volume swelling ratio of the
reciprocate sealing by O-ring for float controller. What’s O-rings can be calculated by the volume of the O-ring in the
analyzed here is the impact of the swelling ratio and rigidity of air and in the water.
the O-ring dipped in gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil on the 1.5 MEASURE AND CALCULATING OF THE MAIN
static and kinetic friction aroused by swelling. PARAMETERS
Based on the experiment results, we find that the rigidity of 1.5.1 Measure of the sectional diameter of the O-ring
the O-ring decreases with the oil swelling ratio increasing, and We drew a circle with the same diameter as the O-ring
the decreasing ratio of the O-ring dipped in gasoline is the internal diameter and trisecting the circle in advance. By
lowest. The static and kinetic friction aroused by swelling measuring the sectional diameter of the O-ring on the trisecting
increases with the increasing of precompression as a whole. line we used the three values to reduce measure errors.
The experiment results also show that the friction is not 1.5.2 Measure of the internal diameter of the O-ring
proportional to the compression. When the value of We drew a circle with the same diameter as the O-ring
compression is less than 0.45mm, the friction fluctuates; when internal diameter and trisecting the circle in advance. By
the value is in the range of 0.45mm to 0.6mm, the friction keep measuring the internal diameter of the O-ring on the trisecting
invariable; when the value is more than 0.6mm, the higher the line we used the three values to reduce measure errors.
compression is the higher the friction is. 1.5.3 Measure of the mass of the O-ring in the water
Keywords: O-ring, Swelling Ratio, Friction According to the GB/T 1690-2006, the water adopted
should be the distilled water. To eliminate the air bubble
INTRODUCTION produced during the process of immersing the O-ring into the
water, we liberate or wipe the O-ring until the air bubble
The volume swelling ratio of the O-ring is in the range of disappear.
10 to 15 percent [1,2]. When the O-ring is used for kinematical 1.5.4 Calculating of the volume swelling ratio
sealing, the start kinetic friction force is high. The oil and gas We measured the mass of each sample in the air and in the
separator for pipeline has a float controller sealing with O-ring. water and calculated the volume swelling ratio as formula (1)
For the float controller, the friction is requested to be the for three samples separately. Then we used the three values to
lowest, but the sealing performance is still excellent. Therefore, reduce measure errors:
when designing the size of seal grooves we should take the
effect of bulk swelling into account. mi mi , w
'V100 ( 1) u 100 (1)
In this paper, the effect of the swelling ratio and the rigidity m0 m0, w
of the O-ring dipped in gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil on the
static and kinetic friction is investigated. Where
mi : the mass of the sample in the air before the test, g;
1 METHOD OF THE TEST
1.1 THE TEST CONTENT
mi , w : the mass of the sample in the air after the test, g;
(1) Measuring the swelling rule of the O-ring dipped into m0 : the mass of the sample in the water before the test, g;
the oils at normal temperature and normal pressure.
(2) Measuring the frictions variety of the O-ring dipped m0, w : the mass of the sample in the water after the test, g.
into the oils at normal temperature and normal pressure.
1.2 THE TEST O-RING 1.5.5 Confirming the static and kinetic friction
The test O-rings are chosen from two plants with the same The static friction is the maximum friction before the
material named group A and group B. Their parameters are as piston begins to move. On the pulling machine, the static
friction is the peak value of the pulling curve. The kinetic
following: internal diameter D=87.5mm, diameter of section
friction is the friction when the piston is moving. For both
d=5.3mm.
static and kinetic friction, we tested three times and then used
1.3 THE TEST OILS the three values as the static and kinetic friction results to
Gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil were tested. We
reduce measure errors.
immersed the test O-rings into the test oils entirely for some
time.
2 METHOD OF THE DATA PROCESSING
1.4 THE TEST METHOD
We measure parameters of the O-ring including the section 2.1 VOLUME SWELLING RATIO OF O-RING DIPPED
diameter, internal diameter, mass in the air and mass in the INTO GASOLINE, KEROSENE AND DIESEL OIL
water. Through the parameters and the data of friction we can Fig. 1 and Fig.2 showed the relationship curves between
analyze the relation between the swelling ratio and friction. the volume swelling ratio of O-ring dipped in kerosene,
The 9 O-rings were dipped in the test oils separately. The gasoline and diesel oil and the dipping time. The abscissa is
parameters of the O-rings should be measured every 24h and time, and the vertical coordinate is the swelling ratio. We can
two O-rings of each group should be installed on the float see that at the beginning, the volume swelling ratio rises up
controller. A pulling machine was used for reversing tension rapidly with the increase of dipping time. After 24 hours, the
479
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
variety of all the curves became gentle. Among the three oils, $
gasoline had the most significant effect on swelling ratio of the
O-ring.
K
Fig.4 Rigidity variety of O-ring in Group B
From the Fig.1 and Fig.2 we can also known that in despite
of the same material, the volume swelling ratio of the O-ring
was different for the products from different plants. The
swelling ratios of the O-ring dipped in kerosene, diesel oil and
gasoline for 72 hours are as following: the results of group A
were 7% and 15%, and the results of group B were 1%, 3% PP
and 16%.
2.2 RIGIDITY OF O-RING DIPPED INTO GASOLENE,
KEROSENE AND DIESEL OIL
Fig. 3 and Fig.4 showed the relationship curves between
the rigidity of O-ring dipped in kerosene, gasoline and diesel Fig.5 Variety of friction of O-ring aroused by swelling in group A
oil and the dipping time. The abscissa is time, and the vertical
NJI
$
K
PP
Fig.3 Rigidity variety of O-ring in Group A Fig.6 Variety of friction of O-ring aroused by swelling in group B
480
Experiment Research on the Friction Performance of O-Ring with Different Oil Swelling Ratios
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 showed the relationship curves between 3 THE CONCLUSIONS
the static and kinetic friction with the swelling ratio. The By analyzing the friction performance of the O-ring dipped
abscissa was compression, and the vertical coordinate was into oils, we can draw three conclusions as follows:
friction force. We can see that the relationship between the (1) When the O-ring is used as kinetic oil seal we should
friction force and the compression for the O-ring dipped in the consider the effect of swelling ratio on the friction;
oils is not linear. The main reasons were that the rigidity of the (2) After dipped into the gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil
O-ring decrease and the piston and piston rod has filled the rigidity of O-ring decreases, and the O-ring dipped into the
lubrication. All of these cause smaller friction force and result gasoline has the lowest rigidity;
in the friction variety. When the compression was smaller, in (3) The static and kinetic friction aroused by the swelling
the range of 0.35mm to 0.45mm, the larger the compression ratio increases with the increasing of precompression as a
was, the smaller the friction force was. When the compression whole, and the friction is not proportional to the compression.
was in the range of 0.45mm to 0.6mm, the friction was almost When the value of compression is less than 0.45mm, friction
independent of the compression. When the compression was fluctuates. When the value was in the range of 0.45mm to
larger than 0.6mm, the friction force increased sharply. 0.6mm, the friction keep invariable; when the value was more
Due to the volume swelling, the static friction force of the than 0.6mm, the higher the compression was the higher the
O-ring in Group A increased from 16.5kgf to 51kgf, and the friction was.
kinetic friction increased from 14kgf to 47kgf. The static
friction of the O-ring in Group B increased from 24.5kgf to
REFERENCES
60kgf, and the kinetic friction increased from 19.5kgf to 52kgf.
The difference between the static friction and kinetic friction [1] Xu dexiao, 1979, Sealing of Hydraulic pressure and gas
was not obvious [3]. The reason was that the static friction drive equipmentΔMechanical Industry Press, pp.22-23
relates to time. The longer the time is, the larger the static [2] Gu yongquan, 1996, Fluent kinematical seal, Petroleum
friction is. In this research, the friction was tested as soon as University Press, pp.324-327
the O-ring was installed into the controller. Therefore, we [3] Shang shiyan, 2001, Calculation of frictional force of
confirm the relationship between the static and O-type sealing ring in hydraulic vatΔTransaction of south
kinetic friction needs more experiments. metallurgy, Vol.22 No.1, pp.18-20
481
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1. Department of materials science and engineering, Shenzhen Graduate School, Harbin Institute of Technology,
University Town, Xili, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China
2. Johnson Electric International Limitied, Shajing Town, BaoAn District, Shenzhen, 518125, PR China
ABSTRACT The present work aims to investigate the friction and wear
In this paper, electroless Ni-PTFE-P and Ni-Al2O3-P characteristics of soft bushing in rolling contacts with shaft
coating were successfully deposited on the surface of medium with electroless Ni-PTFE-P coating or Ni-Al2O3-P coating.
carbon steel shaft. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Friction behavior of the shaft with Ni-PTFE-P coating or
EDX measurement were used to characterize the morphology Ni-Al2O3-P coating was investigated. Meantime, wear
and chemical composition of the coatings. The results showed mechanism of the soft bushing was mainly discussed.
that lubricating PTFE particles and hared alumina particles
have been uniformly incorporated into the Ni-PTFE-P coating 2. EXPERIMENTS
and Ni-Al2O3-P coating, respectively. Friction behavior and
wear resistance of the surface modification shafts in rolling Ni-PTFE-P coating and Ni-Al2O3-P coating were
contact with bushing were mainly studied. The results showed electroless deposited on the shafts. The shafts were made of
that shaft with Ni-Al2O3-P coating shows the best wear medium carbon steel with 2mm diameter and 10 mm length.
resistance in rolling contact with the bushing owing to the high All the shafts were first mechanically polished with various
wear resistance of alumina particle, whereas produces severe grades of sandpapers (up to 800 grits) and ultrasonically
grain abrasion on its friction partner (bushing). Ni-PTFE-P degreased by immersion in 3% SK-18 metal cleaning solution.
coating deposited on the shaft plays an excellent role in After rinsing with de-ionized (DI) water, the shafts were
reducing the wear of the bushing. introduced into the plating baths. Acid baths were used for the
Keywords: Electroless plating, Ni-PTFE-P coating, Ni-Al2O3-P autocatalytic deposition process since it is popular method for
coating, Friction and wear. the electroless plating. The -Al2O3 particles (0.5m in size)
were ultrasonically dispersed in solution of surfactant for 15
1. INTRODUCTION minutes, then, mixed with plating solution. PTFE dispersed
solution (0.05-0. 2 m in size, 60 Wt%) was used in the
It is well known that shaft/ ball bearing joint is an preparation of Ni-PTFE-P coating.The constituents of the
important connection in many machinery parts.To reduce the plating baths and electroless plating conditions were as shown
cost, ball bearing was usually replaced by cylinder bushing in in table 1.
some machinery parts due to bushing’s low price and simple
processing. However, the wear resistance of the bushing is Table 1 Constituents of the electroless plating baths and plating
lower than that of ball bearing, and wear rate of the bushing is conditions
relatively high, which inevitably reduces the duty life of the
machinery parts. Thereof, find a new method to increase the
wear resistance of bushing in rolling contact with shaft is a
significant job.
Electroless nickel has been used as a rersatile material to
protect from wear and corrosion because of their good
corrosion and wear resistance, lubricity, solderability and
bondability [1-3]. As a result, electroless nickel coatings have
been applied in the surface modification of mechanical parts in
many industries fields for many years.The mechanical and
tribology properties of electroless nickel coating can be further
improved by incorporation of particles, such as SiC, Al2O3,
BN, PTFE, MoS2, graphite, etc., into the Ni-P matrix [4-11].
Among these particles, alumina and PTFE are the most popular
reinforced particles in the composite nickel coatings. It was
found that electroless Ni-PTFE-P coating has many perfect
Surface morphology of the coatings was characterized by
properties: such as non-stick, higher dry lubricity, lower scanning electron microscopy (JEOL, JSM-6330F) equipped
friction, whereas Ni-Al2O3-P coating shows a good wear with EDX analysis, which was used to detect the content of
resistance and corrosion resistance. However, to the best of our PTFE and alumina particles incorporation into the composite
knowledge, most of the friction partner of composite coating coating. Wear tests between bushing (copper and iron power
used in the wear experiments was steel, such as hard chromium metallurgy, Hv50=108.2) and surface modification shafts were
steel, 45# carbon steel, etc. [4, 11, 12]. Little attention was conducted at a normal 20N and a rolling speed of 4000 rpm
paid on the wear behaviors between soft bushing and shaft /min under lubrication at 80 °C. After 12 hour, the wear surface
with electroless composite coatings. of shaft and bushing was investigated by the SEM. A
roundness tester (SEIMITSU TOKYO) was applied to
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: liudayong1974@126.com characterize the inner hole of the wear tested bushing.
482
Friction Behaviors of Bushing in Rolling Contact with Shaft and Electroless Ni-PTFE-P or Ni-Al2O3-P Coating
483
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
484
Friction Behaviors of Bushing in Rolling Contact with Shaft and Electroless Ni-PTFE-P or Ni-Al2O3-P Coating
4. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
485
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
“Effect of surfactant on the electrodeposition and [9] Han, Y. B., Ma, M. Z., Li, G., Yu, J. K., Liu, G. Y., Jing, Q.,
wear resistance of Ni–Al2O3 composite coatings,” Chen, X. B., Wang, Q., Liu, R. P., 2008, “(Ni–P)/graphite
Materials Science and Engineering A, 434, pp. 319-325. composite film plated on bulk metallic glass,” Materials
[5] Shi, L., Sun, C. F., Gao, P., Zhou, F., Liu, W. M., 2006, Letters, 62, pp. 1707-1710.
“Mechanical properties and wear and corrosion resistance [10] Wu, Y. T., Lei, L., Shen, B., Hu, W. B., 2006,
of electrodeposited Ni–Co/SiC nanocomposite coating,” “Investigation in electroless Ni–P–Cg(graphite) –SiC
Applied Surface Science, 252, pp. 3591-3599. composite coating,” Surface & Coatings Technology, 201,
[6] Shi, L., Sun, C. F., Zhou, F., Liu, W. M., 2005, pp. 441-445.
“Electrodeposited nickel -cobalt composite coating [11] Wu, Y. T., Liu, H. Z., Shen, B., Liu, L., Hu, W. B., 2006,
containing nano-sized Si3N4,” Materials Science and “The friction and wear of electroless Ni–P matrix with
Engineering A, 397, pp. 190-194. PTFE and/or SiC particles composite,” Tribology
[7] Shi, L., Sun, C. F., Liu, W. M., 2008, “Electrodeposited International, 39, pp. 553-559.
nickel-cobalt composite coating containing MoS2,” Applied [12] Alirezaei, S., Monirvaghefi, S.M., Salehi, M., Saatchi, A.,
Surface Science, In press. 2007, “Wear behavior of Ni-P and Ni-P-Al2O3 electroless
[8] Zhao, Q., Liu, Y., 2006, “Modification of stainless steel coatings,” Wear, 262, pp. 978-985.
surfaces by electroless Ni-P and small amount of PTFE to
minimize bacterial adhesion,” Journal of Food Engineering,
72, pp. 266–272.
486
Nano and Micro Indentation and Scratch Tests of Mechanical Properties of Thin Films
Nano and Micro Indentation and Scratch Tests of Mechanical Properties of Thin Films
Norm V. Gitis /CETR, Inc. (1715 Dell Ave. Campbell, Ilja Hermann /CETR, Inc. (1715 Dell Ave. Campbell,
CA 95008) CA 95008)
Suresh Kuiry /CETR, Inc. (1715 Dell Ave. Campbell, Jun Xiao /CETR, Inc. (1715 Dell Ave. Campbell, CA
CA 95008) 95008)
(Extended Abstract)
489
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Table 2 shows average hardness and its deviation for the Table 4 shows hardness data for the same coatings with
same bulk metal samples with the same Vickers indenter, the same Berkovich indenter, obtained in 20 nano-indentation
obtained in 20 instrumented versus 20 traditional standard tests with a nano-indenter versus 20 nano-scratch tests with a
Vickers tests. The instrumented indentation produced the same nano-analyzer. Again, the nano-indenter showed good data for
hardness as the traditional Vickers method, but with much less micro-coatings, but a substrate effect for nano-coatings. Indeed,
data fluctuation between the individual tests. a stress distribution in the front of a moving indenter,
penetrating in the tested material hundreds of times more than
Table 2 Instrumented and Traditional Vickers Hardness the indenter itself, goes into the substrate in the
nano-indentation, but stay within the nano-coating in the
Vickers Hardness, HV Instrumented Hardness, MPa nano-scratch.
Material
(bulk) St. Deviation, St. Deviation,
Average Average
% %
Table 4 Nano-indentation and Nano-scratch Hardness
Aluminum 97 +-11 11 968 +-23 2
Brass 201 +-9 4 2004 +-19 1 Hardness Data, GPa
Coating on
Steel 519 +-20 4 5202 +-47 1 Silicon Nano-
Nano-Analyzer Comment
Indenter
Table 3 shows average Young’s modulus and its deviation Silicon 100 11.4+-1.2 11.6+-1.0 equal indent and scratch
for the same coatings with the same Berkovich indenter, 1-micron DLC 30.5 +-2.9 31.2 +-1.7 equal indent and scratch
obtained in 20 static tests with a nano-indenter versus 20 100-nm DLC 24.6 +-3.6 30.8 +-1.7 indent shows substrate effect
dynamic tests with a nano-analyzer. The nano-indenter showed
4-nm DLC 15.7 +-3.2 29.1 +-1.9 indent shows substrate effect
good data for bulk materials and micron-thick coatings, but a
substrate effect for nano-coatings; it’s results for a 4-nm film
reflected more the silicon-100 substrate than the film. The
dynamic Young’s modulus characterization with a CONCLUSIONS
Nano-analyzer module, based on a frequency response in a 1. In the micro-indentation and nano-indentation tests,
tapping mode, showed much less of the substrate effect, with the indents under 5-10% of the film thickness have produced
the data for the nano and micro films being almost the same. repeatable and apparently substrate-independent results.
2. In the micro-scratch and nano-scratch, the scratches
Table 3 Static (Nano-Indentor) and Dynamic under 30-35% of the film thickness have produced repeatable
(Nano-Analyzer) Young's Modulus Data substrate-independent results.
3. In the micro-indentation tests, traditional Rockwell
Young's Modulus Data, GPa and Vickers hardness tests produced more data variability than
Coating on
Nano-
the instrumented-hardness tests with the same indenters in the
Silicon Nano-Analyzer Comment same test setup, though the statistics requires more data.
Indenter
4. The UNMT-1 provides a platform for comparative
Silicon 100 164+-18 164+-14 equal static and dynamic
nano and micro indentation and scratch testing of thin films,
2-micron Ti 98 +-13 98 +-10 equal static and dynamic thick coatings and bulk materials.
2-micron DLC 381 +-24 382 +-19 equal static and dynamic
1-micron DLC 372 +-29 379 +-21 equal static and dynamic REFERENCES
100-nm DLC 314 +-32 370 +-25 static shows substrate effect [1] D. Tabor (1996). Indentation hardness: Fifty years on. -
4-nm DLC 195 +-39 361 +-27 static shows substrate effect Philosophical Magazine A, V. 74, No 5, pp. 1207-1212.
490
Synthesis of Nano-MoS2 Particles and Its Role in the Self-Lubrication of Polyacetal-Based Composite
Xianguo Hu* Institute of Tribology, Hefei University of Kunhong Hu Institute of Tribology, Hefei University of
Technology, Hefei 230009, China Technology, Hefei 230009, China
Yufu Xu Institute of Tribology, Hefei University of Ralph Stengler Hochschule Darmstadt, University of
Technology, Hefei 230009, China Applied Sciences, D-64295 Darmstadt, Germany
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Ball-like molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles were
synthesized from Na2MoO4. POM/MoS2 composites were a 3000
2000
CPS
1500
100
500
103 110
006 105
1.5 wt%, the POM/nano-MoS2 presented lower friction Fig.1 Results of XRD (a), TEM (b) and HRTEM (c) for the
coefficients and smaller wear volume. However, higher obtained MoS2 nanoparticles
nano-MoS2 content over 1.5 wt% was very disadvantageous to
tribological performances of POM/nano-MoS2. DSC results PREPARATION OF POM/MOS2 COMPOSITES
showed excessive nano-MoS2 affected the degree of POM’s The so prepared MoS2 nanoparticles (nano-MoS2) were
crystallinity and the self-lubrication was also influenced. SEM added into POM. From the DSC curves shown in Fig.2, it can
confirmed that MoS2 nano-balls had better self-lubrication be seen that crystallization degree of POM heightened with the
TEM micrographs of worn debris proposed a wear mechanism increasing content of nano-MoS2 from 0.5 wt% to 1.5 wt%.
concerning the exfoliation and delivery of nano-sheets from The largest crystallization degree was observed in the POM
nano-balls. sample with 1.5 wt% nano-MoS2. When the content of
Keywords: nano-MoS2,synthesis, self-lubrication polyacetal- nano-MoS 2 reached 2.0 wt%, the crystallization degree of
POM represented an abrupt decline (Fig.2(b)).
based composite
Degree of crystallization/%
0
-2 a 64 b
INTRODUCTION -4 60
DSC/mW
-6
It has been well known that nanosized MS2 (M=W, Mo) -8 POM
56
240
behaviors of polyacetal-based composite with MoS2 a Friction time: 30 min POM+nano-MoS2 within 30 min sliding
Average wear volume/mm
0.19
Load: 480N 220 POM+Micro-MoS2 within 30 min sliding
0.18 200 POM+nano-MoS2 within 150 min sliding
Speed: 0.8m/s
nano-balls. 0.17 180 POM+Micro-MoS2 within 150 min sliding
160
0.16 Load: 480N
140 Rotate speed: 0.8m/s
Pure POM
0.15 120
homogenous precipitation method reported in literature [7]. Fig. Fig.3 Variation of the average friction coefficient (a) and wear
1a shows the XRD pattern of the prepared nano-MoS2 particles, volume (b) with the increasing MoS2 content
which is corresponding to PDF#37-1492 and confirms the
presence of MoS2. TEM micrograph (Fig. 1(b)) confirms that According to Fig.3b, the influence of nano-MoS2 content
MoS2 nano-balls were prepared successfully. According to on the average wear volume of POM/nano-MoS2 samples was
HRTEM micrograph in Fig. 1(c), the brim of nano-MoS2 ball almost correlative to the change in friction coefficient.
presented obviously laminated structures. However, the POM sample with 1.5 wt% nano-MoS2 also
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
491
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
represented a very low wear volume. This can be ascribed to were ascribed to its chemical inertness, rolling friction,
the highest crystallization degree of the sample with 1.5% deformation, exfoliation and delivery of MoS2 sheets [3].
nano-MoS2. The abrupt decrease in crystallization degree of However, the TEM images (Fig.6) of worn debris only
POM sample with 2.0 wt% nano-MoS2 suggested that represent part exfoliation of nano-balls. As a result, the
overmuch nano-MoS2 could destroy the structure of POM exfoliation of nano-sheets from MoS2 nano-balls in the contact
crystal to a large extent. area became a main wear manner, which is described in Fig.7.
Fig.4 shows friction curves for pure POM, POM with 0.5
wt% MoS2 and POM with 1.0 wt% MoS2. Friction reduction Debris
for 1% nano-MoS2 showed a small advantage over these for Exfoliated part
micro-MoS2 in the early friction. However, with long friction
time, the advantage of 1% nano-MoS2 balls was augmented.
0.24
POM
0.22 Friction time: 150 min POM+0.5% micro-MoS2 POM
Load: 480N POM+0.5% nano-MoS2
Ave friction coeff
0.12 POM
0 30 60 90 120 150 POM
Friction time / min
Micro-platelets Nano-balls Worn nano-balls
492
Analysis of a Three-Body Contacting Model with the Adhesive Effect
Department of Power Mechanical Engineering & Center of MEMS Design and Application,
National Formosa University, Yunlin, 63208, Taiwan, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Surface forces, including adhesion and friction of Bhushan et al.[1-2] and other research [3-5]. A new
forces, significantly affect the measurement and motion analysis model of three body wear was built by
at the nano scale region. In micro-electromechanical calculating the elastic (e), elastic-plastic (ep), and plastic
systems (MEMS), three-body wear often occurs at the (p) micro-contact deformation areas. The contact model
contact region of motion parts, with surface forces is considering the down surface is a rough surface with
dominating their movement. A new three body hemispherical asperities, and the up surface is a smooth
micro-contact model is established with adhesive and surface. The adhesive friction (fa), roughness peak
particle effects. When a three body micro-contact occurs deformation friction (fds), deformation friction of
between a flat plate and a rough surface, roughness has a particles (fdp), and ratchet friction (fr) at the contact
Gaussian distribution and the external force is applied at region.
the flat plate. The size of wear particles spreads at the
contact region with a Gaussian distribution. By Fftotal = Ffa ,e + Ffa ,p + Ffa ,ep + Ffds ,e + Ffds ,p + Ffds ,ep + Ffdp ,e
calculating the elastic, plastic, and plastic-elastic contact
areas, frictional coefficients, including adhesive friction, + Ffdp ,p + Ffdp ,ep + Ffr ,e + Ffr ,p + Ffr ,ep
roughness peak deformation friction, particle ⎡ ⎡ ⎛ δ −δ 3
⎞
deformation friction, and ratchet friction, are obtained. ⎢
= Ffp 0 + τ 0 πRδ ud + ( 2πRδ ud − πRδ ud ) × − 2 ⎢ ⎜ ud ud ,1
⎟
From the analytical results, the adhesive friction is lower ⎢ ⎢ ⎜⎝ δ ud , 2 − δ ud ,1 ⎟⎠
than other friction, but it affects the motion at the ⎣ ⎣
contact region until the two contact surfaces are ⎛ δ ud − δ ud ,1 ⎞ ⎤
2 d + δ ud ,1
separated by a long distance. The adhesive force and the + 3⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + Ffds ,e 0 πηd R d ⋅
∫d δ ud φ d (z )dz
⎜δ ⎟
adhesive friction force govern the contact behavior when ⎝ ud , 2 − δ ud ,1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
the dimensionless mean separation, d/σ, is higher than Z max
the value of 3.8.
Keywords: Adhesion, Three Body Wear, Micro-contact,
+ 2Ffdsp 0 πη R d ⋅ ∫δ
d + δ ud , 2
ud φ d ( z )dz + Ffds ,ep 0 πη d R d
Friction
INTRODUCTION ⎡
d + δ ud , 2
⎛ δud − δud ,1 ⎞
3
⎛ δud − δud ,1 ⎞ ⎤
2
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
⎡
+ τ 0 ⎢ πRδ ud + ( 2πRδ ud − πRδ ud )
⎣ Si,ψ=1.5, x=500,100,20nm, Δγ=0.1J/m2, Rq=100nm
External Force
⎡ ⎛ δ −δ ⎛ δ ud − δ ud ,1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎤
3 2 Adhesive Force, Fs, x=20nm
⎞ Adhesive Force, Fs, x=100nm
⎢
× −2⎜ ud ud ,1 ⎟
+3⎜ ⎟ ⎥⎥ Adhesive Force, Fs, x=500nm
⎢ ⎜⎝ δ ud , 2 − δ ud ,1 ⎟⎠ ⎜δ
⎝ − δ ⎟ ⎥⎥
⎠ ⎦⎦
⎣ ud , 2 ud , 1
1E-003
where τ 0 is the macro scale value of adhesive shear
Dimensionless Force
strength, φ(z ) is the Gaussian distribution function,
and δ is the contact deformation. The friction coefficient 1E-005
dimensionless mean separation (d/σ) and various particle Dimensionless Mean Separation (d/σ)
size (x). The specimen for analyzing is silicon, plastic (a)
coefficient (ψ) is 1.5, surface energy (Δγ) is 0.1 J/m2, Si,ψ=1.5, x=500,100,20nm, Δγ=0.1J/m2, Rq=100nm
Total Friction Force, Fr_total, x=20nm
and the roughness of the down surface (Rq) is 100 nm.
Total Friction Force, Fr_total, x=100nm
From Fig.1, the adhesive friction coefficient does not Total Friction Force, Fr_total, x=500nm
vary with particle size and dimensionless mean Adhesive Friction Force, Fr_a, x=20nm
Adhesive Friction Force, Fr_a, x=100nm
separation (d/σ). The adhesive force and friction force Adhesive Friction Force, Fr_a, x=500nm
494
Analysis of Three-Body Contacting Model with Scale Effect
Department of Power Mechanical Engineering & Center of MEMS Design and Application,
National Formosa University, Yunlin, 63208, Taiwan, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
In micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) and of Bhushan et al.[1-2] and other researchs [3-5]. A new
precision machines, friction force becomes increasingly analysis model of three body wear was built by
important as the volume of components is reduced. calculating the elastic (e), elastic-plastic (ep), and plastic
Hence, the scale effects of surface roughness and (p) micro-contact deformation areas. The contact model
particle size are significant factors under a large surface is considering the down surface is a rough surface with
area-volume ratio. When three body micro-contact hemispherical asperities, and the up surface is a smooth
occurs between a flat plate and a rough surface, surface. The adhesive friction (fa), roughness peak
roughness has a Gaussian distribution and the external deformation friction (fds), deformation friction of
force is applied at the flat plate. The size of wear particles (fdp), and ratchet friction (fr), including the
particles spreads at the contact region with a Gaussian scale effect at the contact region, are also considered.
distribution. By calculating the elastic, plastic, and The real contact area(Are) and radius of the average
plastic-elastic contact areas, frictional coefficients with contact area can be defined by the characteristic
the scale effect, including roughness peak deformation roughness length (Llwl) as
friction, particle deformation friction, and ratchet
m−n
friction, are obtained in the analysis. The scale effects on ⎛ L ⎞
the friction characteristics of surface hardness, A re = A re 0 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ L < L lc (1)
dislocation length and roughness are established in the ⎝ L lwl ⎠
m
model. From the analytical results, the hardness of a ⎛ L ⎞
bulk material with uniform properties varies with the a = a 0 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ L < L lc (2)
measured length, and depend on the roughness ⎝ L lwl ⎠
measuring length. The dislocation length Ls, hardness where L is the contact length, and Are0 and a0 are the real
measuring length Llwl, and roughness measuring length contact area and radius of the average contact area with
Ld are the main factors in a micro contact model, and the no scale effect, respectively. The coefficients, m and n,
surface friction coefficient varied with these scale effects. are used to define the asperity of a rough surface. The
Keywords: Scale Effect, Three Body Wear, Hardness,
plastic real contact area can be defined as:
Roughness, Dislocation length
F
INTRODUCTION A rp = (3)
H
Adhesion and friction are more important than
inertial force when the volume of a micro electron where H is the hardness, and F is the normal force. From
mechanism system (MEMS) is decreased. Particles, the stress gradient plastic model [5], the shear stress (τY)
which come from wear or from dust in the environment, with the scale effect can be obtained as:
usually exist at the contact surface within MEMS. These τ Y = τ Y 0 l + (l d / a) (4)
particles cause adhesion, friction, and wear at the contact
region. Bhushan et al.[1] built an analysis model that where τY0 is a shear stress with no scale effect. From the
considers plow, adhesion, and deformation of the peaks Von Misesz rule, H=3 3 τY and the hardness with the
of micro roughness. They indicated that the friction was scale effect is:
due to adhesion, the deformation friction of micro (5)
H = H l + (l / a)
0 d
roughness peaks during two body contact, and the
deformation friction produced from the plow at the three where H0 is the hardness without the scale effect, and ld
body wear condition. Bhushan et al. added the scale is the characteristic length of hardness.
1m
effect into their model [2] in the analyses of the contact ⎛l ⎞
deformation of two and three body friction. However, L d = L lc ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟ (6)
the friction produced from the elastic-plastic ⎝ a0 ⎠
The plastic real contact area with the scale effect can be
deformation of micro roughness peaks was not
obtained as:
considered in their study, although it dominates most
micro contact behavior at a three body contact system. W W
A rp = = (7)
ANALYZING MODEL H0 l + (l d / a) H 0 l + (L d / L )m
Our friction analysis model is based on the analyses
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The hardness can also be affected by the dislocation, so Si,ψ=1.5, x=100nm, Δγ=0.1J/m2, Rq=100nm
Total Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ls/L=10
the value of Ld can be changed to Ls as: Total Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ls/L=20
1m Total Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ls/L=30
⎛l ⎞ Total Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ls/L=80
L S = L lc ⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟ (8) Total Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ls/L=10
⎝ a0 ⎠ Total
Total
Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ls/L=20
Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ls/L=30
where Ls is the slip length of dislocation moving up, and Total Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ls/L=80
1E+000
ls is the characteristic length of a dislocation. The friction
force can be obtained by integrating the shear force with 1E-001
Friction Coefficient
1E-002
not shown here.
1E-003
Ls/L=80
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1E-004
Figure 1(a) and (b) show the surface friction Ls/L=30
1E-006 Ls/L=10
varied with the dimensionless mean separation (d/σ),
hardness scale effect (L/Llwl), and dislocation scale effect 1E-007
0 2 4 6 8
(Ls/L). The specimen for analyzing is silicon, plastic Dimensionless Mean Separation (d/σ)
coefficient (ψ) is 1.5, surface energy (Δγ) is 0.1 J/m2, (b)
and the roughness of the down surface (Rq) is 100 nm. Si,ψ=1.5, x=100nm, Δγ=0.1J/m2 , Rq=100nm
Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ld/Llwl=3
The scale effect produced from surface hardness only Total
Total Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ld/Llwl=6
affects the surface friction coefficient. The surface Total Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ld/Llwl=12
Total Surface Coefficient of Friction, μs, Ld/Llwl=24
friction coefficient increases with the value of L/Llwl Total Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ld/Llwl=3
Total Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ld/Llwl=6
increased. Particle friction coefficient is higher than the Total Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ld/Llwl=12
surface friction coefficient when d/σ is lower than about Total Particle Coefficient of Friction, μp, Ld/Llwl=24
1E+000
2.2. Then, the particle friction coefficient keeps
decreasing until the value of d/σ is about 5, and almost 1E-001
1E-002
lower than 2.2. Figure 1(b) shows that increasing the 1E-004
values of the slip length of a dislocation (Ls) increasing
1E-005
the surface friction coefficient, but the friction
coefficient of particle does not vary. The location of the 1E-006
1E-002
24 ,pp.981-988.
1E-003
[4] E. Rabinowicz, 1965, “Friction and Wear of
L/Llwl=0.1
1E-004
L/Llwl=0.5
Materials,”Wiley, New York.
1E-005
L/Llwl=1 [5] N. P.Suh, H. C. Sin, M. Tohkai and N. Saka, 1980,
1E-006
L/Llwl=10 “Surface Topography and Functional Requirements for
1E-007
Dry Sliding Surface,” CIRP Annals ,International
0 2 4 6 8
Dimensionless Mean Separation (d/σ) Institution for Production Engineering Research. , Vol.
(a) 29, pp. 413-418.
496
Adhesion, Friction and Wear Measurements at Microscale
0.1 to 10 mm. The normal load of the indenter on the specimen E, 103, pulse/sec f
is set and kept constant in testing by an electromagnetic unit 1.0 0.4
with the feedback. In addition, the electromagnetic drive is
0.8
helpful in realization of different modes of specimen 0.3
Velocity, mm/s 0.1 – 10 Fig. 3 Friction coeffitient f (1) and AE counting rate E (2) vs.
Diameter of indentor, mm 2–5 number of test cycles N. Normal load P = 300 mN; sliding
velocity v = 4 mm/s, track length S = 3 mm
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
Measurement of adhesion The progress in analytical tools as STM, AFM,
Typical dependence of adhesion force during approaching micro/nanohardhess testers is not adequate for solution of
of various balls to the investigated samples obtained by contact engineering problems arising in microsystems because most of
adhesion meter is shown on the Figure 2. It shows the tools have contact geometry different of real components.
experimental dependences of force on the distance obtained Some of these instruments operate in dynamic conditions and
with different probes and samples. They illustrate the kinetics this fact should be taken into account when interpreting the
of force interaction between the contact surfaces. data. The contact adhesion meter having a quasi-static design
can provide valuable data on force-distance behavior of solids
at nanoscale distances. These data can be efficiently used in
addition to AFM and SFA data. The investigation of friction
characteristics of miniature components, thin films and
coatings makes necessary some special testing conditions such
as light normal loads, low sliding velocity and high sensitivity
of friction force measuring systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was partially supported by the BRFBR-RFBR
grant No T08R062 and INTAS 05-7940.
498
Fabrication and Nano-Tribological Behaviors of PDDA/Ag NPs Composite Molecular Deposition Films
EXPERIMENTAL
.1. M$7ERIALS for PDDA/Ag NPs COMPOSITE MD
FILMS
Poly (diallyldimethylammonium chloride, PDDA) solution
Fig.1 Schematic representation of the bi-layer PDDA/Ag
*To XiaoYu-qi all correspondence should be addressed. NPs composite MD film
499
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
$EVRUEDQFH
0.08
nanoparticles colloidal solution indicated that the surface
plasma absorption of silver nanopartilces was at 399nm (Fig.2). 0.06
It was found that the metal surface plasma was a function of the
0.04
geometry of the particles [9]. The surface plasma absorption of
silver nanopartilces and the surface morphology of the 0.02
PDDA/Ag NPs composite MD film indicated that the particles
0.00
were almost spherical. It was founded that the average radius of 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
these nanoparticles which has 99.72% in volume percent was :DYHOHQJWKQP
1.8nm (Fig.3). The result suggested that sodium citrate was a a
good stabilizer for the silver nanoparticles and the particles
were uniform. 0.10
0.6 0.09
0.08
0.5
$EVRUEDQFH
0.07
0.4
Absorbance
0.06
0.3 0.05
0.04
0.2
1 2 3 4
0.1 1XPEHUVRI/D\HU
0.0
b
200 300 400 500 600 700 Fig.4 UV-vis absorption spectra of the PDDA/Ag NPs
Wavelength / nm composite MD films (from bottom to top, the layer number
Fig.2 UV-vis spectrum of sodium citrate-protected silver is successively 1, 2, 3 and 4). Insert: the relationship
nanoparticles between the absorbance of the silver nanoparticles at
407nm and the layer number of the MD films
500
Fabrication and Nano-Tribological Behaviors of PDDA/Ag NPs Composite Molecular Deposition Films
3
2.4
4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Load/nA
(a)
(a)
3.0
2.8 0
2.6 1
Friction Force/nA
2
2.4
3
2.2 4
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Scan Rate/ m s 1
(b)
(b)
Fig.5 Friction force vs. load with a sliding velocity of 2500nm/s
(a), Friction force vs. scan rate with a load of 5nA (b), with
scan area of 1000nm×1000nm on different surfaces: 0
hydroxylated glass substrate, 1 monolayer PDDA/Ag NPs
composite MD film, 2 bi-layer PDDA/Ag NPs composite
MD film, 3 tri-layer PDDA/Ag NPs composite MD film, 4
tetra-layer PDDA/Ag NPs composite MD film
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
502
Frequency Shift of Single Walled Carbon Nanotube under Axial Load
Kan Biao / Center of Micro/ Nano Science and Ding Jianning* / Jiangsu Polytechnic University,
Technology, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Changzhou 213016, China
China
Cheng Guanggui / Center of Micro/ Nano Science and Wang Xiuqin / Jiangsu Polytechnic University,
Technology, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Changzhou 213016, China
China
Fan Zhen / Center of Micro/ Nano Science and Ling Zhiyong / Center of Micro/ Nano Science and
Technology, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Technology, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013,
China China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
An atomic finite element model based on virtual spring lattices. To simulate the deformation of nanotubes under strains,
model for armchair and zigzag single walled carbon nanotubes the nanotubes are clamped at both ends, then are compressed
is employed to reveal the relation between axial load and and stretched in their axial directions, respectively. The tensile
frequency shift. Tersoff-Brenner potential is introduced to and compression deformations of Zigzag and Armchair single
define the interactions between the atoms as well as the walled carbon nanotubes are simulated and the fundamental
mechanical properties of the springs in the model. The frequency shifts of transverse and radial vibration modes are
fundamental frequency shifts of transverse and radial vibration obtained by applying finite element theory and techniques.
modes of strained single walled carbon nanotubes are obtained
by applying finite element theory and techniques. It is found
that the fundamental frequencies of the two modes are RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
typically as high as hundreds of GHz, and they decrease Figure 1 shows the radial and transverse vibration
linearly with the increase of the stretching load, whereas grow frequency shift of (5,5) and (9,0) nanotubes, both of which
linearly with the increase of the compression load. The have 40 atom layers in axial direction. The radial and
frequency sensitivities of nanotubes with different diameters, transverse vibration modes are also illustrated (Figure 1(A) and
chiralities and lengths are also studied. With the increase of (B), respectively). The results show the frequencies of single
length and diameter, both the frequency sensitivities for walled carbon nanotubes keep in well linear relation with the
transverse and radial vibration modes decrease. However, change of strain. They decline with the increase of the axial
exception is found in nanotubes with small diameter, and it is strain whereas grow with the decrease of it. This is in
attributed to the small-diameter effect and the affect of disagreement with results from Cao [4], however, confirms the
boundary condition. results from Li [5]. Since we use Tersoff-Brenner potential to
Keywords: Carbon nanotube, Frequency, Vibration mode, Strain approximate the interactions between atoms, we give the
explanation for the results from the view of atomic empirical
potential. The curve of Tersoff-Brenner potential is plotted in
INTRODUCTION Figure 2. The stiffness of a virtue line spring between two C
Carbon nanotube is one of the most promising structures in atoms is the second order differential to the distance between
nanotechnology. Owing to its high modulus and structural them. From Figure 2, it deceases as the distance increases even
stability, carbon nanotube based nanooscillators, nanosensors after the distance is over the balance value (about 1.42 nm for
and nanoactuators with excellent performances can be devised. C-C bond). This means if we do work to a vibrating nanotube
Since the mass of a single carbon nanotube is extremely small, by pulling it from its two ends, the interaction between C
its mechanical resonance frequency is usually very high [1,2]. atoms will become weak, and the work will make the
This property on one side allows carbon nanotubes work as amplitude rather than the frequency increase. Therefore, the
high frequency resonant parts in nano-electric-mechanical decrease in frequency of a stretched nanotube is reasonable.
systems, and on the other side, it indicates high sensitivities of The results also indicate that carbon nanotube will not behave
carbon nanotubes for strains, defects, masses that attach on like a strained guitar string, whose stiffness can be treated as a
them [3] and other physical changes that will affect their constant.
resonance frequencies. Therefore, it is necessary to understand
the frequency shift of nanotubes caused by these factors. In
this paper, we focus on the fundamental resonance frequency
shift of carbon nanotubes caused by axial load.
COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUE
An atomic scale finite element model is constructed for
single walled carbon nanotubes, in which all the carbon atoms
are chosen as the nodes, and the atoms are related with each
other by two types of virtual springs (line springs and torsion
springs). The mechanical properties of the springs are
determined by Tersoff-Brenner potential, which is considered
effective in molecular dynamic simulations of a variety of
small hydrocarbon molecules as well as graphite and diamond Fig. 1 Frequency shift of strained single walled carbon
nanotubes and illustration of radial (A) and transverse (B)
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. vibration mode shapes
dingjn@jpu.edu.cn
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
CONCLUSION
The deformation of a variety of single walled carbon
nanotubes with different diameters, chiralities and lengths
under axial load are simulated by applying an atomic finite
element model, in which Tersoff-Brenner potential is
employed to describe the interactions between the atoms. The
fundamental frequency shift of transverse and radial vibration
modes are studied by using finite element theory and
techniques. The fundamental frequencies of the two modes
decrease linearly with the increase of the stretching load,
Fig. 2 Tersoff-Brenner potential and stiffness of virtual line whereas grow linearly with the increase of the compression
spring of C-C bond vs. the C-C distance load. The change in interactions between the atoms caused by
strain is considered to be responsible for this phenomenon. The
A variety of single walled carbon nanotubes with different frequency sensitivities of nanotubes are also studied. With the
diameters, chiralities and lengths are chosen to further increase of length and diameter, both the frequency
investigate the frequency shifts of strained single walled sensitivities for transverse and radial vibration modes decrease.
carbon nanotubes. Similar relations between frequency and However, the frequency sensitivities of transverse vibration
strain are found. However, the frequency sensitivities of the mode of nanotubes with small diameter are higher than those
nanotubes vary with the diameters, chiralities and lengths. of nanotubes with large diameter because of the small-diameter
Here, the frequency sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the effect and the affect of boundary condition. All the findings in
change of frequency to that of strain. Figure 3 show the results. this paper are believed to be useful to the development of
With the increase of length, both frequency sensitivities of carbon nanotube-based nano-strain-sensors, as well as
radial and transverse vibration modes decrease. However, the broadening the understanding about nanomechanics.
sensitivity of radial vibration mode changes little when the
nanotube is over 4 nm. The results indicate the frequency ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sensitivity of radial vibration mode should be independent on This work was supported by the National Science
the nanotube length as far as the nanotube is long enough. Foundation(50775101) and the Excellent Young Teachers New
Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-04-0515)
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504
Effect of Heat Treatment on the Nano-Tribological Properties of Ionic Liquid Films
505
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [17]Wang, H.Z., Lu, Q.M., Ye, C.F., Liu, W.M., Cui, Z.X.,
The authors thank the National Natural Science Foundation 2004, “Friction and wear behaviors of ionic liquid of
of China (NSFC 50675217), National 973 Program alkylimidazolium hexafluorophosphates as lubricants for
(2007CB607601), and ‘‘100 Talents’’ Program of Chinese Steel/steel contact,” Wear, 256, pp.44-48.
Academy of Sciences for the financial support of this work. [18] Mu, Z.G, Liu, W.M., Zhang, S.X., Zhou, F., 2004,
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506
Analysis on Wafer Tilt Effects in CMP Process
Extended Abstract and the pad is elastic (even though there is usually plastic
A preliminary one-dimensional model taking the wafer tilt deformation in practical CMP process). The deformation of the
into consideration is put forward in an attempt to facilitate the bulk pad substrate is computed with classical semi-infinite
analysis of contact stress and flow features of chemical formula[11].
mechanical polishing (CMP) process, which is mainly based x−s
up ( x ) = cp ∫ ps ( s ) ln
a
on the contact theories and tribology principles. The model ds +
provides an explanation for counter intuitive experimental −a
x0 − s
results, i.e., the existence of negative fluid pressure
(subambient pressure), and predictions of the pad substrate
deformation, contact stress, and fluid pressure, etc. In CMP
cq( ∫ q ( s) ds −∫ q ( s) ds) +
x
−a
a
x
(1)
c ( −∫ q ( s ) ds +∫ q ( s ) ds )
process, contact pressure will result in a divergence area in the 0 a
leading part and a converging area in the trailing part, by q −a 0
which the larger subambient area than the positive one is
formed, due to the minor tilt of the wafer resulted from an
moments due to the fluid pressure. The prediction accords with cq =
(1 − 2v )(1 + v )
, cp =
(
2 1− v
2
)
experiment results very well, which validates the model. 2E πE
Keywords: chemical mechanical polishing, contact stress, where is the Poisson ratio of the pad, E the elastic modulus of
polishing pad, fluid pressure the pad, a the half-length of the wafer, ps the solid contact
pressure, and q the shear stress, respectively. The slurry flow
INTRODUCTION direction is taken as x direction and the original is set to the
center of the wafer. Parameter x0 is the position on the bulk pad
Chemical mechanical polishing / planarization (CMP) has
substrate with zero deformation in the absence of shear stress.
been an essential technique widely applied for manufacturing
The surface shear stress is assumed to be uniformly distributed
components, such as silicon wafer and hard disks, in modern
over the whole contact surface, which is taken as -q0. It may
integrated circuit (IC) and information technology (IT)
lead to some false prediction on occasion that a real uneven
industry. Due to the complexity mechanism that CMP involves,
normal contact stress will result in uneven shear stress.
its possible future usage is strongly limited[1].
During CMP process, the geometry relation reads,
It is commonly acknowledged that, CMP is a routine of
mechanical removal accelerated by chemical one, which thus x−s
δ + 2cq q0 x − x tan (α ) = −cp ∫ ps ( x ) ln
a
( x) = ∫ ( z − h ) ϕ ( z ) dz
∞
model their influences on the flow properties [7]. ps ηR
1 2
(3)
It is of great importance to understand the slurry flow (
3 1− v
2
) h
features and the contact mechanics between the pad and the
where η is the pad asperity density, R the asperity tip radius of
wafer. Levert et al. pointed out that there usually existed a
the pad, h the equivalent slurry clearance (the distance between
negative pressure (suction pressure) region in the system
the wafer surface and the central line of the pad asperities), and
consisted of the wafer, slurry and pad[8]. Tichy et al. put
z the pad asperity height, respectively. Function ϕ(z) is the pad
forward a preliminary one-dimensional model to give an
asperity height distribution function and can be treated as
explanation [9,10], where the tilt of the wafer is neglected in
Gaussian distribution in nature.
their analysis. It is the holy grail of the present paper to give a
The fluid (i.e., the slurry used) is assumed to behave in a
more feasible model to account for the formation of the suction
Newtonian manner. One-dimensional flow equation for the
pressure and the relatively larger area of negative pressure.
incompressible fluid and isotropic roughness reads as follows,
1. MODEL DESCRIPTION d ⎛ 3 dpf ⎞ dh
⎜ φx h ⎟ = 6 μU (4)
For simplicity, only one-dimensional flow is considered in dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
this physical model to snatch the essential physics. In CMP where μ is the slurry viscosity, U the velocity, and pf the slurry
process, the wafer will have a displacement downwards, and pressure, respectively, and
( )
undergo a minor tilt under the effect of the moment due to the
h
fluid pressure. In present model, the wafer is treated as rigid φ x = 1 − 0.9 exp −0.56 (5)
s
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. zhhzhang@bjtu.edu.cn
507
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
where s denotes the root-mean-square (RMS) of the pad The simulated fluid pressure is shown in Fig. 2. It can be
surface roughness. seen that the pressure of about two thirds of the leading
The mean normal load relation and moment balance region is negative (which means a suction pressure area)
equation are listed as eqs. (6) and (7), and the remaining one third positive, which can be
attributed to the larger diverging leading area over the
∫ (p + pf ) dx
2a
s converging trailing one due to the tilt of the rigid wafer. The
−a
= papp (6) computed maximum suction pressure is about -4.5kPa,
2a mean fluid pressure about -1.656kPa, and the maximum
∫ (p + pf ) xdx
2a
positive fluid pressure about 1.78kPa. The analysis results
s
−a
=0 (7) are in very good agreement with the experimental outcomes
2a published in literature[10], which validates the model.
where papp is the exerted load.
3. SUMMARY
2. SIMULATION RESULTS A simple contact model is proposed to account for the
Parameters used in computation procedure are adopted as contact pressure and fluid pressure in CMP process. In this
follows: E = 35 MPa, = 0.4, a = 0.05m, papp = 8.4kPa, s q0 = model, the contact stress is obtained from solid contact theory,
4.2 kPa (which means a typical friction index of 0.5), μ = and as a result, a diverging region and a converging region will
be respectively formed in leading part and trailing part due to
0.0015 Pa⋅s, U = 1.0 m/s, s = 6 μm, η = 400/mm2, R = 0.1mm.
the bowl-shape contact stress profile. In accordance with the
The computed mean contact pressure is about 10kPa. contact stress profile, the negative fluid pressure (a suction
Then we get Ǭ = 60μm, and α = 1.05E-4 rad (The tilt of the slurry pressure) will occur in the leading part whilst a positive
wafer is very small, but it make the contact pressure counteract one will usually appear in the trailing part. The wafer will
with the moment due to the fluid pressure, which contributes undergo a very small tilt because of the moment exerted by the
greatly to the analysis procedure). The larger contact stress in slurry pressure, which will be couterbalanced by the shifted
the leading edge is conducive to counteracting with the effect contact pressure. The slurry film thickness is computed with
of the moment resulted from the fluid pressure. the help of GW contact theory. The contact stress, slurry film
Computed slurry film thickness is plotted in Fig. 1. In thickness, and the fluid pressure profile predicted based on the
accordance with the contact pressure distribution, an inverse proposed model, agree well with the experimental results
bowl shape of the film thickness is formed: a divergence published in literature. Thus the essential physics of the contact
region in the leading part and a convergence region in the pressure is captured. The solution can be further coupled into
trailing part. Due to the larger contact pressure in the leading the mass transport model for material removal prediction.
region, the divergence part of the film thickness is larger than
the convergence one. This “net” divergence will consequently
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
result in a negative summation of the fluid pressure.
60 This work was supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China and Beijing Natural Science Foundation.
55
REFERENCES
Film thickness / μm
50
[1] Xu J., Luo J.B., Lu X.C., et al., 2004, “Progress in material removal
mechanisms of surface polishing with ultra precision,” Chinese Sci.
Bulletin., 49, pp.1687-1693.
45 [2] Borst C.L, Gill W.N, Gutmann R.J., 2002, Chemical-mechanical
polishing of low dielectric constant polymers and organosilicate
glasses: fundamental mechanisms and application to IC interconnect
40
technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, London.
[3] Hooper B.J., Byrne G., Galligan S., 2002, “Pad conditioning in chemical
35
mechanical polishing,” J. Materials Processing Techn., 123, pp.107-113.
-0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 [4] Zhang C.H., Luo J.B., 2007, “Contribution of porous pad to chemical
Location x / m mechanical polishing,” Solid State Phenomena, 121-123, pp.1133-1137.
[5] Li W.D., Shin D.W., Tomozawa M., Murarka S.P., 1995, “The effect of
Fig. 1 Simulated film thickness the polishing pad treatments on the chemical-mechanical polishing of
SiO2 films,” Thin Solid Films, 270, pp. 601-606.
[6] Nanz G., Camilletti L.E., 1995, “Modeling of chemical-mechanical
2 polishing: a review,” IEEE Trans. Semicon. Manuf., 8, pp. 382-389.
[7] Zhang C.H., Luo J.B., Wen S.Z., 2005, “Effects of nano-scale particles
1
in chemical mechanical polishing process,” Acta Physica Sinica, 54,
pp.2123-2127 (in Chinese).
Fluid pressure / kPa
0
[8] Levert J.A., Mess F.M., Salant R.F., 1998, “Mechanisms of
-1 chemical-mechanical polishing of SiO2 dielectric on integrated
circuits,” Tribol. Trans., 41, pp.593-599.
-2 [9] Tichy J., Levert J.A., Shan L., Danyluk S., 1999, “Contact mechanics
and lubrication hydrodynamics of chemical mechanical polishing,” J.
-3 Electrochem. Soc., 146, pp.1523-1528.
[10] Shan L, Levert J., Meade L., Tichy J., Danyluk S., 2000, “Interfacial
-4
fluid mechanics and pressure prediction in chemical mechanical
-5
polishing,” ASME, J. Tribol., 122, pp.539-543.
-0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 [11] Johnson K.L., 1985, Contact mechanics. Cambridge University Press,
Location x / m Cambridge, U.K.
[12] Greenwood J.A., Williamson J.B.P., 1966, “Contact of nominally flat
Fig. 2 Simulated fluid pressure rough surfaces,” Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. A., 295, pp. 300-319.
508
Size Effects on Friction of C3602 in Cylinder Compression
Bin Guo/School of Materials Science and Engineering, Feng Gong*/School of Materials Science and
Harbin institute of Technology, Harbin150001, China Engineering, Harbin institute of Technology,
Harbin150001, China
Chunju Wang/School of Materials Science and Debin Shan/School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Harbin institute of Technology, Engineering, Harbin institute of Technology,
Harbin150001, China Harbin150001, China
Extended Abstract
Micro parts are more difficult to be formed than the macro
parts because of the flow stress and friction size effects.
Friction size effects were studied in this paper. Cylinder
compressions have been carried out with the lubricants of talc
powder, vaseline, vegetable oil and without lubricant. The
specimen material was copper alloy C3602 which was
thermally treated at 350ć, 450ć, 550ć and 650ć for 1 hour
in nitrogen atmosphere, respectively. The specimens were
manufactured in a instrument lathe and the initial diameters of
the specimen were 6mm, 4mm, 2mm and 1mm with a ratio of
height to diameter h0/D0 =1.5. The experiments were
performed at room temperature on a universal testing machine
Instron 5569 with a strain rate ε =0.0025/sec. The results Fig. 1 Grain images of specimens after annealing
showed that the friction size effects occurred obviously in the
case of lubrication with vegetable oil with the miniaturization The cylinder compression experiment was carried out at
of the specimen. The friction factor increase distinctly with room temperature in a universal testing machine Instron 5569
decreasing the specimen size. But the friction size effects did with a strain rate ε =0.0025/s. The compression ratio is 50%.
not found in the case of other lubrication. This phenomenon In order to study the influence of the lubricants to the tribology
can be explained by a mechanical-rheological model ‘Open size effects, a number of lubricants including talc powder,
and closed lubricant pockets’. vaseline, vegetable oil and without lubricant were used.
Keywords: Microforming, Size effects, Friction Factor,
Cylinder compression, Copper alloy C3602 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The friction factor can be calculated by the following
INTRODUCTION equation based on the upper bound theorem [6].
The rapid development of electronic industry and precision ( R / H )b
machinery promoted the development of microforming [1]. m= (1)
But micro parts are more difficult to be formed than macro (4 / 3 ) − (2b / 3 3 )
parts because of flow stress size effects and tribology size Where R is the average radius of cylinder after deformation,
effects. Flow stress size effects, especially the flow stress size H is height of cylinder after deformation, and b is the barrel
effects on sheet metal have been widely studied and well parameter. The computed friction factors of specimens
understood. But for tribology size effects, the research is annealed at different temperature with various lubricants can
limited [2]. be seen form figure 2.
Some esearchers studied tribology size effects by extrusion It is clear from figure 2 that with miniaturization, the
and deep drawing experiments scaled down according to friction factors have the trend to increase for the specimens
similarity theory [3-5]. Compared to other metal forming annealed at different temperature in the case of lubrication
process, cylinder compression is a simple and effective method with vegetable oil. Take the specimens annealed at 450ć for
to determine the friction factor in macro forming. Scaled down example. The friction factors are 0.11333, 0.09576, 0.14116
cylinder compression were carried out in this paper to study and 0.31152 for 6mm, 4mm, 2mm and 1mm specimen. The
the tribology size effects in microforming. friction factors distinctly increased with miniaturization.
Except the lubrication with vegetable oil, the friction
EXPERIMENTAL factors did not seem to change so much. Also take the
Copper alloy C3602 rods with a diameter of 9mm were specimens annealed at 450ć for example. The friction factors
used in the cylinder compression experiment. To get the same are 0.31957, 0.24727, 0.29466 and 0.25167 for talc powder,
material composition and microstructure, the materials were 0.21895, 0.26403, 0.26454 and 0.23502 for without lubricant,
first annealed at 350ć, 450ć, 550ć and 650ć for 1 hour in 0.14669, 0.13044, 0.17439 and 0.1133 for vaseline.
nitrogen atmosphere and then turned in an instrument lathe. The friction factor size effects can be explained by the
Grain images were captured by a scanning electronic mechanical-rheological model ‘Open and closed lubricant
microscope, as shown in Figure 1. It is clear that the grain sizes pockets’ [7] (Figure 3). When a forming load applied to the
increase with the annealed temperature. Geometrically similar surface of the lubricated workpiece, the asperities start to
specimens of an initial diameter of 6mm, 4mm, 2mm and 1mm generate plasticity deformation, thus the pressure of the
with a ratio of height to diameter h0/D0 =1.5 were used for lubricant increased, which will result in the lubricant trapped in
studying the tribology size effects in cylinder compression. the asperities or overflow. Open lubricant pockets which have
*Corresponding author. E-mail: gongfeng186@163.com
509
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Friction factor
0.20
contact area and higher friction. On the contrary, closed
lubricant pockets do not have a connection to the edge of the 0.15
surface. The lubricant gets trapped in those pockets and
transmits part of the forming loads during forming, thus 0.10
talc powder
reducing the normal pressure on the asperities which result in a without lubrication
0.05
lower contact stress, a lower fraction of real contact area and vaseline
vegetable oil
lower friction. 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
Because the width of the open lubricant pockets is constant,
Diameter(mm)
with miniaturization, the fraction of the open lubricant pockets
increases, which results in higher friction. Because the (d) 650ć
lubricant is difficult to flow from the surface or there is no Fig. 2 Friction factors of specimens annealed at different
lubricant, the ratio of open lubricant pockets don not affect the temperature under different lubricant
friction condition, thus the friction factor size effects have not
found in the in the case of lubrication with talc powder,
vaseline and without lubricant.
0.35
0.30
0.25
Friction factor
0.20
Fig. 3 Open and closed lubricant pockets model
0.15
CONCLUSIONS
0.10
talc powder According to the scaled down cylinder compression
0.05
without lubrication experiment, the following results can be concluded:
vaseline
vegetable oil 1. Cylinder compression is a simple method to determine the
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
friction factor and it is also suitable for microforming.
Diameter(mm) 2. Tribology size effects occurred in the lubrication with
vegetable oil, but did not find in other lubrication.
(a) 350ć
0.35 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
0.30
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
of the National High-Tech Research and Development
0.25 Program (2006AA04Z316) and Heilongjiang Natural Science
Funds for Distinguished Young Scholar (JC-05-11).
Friction factor
0.20
0.15
REFERENCES
[1] Geiger, M., Kleiner, M., Eckstein, R. et al., 2001,
0.10
talc powder “Microforming,”Annals of the CIRP, 52, pp.445-462.
0.05
without lubrication [2] Engel, U., 2006, “Tribology in microforming,” Wear, 260,
vaseline
vegetable oil pp.265-273.
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
[3] Tiesler, N., Engel, U., Geiger, M., 1999, “Forming of
Diameter(mm) microparts-effects of miniaturization on friction,”
(b) 450ć Proceedings of the 6th ICTP, Nuremberg, pp.889-894.
[4] Krishnan, N., Cao, J., Dohda, K., 2007, “Study of the size
0.35
effects on friction conditions in microextrusion-part 1:
0.30
microextrusion experiments and analysis,” Journal of
Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 129, pp.669-676.
0.25 [5] Hu, Z., Vollertsen, F., 2006, “Tribology size effects in sheet
metal forming measured by a strip drawing test,” Annals of
Friction factor
0.20
the CIRP, 55, pp.291-294.
0.15 [6] Ebrahimi, R., Najafizadeh, A., 2004, “A new method for
evaluation of friction in bulk metal forming,” Journal of
0.10
talc powder
Materials Processing Technology, 152, pp.136-143.
0.05
without lubrication [7] Sobis, T., Engel, U., Geiger, M., 1992, “A theoretical study
vaseline of wear simulation in metal forming process,” Journal of
vegetable oil
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
Materials Processing Technology, 34, pp.233-240.
Diameter(mm) (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if the reader
(c) 550ć needs it.)
510
Investigation on the Tribological Characteristics of Nano/Micro Solid Anti-Wear Additives in Engine Lubricants
China FAW Group Corporation R&D Center (No 3013 Heping Street Changchun City)
511
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig.3 Friction Coefficient Curve of Sample2
Fig.7 EDX Curve of Sample1
Fig.5 Friction Coefficient Curve of Sample4 Fig.8 EDX Curve of Sample2
Fig.6 Friction Coefficient Curve of Sample5 Fig.9 EDX Curve of Sample3
Generally, at the beginning, friction coefficients of 5 As shown in Fig.7, a protective film on the plate with
samples is about 0.14~0.15. After the running-in, the friction active SǃPǃCaǃZn is formed by sample 1, while the protective
coefficients of sample 3ǃ4 and 5 always almost keep remain at film formed by sample 2 consists of not only active SǃPǃCaǃ
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Investigation on the Tribological Characteristics of Nano/Micro Solid Anti-Wear Additives in Engine Lubricants
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
3.4 RESULT OF SEM The effects of the tests on samples surface are shown in
Fig.13 by using SEM technique. The blank one is the plate
before test. From the pictures above, it is hard to say, the
sample 2 is better than any other else.
4 CONCLUSION
Some results are found the conclusions can be drawn from
the experiments we have done. That is:
The size of graphite has a remarkable influence on the
characteristics of wear and friction. Graphite in big size is hard
to form a stable protective film. Only when the size of
anti-wear additives is smaller than the thickness of lubricant
film, are the good properties of wear and friction presented.
(a)Blank (b) Sample 1
REFERENCES
[1] Gupta Bhushan.K, 1994, “Fullerene particles as an additive
to liquid lubricants and greases for low friction and wear,”
Lubrication Engineering, 50, 07, pp.524-528.
[2] Xu TˈZhao J Z, Xu K, Xue Q, 1997, “Study on the
tribological properties of ultra-dispered diamond
containing soot as an oil Additive,” Tribology Transaction,
40(1), pp.178-182.
[3] S.F.Moustafa, S.A.EI-Badry, A.M.Sanad and B.Kieback.
2002,ĀFriction and wear of copper-graphite composites
made with Cu-coated and uncoated graphite powdersā,
Wear, 253,pp. 699-710.
(c)Sample 2 (d) Sample 3
514
The Influence of Carbon Nanotubes on the Tribological Behavior and Wear Resistance of a Polyamide Nanocomposite
Extended Abstract
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
516
Experimental Investigation of the Frictional Behaviors at Particle-Surface Interfaces in CMP Application Using an Atomic Force Microscope
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Korea Research
Foundation Grant funded by the Korean Government
(MOEHRD) (KRF-2007-331-D00036).
REFERENCES
[1] Oliver, M. R.(Ed.), Chemical-Mechanical Planarization of
Semiconductor Materials, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
[2] Sader, J. E., Chon, J. W. M., Mulvaney, P., 1999,
“Calibration of rectangular atomic force microscope
cantilevers,” Rev. Sci. Instrum., 70, pp.3967-3969.
[3] Green, C. P. et al., 1995, “Normal and torsional spring
constants of atomic force microscope cantilevers,” Rev. Sci.
Instrum., 75, pp.1988-1996.
[4] Sader, J. E., 1995, “Parallel beam approximation for
V-shaped atomic force microscope cantilevers,” Rev. Sci.
Instrum., 66, pp.4583-4587.
[5] Cleveland, J. P., Manne, S., Bocek, D., Hansma, P. K., 1994,
“A nondestructive method for determining the spring
constant of cantilevers for scanning force microscopy,” Rev.
Sci. Instrum., 64, pp.403-405.
[6] Ogletree, D. F., Carpick, R. W., Salmeron, M., 1996,
“Calibration of frictional forces in atomic force
microscopy,” Rev. Sci. Instrum., 67, pp.3298-3306.
517
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
p (GPa)
The method of equivalent radius only applies for Hertz contact
10
and does not apply for adhesive contact. Higher pull-off
strength is get from smaller radius of contact tip, as predicted 5
by experiment. Also, the tip geometry plays an important role 0
in pull-off strength. It is anticipated that this numerical method
-5
can be applied in surface profile design for MEMS to reduce
adhesion and tip design for the sticky feet in bionics to increase 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
adhesion. h (nm)
Keywords: Nano-scale, Adhesive contact, FEA, MEMS, Fig.1 Dependence of the interaction pressure of two half-spaces
Sticky feet on the vertical separation between corresponding surface points
INTRODUCTION
Adhesive force has great influence on the performance of
components which range in micro or nano scale because its
significance in comparison with gravitational force increases
with reduction in body size and contact load[1]. It is essential
to have tribological design to reduce adhesion during the
development of MEMS (Micro Electromechanical Systems) [2],
and to maximize adhesion during the design of the sticky feet
in bionics[3].
The approach and separation of a sphere and a plane
represents a fundamental contact problem. A theory for elastic
deformation of smooth surfaces under external load was
derived by Hertz in 1881[4], describing the relationship
between deformation and externally applied load. The first Fig.2 FE model of adhesive contact
adhesive contact model is the widely accepted JKR model by
Johnson et al. [5] The JKR model is an analytical model, which COMPARISON WITH ANALYTICAL CONTACT
is followed by other adhesive models, most prominently the MODELS
DMT model by Derjaguin et al. [6] and M-D model[7] which
gains JKR-DMT transition. The JKR model is suitable for large
compliant spheres with strong adhesion, whereas the DMT P
model is suitable for small hard spheres with weak adhesion. [1]
3 Hertz
All these elastic continuum adhesive contact models have been JKR
recognized to be useful because pull-off force, contact force DMT
2
and contact area can be estimate, but they are restrictively used FEA(approach)
in designing surface topography to control adhesion. 1 FEA(separation)
The current contact model is limited in the study of contact
behaviors in nano-scale. In this regard the finite element 0
method (FEM) can be a powerful tool if the influence of -2 -1 0 1
adhesion force is included in the finite element (FM) model. In -1
the paper, a technique of finite element method is applied to
simulate the adhesive contact in nano-scale based on the -2
surface force law described by Lennard-Jones 12-6 potential.
Analysis results of the FE model are compared with those of
the classical analytical results. FEM has no restriction to Fig.3 Load-displacement curves for the Hertz, JKR, DMT and
geometrical shape, so the effect of contact geometry on the FE models
* E-mail: xjzhang@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
518
Finite Element Simulation and Analysis of Nano-Scale Adhesive Contacts
f nN/mm2
models are restricted used in surface topography design. In this 0.30
regard the finite element method is a good choice for surface
topography design. Based on the proposed FE adhesive contact 0.25
model, FE models with different contact geometry are 0.20
developed to model adhesive contact, where the surface
interaction is also derived from the interatomic interaction 0.15
Lennard-Jones 12-6 potential. 8 10 12 14 16
R (nm)
EFFECT OF SURFACE PATTERN ON THE CONTACT Fig.6 A comparison of simulated pull-off strength
BEHAVIORS
300 P(nN)
f P / A0 versus tip radius between three different kinds of
250 plane contact tip: (a) Spherical, (b) Flat punch, (c) Mushroom
hole (a)
200
hole (b) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
150 The authors would like to thank the NSFC for their
hole (c)
financial support under grant numbers of 50575123 and
100 hole (d) 50730007, as well as the financial support from the National
50 Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) under grant
QP number of 2003CB716205.
0
-0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
-50 REFERENCES
-100
[1] Sung-San Cho, Seungho Park. Finite element
modeling of adhesive contact using molecular
-150 potential. Tribology International. 2004, 37:763-769.
Fig.4 The load-displacement curves with different size of the [2] Patton S T, Cowan W D, Zabinski J S. Performance
hole patterned in the contact zone compared to that without and Reliability of a New MEMS Electrostatic Lateral
surface pattern, d is the diameter of the hole. (a) d 2 nm , Output Motor. IEEE International Reliability Physics
(b) d 3nm , (c) d 4nm , (d) d 5 nm Proceedings, San Diego, CA.. 1999, 179-188.
P(nN) P(nN)
[3] Autumn K, Liang Y, Hsieh T. Adhesive force of a
600 80 single gecko foot hair, Nature. 2000, 405:681-685.
R=10 (a) R=10 (a)
500 [4] Johnson KL. Contact Mechanics.
R=11 (b) 40 R=11 (b)
R=12 (c)
Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1985.
400 R=12 (c)
[5] Johnson KL, Kendall K, Roberts AD. Surface energy
300 0 and the contact of elastic solids. Proc. R. Soc. Load. A.
-0.08 -0.04 0.00 0.04 0.08
200 QP 1971, 324(1558):301-313.
-40
[6] Derjaguin BV, Muller VM, Toporov YP. Effect of
100 contact deformation on the adhesion of particles. J.
-80
0 Colloid Interface Sci. 1975, 53(2):314-320.
QP -120 [7] Maugis D. Adhesion of spheres: the JKR-DMT
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0
transition using a Dugdale model. Journal of Colloid
Fig.5 FEM results of Hertz contact and adhesive contact of and Interface Science. 1992, 150:243-269.
three kinds of contact pairs with the same equivalent [8] Ning Yu, Andreas A. Polycarpou. Adhesive contact
radius R 10 nm .(a) R 10 nm R ˈ (b) R 11nm based on the Lennard-Jones potential: a correction to
1 2 1
the value of the equilibrium distance as used in the
R 110 nm ˈ(c) R 12 nm R 60 nm potential. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science.
2 1 2
2004, 278:428-435.
[9] Jeffrey L. Streator. Dynamic contact of a rigid sphere
EFFECT OF CONTACT TIP ON THE CONTACT
with an elastic half-space: a numerical simulation.
BEHAVIORS
Journal of Tribology. 2003, 125:25-32.
[10] Jacob N. Israelachvili. Intermolecular and surface
forces. ACADEMIC PRESS, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich Publishers, Second Edition, 1991.
[11] Huajian Gao, Haimin Yao. Shape insensitive optimal
adhesion of nano-scale fibrillar structures. PNAS
2006, vol. 101, no. 21:7851-7856.
[12] Edwin P. Chan, Christian Greiner, Eduard Arzt, Alfred
J. Crosby. Designing model systems for enhanced
adhesion. MRS Bulletin. 2007, 32:496-503
519
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
water and lubricant molecules are more likely to form a under high frequency of 4 Hz, as shown in Fig. 2b-d.
meniscus as the spherical tip approaches the surface. This According this result, it is seen that the MIMOH-CL,
provides greater resistance to tip sliding and leading to higher MIMCN-CL and MIMCOOH exhibit longer anti-wear
values of friction. durability under high frequency reciprocating slide, compared
with the MIMCH-CL.
3.2 MICROTRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR
Tribological performance was evaluated for hydroxylated
Si substrate and ionic liquid coated surfaces with film
thickness of about 2 nm. Without the protection of ionic liquid
films, the coefficient of hydroxylated Si substrate increased
sharply and was stable to a constant value of about 0.65.
In order to compare friction and wear properties,
conventional ball-on-plat tribometer experiments were
conducted on the same samples. Fig. 1a-d contain plots of the
coefficient of friction as a function of the number of sliding
cycles at normal loads range from 60 to 400 mN. As shown in
Fig. 1a, the friction coefficients of MIMCH-CL were 0.12 and
0.09 at normal loads of 60 and 100 mN, respectively. When the
normal load rose to 200mN, the friction coefficient rose
sharply over 0.6 before reaching 450 cycles, implying that the
lubricant film failed. The friction coefficients of MIMOH-CL
were averaged at 0.14, 0.10, 0.11 and 0.06 at normal loads of
60, 100, 200 and 300mN, respectively. As shown in Fig. 1b, Fig.2 Plot of friction coefficients as function of sliding
the MIMOH film was failed at normal load of 400 mN. As frequency for MIMCH-CL (a), MIMOH-CL (b), MIMCN-CL
shown in Fig.1c and d, the friction coefficient of MIMCN-CL (c) and MIMCOOH-CL (d) films at a normal load of 60 mN
and MIMCOOH-CL were averaged at 0.13 and 0.11 at all
loads. Only a small rise in the coefficient of friction was 4. CONCLUSIONS
observed for both MIMOH-CL and MIMCOOH-CL surface, This study has demonstrated that four kinds of ionic liquid
indicating low surface wear. However, both MIMOH-CL and films with thickness ranging from approximate 2 to 60 nm
MIMCOOH-CL samples exhibited gradually change in value were prepared as uniform coatings by dip-coating method.
of friction coefficient. This is attributed to the transfer of Adhesion and friction experiments at nanoscale were carried
lubricant molecules to the Si3N4 ball and the interaction of the out using a colloidal probe. Base on topography adhesion and
transferred molecules with the lubricant still attached on the Si friction data, all IL films are prone to attach to the silicon
surface, which will increase the friction force. substrate surface, leading to more uniform coatings and
lowered adhesion and friction. The MIMCN-CL and
MIMCH-CL show favorable lubrication, as seen from the
adhesion and friction being less than that of MIMOH-CL,
MIMCOOH-CL and uncoated silicon in all cases. The
microscale friction and wear of the four ionic liquid films were
evaluated at load range of 60-400 mN and the sliding
frequency range of 1-4 Hz. All ionic liquids show favorable
friction reduction and durability. MIMCN-CL and
MIMCOOH-CL exhibited low friction coefficient and long
durability even at a normal load of 400 mN. The MIMOH-CL,
MIMCN-CL and MIMCOOH-CL exhibited lower friction and
better anti-wear durability at high frequency sliding (4 Hz)
compared with MIMCH-CL in micro scale. Thus, from a
tribological point of view, the ionic liquids show strong
potential as lubricant for MEMS because they have desirable
thermal and tribological properties.
521
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
522
Micro Asperity Type Induced in Electrostatic Resistance of MEMS
area decreased. So the potential energy stored in the overlapping are distributed evenly on the bottom of the moving plate.
parallel plate region increases to Firstly, some square surface micro asperities are assumed to
Q2 d (3) be distributed evenly on the bottom of the moving plate. As
We
'
Q2
2C 2 0 r l x 'l z shown in Fig. 4the distance between the surface of micro
And the increased quantity of the potential energy is asperity and the ground plate is d-, d is the relative surface
d
x roughness, and the other geometrical parameters of two parallel
We We We
'
Q2 (4) plates are same as the model of electrostatic field for smooth
2 0 r l z l xl x
'
plates. The moving plate is divided equally as some square units
Because the
x is far smaller than the lx, that is lx’lx. Thus the which geometrical parameters are shown in Fig. 4. k = a2/u2 is the
above equation can be written as area ratio of a square asperity’s projection area on the moving
d
x (5) plate to a unit area.
We Q2 2
2 0 r l z lx
In the process of overcoming the electrostatic resistance, the
work done by out force is F
x, and according to the principle of
energy conservation, there is
d
x (6)
F
x
We Q2 2
2 0 r l z lx
If a voltage U is applied across these two plates, because
Q=CU, the electrostatic tangential resistance for the laterally
smooth moving plate could be deduced from Eq. (6).
d ll 1 l (7)
fe F ( 0 r x z U ) 2 0 r z U 2
2 0 r l z l x
2
d 2 d
Eq. (7) suggests that if two plates of a parallel capacitor are
slightly displaced by out force with respect to each other, a force
parallel to the plates is developed, tending to resist the plate
moving.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Cufr
0 r (u 2 a 2 )
d
0 r b 2 0 r
d 0 22 (d y )
4
a(a b) (a b) 2 y dy
2
0 r u 2 k b 2k b
(1 k ) 1
d 1 / d a / d 2 a
b b
1 1 ln1
a d a d d
Fig. 5 Plate capacitor with pyramidal frustum asperities
(17)
Four sides of the pyramidal frustum asperity are not parallel The whole parallel board capacitor with pyramidal frustum
to the ground plate, the non-parallel board capacitor will be asperities could be summed to the total unit capacitors, and its
formed between the moving plate and ground plate after setting capacitance is
up an electric circuit, as shown in Fig. 5. Drawing an 2
0 r l x l z k b 2k b
infinitesimal on the side, as Fig. 6 shows, the infinitesimal C fr (1 k ) 1
parallel board capacitor will be formed between the d 1 / d a / d 2 a (18)!
infinitesimal projection face paralleling the moving plate and b b
ground plate [7]. 1 1 ln1
a d a d d
As shown in Fig. 6(b), the infinitesimal area is assumed to
If the moving plate have a displacement or the moving
be
Sfr, then
tendency along x direction under external force function, the
y ˈ b Gx a (a b) y (13)
G E x E ˈD F overlaid area among the moving plate and ground plate changes,
F b Ex and the electric potential energy of the capacitor also varies.
y
y ˈ G x a (a b) y (a b)
y (14) Based on the rule of energy conservation and Eq. (2) ~ (6), Eq.
G E D F (18) and Q=CfrU, the electrostatic tangential resistance for the
E x
moving plate with pyramidal frustum asperities can be derived
S fr
1
4
1
( D 2 D2 ) 2 a (a b) (a b)2 y
y
2
(15) as
524
Micro Asperity Type Induced in Electrostatic Resistance of MEMS
0 r l z U 2
2
k b
f efr (1 k )
2d a
1
d
(19)
2k b b b
1
1 1 ln 1
a a d
2
a d d
d
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Obviously, there are three influence factors on electrostatic For U=100V, figure 11 shows the relationship of the fe
tangential resistance for moving plates in Eq. 27, which is with lz/d at different $.
applied voltage U, micro feature parameter lz/d and roughness
For $ =1, figure 12 shows the relationship of the fe with lz/d
shape coefficient $.
at different U.
smooth
1
Fig. 10 The relationship between fe and U at different lz/d plates
From Fig. 9 and Fig. 10, the electrostatic tangential resist- square
1 k k /(1 )
ance fe for moving plates is directly proportional to the square asperity d
of applied voltage U. As the roughness shape coefficient $ incr- 2
k b 2k b
easing or micro feature parameter lz/d increasing, the electros- (1 k ) 2
1
tatic tangential resistance fe will be increased accordingly at pyramid’s 1 a a
frustum d d
same applied voltage U.
asperity
b b
1 1 ln1
INFLUENCE OF MICRO FEATURE PARAMETER a d a d d
2
spheroid (when R=)
1 k 2k ln1 /
asperity d d d
526
Micro Asperity Type Induced in Electrostatic Resistance of MEMS
CONCLUSIONS
The models of electrostatic tangential force for smooth and
three kinds roughness plates, which are square, frustum and
spheroid asperities, are established based on parallel plate
Fig. 13 Relationship of!$, fe and k for different asperity types capacitors and the energy conservation method. The factors of the
microscale, applied voltage and roughness shape are primarily
(2) Influence of relative surface roughness d on roughness considered to examine the electrostatic resistance between two
charged moving elements. And the following conclusions could
shape coefficient!$ and electrostatic tangential resistance fe
be obtained:
The relative surface roughness d is another important (1) The electrostatic tangential resistance fe for moving
influence factor for the electrostatic tangential resistance fe. plates is directly proportional to the square of applied voltage U.
Making lz/d = 50, k =0.25 and U=100 V, the relation between!$, (2) The electrostatic tangential resistance fe for moving
fe and d is shown in Fig. 14 from table 1 and Eq. (12, 19, 26). plates increases in linear direct ratio with micro feature
For above three asperity model, it could be found that parameter lz /d.
increasing of the roughness shape coefficient!$ and electrostatic (3) As the roughness shape coefficient $ increasing, the
tangential resistance fe is gently when d is smaller than 0.7, electrostatic tangential resistance fe will be increased accordingly.
but increasing of the roughness shape coefficient!$ and And the roughness shape coefficient!$ is directly proportional
electrostatic tangential resistance fe is obvious when d is to the area ratio k, which is the rate of all micro asperities
larger than 0.7 from Fig. 14. When =0, $ will be one for the projective area on the moving plate to the plate area, and
three asperity models. So the model of electrostatic resistance nonlinear increases along with the increase of the relative
for smooth plates is typical case of models of electrostatic surface roughness d.
resistance for plates with asperities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foun-
dation of China project under Grant No. 50135040.
REFERENCES
[1] Komvopoulos, K., 1996, “Surface engineering and micro-
tribology for microelectromechanical systems,” Wear,
200(1-2), pp.305-327.
[2] Trimmer W.S.N., Gabriel K.J., 1987, “Design considera-
tions for a practical electrostatic micro-motor,” Sensor and
Actuators, 11(2), pp.189-206.
[3] James, A.K., Marten, P.D.B., 2002, “Mechanics of
Fig. 14 The relation chart between!$, fe and d microcantilever beams subject to combined electrostatic
at different roughness shape and adhesive forces,” Journal of Microelectromechanical
Systems, 11(6), pp.754-762.
(3) Influence of b/a in model of electrostatic resistance for [4] Youngjoo, Y., Myoungkyu, P., Kukjin, C., 1998, “Sticking
pyramidal frustum asperities on roughness shape model of suspended polysilicon microstructure including
coefficient!$ and electrostatic tangential resistance fe residual stress gradient and postrelease temperature,”
Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 7(3), pp.339-
344.
[5] Riehl, P.S., Scott, K.L., Muller, R.S., et al, 2003,
“Electrostatic charge and field sensors based on
micromechanical resonators,” Journal of Microelectrome-
chanical Systems, 12(5), pp.577-589.
[6] Wang, J. G., 2002, The study of the microtribology
mechanism based on the movable shuttle in the electro-
static driven comb microresonator, Shanghai, Shanghai
University.
[7] Ge, S.H., 2004, “Another method to calculate the electric
field and the capacitance for a non-parallel plate capacitor,”
College Physics, 23(11), pp.40-41.
Fig. 15 The relation chart between!$, fe and b/a
at different d
527
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ABSTRACT The tester used in the present study is a dynamic flying height
In the present paper, the attitudes of a magnetic head tester (DFHT) produced by Phase Metric Inc.[3]. The
working under nanometer scale are measured with a phase measurement principle is based on the light interference as
metric dynamic flying height tester. The influences of recess sketched in Fig.1; actually, the light is vertically projected and
on flying attitudes and air film characteristic are investigated reflected. Three monochromatic beams with different
using experimental analysis and numerical simulation in detail. wavelength are used and the intensity of the interference fringe
The experimental results show that the recess of ABS has pattern at arbitrary gray levels is obtained during measurement.
significant influence on the flying attitudes of slider. The The flying height can be determined for interpolating the
numerical simulation results demonstrate the main reason of intensity between the peaks and valleys of the intensity
recess effect by mechanical equilibrium analysis. In the end, distribution. The main structure of DFHT consists of eight parts
some important features are found, which will be helpful for as shown in Fig.1. The main operation process is as follows:
the design of ultra-high density magnetic recording. set the initial parameters such as characteristic flying height,
Keywords: Nanotechnology, Magnetic head/disk, Measurement, pitch angle, roll angle and preload firstly; then set the rotational
Numerical simulation velocity of glass disk and drive the disk rotate by motor; finally,
sense light intensity by optical path devices to gain necessary
INTRODUCTION data with some transition method.
The capacities achieved for magnetic recording disk storage,
which have an important role in direct access storage devices
in computer systems, have grown at a tremendous rate.
Recently, in particular, down-sizing in magnetic recording disk
storage is very marked and recording density increases very
rapidly, for both small-diameter disks and smaller slider
masses help improve the head-disk interface (HDI) reliability,
owing to reduced impact energy. To realize ultra-high
recording densities, great efforts have been done to the study
of HDI problems. One of the most important parameters to
achieve high recording density is the gap between the
recording elements and magnetic medium, which is called
flying height (FH). In recent years, the FH has been decreasing
at a tremendous rate and is estimated to reach near 10 nm or
less. The air bearing surface (ABS) of magnetic head has
important influences on flying attitudes (flying height, pitch
angle and roll angle). Many optimization methods have been
adopted for air bearing slider designs to attain the goal of good
flying stability and high recording density [1].
In the present paper, the recess effects of ABS are
investigated. Two steps are carried out. The first step is to test 1. sensor 2.optical source 3.preload device 4.arm
and gain the flying attitude data with different recess of ABS 5.magnitc head 6. bearing 7.glass disk 8. optical path
using a dynamic flying height tester (DFHT)[2]. The second Fig.1 The main components of the experimental setup
step is to calculate the gas film performance under the same
condition using numerical simulation method. In the end, the RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
influences of recess on flying attitudes and air film
characteristic are analyzed by integrating experimental with 1. The recess effect of ABS on the flying attitudes
numerical simulation results in detail.
528
Experimental Analysis and Numerical Simulation of the Recess Slider in Magnetic Recording System with Ultra-Thin Spacing
Main recess 1275̚2475(nm) Fig.3 The effect of shallow recesses on flying characteristics
Shallow recess 25̚140 (nm) 14
4
Zone-1
In the experiments, the velocity of flow is not always aligned 2 Zone-2
Zone-3
with the orientation of the head (direction along X). Therefore, 0
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
additional to the rotational speed and the radius, the skew angle Main recess m
must be used to indicate the direction of the flow. The sign of 160
skew angle is defined as in the figure. Table 2 gives the radius 150
and skew angle in the outer diameter zone(OD) ˈ middle
140
diameter zone (MD)ˈinner diameter zone (ID), respectively.
Pitch angle rad
130
120
Zone-3(ID) 17.713 -16.775 Fig.4 The effect of main recesses on flying characteristics
2. The recess effect on the gas film performance
The comparison results of flying attitude are shown in Fig.3. The influences of recess on the flying characteristic are
The experimental results show that the shallow recess has a investigated in the above experimental analysis. The
more significant influence on the flying height and the pitch experimental results indicate that the variation of recess has
angle than the roll angle. The variation of roll angle with
significant influence on the flying attitude. The recess
shallow recess is not showed in the figure. From the
experimental results of Fig.3, it can be observed that with the variation is the reason that the gas film pressure varies. In
increase of the shallow recess, the attitude parameters of the following parts, the effect of recess on the gas film performance
three testing zones (OD, MD and ID) have the similar will be investigated with numerical method [4].
increasing trends. The flying height and pitch angle almost The effect of shallow recess on gas film performance is
linearly increase with shallow recess. shown in Fig.5. Some features can be found in the results of
Fig.4 gives the relation of flying attitudes (flying height, pitch Fig.5. Firstly, the gas floating force, W, obviously decreases
angle) with main recess. It can be observed that the effect of with the increase of shallow recess. Different from the
main recess on flying attitude is different from the effect of variation of the positive gas floating force Wp, the negative gas
shallow recess. With the increase of the main recess, the flying floating force Wn keeps almost constant, however the Wp
height of the three testing zones(OD,MD and ID) have presents decreasing trends and serves as main influence on the
obviously rising trends, However, the variation of flying height gas film pressure. In the other hand, the W and Wp have the
with main recess presents obvious nonlinear. similar curves. Secondly, both the maximum pressure, Pmax and
529
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
2.7
W considered in the nanometer spacing environment.
Wp
2.4 Wn
Wp
Gas floating force W,Wp,Wn
2.1
REFERENCES
1.8 W
1.5 [1] O’Hara, M. A., Hu, Y., Bogy, D. B, 1996, “Effects of slider
1.2 sensitivity optimization,” IEEE Trans. Magn., 32,
0.9
pp.3744-3746.
0.6
0.3
[2] Luo Jianbin, Huang Ping, Wen Shizhu, 1995, “Study on the
0.0 Wn measurement of lubrication film thickness at nanometer
-0.3
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
scale [J],” Chinese Journal of Scientific Instrument, 16(1),
Shallow recess (nm) pp.149-152.
[3] San Diego, 1994, Phase Metric DFHT operations manual
(a) Gas floating forces
[M], USA.
65 0.0 [4] Huang Ping, Xu Langui, Meng Yonggang, Wen Shizhu,
Pmax
Pmin
2007, “Effective finite difference method to calculate
60 -0.2
lubricating performances of ultra-thin gas film of magnetic
head/disk,” Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering,
55 Pmax -0.4
43(3), pp.43-49.
Pmax
Pmin
Pmin
50 -0.6
45 -0.8
40 -1.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Shallow recess (nm)
2.4 W
Wp
2.0 Wn Wp
Gas floating force W,Wp,Wn
1.6 W
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0 Wn
-0.4
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
Main recess m
Pmax
60 Pmin
-0.2
55 Pmax
Pmin
-0.4
50
Pmax
45 -0.6
Pmin
40
-0.8
35
-1.0
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
Main recess m
530
Effect of Solvents on Frictional Properties of Monolayer Lubricant Films Coated on Magnetic Disk Surfaces
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
532
Fly-Ability and Durability Test of Dynamic Fly Height Heads at 1 nm Clearance
Ning Li (State Key Laboratory of Tribolgy, Tsinghua David B. Bogy (Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University, Beijing 100084, China University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of USA)
California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA)
Lanshi Zheng (Western Digital Corporation, Fremont, Yonggang Meng* (State Key Laboratory of Tribolgy,
CA 94539, USA) Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China)
Extended Abstract
Thermal protrusion of the heating element built in the DFH
slider can be used to control the head-to-media spacing (HMS)
by applying controllable electrical power. It is very convenient
to obtain ultra-low flying height (FH) and make slight contact
with the disk using such a slider. In this study, we achieved 1
nm clearance flying over the disk using the DFH slider by
making the protrusion back off 1 nm immediately after
touchdown (TD). Moreover, the fly-ability of the DFH slider
flying at 1 nm clearance was investigated by monitoring laser
Doppler vibrometer (LDV), acoustic emission (AE) and Fig. 1 Schematic view of experimental apparatus
friction signals. In particular, the durability of the HDI at such
small spacing was evaluated by inspecting the wear level of the
sliders and the disks after different durations of fly using
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Candela optical
surface analyzer (OSA) respectively. Finally, the possibility of
stable flying of DFH slider at sub-nanometer clearance was
demonstrated experimentally.
Keywords: Clearance, Thermal Protrusion, Dynamic Fly
Height (DFH), Head-Disk Interface (HDI), Wear
INTRODUCTION
To achieve a higher storage density in hard disk drives, the
physical spacing between the read/write element and the disk
surface has to be made smaller. For the next generation hard
disk drives with a density of 1 Tbit/in2, a spacing of 2.5 nm is Fig. 2 Calibration of HMS reduction vs heating power
estimated to be required and the thickness of slider overcoat
will be reduced to 1 nm [1]. At such an ultra-low FH, the that consists of a spindle unit, an actuator unit, an arm
intermittent/continuous contact at the head-disk interface may equipped with an AE sensor and a friction gauge. Dual
occur, which will make the slider and/or disk worn and may DSP-based motor controllers drive the spindle and the arm
affect the dynamic stability of the slider. Recently, dynamic fly actuator. External data acquisition system was used to acquire
height sliders with thermal actuator (heater) have been the signal from AE sensor and friction gauge. A waveform
proposed and introduced into commercial products [2]. The generator can apply voltage to the heater in the head.
heater, when powered, causes the head to protrude and
effectively reduce the HMS. In contrast with FH reduction of
Samples
the whole slider, the protrusion occurs only in the area around
head and only when needed. Therefore, it is the most In this study, we used Western Digital femto DFH sliders
promising technique to achieve ultra-small spacing and thus which were designed especially for ultra-low FH. The disks we
high record density at present. used had a glide avalanche of ~2.5 nm, an AFM roughness (Ra
In this study, a specially designed DFH head for ultra-low measured over 10 μm) of 0.3 nm, and were coated with 3.5 nm
FH was used to access its fly-ability and durability at an diamond-like carbon (DLC) overcoat and 2.0 nm of Tetroal
ultra-small clearance of 1 nm experimentally. The relationship lubricant.
between HMS change and heating power of each head sample
was calibrated first. Then, we performed a series of flying tests Experimental Methods
at 1 nm clearance for increased durations. Multiple techniques The relationship between HMS change and heating power
were used to monitor the contact and slider dynamics. The was calibrated by measuring the HMS magnetically using
wear of sliders and disks was also inspected after tests. Guzik system when applying a series of incremental powers to
the heater. This HMS measurement technique is based on the
EXPERIMENTS Wallace Spacing Loss relationship, where the change in
amplitude of the measured read-back signal harmonics directly
Apparatus relate to the change of the spacing between read/write
VENA CSS & Load/Unload Tester was used in this transducer and the magnetic media. Fig. 2 shows the calibrated
experiment. A schematic view of the experimental setup is HMS reduction as function of heating power. A 2nd order
presented in Fig. 1. The disk and slider are set in a spin-stand polynomial was used to fit the measured data. Also, using a
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
533
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
534
Fly-Ability and Durability Test of Dynamic Fly Height Heads at 1 nm Clearance
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Western Digital Corporate
for providing us with excellent experimental facilities.
535
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ABSTRACT the case that the loss of material is related to a fatigue processes,
Titanium alloy and titanium alloy film possess potential occurring at the surface of the material itself, then the
application in MEMS and microfluidic system used in phenomena is referred to as cavitation erosion. At present,
biological bodies for their special mechanical performance and research on the cavitation properties of materials is mainly
biocompatibility. In order to explore their cavitation erosion concentrated on the bulk materials of stainless steels[7],
characteristics, titanium alloy thin films were prepared on glass aluminium alloy[8], titanium and copper[9-10]. Little is on
bases by ion beam enhanced deposition method. Cavitation metal thin film materials.
erosion characteristics of titanium thin film were explored by Titanium alloy thin film is a potential MEMS material for its
means of ultrasonic vibrator. Comparison with titanium alloy physical and mechanical properties, and an implant material for
bulk and the effect of cavitation strength on cavitation erosion its biocompatibility[11-12]. Therefore, it is necessary to study
were also conducted. The initial surface and cavitation erosion its cavitation erosion characteristics.
topography of titanium alloy thin film and bulk were analyzed In this paper, cavitation erosion characteristics of titanium
by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The water contact alloy thin film prepared by ion beam enhanced deposition
angle was measured by contact angle measurement and method were explored by means of ultrasonic vibrator.
corresponding surface energy was calculated. The experimental Compared with titanium alloy bulk, the cavitation erosion
results show that there is no obvious slippage and deformation process and mechanism of titanium alloy thin film were
along the grain boundary on the surface of the titanium alloy discussed. Furthermore, the effects of cavitation strength on
films and bulk. There exists little plastic deformation in cavitation erosion were also analyzed.
titanium alloy films compared with titanium alloy bulk. The
four stages of the titanium alloy film cavitation erosion are EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
incubation period, concave formation, delamination, and
Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) films were prepared on glass
localized fracture. The eroded area and eroded area loss rate
bases by ion beam enhanced deposition method. The size of
increase with cavitation erosion time increasing. However, the
glass bases was 10×10 mm. The gas pressure in chamber
increment of eroded area becomes slow and eroded area loss
before deposition was 3.0 h 10-3Pa. The glass bases were
rate decreases if cavitation erosion time exceeds some
threshold. More bubbles can be produced by larger cavitation ultrosonically cleaned with acetone, ethanol and deionized
strength, which makes the collapse pressure increase and the water in turn. Then the glass bases were activated in piranha
damage on specimen surface become severe. Two-color image solution (H2O2: 98%H2SO4=3: 7(v:v)) in 90 ć for 10 min.
processing can be used to analyze surface changes of the After that the glass bases were rinsed with deionized water and
materials qualitatively. dried in a stream of nitrogen gas. The deposition process was
Keywords: Cavitation erosion, Titanium alloy thin film, Ion described as follows: Pressure was 3.6h10-2Pa. Voltage was
beam enhanced deposition 2.5 kV. The gas flow was 1.5SCCM. The deposition
temperature was room temperature. The deposition time was
INTRODUCTION 40 min. The film thicknesses were about 100nm, which were
measured by optical interference method. The surfaces of
In the last two decades, microelectromechanical systems Ti6Al4V test specimens were ground with diamond paste.
(MEMS) research has received tremendous attention[1]. Rapid Cavitation erosion experiments were carried out in a
advancement in microfabrication technologies coupled with the vibratory apparatus, shown in Fig. 1. The vibratory frequency
drive toward miniaturization of innovative MEMS and
and the peak-to-peak amplitude were 20±2 kHz and 40±1m,
microfluidic systems for use in novel applications spread across
respectively. The experiments were conducted in room
diverse technological disciplines[2]. The importance and utility
temperature.
of microfluidic devices continues to rise and cavitation erosion
appeared in conventional scale hydraulic machinery also occur
in these MEMS[3-5].
Cavitation can be classified as a kind of wear and shows itself
when a material comes into contact with a liquid under certain
conditions, as is seen for ship propellers, hydroturbines and
hydraulic systems. When the partial pressure of gases dissolved
in a liquid decreases locally, due to a vibration or to a turbulent
flow some bubbles are formed on the fluid. In the case that the
pressure conditions are rapidly reversed, the bubbles formed
suddenly implode. In the liquid phase, without other constrains,
this explosion–implosion process occurs concentrically. If such
a reversion is prevented, e.g., at the surface of a solid object, the
explosion will result in a so-called microjet [6]. Cavitation Fig.1 Sketch map of ultrasonic vibrator
impingement can produce a removal of only the passive layer, in
Topography characterizations were performed by Phillips
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. XL30 scanning electron microscopy. Water contact angles of
hczhang@newmail.dlmu.edu.cn
536
Cavitation Erosion Characteristics of Titanium Alloy Thin Film Prepared by Ion Beam Enhanced Deposition
(a) 3 min
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
increases and area loss rate of specimens also increases. This is The eroded area increases with cavitation erosion time
because of impact on titanium alloy film by bubble collapse increasing. However, the increment becomes slow when the
continuously acting. Cavitation pits appear in local area of time is long enough. The eroded area loss rate also increases
specimens, which corresponds to cavitation erosion stage. With with cavitation erosion time increasing. But it decreases if
time increasing continuously, the impact action by bubble cavitation erosion time exceeds some threshold. It is found that
collapse on cavitation pits accumulates, which results in crack two-color image processing can exhibit the inception of
extend around pits. Pits combination make the size of pits
cavitation erosion process well, which can be used to analyze
increase and delamination in large area occurs. It is a kind of
surface changes of the materials qualitatively.
fatigue process. Eroded area in specimens increases rapidly
and eroded area loss rate reaches maximum, which EFFECT OF CAVITATION STRENGTH ON CAVITATION
corresponds to delamination stage. In the later of cavitation EROSION CHARACTERISTICS OF TITANIUM ALLOY FILM
erosion experiment, eroded area curve become flat and eroded In order to explore the effect of cavitation strength on
area loss rate curve become falling. This corresponds to the cavitation erosion characteristic of titanium alloy film, we
period in which titanium alloy film fall off completely and the conduct the experiment by changing output power of ultrasonic
base starts to be suffered cavitation erosion. vibrator. With the colors-abstraction method, the eroded area
curves and eroded area loss curves were plotted in Fig.9 and
120 Fig.10. From these two figures, it can be seen that the shapes
of curves are almost the same, which means that the tendency
Ti6Al4V film
100 of cavitation erosion is identical. The difference lies on that the
Ti6Al4V bulk
larger the cavitation strength, the shorter the incubation period.
80
For three cavitation strengths of 4.5 W, 8 W, and 12.5 W, the
Eroded area/%
80
Ti6Al4V film
Eroded area/%
6 Ti6Al4V bulk
60
Area loss rate/%/min
40
4
20
2 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time/min
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Fig.9 Eroded area curves of specimens
Time/min
8
538
Cavitation Erosion Characteristics of Titanium Alloy Thin Film Prepared by Ion Beam Enhanced Deposition
CONCLUSIONS [5] Losey M. W., Jackman R. J., Firebaugh S. L., 2002, “Design
(1) There is no obvious slippage and deformation along the and fabrication of microfluidic devices for multiphase
grain boundary on the surface of the titanium alloy films and mixing and reaction,” Journal of Microelectromechanical
bulk. There exists little plastic deformation in titanium alloy Systems, 11, pp.709-717.
films compared with titanium alloy bulk. [6] Lauterborn W., 1979, “Liquid jet from cavitation bubble
(2) The cavitation erosion of Ti6Al4V alloy film progressed collapse,” Proceedings of the 5th International Conference
into incubation period, concave formation, delamination and on Erosion Solid Liquid Impact, pp.58.1-58.6.
localized fracture, corresponding to the four stages of the [7] Bregliozzia G., Schinob A. Di, Ahmeda S.I., Kennyb J.M.,
cavitation erosion. Haefkea H., 2005, “Cavitation wear behaviour of austenitic
(3) The eroded area and eroded area loss rate increase with stainless steels, with different grain sizes,” Wear, 258,
cavitation erosion time increasing. However, the increment of pp.503-510.
eroded area becomes slow and eroded area loss rate decreases [8] Steller J., Krella A., Koronowicz J., Janicki W., 2005,
if cavitation erosion time exceeds some threshold. Two-color “Towards quantitative assessment of material resistance to
image processing can be used to analyze surface changes of the cavitation erosion,” Wear, 258, pp.604-613.
materials qualitatively. [9] Chiu K.Y., Cheng F.T., Man H.C., 2005, “Evolution of
(4) More bubbles can be produced by larger cavitation surface roughness of some metallic materials in cavitation
strength, which makes the collapse pressure increase and the erosion,” Ultrasonics, 43, pp.713-716.
damage on specimen surface becomes severe. [10] Tanga C.H., Chenga F.T., Man H.C., 2006, “Laser surface
alloying of a marine propeller bronze using aluminium
powder Part I: Microstructural analysis and cavitation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
erosion study,” 2006, Surface & Coatings Technology, 200,
This work is supported by the National Natural Science pp.2602-2609.
Foundation of China under Grant No.50675024. [11] Marco F. A., Masap R., Noel C.M., 2004,
“High-aspect-ratio bulk micromachining of titanium,”
REFERENCES Nature Materials, 3, pp.103-105.
[1] Chandan M., Yoav P., 2005, “Size scale effects on [12] John D., 2005, “Beyond silicon,” Mechanical Engineering,
cavitating flows through microorfices entrenched in 7, pp.1-13.
rectangular microchannels,” Journal of [13] Hattori S., Maeda K., Zhang Q., F, 2004, “ormulation of
Microelectromechanical Systems, 14, pp.987-999. cavitation erosion behavior based on logistic analysis,”
[2] Blisabeth V., Nico F. D., 2003, “Microfluidics meets Wear, 257, pp.1064-1070.
MEMS,” Proceedings of the IEEE, 91, pp.930-953. [14] Diodati P., Marchesoni F., 2002, “Time-evolving statistics
[3] Chandan M., Yoav P., 2005, “Cavitation in flow through a of cavitation damage on metallic surfaces,” Ultrasonics
micro-arifice inside a silicon microchannel,” Physics of Sonochemistry, 9, pp.325-329.
fluids, 17, pp.1-15. [15] Soyama H., Futakawa M., Homma K., 2005, “Estimation
[4] Yang R., Williams J. D., Wang W., 2004, “A rapid of pitting damage induced by cavitation impacts,” Journal
micro-mixer/reactor based on arrays of spatially impinging of Nuclear Materials, 343, pp116-122.
micro-jets,” Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems,
14, pp. 1345-1351.
539
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
We measured vertical elongation and adhesive force of by an ultra high-speed video camera as a sequence of images.
nanometers-thick lubricant films using a specially-fabricated This method enables us to measure a several micron range of
probe. A diamond tip and a micro-mirror were mounted to the cantilever probe displacement with sub-nanometer
form a nano-lubricant-bridge and reflect a detecting laser beam accuracy [2].
on the front and back surfaces of the probe cantilever, In this study, four different types of PFPE lubricants (polar
respectively. In contrast to generally used probe microscopy, Zdol2000, Zdol4000, and nonpolar Z03, Z25) were selected.
the tip displacement was measured using a Michelson Film thicknesses and the specifications of lubricants are listed
interference microscope and an ultra high-speed video camera in Table 1. In addition, the bonding ratio of Zdol2000 was
which enables measurements in micron dynamic range and at varied as listed in Table 2. The bonding ratio is defined as
sub-nanometer accuracy. In this research, we succeeded in br=h/H wherein H is the film thickness after annealing and h is
quantifying the vertical elongation and adhesive force of the bonded molecular thickness. Here the bonded molecular
sub-10-nm thick lubricant film as functions of film thickness, thicknesses were obtained after 15-minute ultrasonic cleaning
molecular weight, end group functionality, and bonding ratio in the solvent (Du Pont Vertrel XF). All lubricant thicknesses
of the lubricants. were measured using Optical Surface Analyzer (Candela
Keywords: Adhesive Force, Lubricant Bridge, PFPE Lubricant, OSA5130) and are shown as averaged values.
Bonding Ratio, Magnetic Disk The experimental procedure was as follows [1]. The
INTRODUCTION diamond tip was pressed onto the disk surface at about 0.57
In hard disk drives, the flying height of the head disk μN and then pulled off at a constant velocity of 0.012 mm/s.
interface (HDI) has reached less than 10 nm and it became The elongation and adhesive force generated during this
inevitable that the undesirable contacts between head and disk pull-off process were calculated by applying the regression
surface increase. In such circumstances, the dynamic behavior analysis to transient vibration waveforms of the tip [2].
of the liquid lubricant coating over the disk surface is one of IDENTIFICATION OF ELONGATION AND ADHESION
the key issues to realize higher reliability and durability of the Typical examples of waveforms observed while the tip was
HDI. To elucidate the dynamic characteristics of the thin liquid being retracted are shown in Fig. 2. It is found that the rupture
lubricant, we developed a novel method to measure the of the liquid bridge occurred at around 18 ms and started a free
adhesion force [1], the elongation length [2], the spring
constant and damping coefficient [3] of the liquid bridge vibration of the cantilever. The bifurcation point of the solid
formed by perfluoropolyether (PFPE) lubricant film with a line (the measured free vibration waveform) into the dashed
thickness of several tens of nm. In the present research, the line (the left-side extrapolation waveform of the free vibration)
elongation and the adhesive force of 2-nm-thick PFPE and the solid line (the measured waveform before the rupture
lubricant films with/without the polar end group for different
molecular weights and of varying bonding ratio of Zdol2000
have been measured.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND METHODOLOGY
The schematic diagram of the experimental setup is
illustrated in Fig. 1. The distinguishing features of this setup
are the cantilever probe itself and the displacement
measurement method of the cantilever probe. The cantilever
probe was manually fabricated as a diamond tip (100 nm in
radius) and a minute reflective mirror were glued on each side
of the cantilever surface for higher durability against the extra
hard surface and for the displacement measurement,
respectively. This method uses the laser Michelson
interference fringe pattern formed on the reflective mirror
attached on the backside of the cantilever. The cantilever Fig. 1 Experimental apparatus
movement induces the fringe pattern's shift, which is captured
Table 2 Bonding ratio of annealed lubricant films
Table 1 Specifications of lubricant films Total layer Bonding layer Bonding ratio
Type Zdol2000 Zdol4000 Z03 Z25 H h br
Molecular weight (amu) 2000 4000 4000 9500 2.2 nm nm
Radius of gyration (nm) 1.0 1.4 1.4 3.4 0.24
Kinetic viscosity (mm2/s) 85 100 30 263 0.80
Surface tension (mN/m) 24 22 23 25 1.2 0.58
Film thickness (nm) 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.2
540
Measurements of Vertical Elongation and Adhesive Force of Nanometers-Thick Lubricant Films on Magnetic Disks Using Micro Probe for SPM
d2z
F( z) = k c {v p (t % t 0 ) % z} % m (1)
dt 2
where kc is the calculated spring constant of the cantilever, t0 is
the starting time when the vibration system establishes an
equilibrium condition, and vp is the pull-off speed.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Experimental results of the elongation and the adhesive
force for the 2-nm-thick lubricant films are shown in Fig. 3.
The short horizontal line indicates each experimental value
showing scattering of the experiments and the vertical bar Fig. 3 Elongation and adhesive force of lubricant film
denotes the average value of each experiment. The adhesive
force of bare disk surface is shown for reference. Comparisons
between nonpolar/polar lubricants indicated that the effect of
molecular weight on both elongation and adhesive force was
small for the nonpolar lubricants. For the polar lubricants,
however, the elongation decreased with increasing molecular
weight. Note that, being compared at the same thickness, the
2-nm-thick lubricant film of Zdol2000 whose radius of
gyration is about half of Zdol4000 has more mobile molecules
than that of Zdol4000. Considering the results for the nonpolar
and polar lubricant cases, the amount of the mobile molecule is
found to primarily affect the elongation rather than the
molecular weight. Regarding the adhesive force, it is
considered that polar lubricants endure a higher tip-pressure
because of hydrogen bonding to the disk surface and lubricant
molecules that remain between the tip and the disk surface Fig. 4 Elongation and adhesive force of annealed lubricant film
prevented solid-solid contacts. This permitted the tip to be
separated from the disk surface that had a higher surface increased. This is attributed to the fact that the functional ends
energy than the lubricant film, and thus the adhesive force was of the lubricant molecule, which had locally a higher energy,
decreased. In the case of 2.5-nm-thick Zdol2000, the lubricant tend to align toward the disk surface and the main chain with a
molecules were highly oriented and covered up continuously lower energy tend to expose toward the tip as the increase of
the contact area while Zdol4000 did in patches. This is the bonding ratio and thus the adhesive force decreased. This
considered as the mechanism that Zdol2000 resulted in the decreasing tendency reversed at the bonding ratio of 0.83,
minimum adhesion force. which was in the same way as observed in the elongation.
Results for varying bonding ratio of polar Zdol2000 films
CONCLUSIONS
are shown in Fig. 4. In the experimental range, the elongation
The elongation and the adhesive force of molecularly thin
ranged from a few tens to roughly a hundred nm. The
PFPE lubricant films with/without the polar end group for
elongation was observed to decrease as the bonding ratio
different molecular weights have been measured. It was
increased, which is well correspondent with the number of
revealed that the mobile molecule of lubricant contributed to a
mobile molecules. However, the result for the bonding ratio of
larger elongation of the lubricant bridge and that the fixed
0.83 was away from this tendency. Longer elongation for a
molecule of lubricant contributed to a decreased adhesive force.
higher bonding ratio of 0.83 hinted that the amount of the
From the results for the same experiments with varying the
mobile molecule is not a decisive factor for longer elongation.
bonding ratio of the polar lubricant, the elongation and the
The adhesive force also decreased as the bonding ratio
adhesive force was found to decrease with the increasing
bonding ratio.
REFERENCES
[1] Mitsuya, Y., Ohshima, Y., 2003, “Measurement of
Velocity-Dependent Adhesive Force Exerted on Magnetic
Disk Using Micro-Probe of SPM,” ASME J. Tribol., 125,
pp.842-849.
[2] Ohshima, Y., Mitsuya, Y., Iwase, T., 2004, “Measurement
of Adhesion Force and Elongation of Molecularly Thin
Lubricant by Using Transient Response of SPM
Cantilever,” ASME J. Tribol., 126, pp.738-744.
[3] Mitsuya, Y., Ohshima, Y., Zhang, H., Aoyama, K., Kawai,
T., Fukuzawa, K., 2007, “Stiffness and Damping of Thin
PFPE Lubricant Bridging Between Magnetic Disk and
Fig. 2 Typical regression analysis to vibrations Diamond Probe Tip,” ASME J. Tribol., 129, pp.720-728.
541
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Experimental Research on Boundary Slip of Confined Liquids at Micro/Nano Scale and Effect of Shear
Rate and Viscosity
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
In order to research the flow and transportation property of used concept to quantify the slip of a liquid at a solid
liquids between solid and liquid at micro/nano scale, a surface[7]. The slip length, b, is the distance beyond the
commercial Atomic Force Microscope was modified by liquid/solid interface at which the liquid velocity extrapolates
attaching a 45micro meter diameter glass ball to the end of to zero, as shown in figure 1. The relationship between slip
cantilever to form a ball-disk contact, which was used to
investigate boundary slip effect of confined liquids under
length b and the velocity of the liquid at the wall vs by the
different velocity. Solid surface specimen was prepared as expression:
hydrophilic Si㧔100㧕and hydrophobic OTS film surfaces on Si ∂v
vs = b
㧔 100 㧕 verse different viscosity sucrose solution. The ∂z
relationship between shear rate and boundary slip are discussed where vs is the velocity of the fluid in the bulk and z is the
carefully. Results indicated that, slip boundary conditions are
axis perpendicular to the wall.
found for all different viscosity sucrose solution both on
hydrophilic and hydrophobic surface, and slip length of liquid
on solid surface with poor wetting property was obviously
larger than that with good wetting property. Further more, the
degree of slip is found to increase with shear rate and liquids
viscosity for the two surfaces, which shows that boundary slip
is shear rate and viscosity dependent. The results will be
important for the research and control of the flow properties of
confined liquids.
Keywords: Boundary slip, Slip length, Shear-dependent
INTRODUCTION
With the development of technology,
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have been studied
for decades, and many chemical, biological, and biophysical Fig.1 Definition of the slip length
MEMS work in liquid environments[1], such as Micro Total
Analysis System ( μ TAS)[2] and micro pipe. Then, a Spikes[8,9] defined the concept of half-wetted bearing
considerable important thing for these MEMS worked in fluid according to the boundary slip of a liquid and unwetted surface.
is flow and transportation property of liquids between solid He points out that if the half-wetted bearing is used in the
and liquid at micro/nano scale. At macro scale, a basic future, it will be significantly reduce friction in lubricated
assumption for Reynolds Equation is no boundary slip at the sliding contacts and thus make possible the hydrodynamic
interface of the liquid and surface, i.e., there is on relative lubrication of very low load contacts.
motion between the surface and the liquid[3]. This assumption Boundary slip will be affected by many factors, include
has been demonstrated in numerous macroscopic experiments solid and liquid properties and liquid–solid interface properties.
and is suitable to most condition. But when Newtonian liquids Recently, the influence of shear rate on boundary slip is widely
between solid and liquid at micro/nano scale, numerous researched as it is one important liquid–solid interface property,
research papers have cast doubts on the universality of the no and the effect of shear rate on boundary slip is still a
slip boundary condition, showing that under certain controversial question. The slip length does not dependent on
circumstances fluid slip might occur at the solid shear rate in the most widely used slip length model proposed
boundary.Strong evidence for slip has been provided by many by Vinogradova[10]. Many research group’s experiment results
research groups. Pit[4] observed the velocity of liquid close to agree with this constant slip length model, such as Pit[5]ǃ
a solid surface using a fluorescence recovery after Vinogradova[10,11]. But other groups consider that boundary
photobleaching (FRAP) technique, which is directly observe slip dependent on shear rate. Zhu[12,13] employed a surface
the flow of a fluid near a solid surface, and find the slip force apparatus to study the hydrodynamic squeeze force
phenomena. Bonaccurso[5] used a modified AFM measured between a pair of crossed mica cylinders lubricated by liquids.
the hydrodynamic drainage force of aqueous medium between They find slip didn’t occur when flow rate was low, but
smooth hydrophilic surfaces. Experiment result showed implied partial slip when it exceeded a critical level. The
boundary slip occur. experiments of Craig[14]ǃHenry[15]experiments also agree
Navier[6] first proposed that a liquid may slip on a solid with shear-dependent slip.
surface when it flow over a solid surface, and this slipping In order to research the effect of shear rate on boundary
would be opposed by a frictional force proportional to the slip, a commercial Atomic Force Microscope was modified by
velocity of the fluid relative to the solid. He introduced the attaching a 45micro meter diameter glass ball to the end of
idea of ‘slip length’, which is nowadays the most commonly cantilever to form a ball-disk contact, which was used to
542
Experimental Research on Boundary Slip of Confined Liquids at Micro/Nano Scale and Effect of Shear Rate and Viscosity
investigate boundary slip effect of confined liquids under [7] Baudry, J., Charlaix, E., Tonck, A., Mazuyer, D., 2001,
different velocity. Solid surface specimen was prepared as “Experimental evidence for a large slip effect at a
hydrophilic Si˄100˅and hydrophobic OTS film surfaces on Si nonwetting fluid-solid interface,” Langmuir, 17, pp.
˄ 100 ˅ verse different viscosity sucrose solution. The 5232-5236.
relationship between shear rate and boundary slip are discussed [8] Spikes, H.A., 2003, “The half-wetted bearing Part 1:
carefully. extended Reynolds equation,” Proc Instn Mech Engrs, 217,
pp.1-14.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [9] Spikes, H.A., 2003, “The half-wetted bearing Part 2:
potential application in low load contacts,” Proc Instn
The authors would like to thank the NSFC for their Mech Engrs, 217, pp.15-26.
financial support under grant numbers of 50575123 and [10] Vinogradova, O.I., 1995, “Drainage of a thin liquid film
50275071, as well as the financial support from the National confined between hydrophobic surfaces,” Langmuir, 11, pp.
Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) under grant 2213-2220.
number of 2003CB716205. [11] Vinogradova, O.I., Yakubov, G.E., 2006, “Surface
roughness and hydrodynamic boundary conditions,” Phys
REFERENCES Rev E, 73, pp. 045302.
[1] Craighead, H. G., 2000, “Nanoelectromechanical systems,” [12] Zhu, Y.X., Granick, S., 2001, “Rate-dependent slip of
Science, 290, pp.1532-1535. Newtonian liquid at smooth surfaces,” Phys Rev Lett, 87,
[2] Thorsen, T., Maerkl, S.J., Quake, S.R., 2002, “Microfluidic pp. 096105.
large-Scale integration,” Science, 298, pp.580-584. [13] Zhu, Y.X., Granick, S., 2002, “Limits of the
[3] Wen, S. =., 1990, The 3ULQFLSOH of 7ULERORJ\, Tsinghua hydrodynamic no-Slip boundary condition,” Phys Rev Lett,
University Press, Beijing. 88, pp. 106102.
[4] Pit, R., Hervet, H. Leger, L., 1999, “Direct evidence of slip [14] Craig, V.S.J., Neto, C., Williams, D.R.M., 2001,
in hexadecane:solid interfaces,” Phys Rev Lett, 85, pp. “Shear-dependent boundary slip in an aqueous Newtonian
980-983. liquid,” Phys Rev Lett, 87, pp. 054504.
[5] Bonaccurso, E., Kappl, M., Butt, H.J., 2002, [15] Henry, C.L., Neto, C., Evans, D.R., 2004, “The effect of
“Hydrodynamic force measurements: boundary slip of surfactant adsorption on liquid boundary slippage,”
water on hydrophilic surfaces and electrokinetic effects,” Physica A, 339, pp.60-65.
Phys Rev Lett, 88, pp. 076103.
[6] Navier, C.L.M.H., 1823, “Mémoire sur les lois du (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if the reader
mouvement des fluids,” Mem Acad Sci Inst Fr, 6, needs it.)
pp.389-416.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Study on Micro-Scale Gas Slider Bearing with Direct Simulation Monte Carlo Method
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
MEMS devices with oscillatory or rotating parts need existing thin solid and molecular film lubrication technologies
lubrication to achieve long service life. Micro-scale are difficult to meet the demands of MEMS devices, gas or
gas-lubricated thrust bearings are investigated by using both vapor lubrication may become an effective way for
MGL and DSMC methods in this paper. As dimensions of the overcoming tribological problems in MEMS devices.
flow field decrease down to micro-scale or nano-scale, the The theory which govern gas flow in micro-scale bearings
continuum gas flow theory will be invalid. DSMC is a is thin film lubrication or molecular gas film lubrication
molecule-based method suitable for analyzing micro-scale gas (MGL). MGL theory is essentially a generalized Reynolds
flow or dilute gas dynamics problems. Most of the previous equation with correction for dilute gas effect. Burgdorfer
studies in the field was aiming at gas slider bearing between [1] ,Hsia and Domoto [2] , Gans [3], Fukui and Kaneko[4] have
the read/write head and rotating disk in HDD. Only the simple brought forward various rarefied effect corrections to Reynolds
inclined plane slider bearing was studied with the DSMC equation. On the other hand, DSMC, which was introduced by
method for checking the validity of MGL method at nano-scale Bird [5] in 1976, is capable of simulating gas flow problems in
bearing gap size. In this paper, slider bearings with one and transition regime precisely with great flexibility. Alexander
two bumpss are considered. The gas pressure distributions are [6] Eddie [7] , Weidong Huang [8] , Liu and Eddie[9], Fukui
obtained with the DSMC and compared with the results of and Yamane[10] have studied the flat air bearing slider problem
MGL simulations. In order to reveal the flow field of slider by using both the MGL and DSMC methods, and their
bearings, stream-wise velocity profiles at different locations calculation results have shown a reasonable agreement
are presented. The calculation results indicate that negative slip between the two different approaches in the case of flat slide
velocity can be observed near the upper wall of slider bearing bearings.
when the h1/h0 ratio reaches to 6. It may be the cause of
In this paper we focus on the lubrication analyisis of
difference in pressure distributions between the results of MGL
micro-scale gas bearing slider with bumps. This model comes
and DSMC methods.
from MEMS thrust bearing structures but with some
Keywords: Micro-scale, Gas bearing, DSMC,MGL simplification. The two-dimensional pressure distribution and
supporting position of resultant force of pressure with different
INTRODUCTION gap sizes are obtained. Further, the velocity profiles at different
As MEMS devices get more and more sophisticated, the
locations are also displayed. Reverse flows can be observed in
reliability and endurance problems become severe and
some bearing configurations, which probably reduce the
prominent, especially in devices with oscillatory and rotating
pressure based on DSMC compared with the results of MGL.
parts such as micro-motors and micro-engines. Because the
544
Study on Micro-Scale Gas Slider Bearing with Direct Simulation Monte Carlo Method
20nm to 10nm while keeping the structure of the upper part of Both of Figs.2 and 3 display five groups of pressure
the slider bearing unchanged. The sliding velocity Ub of the distributions calculated respectively with the MGL and DSMC
bottom wall is set as a constant value of 25m/s. Figures 2 and 3 methods. We can see that the bearing pressure increase rapidly
show the two-dimensional pressure distributions in the cases 1 before the front edge of the bump and decrease sharply after the
and 2 respectively. back edge, down to a value even below the ambient pressure.
The pressure distributions based on the two different methods
agree well with each other over the whole region, except at
some local zones.
To find out the reason for the difference between the
pressure results of the two approaches, the stream-wise velocity
profiles at several different locations are ploted, as shown in
Fig. 4 for the DSMC simulation results of case 2.
At the positions of x=0.1L and x=0.5L, the gas velocity
near the upper wall is negative when h0=10nm, which means
that there are reverse flow near the two sections. This
phenomenon may be caused by the vortex in flow field.
Because the modified Reynolds equation used in the MGL
simulations is based on the assumption of laminar flow, vortex
Fig.2 Pressure distributions in case 1 does not appear in MGL simulation results. Therefore, the gas
flow in MGL simulation may be greater than that of the DSMC
results as shown in Fig.4. Consequently, the pressure obtained
with the MGL method is a little bit higher than that of the
DSMC results in the zones where vortex exists.
Conclusion
DSMC is an effective tool for simulating gas flow
problems in micro-scale accurately. Gas slider bearings with
one or two bumps are investigated with both the MGL and
DSMC methods. The pressure distributions are coincidental
with each other except in the step zones, where vortex may
occur. The DSMC results can reveal the details of gas flow in
the step zones, and thus are considered to be more accurate
Fig.3 Pressure distributions in case 2 than the MGL simulation results.
545
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
PPA/APS
Si
area to volume ratio of MEMS/NEMS also raises serious 90 APS
PAA/APS
20
Si-OH
Si
adhesive and frictional problems on the contact surfaces. On 60
PPA/APS 15
546
Tribological Behaviors of Self-Assembled Dual-Layer Films in Atmosphere and in Vacuum
revealed a great variation in its adhesion and friction forces at 50 mN to 0.07 at 200 mN. Despite of the similar structure,
between tests in atmosphere and in vacuum. PAA/APS with end groups of –C6H5 exhibited better wear
0.5 resistance than PPA/APS terminated by the –CH3 groups. The
reason can be attributed to the self-repairing property of phenyl,
0.4
/ Ff (atmos.)
0.2
property of Si(111) substrate effectively.
0.1
Ff
0.0
Table 1 The number of microwear cycles corresponding to the
0 20 40 60 80 100
Contact angle
O
failure of self-assembled films under various applied normal
Fig. 2 The ratio of friction force of sample measured in loads. The maximum number of cycles was set to 5000
Load APS STA/APS PPA/APS PAA/APS
vacuum to that in atmosphere plotted as the function of its
50 mN 220 5000 433 5000
contact angle. The normal applied load is 100 nN. The fitting
curve reveals an ascending trend of the ratio with the increase 100 mN — 5000 — 5000
547
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
School of mechanical and automotive engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
548
Research on Fractal Contact Model of Cylinders’ Surface
C
[10] ¬
549
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
P
1
on C. Although the adding of P will increase the actual contact
area, the total contact intensity will still add. '*
* *
( Ar' ) Aa E / 0C 1C 2 x
The reason is that the adding range of P is more than the P 2
[15]
increment of actual contact area. From Fig.3, it can also shown Aa E
that C of inner contact is more than that of outer contact. So in
the condition of same load, inner contact is more advantageous A '*
3/ 4
* 3 K, A ' *
3/ 4
1/ 2 r A' r 1/ 4
than outer contact. P2 * ( Ar' * ) # G * 3 ln r * a c* (D 1.5)
3a c 4 3
What’s more, by contrasting Fig.3(a) and (b), it can be
seen that when R1 keep still, the adding of R2 benefits for [16]
improving the value of C. It is the limit situation when R2
equals R1. As inner contact, it can be seen that two surfaces
2.5.2 If al * a c ,the contact bodies occur only in plastic
D al
D/2 As a c* ' 0 , the load and the area satisfy the following
n' ( a ) C n( a ) 0 C P C2 x
[11] relationship:
2 a ( D / 21) * * (3 D ) / 2 (1C2 x )
2.5 Establishment of fractal contact model about two P ' ~ Ar' [18]
cylinders
al Namely,
From Ar n(a )ada , the coefficient of the total 3 D 2 R1R2
0
* ' * 2 2 R1R2 ) R1 R2
contact area can be got: P' ~ Ar [19]
al
Ar ' n' (a )ada C A r [12] From eqs.[18], two conclusions can be got as follows:
(1) The load and area meet exponential relationship. The result
0
AsC <1, so Ar ' * A r . Therefore with the same load is consistent to the early finding that the surface load and the
n
actual contact area satisfy exponential relationship: P ~ Ar .
P, the contact stress will add times of C . Thus it can be seen
So the above model is believable.
that as C adds, contact intensity will be smaller. (2) the exponent is not only relative to the fractal dimension,
but also to the contact radius and style. Therefore the model can
Put eqs.[11] into [1], the total load formula can be got.
synthetically consider the influence fators of the tradional
Because when the size relation of al and a c is different, the contact model and fractal model. So it is more accurate and
objects’ distortion status is inequable. Therefore, the load is broader.
given by two styles as follows:
3 PREDICTION OF FRACTAL MODEL ABOUT
2.5.1 if al & a c , the contact bodies occur in elastic and CYLINDERS
plastic distortion. Here the load can be divided by two 3.1 Prediction 1
following Situation: Fig.3 gives the predictive result of this model when given
(1) D + 1.5 a set of parameters. Through the prediction, the following
1 conclusions can be got:
( P1 ( A
*
'*
r )
Aa E / λ0C ) 1+ C 2 x (1)the total trend is right.
From Fig.4, it can be seen that the curve form of
P '* = [13] cylinders’ fractal model is similar to the M-B model, but the
Aa E cylinders’ fractal model is lower than the M-B model. This
P shows that when cylinders contact, the stress adds. So the
Where P '* =
denotes the load without contact situation is worse than M-B model. This viewpoint
Aa E
inosculates with the actual situation, because the cylinder’s
A
dimension; Ar'* = r denotes the true contact area without contact in higher pair, and in the same load, the less of the
Aa contact area will lead to the adding of contact stress.
dimension. (2)The result of the model is consistent with the traditional
( D 1)
'*
( 3 2 D ) / 2
model.
4 # G*
P1
*
( Ar* ) g1 ( D ) A ' r
* ( D / 2)
(2 D ) A r ac*
( 3 2 D ) / 2
ķwhen the variableness R1 and the other variableness
3 D
keep still and whenever in inner contact or outer contact, as R2
*D/2 ( 2 D ) / 2 adds, the same load will get bigger actual contact area, so the
K,g 2 ( D) A' r ac* (D + 1.5)
contact stress will descend. Therefore, adding the radius of the
[14] cylinders is advantageous.
550
Research on Fractal Contact Model of Cylinders’ Surface
Are/Arˉ Ar' *
1
0.8
0.6
r
A/
Ar'*
er 0.4
A
G*=10e-12
0.2 G*=10e-10
G*=10e-8
0
-4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10
(R1=100,D=1.5,G*=10-10, , =0.01) Ar' *
(c) the actual area in the condition of elastic distortion
Fig.4 the predictive influence by radius of R1 and R2
Fig.5 the predictive influence by G*(D=1.5, , =0.01)
ĸinner contact is better than outer contact. The nearer R2
approaches R1, the closer the curve approaches the M-B model. 3.3 Prediction 3
3.2 Prediction 2 Fig.6 gives the predictive result of this model influenced
Fig.5 gives the predictive result of this model influenced by material characteristic parameter , . From Fig.6.[a] and (b),
by parameter G*. From Fig.5, it can be got as follows:
Reducing G* makes the curve move up, so reducing G* can it can be seen that the increment of , will make the curve of
effectively decrease the contact intensity, and accordingly Ar-P move down, so it will add the contact intensity. But from
better surface contact character. Reducing G* predicates to Fig.6.(c), it is shown that the increment of , will add the elastic
decrease the surface roughness. The conclusion is the same area, so the surface contact quality is improved. Therefore it is
with M-B model[5].
advantageous for contact effect to properly add the value of , .
Ar' *ˉ P' *
10
-1
-1
Ar' *ˉ P' *
10
G*=10e-12 ˙1
-2 G*=10e-10 ˙0.01
10
G*=10e-8 ˙0.001
-3 -2
* 10 * 10
Ar'*
Ar'*
r' r'
A A
-4
10
-3
-5 10
10 10
-5
10
-4 -3
10
-2
10
-10 -5 0
10 10 10 P' *
P' *
(a) the actual area of inner contact
(a) the actual area of inner contact Ar *ˉ P' *
Ar' *ˉ P' * 10
-1
-1
10
G*=10e-12 ˙1
G*=10e-10 ˙0.01
-2
10 G*=10e-8 ˙0.001
-2
-3 * 10
Ar'*
r'
Ar'*
* 10
r' A
A
-4
10
-3
-5 10
10 -5 -4 -3 -2
10
-10
10
-5
10
0 10 10 10 10
P' * P' *
(b) the actual area of outer contact (b) the actual area of outer contact
551
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Ar'*
er er 0.4
A A
0.6
˙1
˙0.01
0.2
0.5
˙0.001
0.4 0
-3 -2 -1 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Ar' * Ar' *
(c) the actual area in the condition of elastic distortion (c) the actual area in the condition of elastic distortion
Fig.6 the predictive influence by Fig.7 the predictive influence by
, (D=1.5 ,G*=10-10,R1=100,R2=60) D( , =0.01 ,G*=10-10,R1=100,R2=60)
3.4 Prediction 4 Fig.7 gives the predictive result of this model influenced
by fractal dimension of D. From Fig.7, it can be seen that:
Ar' *ˉ P' * The influence of contact character by D is not linear
-1
10 relationship. There is a best status when D has a set value. Only
in this value of D can contact character get best situation.
A D˙1.5 1000N. Applying the theory of Hertz, the average contact stress
-3
10 D˙1.1 of the two cylinders can be calculated as follows[2]:
D˙1.9
# WE
p ave
4 #R [20]
-4
10 Here: p is the average contact stress of the two cylinders
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 ave
10 10 10 10 10 (MPa);
P' * W is the load of unit length(N/mm);
(a) the actual area of inner contact E is synthetical modulus of elasticity;
R is synthetical curvature radius;
From eqs.[20], we can get the relation curve between
-1
Ar' *ˉ P' * Pave and R2.
10 Paveˉ R2
350
cylinders' fractal model- outer contact
300 cylinders' fractal model- inner contact
Hertz model -outer contact
-2
10 Hertz model -inner contact
250
Pave/MPa
Ar'*
*
r' a
P
200
A -3 M
10 D˙1.5 /
e
v 150
a
D˙1.1 P
D˙1.9 100
-4
10 50
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10
P' * 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
(b) the actual area of outer contact R2/mm
Fig.8 The contrast of contact stress calculation with cylinders’
fractal model and Hertz model
552
Research on Fractal Contact Model of Cylinders’ Surface
Applying the theory of this article and supposing that the Department.
fractal dimension D is 1.5 , the material characteristic
parameter is 0.01, the range of roughness G is 10×10-5, REFERENCES
nominal contact area Aa is 0.1mm2, from eqs.[13~17], the [1] Bowden F P. Tabor D. Friction and Lubrication. Oxford
relation curve between Pave and R2. can also be got. University Press,1954
Fig.5 is the result of the calculating with the model of [2] B.Bhushan. Introduction to Tribology. New York: John
Hertz and the fractal model put forward in this article. Wiley&sons,2002
From fig.5, we can get that result of fractal model is [3] Thomas L, Warren T L, Krajcinovic D. Random Cantor
basically the same with the Hertz model. But the value of Set Models for the Elastic-perfectly Plastic Contact of
fractal model is bigger than that of Hertz model. Rough Surfaces. Wear,1996,196:1-15
[4] Majumdar,A.Tien,C.L. Fractal Characterization and
5 CONCLUSIONS Simulation of Rough Surfaces. Wear,1990,136(2):313-327
(1) After synthetically considering fractal model and traditional [5] Majumdar A, Bhushan B. Role of Fractal Geometry in
contact model, the fractal contact model of cylinders is set up. Roughness Characterization and Contact Mechanics of
This model is more accurate than simply using the fractal Surfaces. ASME Journal of Tribology, 1990,112:205-216
model or classical contact model to analyze the contact status [6] Majumdar A, Bhushan B. Fractal Model of Elastic-plastic
of cylinders, so it can reflect the cylinders’ contact stress well Contact between Rough Surfaces. ASME journal of
and truly. Tribology,1991,113:1-11
(2) This model has big practical foreground. Because the [7] Mandelbrot K.L. Stochastic Models for the Earth’s Relief,
contact model of cylinders is a basic model of factual contact the Shape and the Fractal Dimension of the coastlines, and
objects, hereby the fractal model of two balls or random surface the Number-area Rule for Islands. Proceedings of the
can be got by consulting this model. The model here acts a National Academy of Science, USA, 1975,72: 3825-3838
“precursor” action. Furthermore, this model is the theoretical [8] Majumdar A, Bhushan B. Fractal Model of Elastic-plastic
model of gear contact, so it can be used to research on the Contact between Rough Surfaces. ASME journal of
fractal model of gears, and can supply the theoretical basis for Tribology,1991,113:1-11
further study on the working status and stress analysis of gear
teeth. Author brief introduction
Huang Kang ,born in 1968, professor, main research direction: mechanical
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS design and theory.,email:hfhuang98@hotmail.com
Zhao Han, born in 1957, professor, Doctoral tutor, main research direction:
Here, we will thanks a lot to Anhui Science & mechanic, mechanical drive, magnetic machine, numeral design and
Technology Department, because the progress of the research is manufacture, automobile, email: hanzhao@mail.hf.ah.cn
constantly supported by Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Chen Qi, born in 1979, doctor postgraduate, main research direction:
Province which is a suppled by Anhui Science & Technology mechanical design and theory, email:hfut.chen@yahoo.com.cn
553
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
554
Friction between Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) Films—a Molecular Dynamics Study
555
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ABSTRACT The rigid atoms are the outermost two layers in the substrate
Molecular dynamics simulations have been performed to and slider. The next three layers next to rigid atoms are
explore the atomic-scale sliding friction, especially the thermostat atoms in both slider and substrate. All the other
stick-slip friction, in a system consisting of a diamond slider atoms are Newtonian atoms which are unconstrained. In order
and a silver substrate. The analyses of the shear distance to minimize thermal effects, we maintain the temperature of
between the upmost layer and the downmost layer and thermostat atoms at 10K via Berendsen thermostat [12].
displacements of a column atoms in the slider shows that The interactions between the C–C atoms are described by
shearing deformation is the main cause of the stick-slip Brenner’s potential [10]. For the interaction between substrate
phenomenon. Our simulations also present that a atoms we adopt embedded atom method potential developed
commensurate fit between the two contact surfaces is by Doyama[11]. The Ag-C interaction is described by Morse
unimportant for the stick-slip friction. potential. Periodic boundary conditions are imposed in the x
Keywords: Atomic-scale friction, stick-slip, molecular and y directions. The rigid atoms form fixed boundaries in the
dynamics simulation, shearing deformation z direction.
The molecular dynamics simulations are carried out in the
INTRODUCTION NVT ensemble, i.e., atom number (N), volume (V), and
Stick-slip motion is a common phenomenon observed temperature (T) are constant. Newton’s equations of motion
when solids slide against each other. Despite the fact that are solved by the predictor–corrector Gear algorithm. The time
stick-slip phenomenon occurs over a broad range of length step is 1 fs. Sliding friction is generated by applying a constant
scales [1], its origins are still not well understood. The primary external velocity, Vex, to the rigid atoms of the slider at each
cause of macroscopic stick–slip was attributed by Bowden and time step, i.e. constant velocity method (CVM). The direction
Tabor to elastic deformation. Atomic scale stick–slip in a of Vex is in the x direction. In our simulations, the frictional
scanning force microscope was first reported by Mate et al. [2]. force and normal force are obtained by summing up atomic
In recent years a number of theoretical and experimental forces from all the atoms in the slider, along the x-direction
investigations have been carried out to explore the and z-direction, respectively (see figure 1). During sliding, the
atomic-scale stick–slip. Landman et al. found atomic-scale z-direction movement of the atoms in the outmost layer of the
stick-slip behavior when sliding a Si tip on a Si (111) surface slider is fixed to mimic a normal loading condition. According
[3] and a CaF 2 tip on a CaF 2 substrate [4] by using to the MD results of indentation, we choose the initial
molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Li et al. performed MD separation distance between slider and substrate as 1 angstrom.
simulations of sliding friction showing that stick-slip is due to Therefore, the normal force of the slider is attractive, i.e.
elastic deformation of surface layers and the commensurate fit negative load.
between the contacting surfaces is not important for the B.SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
stick-slip phenomenon [5]. Other atomistic simulation work Sliding simulations were conducted for Vex=10-200 m/s.
can be found in [6-8] and experimental work in [8, 9]. with total sliding distance of 12 angstroms.
Landman et al. studied stick-slip friction under attractive force We define a friction force:
fields (i.e. negative load) [3]. In this work, we also use MD to f x = − Fx (1)
investigate atomic-scale stick–slip friction of a diamond slider
sliding over the Ag(001) surface under negative load. Fx is the sum of the x-direction atoms force for all the atoms in
the slider.
MOLECULAR DYNAMICS SIMULATIONS OF Figure 2(a) shows that the frictional force exhibited a typical
STICK-SLIP FRICTION stick-slip behavior for the lower velocities (i.e. 10, 30 and 50
A.SIMULATION METHOD m/s). The stick-slip periodicity is the same as the lattice
Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the model constant of the substrate (4.08 angstrom). As Vex increases
employed in the MD simulations. The model consists of a beyond 100 m/s (see Figure 2(b)), the stick-slip behavior is
diamond slider of 272 atoms and a silver substrate of 1024 less obvious due to the fact that at higher velocities there is less
atoms. The three orientations of substrate are in x-[100], time for the system to reach an equilibrium state.
y-[010], z-[001]. The atoms are cataloged into three groups: The periodic frictional forces (stick-slip friction) in the lower
rigid, thermostat and Newtonian atoms, as shown in Figure 1. velocities are quite surprising because the contacting surface
are incommensurate (the lattice constants of diamond and
silver were 3.567 angstrom and 4.08 angstrom, respectively).
The slider will store strain energy through shearing during the
stick stage because of the interfacial interaction (adhesion
force) between slider and substrate. The strain energy is
released when slip happens [5, 13]. We record the position of
the center of mass of the upmost layer in the slider, xu , and
Fig. 1 The model for simulation that for the downmost layer, xd , respectively. The shear
distance between the upmost layer and the downmost
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: Huyz@tsinghua.edu.cn
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Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic-Scale Friction in Diamond-Silver Sliding System
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of
National Natural Science Foundation of China, under Grant No.
50730007, No. 50675111 and No. 50721004.
REFERENCES
Fig. 2 Frictional force, f x , as a function of sliding
[1]Demirel, A. L .,Granick S, 1996, “Friction Fluctuations and Friction
distance.(a) Vex =10, 30, 50 m/s;(b) Vex =100, 200 m/s Memory in Stick-Slip Motion,” Phys. Rev. Lett. , 77, pp.4330-4333.
[2]Mate,C. M., McClelland, G. M.,Erlandsson, R., Chiang ,S.,1987,
“Atomic-scale friction of a tungsten tip on a graphite surface,” Phys.
Rev. Lett. , 59, pp.1942-1945.
[3]Landman, U., Luedtke ,W. D. , Ribarsky, M .W., 1989, “Structural and
dynamical consequences of interactions in interfacial
systems,”J.Vac.Sci. Technol. A, 7,pp.2829-2839.
[4]Landman, U., Luedtke ,W. D. , Ringer, E .M., 1992, “Atomistic
mechanisms of adhesive contact formation and interfacial processes,”
Wear ,153, pp.3-30.
[5]Li, B.,, Clapp, P.C., Rifkin, J.A., Zhang, X.M., 2001, “Molecular
dynamics simulation of stick-slip,” J. Appl. Phys, 90,pp.3090-3094.
[6]Sørensen, M. R., Jacobsen, K .W. , Stoltze, P., 1996 , “Simulations of
atomic-scale sliding friction,” Phys. Rev. B,53,pp.2101-2113.
Fig. 3 Shearing distance Δ x = x u − x d and f x vs [7]Harrison, J. A., White, C. T., Colton, R. J .,Brenner, D. W., 1992, “Static
sliding distance during sliding at Vex =30 m/s junction growth during frictional sliding of metals,” Acta Metall.
Mater. ,40, pp.2503-2509.
layer of the slider moves with Vex and relative [8]Cagin,T., Che,J., Gardos, M. N.,Fijany, A.,1999, “Simulation and
displacements(shearing deformation) will take place between experiments on friction and wear of diamond: a material for MEMS and
NEMS application,” Nanotechnology,10,pp.278-284.
the atomic layers of the slider due to the interfacial interaction [9]Fujisawa, S., Kishi, E., Sugawara, Y., Morita, S., 1995, “Atomic-scale
(adhesion force). As the sliding proceeds, shearing deformation friction observed with a two-dimensional frictional-force microscope,”
(strain energy) gradually accumulates. After shearing Phys. Rev. B, 51, pp. 7849-7857.
deformation (strain energy) reaches a maximum, interatomic [10]Brenner, D. W., 2002, “A second-generation reactive empirical bond
interactions in the slider will be greater than the interfacial order (REBO) potential energy expression for hydrocarbons,” J
Phys-Condens Mat, 14,pp.783-802.
interaction (adhesion force) between the slider and substrate. [11]Doyama, M., Kogure, Y., 1999, “Embedded atom potentials in fcc and
At this time slip will occur and strain energy is released. bcc metals.” Comput. Mater. Sci. ,14 ,pp. 80–83.
Our study also indicates that a commensurate fit between the [12]Berendsen H J C, Postma J P M, Vangunsteren W F, Dinola A, Haak J
two contact surfaces is not significant for the stick-slip. Li et al. R.1984,“Molecular-dynamics with coupling to an external bath,” J
obtained the same conclusion from their simulations of Ni-Al Chem Phys, 81,pp.3684-3690.
[13]Zhang,Q.,Hector,L.G. ,Jr, Cagin,T., William A.G., III,2005, “Atomic
sliding [5]. simulations of kinetic friction and its velocity dependence at Al/Al and
C.CONCLUSIONS α − Al O / α − Al O interfaces,” Phys. Rev. B 72, pp.045406-1
2 3 2 3
Molecular dynamics simulations have been performed to /045406-12.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
558
Molecular Dynamics Study on Carbon Nanotubes Sandwiched between Si Surface
time t=10, 60 and 70ps are shown as Fig 3(a), (b) and (c). In form. Average friction forces in two cases are about 0.7nN and
first case, carbon nanotubes present cylinder shape. In second 3.0nN respectively. Normal force curve in second case is
case following compression large radical distortions in CNTs shown as Fig. 5. The average value of compressive force is
can be clearly seen, and the shapes are similar to crawler-type. about 72nN, then pressure on bundle is 3.8Gpa, and
In last case obvious structural destruction occurs on Si surface. accordingly friction coefficient is about 0.04.
The results indicate bundle of CNTs can bear high load
because of flexibility and high Young’s modulus.
Fig. 2 Normal force cure of bundle of carbon nanotubes Fig. 5 Normal force cure of bundle under high pressure
REFERENCES
[1] Iijima S.,1991, “Helical microtubules of graphite carbon,”
Nature, 354, pp.56-58.
[2] P. L. Dickrell, S. B. Sinnott, D.W. Hahn, et al., 2005,
“Frictional anisotropy of oriented carbon nanotube
surfaces,” Tribol. Lett., 18(1), pp.59-62.
[3] P.L. Dickrell, S.K. Pal, G.R. Bourne, et al., 2006, “Tunable
friction behavior of oriented carbon nanotube films,” Tribol.
Lett., 24(1), pp.85-90.
[4] K. Miyoshia, K.W. Street Jr., R.L. Vander Wal, et al., 2005,
“Solid lubrication by multiwalled carbon nanotubes in air
and in vacuum,” Tribol. Lett., 19(3), pp.191-201.
[5] Chen CS, Chen XH, Xu LS, et al., 2005, “Modification of
multi-walled carbon nanotubes with fatty acid and their
tribological properties as lubricant additive,” Carbon, 43(8),
pp.1660-1666.
[6] Yitian Peng, Yuanzhong Hu, Hui Wang, 2006,
“Tribological behaviors of surfactant-functionalized carbon
nanotubes as lubricant additive in water,” Tribol. Lett.,
25(3), pp.247-253.
Fig. 4 Lateral force in two cases: [7] Brenner D W, Shenderova O A, Harrison J A, et al., 2002,
(a) no pressure; (b) high pressure, 3.8Gpa “A Second-generation reactive empirical bond order
(REBO) potential energy expression for hydrocarbons,”
J.Phys:Condens.Matter., 14, pp.783-802.
After compression finished, two typical configulations at [8] Tersoff J., 1988, “New empirical approach for the structure
t=10, 60ps are chosen for shearing simulations, corresponding and energy of covalent systems,” Phys. Rev. B, 37 (12), pp.
to the system states with no load and high load, respectively. 6991-7000.
The velocity of shearing is 100m/s. Lateral force curves in two
cases are plotted in Fig. 4(a) and 4(b), which show similar
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Zygmunt Rymuza
Warsaw University of Technology Institute of Micromechanics and Photonics,
ul. Sw. A.Boboli 8, 02-525 Warsaw, Poland
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The report is presenting the methodology which was and adhesive properties of the mold (usually fabricated by the
elaborated to identify the tribological problems of nanoimprint use of silicon wafer) surface layer are of most importance.
process, to study the interactions in the mold-resist interface
and to optimize the resist material as well as mold surface to
TESTING PROCEDURE
control the tribological phenomena during imprint process.
Some results of the carried out extended studies are presented A set of tests for testing of NIL materials and components
and discussed. was elaborated in our laboratory [4].These tests fall into
Keywords: Nanoimprint lithography, Friction, Adhesion, Wear groups: Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) studies of the
surface morphology (roughness), lateral (friction) and adhesion
(pull-off force) of the film deposited on silicon substrate;
INTRODUCTION wettability studies of the film and mechanical, tribological and
The nanoimprint lithography (NIL) is one of the recent adhesive tests versus temperature.
emerging technology for future rapid and cheap manufacturing In the first group of measurements, commercially available
of nanostructures and nanosystems as well as nanopatterning AFM cantilevers are used and the tests are performed in
on wide areas [1-3]. The progress in the development of this air-conditioned laboratory at room temperature. The data on
technology is hindered however by serious tribological roughness parameters characterizing the surface geometry of
problems. The problems are caused by contact of the e.g. the spin-coated ultrathin (200-300 nm) resist film are collected
silicon mold with the special polymeric resist ultrathin and compared with the results of friction (lateral) force and
(200-300 nm) film deposited on silicon . The mold as well as pull-off force measurements.
polymeric resist material should be selected carefully to obtain In the second group of tests the wettability of the resist film is
low friction, easily flow of the polymer into nanometer sized studied. For the tests a specially constructed computer
cavities of the mold, low adhesion (no stiction) and low controlled test rig with CCD cameras is used. Contact angle
friction as well as wear resistance of the mold during the measurements are performed automatically from the analysis
process and detachment phase of the mold from polymeric of the droplet`s image. The Owens-Wendt method [5,6] is
resist film. This very complex tribological system is very applied to estimate polar and dispersion components of the
attractive subject of our intensive studies. surface free energy of the tested film. The tests are carried out
in a special clean-room.
MAIN TRIBOLOGICAL PROBLEMS In the third group of tests the AFM-based special
microtribometer is used to perform mechanical,
The nanoimprint process is relatively simple. Imprinting
tribological/rheological and adhesive/stiction tests on the resist
process is made using a mold with nanostructures on its
film versus temperature. The specially designed and
surface. This mold is used do deform a thin resist film
constructed stiff (200-1000 N/m) AFM cantilever made of
deposited usually on a silicon wafer substrate. In the thermal
beryllium bronze foil with glued ball (0.7 mm in diameter) or
process, with the use of a thermoplastic resist, the resist is
commercially available silicon cantilevers with glued small
heated above its glass temperature. When the resist becomes
ball as a tip are used.
viscous liquid the mold is pressed into the resist.
Preliminary experiments have also been carried out to
The simplicity of the NIL nanofabrication technique is very
measure the friction coefficient between real mold surfaces
attractive. However, many difficult problems can arise during
and resist films. AFM friction measurements have been
imprinting. The accurate filling of cavities in the mold by liquid
initiated to estimate friction coefficient on the real vertical
(melt) polymer is an important issue. This phase of fabrication
walls of imprinted polymeric nanostructures by the use of
process is connected with the ability to flow of the liquid (or
special cantilevers. The AFM studies of the wear of the special
quasi) liquid polymer in a thin film and its friction and wetting
protective coatings as well as the base mold material silicon
properties. The nanorheological/tribological behavior of
have been carried out to indentify possible lifetime of NIL
ultrathin polymeric film during imprint process determines the
molds.
imprint quality and the throughput of the NIL process. In
addition, the release of the mold requires overcoming
potentially very large adhesion as well as high friction at the EXAMPLES OF TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
interface mold/resist interface. The detachment force (force
needed to release the mold from the resist with its fabricated The carried our extended studies of the surface topography
nanostructures) ) is a sum of a pull-off force (on horizontal of the polymeric resist materials spin-coated in the form of
surfaces) and friction force (on vertical surfaces) in the contact. ultrathin (200-300 nm) film on a silicon wafer have shown that
This force should be decreased as much as possible to avoid the surface roughness is very different depending on the used
mechanical damage of formed nanostructures and to increase resist. The surface roughness can influence on flowing
reliability of the process as well as the lifetime of the mold. properties of the resist during imprint process. The comparison
In the nanoimprint process the critical is adhesion (and of the surface topographies, presented as AFM images, of two
friction) of polymer to the mold which can cause damage to the resist materials is shown in Fig. 1.
nanoimprint in the form of abrasion and distortion. Also The extremely smooth surface was observed in the case of the
mechanical, tribological (friction ability and wear resistance) MR-I 8030 resist sample but the relatively rough surface was
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Tribological Aspects of Nanoimprint Process
found for the NEB22A2 resist film. the resist which play very important role in particular in the
detachment phase i.e. the removal of the mold from the resist
after cooling phase of the imprint process. The pull-off force is
governed by the surface energy of the polymeric resist but
also on the area of contact of the AFM tip with the resist
(which depends on the mechanical properties of the resist
material).
The carried out further experiments were effective to
characterize surface energetics (surface free energy) of the
polymer. The wettability studies enabled to estimate the polar
Fig. 1 AFM images of surface topography of two resist films: MR-I and dispersion components of the surface free energy. It was
8030 (left) and NEB22A2 (right) found that the ratio of polar and dispersion components can be
dramatically varied by the plasma treatment of the resist film.
The studies of the lateral force and pull-off force (adhesive Also the total surface free energy of the resist film was
force enabled to identify the tribological and adhesive decreased effectively by the use of this method. The
behaviors of the ultrathin resist films. The friction coefficients tribological tests followed these studies confirmed that the
of some resist films identified by the use of AFM equipped friction can be reduced also by the plasma treatment of the
with the typical commercially available silicon cantilever are resist film.
presented in Fig. 2. The intensive studies revealed also very big effect of
temperature on the friction and adhesive behavior. It was found
that friction initially increases and then decreases after the
transition of the glass temperature of the polymeric resist in
contrary to the pull-ff force which increases dramatically at
the increase of the temperature (because of the increase of the
area of contact between the tip and the resist material).
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
[1] Sotomayor Torres C. (ed), 2003, Alternative Lithography, Kluwer
Academic, New York.
[2] Bhushan B. (ed), 2004, Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology ,
Springer Verlag, Berlin.
[3] -, 2007, Proceedings of Nanoimprint & Nanoimprint Technology
NNT`07 , Paris.
[4] Rymuza Z., Koszewski A., Ekwinska M., Nowek A., 2007,
“ Evaluation of ultrathin film of polymeric resists for nanoimprint
lithography”, in Proceedings of MNC 2007, Kyoto, pp. 282-283.
Fig.3 Comparison of pull-off force measured by use of AFM for films [5] Owens D.K., Wendt R.C., 1969, “Estimation of the surface free
of various resists. energy of polymers”, J.Appl. Polym. Sci. ,13 Issue 8, 1741-1747.
[6] Zenkiewicz M., 2000, Adhesion and Modification of Surface Layer
The pull-off force characterizes the adhesive properties of of Highmolecular Materials, WNT, Warsaw, in Polish.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
A molecular dynamics model has been developed to study. Both the substrate and the indenter are iron with BCC
investigate the effect of the crystallographic orientation on the structure. The indenter is a triangular prism with an inverted
material deformation behaviors in nano- indentation/scratching isosceles triangular base, which locates at the x-y plane. The
of BCC iron. Two cases with different substrate orientations width and height of the isosceles triangle base are 114.8Å and
have been simulated. The orientations along x, y and z 57.4Å, respectively, where a is the lattice constant. Its length
direction are [001], [100] and [010] for Case I and [111], (17.2Å) is same as the width of the substrate. The indenter is
[-1-12] and [1-10] for Case II, respectively. Case I and Case II assumed to be rigid. All the atoms in the indenter unitarily
exhibit different deformation patterns in the substrate. During move during indentation/scratching. Their relative distances
indentation, the pile-up can be observed in Case I, but not in are fixed during deformation. The dimension of the substrate is
Case II. During scratching the pile-up ahead of the movement 430.5Å, 86.1Å and 17.2Å along x, y and z directions,
of the indenter has been enlarged in Case I, while a chip with respectively. Two crystallographic orientations have been
the disordered atoms is generated in Case II. It has been found simulated. In the first case (Case I), the lattice orientation
that Case I has both higher hardness and larger coefficient of along x, y and z directions are [001], [100] and [010],
friction. The ratios of the hardness and the coefficient of respectively. They are [111], [-1-12] and [1-10] in the second
friction between cases I and II are nearly 2. The reason is case (Case II), respectively. The substrate consists of 54000
attributed to the different crystallographic orientations used in atoms for Case I and 57717 atoms for Case II. During the
both cases. simulation the indenter firstly moves down to a distance of 25
Keywords: Molecular dynamics, Nanoindentation, Å, and then ploughs the substrate along the x direction. The
Nanoscratching, Crystallographic orientation moving speed is 20m/s.
INTRODUCTION Substrate
Indenter
Micro/nano electromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS)
combine electrical and mechanical parts with a characteristic
length of less than 1mm, such as levers, connector pins, resistor
y
caps, integrated circuit carriers, fasteners, microscrews, z
microgears as well as medical implants. Micro forming, an x
application of metal forming processes in the micro scale, has Fig. 1 MD simulation model
become a promising process for manufacturing microparts, with
high productivity, near net shape, low material loss and small The potential used in this paper are the embedded atom
tolerances. However, with increasing down-scaling of micro method (EAM) potential [5], in which the total energy of a
forming, the size effect has become significant [1,2], which is metal system is written as the sum of a function of the total
mainly caused by anisotropy of the crystallographic orientation. electron density and a short range pair-wise potential. A
Since the experimental approaches to investigate the effect of parallel computing method called “spatial decomposition” has
the crystallographic orientation on the material deformation been applied in the simulations, which decomposes the
behaviors need highly controlled experimental environments, simulation domain into small sub-blocks and assigns each
the molecular dynamics simulation is an economic way to study sub-block to each processor. Each processor runs calculations
this influence. for atoms in its block and tracks atoms as they enter and exit
A number of papers [3, 4] have used the molecular dynamics its block. It only needs communicate with a few surrounding
models to investigate the effect of the crystallographic blocks at each time step within finite potential range.
orientation in the nano-indentation and nano-scratching
processes. However, a detailed simulation on this topic for RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
body-centered cubic (BCC) iron is still lacking. In this paper, a Fig.2 shows the simulation results for various stages of Case I.
molecular dynamic (MD) model will be developed to study the In Fig.2(a) the indenter has penetrated into the substrate at a
nano- indentation/scratching process of bcc iron under two distance of 15 Å. It can be seen that the indentation only
different crystallographic orientations. It has been found that the deforms the substrate beneath the indenter at this early stage of
crystallographic orientation significantly affects the material indentation. The rest of the substrate remains undeformed. The
deformation behaviors. The hardness and the coefficient of dislocation emits from the tip of the indenter. As the
friction are strongly orientation-dependent. indentation proceeds, the pile-up around the intender can be
observed as shown in Fig.2(b). The substrate deformation zone
MOLECULAR DYNAMICS SIMULATION under the indenter becomes larger. Some voids are generated
Fig.1 shows the indentation/scratching MD model used in this and enlarged with indentation. Fig.2(c) depicts the early stage
562
Molecular Dynamic Simulation of Effect of Crystallographic Orientation on Nano-Indentation/Scratching Behaviors of BCC Iron
of scratching. The pile-up at the left side of the indenter has friction during scratching have been estimated based on the
disappeared due to the elastic recovery. The substrate MD simulation results. The hardness (H) is calculated by
deformation zone under the indenter still exists. It is interesting H=Fy/A, where Fy is the sum of forces along -y direction of all
to see that the pile-up at the right side of the indenter is the atoms in the substrate and A is the contact area in the x-z
enlarged as the intender moves toward the right. The shape and plane between the indenter and the substrate. The coefficient of
pattern of the pile-up zone is similar to the slip-line field in the friction (μ) is the average ratio of the total force of all the atom
continuum plastic mechanics. It can be found that the along x direction (Fx) to the total force along -y direction (Fy),
microstructure in the pile-up zone has changed from the initial name μ=Fx/Fy. The hardnesses for Case I and Case II are
microstructure. The detailed investigation on the 1.79GPa and 0.91GPa, respectively. The coefficients of friction
microstructure evoluation will be conducted in future work. are 0.45 for Case I and 0.23 for Case II, respectively. Case I
There is a thin layer between the pile-up zone and the indenter, exhibits both higher hardness and higher coefficient of friction.
where the atoms are seriously disordered. This layer may be an The ratio of the hardness and the coefficient of friction
amorphous layer. As the scratching proceeds (Fig.2(d)), the between two cases are nearly 2. These significant differences
pile-up zone ahead of the movement of the indenter has been are clearly due to the different crystallographic orientations
enlarged. The thickness of the atom-disordered layer is also used in the simulation of two cases.
increased. [-1-12] [1-10]
[100] [010]
[111]
[001]
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
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3D Misorientation of Cantilevers and Its Impact in Friction Force Microscopy
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
566
Coupled Simulative Analysis for Drive Characteristic of Micro-Comb Structure
dielectric coefficient of air. attention to this problem. Tang [9] thought the levitation
The finite element method is applied to analyze the was induced by the imbalance of the electrostatic field
electrostatic field and comb structure. 4-node tetrahedral distribution which attributed to zero electric potential of the
elements are used to generate meshes. For electrostatic ground plane. In the following, the levitation of movable
field, the electric potential V at any point can be written as: finger and the driving performance of the micro-comb are
V N Ve analyzed for with and without ground plane. The coupled
T
(5)
effect is also taken into account.
where [N] is the shape function matrix. [Ve] is the node For the comb in this section, we assume:
electric potential. l=60 m, w=6 mˈh=10 mˈg=5 mˈc=20mˈ
According to the principle of minimum potential kx=1702 N/m, ky=5 N/m, kz=11 N/m
energy, we have˖ Fig.3 shows the electrostatic potential distribution, the left
/U one is with ground plane, and the right one is without
{ } 0 (6) ground plane. It can be seen that the electrostatic potential
/Ve
distribution is obviously unsymmetrical when with ground
where plane. Fig.4 shows the levitating displacement uz and the
1
U .V dxdydz driving displacement uy of the movable finger under
2
(7)
2 different voltage, for (a) with ground plane and (b) without
Substituting Eq.(5) into Eq.(7), combining with Eq. (6) , ground plane. It can be seen from Fig.4(a) that the
adding the electric field boundary condition, the {Ve} can levitation uz of movable finger is visible due to the
be solved. Then from Eq.(4) and Eq.(5), the electrostatic asymmetric electrostatic potential (with ground plane),
force at any point can be obtained. and varies in proportional to the square of voltage. It can
For the comb structure, 4-node tetrahedral elements be also observed from Fig.4(a) that the levitating
are also used. We have: displacement uz is even larger than the driving
[ K ]{ue } {Fe } (8) displacement uy., when V=50V, uy= 0.012m and uz=
0.013m.
When eliminating the ground plane, the electrostatic
potential distribution is symmetrical, as shown in the right
one of Fig.3. The relationship between the voltage and
levitating displacement uy and driving displacement uz is
shown in Fig.4 (b). It can be observed that uz is much less
than uy, and can be neglected.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
micro-electro-mechanical systems. If the clearance of the example, if the sidewall is given 1 degree incline, the
polar plates is small, the sidewall is easy to be etched, fabrication error will be s=0.2um, for a comb with polar
which leads to the sidewall inclination. On the other hand, plate thickness of h=10um and gap of g=5um, the
during DRIE (deep reactive ion etching) process, capacitance will reduce 8 percent. Fig.6 shows the
high-density plasma may concentrate into the bottom, electrostatic potential distribution of regular comb and that
result in charges accumulating there, so the latter plasma with sidewall slope. It can be observed that the fringe field
will change the orbit under the electrostatic force, and distribution for sidewall slope comb is obviously different
impact the sidewall, which also leads to sidewall from the designed, which will influence the driving force
slope[10,11]. or driving displacement.
X]
X\
XP
99
Fig. 6 The comb finger with sidewall slope
(a)
X]
X\
XP
568
Coupled Simulative Analysis for Drive Characteristic of Micro-Comb Structure
X\P
9
9
9
VP Fig.11 The relationship of electrostatic force Fy and
Fig. 9 The relationship of sidewall error s and driving fabrication error s, by Eq.(9) and FEM
displacement force uy at different voltage
THE EFFECT OF OFFSET ERROR IN LATERAL
DIRECTION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF COMB
For a comb with sidewall slope, the polar plates like an DRIVING
unparalleled flat capacitor, as shown in Fig.10. When Because of the superimposing of fabrication errors
neglected the fringe effect and coupled effect, capacity Cn during the surface micromachining process, such as plate
can be calculated by integration method. The distance making, lithography and so on, the clearance in both sides
between polar plates can be written as d(z)=g+2sz/hˈthen of movable finger may be asymmetric along x axis. If the
l offset is g, then the clearance of the left is g-g, and that
it has dC n dz , integrate Cn, the capacity of of the right is g+g. The electrostatic force along x
g 2 sz / h
direction will increase, which will influence the lateral
unparalleled plate is: stability of the comb structure, perhaps lead to the lateral
lh 2 s h lh absorption of movable finger and fixed finger. Because the
Cn ln(1 z ) z 0 ln(1 2 s / g ) (9)
2s hg 2s lateral electrostatic force increases with the voltage
For the comb as shown in Fig.1, both sides of growing, so there is a critical voltage for comb structure,
movable teeth have electrostatic force, so the resultant beyond which the lateral instability occurs [12]. In this
force is: section, the effects of offset error g on the comb’s
performance are analyzed, the fringing effect and coupled
h s 2
Fd 2 (1 )V (10) effect are considered, which are usual neglected in other
g g Ref. [12].
We assume g is from 0.4m to 1.1m, the voltage
applied is 40V and 80V, the relationship of offset g and
lateral electrostatic force Fx is shown in Fig.12. It shows
that the Fx enhances as the g increases, and the curves are
all linear. The Fx of considering coupled effect are larger
than that of neglecting coupled effect at one offset. As the
voltage become larger, the effect of coupled action
increases, so the critical voltage can be endured by comb
structure is lower. Along the driving direction (y axis), Fy is
almost unaltered as the g increase at one voltage, as
shown in Fig.10. It means that a little offset in x direction
does not affect the driving performance in y direction, it
only affect the lateral stability of the structure.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a coupled model of
micro-electrostatic-comb is established. The effects of
structure alteration on the driving performance, including
Fig.10 unparalleled capacity plates the familiar fabrication errors, with and without substrate,
are studied. It can be concluded that the comb levitation
due to ground plane lead to the reduction of driving force
Fig.11 shows the relationship of Fy and fabrication error s, and driving displacement, so in the design of micro comb
at V=10V, by Eq.(9) or by FEM presented in this paper. It actuator, the levitation effect can be analyzed by coupled
can be seen from Fig.11 that both curves of Fy are reduced simulated method, which will help the designer to decide
as the s increase. However, the result by FEM is obviously whether this effect can be neglected. The micro-comb
lower than that by Eq.(10). The different become more without ground plane can control the levitation effectively,
evident as the s increase. This is because the Eq.(10) and can provide larger driving force. But it requires much
neglect the fringe effect and coupled effect at polar plates, more complicated fabrication sequences. It can be
end planes and uncross faces of comb, which is considered concluded that sidewall slope also results in reduction of
in FEM model, so it can be concluded that the coupled driving performance, and the reduction is more obvious as
effect and fringe effect lowered the driving capability. the voltage increase. Offset error lowers the lateral stability
569
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
of comb structure, but a litter offset does not affect the [2] Legtenberg Rob, Groeneveld A.W. and Elwenspoek
driving performance. The coupled effect between M., 1996, “Comb-drive actuators for large
electrostatic field and structure can not be neglected at high displacements,” J. Micromech. Microeng., 6, pp.
applied voltage. 320-329.
[3] Harness T., Richard R. A., 2000, “ Characteristic
modes of electrostatic comb-drive X –Y
microactuators,” J. Micromech. Microeng. 10, pp.
7-14.
[4] Ostergaard D., Gyimesi M., 2000, “Finite element
based reduced order modeling of micro electro
mechanical systems (MEMS).” Proc 3rd International
Conference on Modeling and Simulation of
Microsystems. pp. 684-687, CA.
[5] Zheng Y., Su W., He X., 2002, “Coupled
electrostatic-mechanical analysis for a multi-finger
micro-accelerometer,” Journal of Transducer
Technology, 21, pp.14-18.
[6] Harness T., Richard R.,2000, “Characteristic modes of
Fig. 12 The relationship of offset error g and Fx for electrostatic comb-drive X-Y microactuators.” Journal
neglecting and considering the coupled effect of Micromechanics and Microengineerings,
10:pp.7-14.
[7] Shi F., Ramesh P., Mukherjee S., 1995, “Simulation
9
Methods for Micro-Electro-Mechanical Structures
9
(MEMS) with application to a microtweezer,”
)\1
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Relating Friction and Processes Development during Chemical - Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
Relating Friction and Processes Development during Chemical - Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
1 1 2
Filip Ilie , Tiberiu Laurian , Constantin Tita
1
Department of Machine Elements and Tribology, Polytechnic University of Bucharest,
313 Spl. Independentei, 060042 Bucharest – ROMANIA
Phone: +40214029411, Fax: +40214029581, E-mail: filip@meca.omtr.pub.ro, tlaurian@omtr.pub.ro
2
“G-ral Magheru” Technic School
43 “Calea lui Traian”, 240011 Rm-Valcea – ROMANIA
Phone: +40350401627, Fax: +40250735651
* Filip Ilie
571
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Ff [C1 p C2 s sp ] Fn , (1)
CONTACT MECHANICS
Fig. 2 Probability density function of asperity radius and asperity height (worn IC 1000 pad)
572
Relating Friction and Processes Development during Chemical - Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
Since the standard Greenwood and Williamson of the underlying substrate, with no damage observed. At the
assumption [4], that asperities have a constant radius, is not higher load the more uneven friction trace observed is
well watched by the data, a numerical model was developed associated with delamination.
for the contact. Each asperity was modeled as a Hertzian
contact, and the actual distribution of asperity heights and
POLISHING EXPERIMENTS, PROCEDURES AND
radii was used.
DISCUSSION
This model was used to predict the true asperity contact
pressure as a function of pressure. The prediction was used to Nanoscale friction forces will be measured using
establish an appropriate load for micro-tribometer tests nanoindentation and nanoscratch tests. The indenter is
described below. Further details are given by Cheng in his equipped with a friction force sensor to measure lateral forces.
thesis [5]. The test provides results of the interfacial friction of the PUP
The aim of these tests is to use well-controlled conditions pad and the SiO2 slurry particle, and the SiO2 slurry particle
to establish satisfactory contact for polishing of porous and the SiO2 substrate (either dry or soaked in KOH and
dielectric material. water solutions).
A virtual micro-tribometer (computer modeled) was used Friction between a small section of pad material and the
to simulate small contact areas. SiO2 substrate is also measured. Lastly, a section of pad
Since the standard Greenwood and Williamson material with impregnated slurry particles is translated over
assumption [4], that asperities have a constant radius, is not the substrate creating a more complex testing scenario.
well watched by the data, a numerical model was developed The asperity of the individual slurry particles in contact
for the contact. Each asperity was modeled as a Hertzian with the pad and SiO2 substrate may affect the frictional
contact, and the actual distribution of asperity heights and forces. The asperity of the materials is measured with Atomic
radii was used. Force Microscopy (AFM).
This model was used to predict the true asperity contact The PUP pad has a large pore structure on the order of 10
pressure as a function of pressure. The prediction was used to microns. The AFM is used to image the regions between the
establish an appropriate load for micro-tribometer tests opened pores to determine the nanoscale roughness of these
described below. Further details are given by Cheng in his regions.
thesis [5]. CMP scale friction measurements are done using a pin on
The aim of these tests is to use well-controlled conditions disk tribometer. The tribometer has a rotating turntable
to establish satisfactory contact for polishing of porous (rotation speed is 60 rpm) to which slurry wetted polishing
dielectric material. pad samples are mounted and an arm that holds spherical
A virtual micro-tribometer (computer modeled) was used SiO2 (counter face) samples.
to simulate small contact areas. A normal load is applied to the arm and load sensors in
During the test, a polymer (polyurethane) ball of radius the arm measure the friction during simulated polishing
2.4 mm was pressed against the wafer with a constant load conditions.
(once at 0.4 N and another at 1.5 N). The size of contacting A series of baseline experiments will first be performed
surfaces is 65x100 m2. The sample was reciprocated under to isolate the effects of water and KOH solution on the PUP
ball with a stroke of 500 m. Various blanket or patterned pad material friction with the SiO2 counter face (fluid film
silicon wafer samples containing porous dielectric materials thickness has been of 1.3 m).
were tested, in conjunction with slurry particle. Interaction between the SiO2 slurry particles, PUP pad
Fig. 3 shows a typical plot of the friction coefficient as a surfaces and the SiO2 contra face was measured in an
function of number of cycles, for a patterned wafer aqueous solution KOH of variations pH, ranging from 5 to 9
containing ultra porous dielectric material, at loads of 0.4 and (Fig. 4). The ratio of the base and acid solutions was adjusted
1.5 N. to obtain the needed pH. The solutions were prepared to keep
the ionic strength to be 10 mM.
Fig. 4 shows an example of the forces acting between
SiO2 slurry particles and PUP pad for various acidity. Each
force curve is artificially shifted in vertical direction for
better visualization.
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The force values are given as the cantilever deflections, While nteraction between the SiO2 slurry particles and
in nanometers. To get the force in nanoNewtons, one needs to polyurethane pads (PUP) has some similarity for pH6, the
multiply these values by the spring constant 0.14 N/m. rest of the data is rather different. The major difference of
To show that the forces of interaction of the SiO2 PUP is small value and short range of the interaction and he
particles and polyurethane pads (PUP) are quite different (not shows rather long range attraction for pH less than 7. The list
shown) as described below, for various pH. of these differences can be continued. Let us now look at the
results of adhesion of SiO2 particles to the pad surfaces, Fig. 5.
One can see that the adhesion values for SiO2 particles
and IC 1000 pad are quite similar for smaller pH 5-7, and
adhesion values are higher than for PUP pad. This is in
agreement with the measurements of long-range force, Fig. 4.
For higher pHx (pH7-9), adhesions to IC 1000 pad is
similar to the adhesion of PUP and gets smaller than SiO2.
This correlates with the long-range force for pH8, but is not
obvious for pH9.
Therefore, we report the first successful direct
measurements of forces between polymeric surfaces and
nanoparticles attached to the AFM.
Next, friction force will be measured in the presence
of slurry with varying Fig. 6 Delamination evolution during CMP
percentages of SiO2. CMP tests were performed using a
polishing machine on blanket or patterned silicon wafer
samples coated with porous dielectric material. This effect, due to exposure of the cut edge, would not be
The aim of these tests was to establish conditions for present when polishing complete wafers. However,
which the porous dielectric material remained intact on the delamination was also observed at the centre of the sample at
wafer, without delamination. higher pressures, after a polishing time of around 30-50
A wide range of conditions were considered, including seconds.
blanket and patterned wafers and a range of polishing times
This is illustrated in the image of Fig. 7 of a region of the
and pressures. The platen and sample holder both rotated at
wafer which contained no patterning the lighter areas
20 rpm.
delaminated.
Fig. 6 plots the observed damage as a function of
Similar tests for another porous dielectric material blanket
polishing time and pressure, for CMP of a patterned wafer
containing ultra porous dielectric material. wafer showed no significant delamination even after 36
Delamination was observed at the edge of the sample seconds of polishing at a pressure of 30 kPa and a higher
under all conditions. platen speed of 60 rpm.
574
Relating Friction and Processes Development during Chemical - Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
NOMENCLATURE
CONCLUSIONS
C1 and C2 = constants representing the number of contacts
It is expected that the PUP asperity friction will be a
Ff = total sliding friction force
significant contributor to the total CMP scale friction.
Fn = normal applied force
It is anticipated that this advanced understanding will
help in alleviating existing issues in integrating porous
p = friction coefficient between pad and substrate
dielectric materials, which are sensitive to shear from CMP s = friction coefficient between slurry particle and substrate
friction, into next generation IC fabrication processes. sp= friction coefficient between slurry particle and PUP pad
The asperity of CMP polishing pad
replicas has been measured using a profilometer, and REFERENCES
resulting roughness geometry used to develop a contact [1] C. Zhou, L. Shan, R. Hight, S. Danyluk, S. H. Ng, A. J.
model. A virtual micro-tribometer modeled from computer Paszkowski (2002), “Influence of Colloidal Abrasive
was used to simulate the contact, with loads based on the Size on Material Removal Rate and Surface Finish in
predicted asperity contact pressures. SiO2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing”, Tribology
These tests identified, in a well-controlled manner, Transactions, Vol. 45(2), pp. 232-238.
regions in which the contact pressure caused delamination of [2] F.M. Borodich, C.S. Korach, L. Keer, (2005), “Models of
the porous dielectric material. Friction and Wear of DLC Films“, WTC05-64085 and
Corresponding CMP tests were used to find the range of ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, in press.
polishing times and pressures which cause delamination in [3] I.A. Polonsky, L.M. Keer, (2000), “A Fast and Accurate
patterned porous dielectric material wafers. Method of Numerical Analysis of Elastic Layered
It is encouraging to find that the predicted pressure at Contacts”, ASME Journal of Tribology, Vol. 122, pp. 30-
which delamination is observed is comparable in the two sets 35.
of tests. [4] Greenwood, J. A., and Williamson, J. B. P., (1966), "The
Further work will aim to extend these tests to a more Contact of Nominally Flat Surfaces," Proc. R. Soc.
comprehensive range of conditions and draw up process for London, Ser. A, 295, pp. 300–319.
different material combinations, identifying safe and [5] L. Cheng, (2004), “Tribology and asperity contacts in
effective process conditions. Chemical Mechanical Polishing”, MPhil Thesis,
University of Cambridge.
575
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Zhendong Dai
Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Nanjing, China
Friction and wear (F&W) is one of the most general where , , , , is the portion of energy
phenomena in the world. More than 300 equations on F&W
can be found during past 50 years, but even the best one has correspondent to linear motion, rotation, vibration, electron
very limited use[1]. Theory of F&W lags far behind the needs movement and nucleus movement of atom or sub-atom
of engineering because the complicated nature of F&W— respectively,which can be described by Schrödinger
parameters studied in sliding procedure over 100 [2] and the equations.
parameters have different physical dimensions, so unifying
the dimensions is a key step to set up quantitive theory of 1.2 Conservation laws :F&W procedures also observe the
tribology. The present definitions reveal little physical law of conservation of energy and the second law of
mechanisms of F&W: exhausting energy or the damage thermodynamics.
mechanism. Theoretical methods, such as qualitatively new Conservation of Mass: Tribological procedure involved
algorithms and modeling approaches, are needed to span the with chemical reaction. The conservation for ith composition
complex nature of tribological processes [3]. per volume takes the form as
Friction is defined as the force which tries to stop one
surface sliding over another or as a procedure exhausting
energy, such as non-equilibrium distribution of phonons [4],
(1<i<I and 1<<) (3)
electron-hole creation and charge-density wave[5]. Friction is
an irreversible process which degrades the high quality energy, Momentum Principle: The dynamic form of Newton’s 2nd
but the energy dissipation mechanisms are still one of the law:
fundamental gaps in tribology[6]. Wear is an irreversible
process which removes materials from the load-carrying
surface, but the relationship of wear with working parameters (4)
is still not clear. This situation has been paid great attentions
and efforts. Xie proposed three axioms principles [7]. Czichos When stress tensor is symmetry, (¢, =1, 2, 3), so
introduced systematical method [8]. Energetic approach was we obtain:
developed[9]. The internal friction was modeled on
non-equilibrium irreversible thermodynamics [10]. An
(5)
irreversible thermodynamics theory for damage of solid has
been introduced [11]. Explorations on tribology theory were
carried out by Zmitrowicz, Klamecki in 1980’, others [12] and Conservation of Energy: From the conservation of energy,
the autho[13]. we obtain the balance equation for the specific internal energy u
In this paper, a fundamental interdisciplinary framework
on Irreversible Thermodynamics Theory of Friction and Wear D (6)
(ITTFW) is proposed. The aims of the model are to set up a
frame work of ITTFW, to try to reveal the mechanism of 1.3 Entropy balance
friction, to understanding the damage mechanism of solid The balance equation of entropy plays a central role in
materials, to reveal the relationship of the dissipation with irreversible thermodynamics. The entropy balance relationship
working parameters and material properties. could be written as:
(1)
(9)
In the left part of equation (8), the items present the entropy
flux caused by convection, S absolute entropy of a substance
(2)
576
An Irreversible Thermodynamics Theory for Friction and Wear
for a given temperature, U speed of convection; heat conduct elastic and inelastic deformations. The proposed damage
Jq and diffusion i.Ji respectively. It defines the entropy evolution equation can be used in conjunction with any
variation through energy and material exchanging on the material constitutive model and any vacancy (or void)
boundary of the tribological system. In the left part of generation model, including crystal plasticity and dislocation
equation (9), q presents entropy produced by heat conduct in mechanics to initiate the microcracks at the smallest possible
the system, Jq is the thermodynamic flow, (1/T) is the level. According to the theory proposed in this paper the
thermodynamic forces. The item is results in the frictional influence of the microcracks initiating at multiple sites at
heat, geometric form of heat source, moving speed, thermal dislocations level, can be bridged to macro level response by
properties of material. d does the entropy by diffusion, computing the entropy change of the macro system. Hence
thermodynamic forces include chemical potential and fields of entropy production allows us to connect the atomic level
outside forces, such as electric field, accelerate field, etc. p behavior with macro-level response of the structure [15].
does the entropy by viscous flow and plastic deformation of
materials, which is functioned by factors such as stress field, 2.3 Entropy production by moving heat source
constitute equations of material.
/T is the viscous stress Heat generated during friction is essential character for
tensor and U is the speed grade of material deformation. c F&W processes and dissipates mechanical energy; the
is the entropy generated by chemical reaction, which is dissipation can be measured by entropy production and
determined by chemical potential A/T and reaction rate .
calculated:
2 APPLICATIONS
2.1 Understanding friction
(10)
What is friction? How is the energy dissipated? Is it
possible to create a system with super- lower friction? Author
suggests friction as a procedure degenerating quality of For Hertz contact and the heat source distributes in the area
energy through increasing the entropy or the NMS correspond from (-a, -b) to (a, b), we have the analysis resolution of heat
to linear motion, rotation, vibration, electron movement and conduct and obtain entropy generated by a linear contacted
nucleus movement of atom or sub-atom elements (equations frictional pair
1-2). When two contacted “points” interact with each other,
the interaction transfers kinetic energy with lower NMS into
heat energy with great number of NMS. To illustrate the idea, (11)
the system, on the common normal line direction of contact
points, is simplified into one dimensional vibration system as
figure 1. When two bodies impact each other, some kinetic
energy absorbed by two multi-freedom vibriation systems and Figure 2 is the distribution of entropy production at
cause the motion of each mass (atomic level vibration). The center of heat source in depth direction, which shows that the
status of each mass can be statistically numbered and the variation is intensive, the entropy production at 5 m under
NMS for the system could be obtained. Before contact, the the surface is only 0.3% that on the surface. The result means
NMS of the system (body 1 and 2) is lower and depended on that most energy is dissipated in very surface zone and
the temperature, after impacting, the mass-spring system is high-energy particles exist only in micrometers sub-surface
that inspire us to understand why only several micrometer
excited and more status of each mass will appear and by this
way increasing the NMS, so the friction can be measured by ion-implanting coating presented so excellent role in reducing
the entropy production. From above model, it is predictable to friction and increasing wear resistance and to design the
coatings with high scuffing-load carrying abilities.
design and generate super-lower friction system; the condition
is that the exciting forces will let the system working on its 2.4 Entropy production by plastic deformation
natural frequency (it would be related with phonon), and the Plastic deformation not only dissipates energy, but also causes
wear–damage of materials. The entropy production generated
natural frequency could be modified through the design and
fabrication of surface and sub-surface macro-structures. by deformation of frictional contact is given by
Socoliuc et al successfully controlled the atomic-scale of
friction by actuation the nanometer sized contact and
minimized energy dissipation [14].
(12)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
578
Fabrication and Flying Test of Silicon Sliders
(Extended Abstract)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
while the Ra value of the top layer, i.e. the virgin silicon
surface is 2.7nm, Such low roughness can meet the
requirements of sliders with flying height of 10nm and higher.
DICING
Dicing is the last and one important step of the slider
fabrication. The requirement for dicing is to minimize the
defects on the edges, because the silicon is relatively fragile.
Inappropriate dicing may cause serious damage on the edge.
We used high spindle rotating speed and low feeding velocity
to avoid possible edge defects during dicing, The spindle
rotating speed is 26000rpm, and the feeding velocity is 5mm/s,
the knife width is between 0.025-0.030mm, the results show
that with such parameters can get straight cutting line and
almost defect free edges, which can meet the test demands .
The cutoff sliders are glued onto a commercial
suspensions for test. Fig.4 shows the tested sliders and
(a) suspension
Fig.2 (a) first mask figure unit (b) second mask figure unit SIMULATION
To compare the experimental and simulation results of
SILICON ETCHING flying height, the steady flying head attitude is numerically
After the mask is fabricated, the silicon is etched. analyzed by solving the slider balancing equations and
Conventional IBE process was selected for etching the silicon molecular gas lubrication equation. The molecular gas
because of its high etching quality. The process of slider silicon lubrication equation is solved with the finite difference method.
etching is almost the same as other silicon etching. The etching The pressure distribution, flying height and attitude were
depth error is controlled within 10%. The fabricated slider is calculated for the same conditions of the experiment described
shown in fig.3 below. fig 5 show the pressure distribution of the slider.
580
Fabrication and Flying Test of Silicon Sliders
EXPERIMENT From the results we can see that the simulation and
EXPERIMENT SETUP experimental results coincide well with each other which
The self-made stand-alone tester consists of an air bearing means that the silicon slider can be used in the flying height
spindle, an air-floating suspension platform, a laser test.
interferometer, an AE signal acquiring system and a slider
loading system. The air floating system is used to isolate CONCLUSIONS
outside vibration. The AE signal is used for monitoring the A slider with complex structure has been fabricated
contact between slider and disk at taking-off and landing stages. successfully on silicon wafer. The whole fabrication process is
The slider loading system can move in three directions, for introduced. The flying height test results of the silicon slider
controlling the loading force and slider position on disk. The agree well with the simulation results. Therefore using silicon
flying height is measured with the method of laser heterodyne slider as a substitution for real slider is a possible and
interferometry which is described in a separate paper.FIG.6 convenient way for ABS design of flying heads.
shows the schematic of the experiment setup.
3& ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The grants from Major State Basic Research Development
SKDVHP HWHU Program of China (973 Program) (No.2003CB716205) are
acknowledged.
GDWDDTXLVLWLRQ
FDUG ODVHUKHWHURG\QH
LQWHUIHURUP HWHU REFERENCES
SUHDP SOLILHU [1] Gang Sheng , Rao Dukkipati , Jian Pang, Nonlinear
dynamics of sub-10 nm flying height air bearing slider in
$ (VHQVRU VOLGHU JODVVGLVN
modern hard disk recording system, Mechanism and
VOLGHUORDGLQJ Machine Theory 41 (2006) 1230̢1242.
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DLUIORDWLQJ
VXVSHQVLRQ 2005,177-189.
SODWIRUP DLUEHDULQJ [3] Jiang Zhou, Yansheng Ma, Bo Liu etc., Flying
VSLQGOH Height-Attitude Observation and Investigation of Sliders in
Load/Unload Process, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
MAGNETICS, VOL. 38, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER
Fig.6 schematic of experiment setup 2002,2123-2125.
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581
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
582
Surface Damages on Silicon Surfaces Created by Large Silica Cluster Impacts : Molecular Dynamics Simulation
resulting in the observed extrusions. However, the extrusion is emission machined surfaces by scanning tunneling
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
dynamics simulation of phase transformations in silicon
The authors wish to thank Takanobu Watanabe, Ph.D., for monocrystals due to nano-indentation”, Nanotechnology,
his explaining how to use his potential function. This research 11(3), pp. 173-180.
is supported by NSFC (No.50775121) and 973 Project of [18] Kaczmarski M., Bedoya-Martinez O.N., Hernandez E.R.,
China (No. 2003CB716200). 2005, “Phase diagram of silicon from atomistic
simulations”, Phys. Rev. Lett., 94, pp.095701.
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of chemical-mechanical polishing”, J. Electrochem. Soc., phase transitions in crystalline silicon”, J. Appl. Phys.,101,
141, 1698-1701. pp.083515.
[2] Luo J.F. and David A., 2001, “Material removal mechanism [20] Watanabe T., Fujiwara H., Noguchi H., Hoshino T.,
in chemical mechanical polishing: theory and modeling”, Ohdomari I.,1999, “Novel interatomic potential energy
IEEE Trans. Semicond. Manuf. ,14, pp.112-133. function for Si, O mixed system”, Jpn, J. Appl. Phys., 38,
[3] Mori Y., Yamauchi K., Endo K., Ide T., Toyota H., pp.L366-L369.
Nishizawa K., Hasegawa M., 1990, “Evaluation of elastic (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if the reader
needs it.)
583
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
As the contact size involved in mechanical device displays the attenuated total reflection infrared spectroscopy
operations decreases, the adsorption of gaseous molecules on data obtained for water layer on silicon oxide surfaces at various
the contact surface – which normally ignored in macroscopic relative humidity (RH).[2] In the low RH region, the adsorbed
measurements – becomes more important and dominant factors water thickness increases rapidly up to ~3 layers and then
governing the contract properties such as adhesion and friction. retards, giving a knee-like shape. In the intermediate RH region,
Water adsorption can causes high adhesion and severe wear of the thickness growth is somewhat linear. In the high RH region,
silicon oxide surfaces. In contrast, alcohol vapor adsorption the thickness of the adsorbed water layer increases
from the ambient can provide unprecedentedly efficient exponentially with the humidity. The structural information is
lubrication effects for operation of microelectromechanical obtained from the O-H vibration peak position. In the low RH
systems (MEMS) with sliding contacts. Atomic force region, all the adsorbed water molecules have the ice-like
microscopy (AFM) is an ideal tool for studying the adhesion structure (peak at 3230cm-1). In intermediate RH, the ice-like
and frictional behavior of nanoscale asperity contacts. The structure competes with the liquid structure (peak at 3400cm-1).
tribological response of a silicon nanoasperity contact was In the high RH region, the condensation of liquid water occurs
studied with AFM in the presence of water or alcohol vapor. on top of the “ice-like” water layer.
The origin of adhesion, friction, and wear behavior changes of
silicon oxide contacts in the presence of water or alcohol vapor
is elucidated through vibrational spectroscopic investigation of
the thickness and structure of the adsorbed layers as well as
theoretical calculations of their tribological responses.
Keywords: Nanotribology, MEMS, Gas Adsorption, Alcohol,
Silicon Oxide
INTRODUCTION
The adsorption of small molecules from the gas phase
produces a few Å to a nm thick adsorbate film on the solid
surface, which can alter the tribological properties of Fig. 2 RH dependence of the AFM pull-off force.
solid-solid contacts.[1] In nature, water is ubiquitous and Symbols are experimental data and lines are
adsorbs onto virtually all surfaces. As an example, as soon as a theoretical calculations results.[3]
piece of glass is broken in air, its surface becomes
“contaminated” with adsorbed water vapor. Therefore, the This finding provided a very important clue to solve one of
presence of this interfacial water plays an important albeit the elusive questions in the nano-asperity adhesion of silicon
often overlooked role in tribological responses of oxide surfaces. The adhesion force measured with atomic force
nano-asperity contacts. This paper describes the effect of microscopy (AFM) increases by a factor of ~3 as RH increases
gas-phase molecules in nanotribology and its implications in from 0 to ~40%, compared to the force measured in the dry
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) lubrication. state, and decreases significantly as RH increases further
(Figure 2). Theoretical calculations show that this large RH
EFFECTS OF GAS ADSORPTION dependence of the nano-asperity adhesion force can be
explained only when the property of the ice-like water layer is
Adsorption of Water from Humid Ambient taken into account in addition to the van der Waals and capillary
In order to understand the effect of water adsorption on forces.[3]
tribological properties, one must know the exact thickness and
structure of the adsorbed water layer on solid surfaces. Figure 1 Adsorption of Alcohol Vapor
The adsorption of simple alcohol molecules can be used
to reduce the adhesion and friction of the nano-asperity silicon
oxide contact. The thickness of the alcohol layer adsorbed on
the silicon oxide surface is about one or two monolayers thick in
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 IR spectra of the adsorbed water layers in the RH Fig. 3 (a) Capillary force versus P/Psat for ethanol, 1- butanol,
range from 7% to 99%. The inset shows the thickness of and 1-pentanol. (b) Normalized AFM capillary force to
the layer calculated from the spectra.[2] account for differences in the meniscus area and molar
volume of alcohols versus Laplace pressure. [4]
584
Silicon Oxide Surface Chemistry and Nano-Tribology
the partial pressure range between 10 and 90 % relative to the any conventional lubricant to these buried interfaces is very
saturation pressure. Unlike the water case, the adhesion force difficult. The gas molecules can easily reach these surfaces as
decreases immediately when the alcohol vapor pressure long as the gap between the solid surfaces is larger than the
increases (Figure 3). Given the same contact geometry, the mean free path of the molecule at a given pressure and
isotherm plays a dominant role in the shape of the capillary temperature. This mean free path is typically in the order of
force versus P/Psat, while the liquid molar volume of the nanometers in ambient conditions. Therefore, the gas
adsorbate constrains the magnitude of the capillary force.[4] adsorption process is fully conformal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National Science
Foundation (Grant No.CMS-0408369 and CMMI-0625493).
REFERENCES
[1] Strawhecker, K., Asay, D.B., McKinney, J., and Kim, S.H.
2005, "Reduction of adhesion and friction of silicon oxide
Fig. 5 Topographic images of the high-force line-scan surface in the presence of n-propanol vapor in the gas
region in (a) 75% relative humidity and (b) 75% phase" Tribol. Lett. 19, 17 - 21.
saturation vapor of n-propanol. (height f.s. = 1nm) [6] [2] Asay, D.B., and Kim, S.H. 2005, "Evolution of the
Adsorbed Water Layer Structure on Silicon Oxide at
The adsorbed alcohol layer in equilibrium with the gas Room Temperature" J. Phys. Chem. B, 109, pp. 16760 -
phase can almost completely prevent the silicon oxide wear at 16763.
the nanoscale. Figure 5 illustrates the contrast in silicon [3] Asay, D.B., and Kim, S.H., 2006, "Effects of Adsorbed
substrate wear when the AFM tip was scanned 512 times at the Water Layer Structure on Adhesion Force of Silicon
same location with a 75 nN load. In the humid environment, a Oxide Nanoasperity Contact in Humid Ambient" J. Chem.
severe wear mark is observed on the silicon surface; however, Phys. 124, pp. 174712-1 - 174712-5.
no wear is observed in the n-propanol vapor environment. We [4] Asay, D.B., and Kim, S.H. 2007. "Molar Volume and
have observed the same phenomena on the AFM tip. In Adsorption Isotherm Dependence of Capillary Forces in
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging, the tips used in Nanoasperity Contacts" Langmuir 23, pp. 12174 - 12178.
humid air were found to be very dull, while the tips used in [5] Strawhecker, K., Asay, D.B., and Kim, S.H. 2006,
alcohol ambient under the same effective load (applied load + "Gas-Phase Lubrication of MEMS Devices: Using
adhesion force) were still sharp. This may imply that the wear Alcohol Vapor Adsorption Isotherm for Lubrication of
of silicon oxide surface in the humid air is mainly due to Silicon Oxides" In Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing
tribo-chemical wear, rather than purely mechanical wear. (Sunggyu Lee, Ed.; Taylor & Francis, Inc.: New York) Vol.
2, pp.1143 - 1150.
IN-SITU VAPOR PHASE LUBRICATION OF MEMS [6] Asay, D.B., Dugger, M.T., Ohlhausen, J.A., Kim, S.H. 2008,
The gas-phase lubrication can provide many advantages in "Macro- to Nano-scale Wear Prevention via Molecular
MEMS. The minimization of stiction, friction and wear is Adsorption" Langmuir 24, pp. 155-159.
critical for reliable operation of MEMS devices. MEMS devices [7] Asay, D.B., Dugger, M. T., and Kim, S.H. 2008, "In-situ
typically have components that move and contact or rub other Vapor-Phase Lubrication of MEMS" Tribol. Lett. 29, PP.
parts. Once the MEMS device is fully assembled, application of 67 - 74.
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Dynamic Testing for Evaluation of HDI Robustness
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Y. Liu*, D. Yang
School of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, Nanchang University, Jiangxi, 330031, China
ABSTRACT z 0 e4
3 e 2 z0 en sinh( ) (2)
Electroosmotic flow (EOF) is widely used to transport and k BT
mix fluids in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) devices. For the
/u
parallel-plate microchannel with surface roughness, this paper 3f ( u .u ) .P . 2u 3 e E (3)
solved the governing equations using the finite element /t
method (FEM) and the effects of roughness element height and .u 0 (4)
density on the EOF behavior were thus investigated. The where is the electrical potential induced by the zeta potential
simulation results indicate that the strong flow resistance can in the EDL, r is the dielectric constant of the solution, 0 is the
enhance the pressure reduction and decrease the velocity in permittivity of vacuum, and e is the net charge density per
microchannels. The average EOF velocity varies linearly with unit volume in Eq. (1), which meet the Eq. (2) with the . In
the EDL thickness in smooth channels, which does not vary Eq. (2), n and z0 are the bulk ionic concentration and the
with the roughness height or interval space or EDL thickness valence of ion in the symmetric electrolyte solution,
monotonically in homogeneous rough channels. The EOF respectively, e is the charge of a proton, kB is the Boltzmann
velocity decreases quickly when the roughness height is very constant and T is the temperature.
small and slowly after that, and it is influenced most In Eqs. (3)-(4), u is the velocity vector, is the viscosity, f
significantly when the roughness interval space is the same as is the density of the fluid, e is the local net charge density, E is
the roughness height. the electrical field strength and P is the pressure applied to the
Keywords: microchannel, surface roughness, EOF, FEM microchannels.
The object studied in this paper is the parallel-plate
1. INTRODUCTION microchinnels with different rectangles symmetrically on the
Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) devices are frequently required to channel wall, shown in Fig.1. The channel is L in length and D
have an accurate flow control. Fluid motion in these devices is in width and the surface roughness is w in width and h in
often achieved using electroosmotic flow (EOF)[1], which height. The channel is periodic in x direction with both wall
shows several advantages over pressure driven flow. EOF is charged with a uniform zeta potential. The surface roughness
the bulk liquid motion that results when an externally applied is uniformly arranged in the channel with an interval space wr
electric field interacts with the net surplus of charged ions in and the three surfaces of each roughness are charged at a
the diffuse part of an electrical double layer (EDL)[2]. EOF and uniform zeta potential. Then the equations above could be
mass transport in microchannels is strongly dependent on simplified into two-dimensional mathematic models.
surface roughness[3]. Generally, the microchannel surface may
exhibit certain degrees of roughness generated by the
manufacturing techniques or by adhesion of biological
particles from the liquids[4]. The reported surface roughness
ranges from 0.1 to 2 m, which could be ignored in the
conventional instrument, however it may have an important
effect on the flow in microchannels[5].
Several studies are made in recent past on the EOF in
rough mcirochannel based on the finite volume method
(FVM)[6] and the Lattice Poisson-Boltzmann method (LPBM)[7].
The inertial effect and the flow recirculation can enhance the Fig. 1 Schematic of the microchannels with periodic surface
mixing substantially through the convection effect[8]. roughness
The objective of this paper is to investigate the flow
resistance effect on a fully developed EOF within a long rough Substituting Eq. (2) into the Poisson equation (1) leads to the
microchannel whose height is 10m. To achieve the objects, nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann equation with the coordinates
the Poisson-Boltzmann equation for electrical potential shown in Fig.1.
distributions and the Navier-Stokes equations for flows will be / 24 2 z 0 en z e4
developed and solved by using the finite element method sinh( 0 ) (5)
(FEM). /y 2
r 0 k BT
Fully developed flows and the zero pressure gradients are
2. MATHEMATIC MODELS assumed in the microchannels, in addition, for sufficiently
Electroosmotic transport can be described by the Poisson small Reynolds number (for the channel sizes considered in
equation and the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations. The this work Re~0.1 or smaller), the Eq. (3) as described above
model includes[9]: could be simplified into
3e / 2u
. 24 (1) 0 3e ( y ) Ex (6)
r 0 /y 2
Defining Debye-Hückel parameter 5 = -1= (2 z2 e2 n /r o kB
*Corresponding Author: Y. Liu, E-mail: lying@ncu.edu.cn T)1/2, and is characteristic of the EDL thickness, which is
588
Effect of Wall Roughness on Electroosmotic Flow in Microchannels
named as Debye length depending on the value of ionic 3.1. EOF IN SMOOTH MICROCHANNELS
concentration and the temperature. EOF in smooth microchannels is simulated and the effects
Introducing the following dimensionless parameters: of EDL is analyzed firstly when the height of the surface
ze4 , u y x roughness h=0. Based on the above parameters, the EDL
4 K 5D , u , y , x , thickness could be computed from the formula of Debye
k BT U D D Re 0 length, which varies from 100nm to 300nm while the ionic
3 f DU 2 zen 6 , D Re 0
concentration n=10-6~10-4mol/L.
Re 0 , G Ex Ex Figure 2 shows the dimensionless EOF velocity in the bulk
3 fU 2
6 flow region of the channels and the dimensionless EOF
where 4 is the dimensionless potential, K is the average velocity in the whole channels, and the horizontal
coordinate is the dimensionless EDL thickness /D. The
electrokinetic diameter, U is the reference velocity, Re0 is the
average velocity deceases linearly with the increase of the
reference Reynolds number.
Then the mathematic models (5) and (6) can be EDL thickness, and the HS velocity keeps invariable, which
non-dimensionalized by using the previously defined agree well with the Smoluchowski equation[10]. The average
parameters: velocity decreases to the 92.8% of the HS velocity when the
dimensionless EDL thickness /D=0.0426.
/ 24
K 2 sinh4 (7)
/y 2
/ 2u
G E x sinh(4 ) (8)
/y 2
The corresponding dimensionless boundary conditions follow:
/4 1
y 0, 0 , y ) ,4 6 (9)
/y 2
/u 1
y 0, 0 , y ) ,u 0 (10)
/y 2
where 6 is the dimensionless zeta potential on the channel
ze6
wall, which is defined as 6 .
k BT
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4 EOF velocity vs. the dimensionless roughness interval
space wr/w (a) Dimensionless velocity and wr/w, (b)
Dimensionless average velocity and wr/w
4. CONCLUSIONS
The nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann equation and the
Navier-Stokes equations for EOF in smooth and rough
microchannels were solved by using FEM based on the
non-uniform grid. The effects of surface roughness on EOF
were analyzed with the homogeneously charged rough
channels.
The average velocity varies linearly with the thin EDL
thickness for the EOF in smooth channels, but it does not vary
with the roughness height or interval space or EDL thickness
monotonically in homogeneously charged rough channels. The
EOF velocity decreases quickly when the roughness height is
(b)
very small (h/D < 0.05) and slowly after that, and it is
Fig. 3 EOF velocity vs. the dimensionless surface roughness
influenced most significantly when the roughness interval
h/D (a) Dimensionless velocity and h/D, (b) Dimensionless
space is same as the roughness height. The changing rate of
average velocity and h/D
the EOF velocity with the roughness height and interval is
different for the different EDL thickness. The results can
In addition, the changing rate of the EOF velocity with the
provide valuable understanding of EOF characteristics to
roughness height and interval is different for the different EDL
achieve accurate flow control in microfluidics.
thickness in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, which shows that the velocity
can be affected not only by the surface roughness but also by
the EDL thickness. The effects of EDL and roughness on EOF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
simultaneously need to be studied more intensively in the The present work is supported by the National Natural
future[11]. Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 50730007).
590
Effect of Wall Roughness on Electroosmotic Flow in Microchannels
591
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Institut fuer Physik und Zentrum fuer Mikro- und Nanotechnologien, Ehrenbergstra.e 29,
Postfach 100565, 98684 Ilmenau, Germany)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Nanopositioning and nanomeasuring machine system,
NPMS, is an enabling technology dealing with positioning,
manipulating and measuring with accuracy of nanometers and
in a scanning range of centimeters. Because it depends on the
precision linear ball bearings to transport the positioning stage
to cover the wide scanning distance, the friction of bearings
limits to a large extent its performance. The friction of the
precision linear ball bearings employed by NPMS is
considered. Although the current understanding of
macroscopic tribological behaviour of such bearings often
involves individual events occurring at the micro-scale, when
the motion is itself on micro-scale and less it is necessary to
reevaluate some conventional tribological solutions, for Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a MPMS with positioning stages
example the tribological coatings and lubrication. While the attached with electromagnetic motor drivers and guided by
absolute loads of NPMS may be small, its operating speed bearings in 3 dimension, the traceable linear and angular
varies from μm/s to hundreds mm/s for nanopositioning and sensors, and the measuring probe or nanotools [1]
wide-range scanning, respectively. The corresponding
tribological requirements, especially in terms of reliability and
repeatability, which may be limited by friction rather than wear, A simple analysis of the kinematics of the positioning
are particularly demanding and will require interdisciplinary stage indicates that the friction from bearings limits to a large
effort including engineering, materials science, surface science extend the positioning accuracy. Due to the lacking of other
and automatic control. transmitting mechanisms, the friction force of the bearings
Keywords: Nanopositioning and nanomeasuring system applies onto the positioning table directly. Neglecting the
(NPMS), Tribology, Friction, Control inertia, a smooth positioning motion is expected if the friction
force is balanced by the driving force. The positioning
INTRODUCTION performance of MPMS is therefore depending on the
performance of drivers and the bearings. While the driving
A typical MPMS is shown in Fig. 1, which is comprised
properties are usually well documented by the suppliers of the
of five main components: the positioning stages, the traceable
drivers, the information on the motion performance of the
linear and angular sensors, scanning probes or nanotools in
bearings is usually limited to an approximate coefficient of
various forms, the control and computing system, and the
friction (COF). The primary concern is whether a one
software. The kernel part of the machine is a positioning stage,
parameter COF is enough to describe the friction of the
based on which the other components are built. One of the
bearings. This is unlikely considering the scanning velocity
most important requirements of the positioning stage is to
ranging from ~μm/s to ~m/s for the nanopositioning and for
cover the increasingly wider scanning range and to ensure a
the wide distance scanning, respectively. In addition, the COF
positioning accuracy of nanometres. Currently, the stage of the
is under the influence of many factors, such as the operation
MPMS is guided by bearings and driven by electromagnetic
conditions, environments, materials, wear and lubrication.
motors attached directly to the stage. A commercial available
The science and technology dealing with friction, wear
NPMS with the trade name of NMM-1™ employs linear ball
and lubrication of the bearings used for the construction of
bearings, and operates in a 3D scanning volume of
positioning stages, constitute the main task of the NPMS
25×25×5 mm3. Though other kinds of bearings, such as air
tribology. In contrary to the traditional tribology, such as the
bearings, magnetic bearing and sliding bearings are also
engine tribology which emphasizes on wear and how to reduce
considered in the construction, the linear ball bearings are still
wear by lubrication, the main task of the NPMS tribology is to
the best candidates for the future designs. This is mainly due to
study the friction and how it is influenced by wear and
the well established construction technology, their easy
lubrication, and how to control the friction. Our approaches are
extension to wide scanning ranges and the compatibility with
two-fold: top-down and bottom-up. The former strives to a
vacuum. These properties are crucial for the further increase of
physical understanding of the frictional behaviour of the
the scanning volume of the NPMS, which is designed to be
bearings (positioning stages) and to investigate the effect of
350×350×(5–50) mm3 and 450×450×80 mm3 in year 2009 and
materials, coatings, lubricants, operating conditions and
2013, respectively, and in vacuum environment [1]. Operating
environments on friction. The later focuses on the construction
in vacuum is reported to be helpful in stabilizing the refractive
of robust mathematic models of friction based on the top-down
index of the medium for laser interferometer, the most
studies, and the final goal is to find an optimized control
important sensors used to measure the linear motion, and hence
strategy for the MPMS.
increase the measuring accuracy [2]. The details of MPMS can
In this contribution, the motion characteristics of the
be found in the thesis by Hausotte [3].
linear bearings for NPMS were examined by microtribometers
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
Yonghe.Liu@TU-Ilmenau.de
592
Nanopositioning and Nanomeasuring System: Friction and Its Control
at first. Two typical modes of motion of the bearings, measuring the surface roughness
corresponding to the nanopositioning and wide-range scanning, • A Fischerscope H100 with a Vickers indenter for
respectively, were determined. Then, tribological coatings evaluation of the hardness and indentation modulus.
based on diamond like carbon (DLC) were tested in these two
modes simulated by a reciprocating microtribometer and a pin RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
on disk tribometer, respectively. The results were discussed
with reference to the microstructures of the coatings and the 0.2 1 cycle 2 1 cycle
observation of wear scars. Based on this investigation, the
friction control of the NPMS is discussed. 0.0 0
displacement, μm
displacement, μm
driven motion -2 driven motion
-0.2
2 100
EXPERIMENTS
In order to characterize the friction on the micro-scale, a 0 0
593
Fundamentals of Friction and Energy Dissipation
Yuanzhong Hu
State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
For interfacial or wearless friction, the sliding is in fact a
The paper reviews recent progresses in fundamental studies
process consisting of a series of events of surface
of friction. The topics include the importance for
approach-separation, and it is the energy dissipation during
understanding wearless friction, the origin of interfacial
the process of approach and separation that determines the
friction, and a simple model for stick-slip motion and
magnitude of the interfacial friction. This process can be
energy dissipation. Great efforts have been made to predict
modeled by an oscillator sliding over a sinusoidal potential
friction quantitatively, but the successes are limited to few
as shown in Fig. 2.
cases where continuum mechanics or molecular dynamic
simulations are able to provide numerical results.
Key words: Wearless friction, atomic scale friction, energy
dissipation. k
INTRODUCTION
It is well known that friction used to be accompanied by
wear and sever wear would cause high friction, but middle x
or light wear does not guarantee a low friction either. The x0
existence of high friction in case of very small wear
indicates that energy has been dissipated in an approach
(a)
that has little to do with structural damage and material
removal. The mechanism of energy dissipation in wearless 4
Forward B D
friction has not been revealed, and in this sense the mystery
of friction remains unsolved. This is why scientists are so 2
enthusiastic for the study of wearless friction.
A
Force F
0
C
MODEL AND CONFIRMATION F
It is gradually recognized that when two surfaces are
-2
brought into contact and separated again, as shown
schematically in Fig.1a, the process will associate G E
inevitably with energy dissipation, no matter how carefully -4
Backward
the operation is carried out. Fig.1b shows a force curve
0 4 8 12 16
during separation of two mica surfaces, manifesting a
Distance X0
strong cantilever at the moment of pull-off. (b)
Fig. 2 An oscillator sliding over a periodic potential (a),
and literal force plotted against sliding distance (b).
The model predicts that for a strong spring (large stiffness k)
and a week interfacial interaction (small amplitude V of
potential fluctuation) the sliding will be smooth without
energy loss, but when the ratio V/k exceeds a critical value
the oscillator will slide in a stick-slip way accompanied by
energy dissipation. This phenomenon has been observed
(a) both in experiments and computer simulations [1, 2].
REFERENCES
1. M Ternes, C P. Lutz, C F. Hirjibehedin, et al., The force
needed to move an atom on a surface, Science, 319 (2008)
1066-1069.
2. T Zhang, H Wang, and YZ Hu, Atomic stick-slip friction
between commensurate self-assembled monolayers,
Tribology Letters, 14 (2003), 69-72.
(b)
Fig. 1 Approach and separation of two smooth surfaces (a),
and accompanied energy dissipation (b).
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The Future of Boundary Lubrication by Carbon Coatings and Environmentally Friendly Additives
Mi de Barros Bouchet / Laboratory of Tribology and System C Matta / Laboratory of Tribology and System
Dynamics,Ecole Centrale de Lyon, 69134 Ecully, France Dynamics,Ecole Centrale de Lyon, 69134 Ecully, France
J Michel Martin / Laboratory of Tribology and System L Joly-Pottuz / INSA de Lyon, MATEIS, 7 avenue Jean
Dynamics,Ecole Centrale de Lyon, 69134 Ecully, France Capelle, 69621 Villeurbanne, France
598
The Future of Boundary Lubrication by Carbon Coatings and Environmentally Friendly Additives
Friction regime
friction test in presence of glycerol, on the cross-section
0.1
Ultralow prepared by FIB in the tribofilm area. EFTEM results show a
Friction re-arrangement of the DLC bulk structure under the friction
0.01
process resulting in the emergence of a lot of tree-like
Superlow structures in the carbon film (Fig. 3). These structures start
Friction from a certain depth inside the coating and seem to grow up
0.001 and expand towards the top of the surface. An electron
steel/steel a-C:H/a-C:H ta-C/ta-C diffraction study performed in these tree-like structures shows
Materials combination the presence of sp2 carbon clusters present in the percolated
Fig. 1 Steady-state friction coefficients obtained in SRV sp3 carbon network [5]. Typically, the transformation of sp3
tests of steel and DLC couples lubricated with PAO+GMO oil carbon into sp2 carbon clearly observed permits a
in dark gray and with pure glycerol in light gray self-adaptation of the coating allowing him to support shearing
without any delamination in spite of important compressive
residual stresses in the coating. Moreover, the formation of
SUPERLUBRICITY AS STUDIED BY TOF-SIMS
graphitic carbon is evidenced at the top surface after a loss of
To study the origin of the super low friction observed for
the carbon coating thickness of about 75 nm during the friction
glycerol lubricated ta-C coatings in boundary lubrication, we
test with glycerol. This graphitic layer certainly helps the
performed ToF-SIMS spectroscopy on the wear tracks obtained
lubrication by glycerol in forming OH-termination.
after friction of ta-C with pure 13C glycerol and deuterated
glycerol lubricants. For the 13C glycerol, we substituted 13C for
all carbon atoms and in the case of deuterated glycerol only the
hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group was substituted. SSIMS
spectra were recorded inside and outside the tribofilm area to
clarify the material change on the ta-C surface after the super
low friction tests. They show clearly the presence of the 13C
glycerol molecule (13C3H7O3-) and their characteristic ion 650 nm
fragments (13C2H3O2-, 13CHO-, 13CH2-, 13CH2O-) on the ta-C
surface after the friction experiment [4]. No higher molecular
masses containing 13C obtained by polymerisation of glycerol
were found; thus the hypothesis that super low friction results
are due to long chain molecules lubrication can be rejected in
our case. Also no new species created by the friction were Fig. 3 a) Energy filtered TEM image at 30 eV of pristine
detected inside the tribofilm in comparison with outside. The ta-C coating (the coating is 728 nm thick and an Cr interlayer
relative intensities of the 13C components versus to the sum of of 32 nm is present between the main coating and the iron
the cluster ion Cn (with n≥5 that are mostly characteristic of substrate), and b) Dark field image of the ta-C after friction
ta-C material) were found nearly twice higher inside the wear performed with the diaphragm positioned on the (002) ring.
scar than outside indicating the possible adsorption of glycerol This image shows the graphitic nature of the tree-like
fragments on ta-C surface. Moreover, the super low friction structures and the presence a well defined layer at the top of
experiments performed with deuterated glycerol lubricant on the coating
ta-C coating showed twice more 2H and O2H species inside the
tribofilm than outside [4], suggesting an hydroxylation of the
surface carbon atoms due to frictional processes which leads to CONCLUSION
a low energy hydrogen interactions between glycerol The new mechanism of friction reduction for ta-C material in
molecules (and H2O and other small molecules due to its presence of OH-containing additives is based on the existence
dissociation under the friction) and hydroxylated ta-C surface. of a network of H-bond interactions in the confined interface
This hydroxylation of the ta-C after friction was also put in zone. First, the grafting of the friction surface by hydroxyl
evidence by the better wettability of the ta-C surface after the groups is necessary and is brought by a tribochemical reaction
friction tests in presence of glycerol as shown by the Fig. 2 that between ta-C surface and OH-containing additives. Second the
compares the contact angle of water on the pristine ta-C and on polyols molecules intercalate between the two contacting
the tribofilm formed on the ta-C. OH-terminated surfaces, possibly generating water molecules
by pressure and shear. The sliding occurs through rapid
changes of H-bond locations in the whole network.
REFERENCES
[1] J. M. Martin and al., Phys. Rev. B 48, 10583 (1993).
[2] C. Donnet, J.M. Martin and al., Tribol. Int. 29, 123 (1996).
[3] M.I. de Barros Bouchet and al., Tribology –
Materials, Surfaces and Interfaces 1, 28 (2007).
[4] M.I. De Barros Bouchet and al., Journal of Physics:
Fig. 2 Pictures of wettability a) of the pristine ta-C surface Conference Series 89 (2007) 012003.
and b) of the ta-C surface after the friction tests with glycerol [5] L. Joly-Pottuz, C. Matta, M.I. De Barros Bouchet
and al., Journal of Applied Physics 102, 1 (2007).
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
a. State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physical, Chinese Academy of
Science, Lanzhou 730000, China
b. Graduate School of The Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100039, China
(Extended Abstract)
INTRODUCTION
Research in the boron carbon nitride area has been mainly
focusing on synthesizing the BCxN compounds based on an
atomic scale mixture of semimetallic graphite and insulating
boron nitride (BN). Apart from predicted variable band-gap
semiconductors, boron carbon nitrides may also prove to be
useful as electron emitters, transparent hard coatings, and
wear-resistant coatings.
Since the first hybrid of composition BC2N has been
synthesized by Kouvetakis et al[1]. using CVD with BCl3 and
CH3CN as starting materials, a large variety of deposition
methods have been employed to grow carbon rich films with
BCxN composition. The works of Caretti et al. and their
subsequent research have demonstrated the possibility of
synthesizing BCxN as thin films (<1 m) with high carbon
contents and good mechanical properties by Ion Beam
Assisted Deposition [2]. Their results indicated that the more
carbon in the structure, the better the wear resistance up to a
composition of BC4N. Tian et al[3]. calculations indicate that
the a large of amount of C-C bonds in the zinc-blende
structured (BN)xC1
x compounds are beneficial to the
enhancement of hardness, and the zinc-blende-like BC6N
compounds are superhard material having larger hardness than
that of cubic BC2N and cubic boron nitride. Fig. 1 FTIR transmission spectra of the BCxNy films
The aim of this work is to review our recent results on
boron carbon nitride films (BCxNy) deposited by medium Fig. 1 shows the FTIR transmittance spectra of the films,
frequency magnetron sputtering. The films microstructure will performed using an uncoated silicon wafer as a reference.
be discussed and special attention will be devoted to the Two effects can be observed with increasing carbon contents.
effects of carbon incorporation in the tribological properties of First, the centre of the B-N-B out-of-plane bend stretching
the films. absorption band moves from 780 cm-1 for BN to 720 cm-1 for
sample D. As the peak position at approx. 700 cm-1 is
* Corresponding author. Tel: +86931 4968295; Fax: +86931 8277088. assigned to a bending bond of graphitic C, it is suggest that
E-mail address: junyanzh@yahoo.com (Junyan Zhang) with increasing carbon contents the boron or nitrogen atoms
600
Tribological Behavior of Sputtered Boron Carbon Nitride Coatings and the Influence of Processing Gas
replaced by carbon formed a hybrid B-C-N phase. Second, the trend as the friction behavior. It is considered that the friction
shape of the main absorption band spreads. The main coefficient at the high CH4 partial pressure is low since a
absorption band spreads due to the addition of carbon, what is higher content of C-H bonded thus showed lower friction. The
consistent with the increase of B-C, C-N and C=N bonds. highest wear resistance at the high CH4 partial pressure is
Therefore, both energy shift and widening of the spectra considered that the addition of carbon generates an increase if
suggest that the BCN films analyzed are new ternary the more energetic sp3 bonds giving rise to a reduction of the
compounds. wear of the material.
The coefficient of friction of the films is shown in Fig. 2. Boron carbon nitride films, produced using magnetron
It can be observed that the friction coefficient of deposited sputtering technique by adding various amounts of methane
boron carbide films considerably decreased with the increase (CH4) gas, were studied to evaluate their tribological
of CH4, from ~ 0.8 to 0.18 for B1 (0 sccm) and B5 (40 sccm), properties. The results could be summarized as follows:
respectively. One can also note that the load-carrying ability (1) FTIR analysis results showed that B-N, B-C, C-N and
and the life of coatings, explained by the number of cycles C=N chemical bonds were presented in the synthesized BCN
beyond which severe damage occurred, showed the same films presumed to be composed of hybridized B-C-N bonding.
(2) The coefficient of friction was reduced and wear
resistance was considerably improved by increasing the ratio
of CH4 gas component.
(3) Boron carbon nitride films with high carbon contents
show a great promise for tribological applications to protect
the surface from wear and to reduce friction.
REFERENCES
[1] Kouvetakis, J., Sasaki, T., et.al. 1990, “ Novel aspects
of graphite intercalation by fluorine and fluorides and new
B/C, C/N and B/C/N materials based on the graphite
network ,” Synth. Met., 34, pp.1-7.
[2] Caretti, I., Jménez, I., et al. 2004, “Tribological
properties of ternary BCN films with controlled composition
and bonding structure,” Diamond Relat. Mater., 13,
pp.1532-1537.
[3] Luo, X.G., Guo, X.J, et al. 2007, “Ground-state
properties and hardness of high density BC6N phases
Fig. 2 Friction coefficient of BCxNy films as a function of originating from diamond structure,” J. Appl. Phys., 101, pp.
CH4 flow rate 083505-1.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1,2 1 1 1 1
Ding Jianning ,Cheng Guanggui , Kan Biao ˈFan Zhen , Ling Zhiyong
1
Center of Micro/ Nano Science and Technology, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
2
Jiangsu Polytechnic University, Changzhou, Jiangsu, 213016, China
602
Effect of the Prepared Process on Tribological Properties of Multi-Layer Elastomeric DLC Monolayer
Friction coefficient
Sample 2
(a) Sample1
0.4
Sample 3
0.2
t/s
(a)
0.6
Friction coefficient
(b) Sample 2
Sample 2
0.4 30r/min 1.5N
Sample 1
0.2 Sample 3
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
t/s
(b)
Fig. 3 Friction coefficient of the samples at different loads
(c) Sample 3
Fig. 1 AFM image of the three samples
Fig 3 are friction coefficient of the three samples against
Raman spectrometry of the DLC films was plotted in Fig. 2. GCr15 ball with constant speed of 30 r/min and different loads
The existence of G peak in the range of 1 400~1 600 cm-1 of 0.8 N and 1.5 N. It can be seen that sample 2 behaves the
identifies the successfully preparation of DLC films. Table 1 worst in frictional properties, while sample 3 behaves the best
shows details about the structure of the two DLC films, and the and its friction coefficient is about 0.13. This mainly ascribed
Id/Ig rate of sample 3(with 0.36) is about twice of sample 2 to the fact that the grain size of DLC film made by CVD was
(with 0.19), and this indicates that there is more sp3 in sample 3. bigger and higher than that by FCVA method. These big grains
decreased the contact area and prevented the movement of the
GCr15 ball then the films of the sample were scratched out
2400 after 220 s and the friction coefficient increased to 0.6. In ref
FCVA-DLC
11, the friction coefficient between silicon and GCr15 ball was
1800 0.6. When the sliding speed is 30 r/min and the load increase to
CVD-DLC
Counts
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Friction Coefficient
improve the tribological property; large grains and roughness
0.3
of DLC film may deteriorate the friction and have the tendency
to increase the frictional coefficient, because of the existence 30 r/min 2N
of furrow wear. Phase change is another reason that will affect 0.2 45 r/min 1N
the tribolgical properties. In rigorous condition, friction will
induce high temperature and the change of phase, then the
0.1
diamond phase change to graphite phase, as is known to all,
the graphite was a good lubricant material and decrease the
frictional coefficient during the sliding of the samples and 0.0
GCr15 ball. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
t /s
Sample 2 CONCLUSIONS
0.4
In conclusion, a novel self-assembled ternary-layer
Sample1 elastomeric film was prepared. The elastome(SEBS) was
0.2 chemically adsorbed onto the self-assembled
monolayers(A187) with terminal amino group on
Sample 3 single-silicon crystal substrate. The SEBS/A187 film can
0.0 reduce the friction force under low load and veolocity at the
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
beginning of the test. DLC film made by FCVA method
t/s provides more sp3 than CVD method. DLC film on sample 2
deteriorated the frictional property of SEBS/A187 film and
(a) decreased the work life of the organic film because of its big
grains. Sample 3 behaved excellent tribological properties
among the three prepared samples and it might find promising
0.6 application in the lubrication of MEMS/NEMS where the load
Friction coefficient
is relatively low.
Sample 2 60r/min 1N
0.4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sample 1
We are grateful to National Natural Science Foundation of
0.2 China(50475124&50775101) and the Six Projects Sponsoring
Sample 3 Talent Summits of Jiangsu Province, the Foundation for the
Author of National Excellent doctoral dissertation of P.R
0.0 (China200330) and Doctoral Innovative Foundation of Jiangsu
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
University (CX07B-03X)for supporting.
t/s
(b)
Fig. 4 Friction coefficient graph of the samples with different REFERENCES
sliding velocity
[1] Spearing S M, 2000, “Materials issues in microelectro
mechanical systems”. Acta Mater, 48, pp. 179-196.
[2] Tsukruk V V., 2001, “Molecular lubricants and Glues for
Fig. 5 gives friction coefficient graph of sample 3 at Micro- and Nanodevices”. Adv Mater, 13,pp.95-108.
different loads and velocities, there was a sharp increase in [3] Ahn H.S, Julthongpiput D, Kim D.I, Tsukruk V.V., 2003,
friction coefficient at the beginning of the test with high load, “Dramatic enhancement of wear stability in oil-enriched
then decreased to a stable value of about 0.1. Furthermore, the polymer gel nanolayer”s. Wear, 255, pp. 801-807.
peak value increased with the load due to the existence of [4] Tsurkuk V V, 2001, “Nanocomposite polymer layers for
roughness for both frictional couples. At the first contact, the molecular tribology”, Tribology Lett, 10, pp. 127-132.
rough peak of the couple joggled together and relative [5] Erdemir A, Donnet C.,2006, “Tribology of diamondlike
movement of friction couple was embarrassed which result in carbon films: recent progress and future prospects”. J. Phys.
the increasing of friction force, then after worn down of the D: Appl. Phys.,39,pp. R311-R327.
rough apexes, the friction coefficient dropped to stable value. [6] Noda M, Umeno M, 2005, “Coating of DLC film by pulsed
However, the stable value increased with the increasing of discharge plasma CVD”. Diam Rel Mater, 14pp. 1791-1794.
applied load, when the load was 1N, the stable value of friction [7] Robertson J.2002, “Diamond-like amorphous carbon”.
coefficient was about 0.1, as to 3N, the friction coefficient Mater Sci Eng, 37pp. 129-281.
increased to 0.15. Although this value is still lower than [8] Donnet C. 1998, “Recent progress on the tribology of doped
common couple, use of this ternary-layer film will be limited diamond-like and carbon alloy coatings: a review”. Surf
in low load. Coat Technol, 100–101, pp. 180-186.
604
Effect of the Prepared Process on Tribological Properties of Multi-Layer Elastomeric DLC Monolayer
[9] Erdemir A, Switala M, Wei R, Wilbur P.,1991, A tribological [12] Ding J N, Wong P L, Yang J C. 2006, “Friction and fracture
investigation of the graphite-to-diamond-like behavior of properties of polysilicon coated with self-assembled
amorphous carbon films ion beam deposited on ceramic monolayers”. Wear, 260pp. 209-214.
substrates”, Surf Coat Technol, 50pp. 17-23. [13] Xie G X, Ding J N, Zheng B R.,2009, “Investigation of
[10] Donnet C, Grill A. 1997, “Friction control of diamond- adhesive and frictional behavior of GeSbTe films with
like carbon coatings”. Surf Coat Technol, 94 - 95pp. AFM/FFM”, Tribology International, 42pp. 115-121.
456-462.
[11] Cheng G G, Ding J N, Ling Z Y, 2008, “Study on the
Preparation, Characterization and Tribological Properties of
Elastic Nanocomposite DLC Monolayers”, Tribology, 03pp.
207-212.
605
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
606
Tribology Behaviors of in situ Nanoparticles Doped Molecular Deposition Films
607
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The Friction Property of Hydrogenated Carbon with Fullerene Microstructure after Annealing
Qi Wang/State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Chengbing Wang/State Key Laboratory of Solid
Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics,
Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
Zhou Wang/State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Junyan Zhang*/State Key Laboratory of Solid
Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics,
Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
Extended Abstract
to probe the microstructure evolution of the
Hydrogenated amorphous carbon films were deposited on
Si (100) substrates by dc-pulse plasma chemical vapor
hydrogenated carbon film with fullerene-like
deposition. Structurally, the as-deposited carbon films could be microstructure under the annealing treatment.
considered as nanocomposite thin films with fullerene-like Ball-on-plate tribometer (UMT) was used to assess the
microstructure in diamond-like carbon matrix based on our tribological properties of the films. The friction
previous result. Here, the evolution of the structure and coefficient of the films in air with 40% relative humidity
tribological properties of hydrogenated carbon film with remained about 0.037 even annealed at 600°C. Moreover,
fullerene-like microstructure on the annealing in vacuum was the wear rate clearly decreased when annealed at 300°C,
investigated. The friction coefficient of fullerene-like and then increased with increasing annealing
hydrogenated carbon films in air with 40% relative humidity
temperature. We concluded that the improvement in
remained constant about 0.037 when annealed at 600°C. And
the wear rate of the films decreased sharply when annealed at
mechanical properties and tribological properties of the
200 or 300°C. Structural analysis shows that annealing to 200 films came from the fact that the fullerene-like volume
and 300°C improved tribological properties originated from in the films increased when annealed at the temperature
the volume increase of the fullerene-like microstructure. of 200 and 300°C.
Keywords: fullerene-like, annealing, hydrogenated
amorphous carbon, Wear MAIN BODY HEADINGS
Figure 1(a) shows the Raman spectra of the fullerene-like
INTRODUCTION hydrogenated carbon films annealed at different temperature.
Hydrogenated diamond-like carbon (DLC) films have
attracted increasing attention due to their extraordinary
properties of high mechanical hardness and low friction
coefficient [1,2]. These properties are promising for
low-friction and wear-resistant coatings. In some of these
applications, the films are possibly subjected to localized high
temperature caused by friction or heating dissipation, while
other applications may require them to be operated at elevated
temperature. Therefore, the thermal stability of hydrogenated
DLC films becomes an important issue for their reliable
Fig 1 (a) Raman spectra of the as-deposited
long-term performance. Unfortunately, previous studies have
fullerene-like hydrogenated carbon films and the
shown that the hydrogenated DLC films deposited by general
annealed films at different temperature. (b) The
chemical vapor deposition techniques could not retain their
fitted Raman spectra of fullerene-like hydrogenated
superior characteristics at higher temperature because of the
carbon film
irreversible changes in the structure, which limited the
application of these films in practice [4]. It is well known that The Raman spectra of as-deposited films were decomposed
the release of hydrogen in hydrogenated DLC films, often at into four Gaussian peaks with wavenumber of 1260, 1383,
relatively low temperature in the range of 350-400 °C, leads to 1470 and 1560 cm-1, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1(b),
a conversion of sp3 bonds to sp2 bonds and a loss of according to our previous study [4]. The peaks at 1260 and
diamond-like properties [3]. 1470 cm-1 were attributed to curved graphite structure. Clearly,
In this paper, the hydrogenated carbon films were the peak at 1260 cm-1 originated from seven-member carbon
deposited with dc-pulse plasma chemical vapor rings of curved graphite, and the peak at 1470 cm-1 came
deposition (CVD) system. The as-deposited carbon films from five-member carbon rings of curved graphite,
could be considered as nanocomposite thin films with respectively. The four peaks at 1260, 1383, 1470 and 1560
fullerene-like microstructure in DLC matrix based on cm-1 could be attributed to the vibrational model of 7A1, 6A1g,
our previous result [4]. Here, hydrogenated carbon films 5A1 and 6E2g, respectively. Fig. 2 displays the fractional
contribution of each vibrational frequency to the Raman
with thickness of about 1.5 μm were deposited on Si
spectra as a function of annealing temperature. As the
(100) substrates by dc-pulse plasma CVD. The temperature increased, the fractions of 7A1 and 6A1g did not
annealing of the hydrogenated carbon film with show any obvious change. However, the fraction of 5A1
fullerene-like microstructure in vacuum at different increased slightly when annealed at 200 and 300 °C, decreased
temperature was carried out. Raman spectrum was used slightly when annealed at 400 °C and decreased sharply when
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. annealed at 500 and 600 °C. The fraction of 6E2g was just on the
zhangjunyan@lzb.ac.cn
608
The Friction Property of Hydrogenated Carbon with Fullerene Microstructure after Annealing
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Marine Engineering College, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, PR China, Postcode 116026
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT Since then, this concept and variants thereof have been
A new method based on singular entropy is suggested for extensively utilized in numerous applications of science and
estimating the worn surface using wavelet analysis, singular engineering. In this paper, we define the singular entropy of
value decomposition and information entropy. Low frequency image based on the information entropy and the image matrix
feature parameter and high frequency feature parameter of worn singular value, and its calculation formula.
surface based on statistical feature were extracted. The
running-in wear test for materials of piston ring against cylinder (1)
liner was conducted on a pin-on-disc tester under CD40
lubrication. It was shown that low frequency feature parameter In this formula, k is the order of the singular entropy,
Ei
and high frequency feature parameter can be used to reveal the is the increment of singular entropy with the order i, and it can
topography feature of running-in surface. Low frequency be calculated as follows:
feature parameters reflect contact area of the running-in surface,
the larger low frequency feature parameters, the larger contact
area. High frequency feature parameters reflect roughness of the (2)
running-in surface, the larger high frequency feature parameters,
the smaller roughness. Therefore low frequency feature From the information theoretic perspective, the singular
parameter and high frequency feature parameter can be entropy is a measure of the image complexity. More complex
considered as the feature parameter for the running-in surface the image is, larger the singular entropy is, which means the
evaluation. information amount of image increases. Simpler the image is,
Keywords: Singular entropy, Worn surface, Wavelet analysis,
smaller the singular entropy is, which means the information
Singular value decomposition, Feature parameter
amount of image decreases. Therefore the singular entropy can
1. Introduction be used to describe the character of image.
A worn surface of machine elements generally accumulates 2.2. Low frequency character parameter and high frequency
a lot of information that is useful for investigating the cause of character parameter of image
wear and for predicting the life of the machine elements. A An image is a muster of two dimensional discrete signals, to
thorough understanding of the surface topography is essential any point (x, y) in worn surface image, there is a grey value f(x,
when employing surface topographical measurements as a tool y), so two dimensional wavelet transform should be applied to
for machine condition monitoring and quality analysis. decompose worn surface image at different scale.
In this paper, the worn surface characterization method has Wavelet provides four different texture image, they are one
been studied by utilizing wavelet transform, singular value approximation, one horizontal, one vertical, and one diagonal
decomposition and information entropy theory. The worn details of the original image at one level. The approximation
surface is quantitatively described by the character parameters contains low frequency feature. The details contain high
proposed in this paper. frequency features, which include horizontal, vertical, and
diagonal edges. The approximation image and the detail image
2. Calculation method of character parameter are respectively named L and H, and they can be obtained as
2.1. Singular entropy algorithm follows:
2.1.1. Method of image processing based on SVD (3)
Taking the image matrix A as mhn’s non-negative matrix,
rank (A)=r, r mˈthen resolving this to Matrix A’s singular (4)
value. Matrix A’s singular value is the average non-negative real
number and is also unique. The singular value has relative The low frequency character parameter named kl is
stability towards disturbance and unchangeableness towards defined as the singular entropy of the approximation image, the
matrix transformation. In linear algebra, the matrix feature high frequency character parameter, named kh , is defined as
value shows the matrix feature, while the matrix singular value the singular entropy of the detail image. Their values are
is better than its feature value in manifesting its feature. So the performed with the equation (1) and (2). The low frequency
image matrix singular value reflects the image’s “energy character parameter can be used to described the contact area
feature” while its corresponding singular vector reflects the
of the wear surface, the high frequency character parameter
image’s “geometrical feature”.
can be used to described the roughness of the worn surface.
2.1.2. Singular entropy of image
Entropy is a central concept in the field of Information
Theory and was originally introduced by Shannon in his paper. 3. Experimental results
Running-in and wear tests of cast iron for cylinder liner
against cast iron for piston ring were conducted on a pin-on-disc
*Tel.: +86 411 84726981; fax: +86 411 84726029.
E-mail address: guobinli88@yahoo.com.cn tester, as shown in Fig.1
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Study of Worn Surface Characterization Based on Singular Entropy
Numerical analysis of the surfaces of the disc samples was of the disc sample. As discussed in previou uency character
conducted by using the character parameters improved in the parameters and high frequency character parameters describe
paper. For comparison, surface roughness parameter Ra was respectively the contact area and the roughness of worn surface.
used to describe the surface features of the wear components. Seen from Table 2, the average roughness Ra value of the worn
The worn surface analysis is detailed as the following. surface of the disc decreases from the rotational speed 400rpm
3.1. Different load wear test to the rotational speed 800rpm, both low frequency character
The character parameters of worn surface under the parameters and high frequency character parameters of the worn
different load in the steady wear stage. are calculated by surface of the disc increase from the rotational speed 400rpm to
applying the method put forward in the paper. Table 1 shows the the rotational speed 800rpm. The analysis of low frequency
low frequency parameter k and the roughness parameter Ra of character parameters shows that the contact area of worn
h
the wear surface of the disc sample. surface can be increased by increasing rotational speed in the
running-in stage. Accordingly, both high frequency character
Table 1 The character parameters of worn surface under the parameter and roughness Ra value of the worn surface of the
different loads disc suggest the same result, i.e., worn surface is smoother by
increasing rotational speed in the running-in stage.
Load(N) Ra(m) kl (h1011) kh (h1011)
400 0.801 17.2961 5.2684 Table 2 The character parameters of wear surface under the
different rotational speed
600 0.459 23.8409 7.5219
Rotational speed (rpm) Ra (μm) kl (h1011) kh (h1011)
800 0.353 55.5385 13.7849
400 0.631 18.0082 6.4252
600 0.459 23.8409 7.5219
The data in Table 1 shows that the average roughness Ra
value of the worn surface of the disc decrease from the load 800 0.389 31.0553 13.5741
400N to the load 800N, both low frequency character
parameters and high frequency character parameters of the 4. Conclusion
worn surface of the disc increase from the load 400N to the The running-in and wear tests for material of cylinder liner
load 800N. According to the definition of low frequency against piston ring were simulated by using a pin-on-disc tester
character parameter, it reveals the contact area of wear surface, at room temperature to investigate the characteristic evolutions
the larger low frequency character parameter, the larger of worn surfaces before and after running-in, and to estimate the
contact area. The analysis of low frequency character running-in quality by using the character parameters improved
parameters shows that the contact area of worn surface can be in the paper.
increased by increasing load in the running-in stage. According The results of this study have clearly shown that the
to the definition of high frequency character parameter, it reveals character parameters do reveal the surface characteristics of the
the texture information of worn surface and corresponds to the wear components. Low frequency character parameter is usually
roughness of the worn surface, the larger high frequency attributed to the contact area of wear surface, the larger low
character parameter, the smaller roughness. According to the character parameter, the larger contact area. High frequency
results shown in Table 1, it was apparent that worn surface is character parameter is in good agreement with the roughness
smoother by increasing load in the running-in stage. value of the wear surface, which can reflect the evolution of
3.2 Different rotational speed wear test surface roughness, the larger high character parameter, the
The character parameters of wear sur different rotational smaller roughness. Therefore both low frequency character
speed in the steady wear stage are calculated by applying the parameter and high frequency character parameter can be used
method put forward in the paper. Table 2 shows the character to describe the characteristics of the wear surface.
parameters and the roughness parameter Ra of the wear surface
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
612
An Adaptive Meshless Model for Asperity Thermal Elasto-Plastic Contacts Considering Temperature-Dependent Material Properties
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
614
Thermal Oxidized Coating on Surface of Titanium Alloy for Improvement of Tribological Properties in Vacuum
Fig.4 Microhardness profiles of the oxidation coating 3. ANALYSES ON WORN SURFACE AND DEBRIS
The worn surface of the untreated Ti-6Al-4V alloy is
2. TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES characterized as sever plastic deformation and adhesion, as
Fig.5 and Fig.6 compare the friction coefficients and the shown in Fig.7 (a). The oxidized coating shows slight scratch
wear rates before and after thermal oxidation/vacuum diffusion after dry sliding in vacuum, as shown in Fig.7 (b). In high
vacuum, the heat induced by friction is hard to diffuse from the
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
surface, leading to a temperature rising on the frictional surface, of these TiO2 particles are remained on the friction interface of
especially for Ti-6Al-4V alloy due to its low conductivity of the oxidized coating and AISI 52100 steel, playing a role as the
heat. For this reason, the surface strength of Ti-6Al-4V alloy third body to apply abrasive action to both friction surfaces. At
will decrease. Under the action of normal load and distinct the same time, some of TiO2 particles form the trapped debris
adhesion with AISI 52100 steel in vacuum, deformation is easy on the friction surfaces, which also have considerable abrasion
to happen in the surface layer during sliding. Thus the against the surface of the oxidized coating, resulting in the
untreated alloy shows higher friction coefficient and more poor wear of the oxidized coatings. Combining the analysis on the
wear resistance in vacuum, as shown in Fig.5 and Fig.6. worn surfaces, it implies that the wear of the oxidation coating
However, there is little deformation on the surface of the is mainly caused by abrasive effects of hard TiO2 particles
oxidized coatings due to its high hardness and thermal produced by the coating itself in vacuum.
resistance. The oxygen diffusion zone and Ti3Al phase formed
during vacuum diffusion treatment will further harden the
oxidized coating as well as the bonding strength to the
substrate. On the other hand, the hard TiO2 surface layer
formed by the thermal oxidation treatment can reduce the
adhesion trend of Ti-6Al-4V alloy against AISI 52100 steel
comparing to that of the untreated Ti-6Al-4V alloy in vacuum.
(a)
(a) (b)
Fig.7 Worn surfaces of (a) untreated (b) oxidation coating
CONLUSIONS
1 A type of hardened oxidized coating having good bonding
strength to Ti-6Al-4V substrate is prepared by the process of
thermal oxidation followed by vacuum diffusion on the surface
of alloy.
(a) (b) 2 The thermal oxidation/vacuum diffusion treatment
Fig.8 Debris of (a) untreated (b) oxidation coating distinctly reduces the friction coefficient and the wear rate of
Ti-6Al-4V alloy against AISI 52100 steel in vacuum.
Obviously, the TiO2 particles come from the oxidized 3 The process of thermal oxidation and vacuum diffusion
coatings. Although the bulk hardness of the oxidized coating is treatment reduces the adhesion effect of Ti-6Al-4V alloy
higher than that of AISI 52100 steel, there is always some against AISI 52100 steel.
micro-protruding small enough to crack from the oxidized 4 The wear of the oxidation coating is caused by abrasive
coating in the contact area by the mechanical collision during effects of hard TiO2 particles produced by the coating itself in
sliding. Therefore, the debris of TiO2 particle is formed. Some vacuum.
616
Thermal Oxidized Coating on Surface of Titanium Alloy for Improvement of Tribological Properties in Vacuum
617
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Study on Friction and Wear Properties in Vacuum for -Ray Irradiated PTFE Coatings
1 1 1 1
Yong Liu , Zhuyu Ye , Xingdong Yuan , Dezhuang Yang *
1
Space Materials and Engineering Lab., Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
(Extended Abstract)
618
Study on Friction and Wear Properties in Vacuum for -Ray Irradiated PTFE Coatings
(a) (b)
Fig.5 SEM microphotoes showing morphologies of (a)
unirradiated and (b) 107 rad irradiated worn surfaces
(a) (b)
Fig.6 SEM microphotoes showing cracking morphologies of (a)
unirradiated and (b) 107 rad irradiated worn surfaces
Fig.3 Friction coefficient as a function of load
DISCUSSION
The very small contact area in a ball-on plane sliding results
that the temperature possibly exceeds the melting point of PTFE.
In this case, the crosslink reaction is occurred, forming network
and strengthening the PTFE itself [8]. The 8 irradiation induced
strengthening will increase the brittleness of PTFE. According
the Hertz theory, the maximum stress will be obtained in the
midline of frictional trace, which is in favor of nucleation and
prolongation of micro cracking. On the other hand, 8 irradiation
also brings the primary micro cracks on the original surface
including the middle area of frictional trace, they prefer to
prolongate in the areas with high stress. Thus, a main crack
tends to form along the midline of friction trace. Considering
Fig.4 Wear loss as a function of load the friction is a dynamic proceed, the increase in temperature is
not uniform at contact areas resulting that the enhance effect of 8
irradiation is not uniform at different contact area. There would
WORN SURFACE ANALYSIS
be some areas without enough strengthening but predominant
Fig.5 shows the scanning electron micrographs of the worn chain scission. The micro cracking will be nucleated and
surfaces of unirridiated and irradiated PTFE coatings produced prolongated in these week areas and form the branches of the
in vacuum. The worn surfaces of unirridiated specimen are main crack.
characterized by severe plastic deformation, micro cracking, Increasing the sliding velocity and load will cause the
619
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
temperature of friction surface and facilitate above [2] H. Unal, A. Mimaroglu, U. Kadioglu. H. Ekiz, 2004,
strengthening effect. Relatively, increase in the sliding velocity “Sliding friction and wear behaviour of
has a more remarkable temperature and strengthening effect polytetrafluoroethylene and its composites under dry
than increasing the load. As a result, the friction coefficient and conditions,” Materials and Design. 25, pp.239-245.
wear loss has a distinct decrease with sliding velocity. However, [3] Shi Qunan Lai, Yue Li, Tong Sheng Li, 2006, “The friction
when the sliding velocity exceeds a certain value, the and wear properties of polytetrafluoroethylene filled with
temperature of contact area rises to a higher level and the ultrafine diamond,” Wear. 206(4-5), pp.462-468.
strengthening effect reaches a saturation state. In addition, the [4] W. Gregory Sawyer, Kevin D. Freudenberg, Praveen
PTFE will show viscous characteristic when velocity and load Bhimaraj, 2003, “A study on the friction and wear behavior
increase to a certain level, leading to a slight increase in friction of PTFE filled with alumina nanoparticles,” Wear. 254,
coefficient and wear loss, as showed in Fig.1 to Fig.4. pp.573-580.
[5] J. H. Jia, H. D. Zhou, S. Q. Gao, J. M. Chen, 2003, “A
CONCLUSIONS comparative investigation of the friction and wear behavior
of polyimide composites under dry sliding and water
1 The friction coefficient and wear loss of PTFE coatings lubricated,” Materials and Science Engineering. 251,
are decreased within the test sliding velocities and loads when pp.48-53.
-ray irradiation dose reaches 107 rad. [6] K. A. Watson and J. W. Connell D, “Space Environmentally
2 Within the range of testing conditions, the main variation Stable Polyimides and Copolyimides,” NASA Report,
in friction coefficient and the wear loss tends to decrease with NASA-2002-45sampe-kaw
increasing sliding velocity and load. [7] Brian Menzel, 2005, “Thierry A. Enhanced wear resistance
3 There are a lot of cracks on the worn surface of the of gamma-irradiated PTFE and FEP polymers and the effect
irradiated PTFE coatings. of post-irradiation environmental handing,” Wear. 12,
pp.935-941.
REFERENCES [8] Akihiro Oshima, Yoneho Tabata, Hisaaki Kudoh, and
[1] Makoto Nishimura, Mineo Suzuki, 1999, “Solid-lubrication Tadao Seguchi, 1995, “Radiation induced crosslinking of
ball bearings for use in a vacuum-state-of-the-art,” polyterafluoroethylene,” Radiat. Phys. Chem. 45(2),
Tribology International, 32, pp.637-647. pp.269-273
620
Friction and Wear Behaviors of Plasma Sprayed Conventional and Nanostructured WC-12Co Coatings at Elevated Temperature
1,2 1,
Bin Yin1,2, Yulong An , Huidi Zhou *, Fengyuan Yan1, Jianmin Chen1
1
State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Lanzhou 730000, China
2
Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
elevated temperature.
0.3
Keywords: Plasma spraying; Nanostructured WC-12Co
coating; Friction and wear; Elevated temperature 0.0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Time/s
INTRODUCTION 1.5
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
7.5
6.0
Wear volume/10 mm
Nanostructured coating
Conventional coating
-3
4.5
3.0
1.5
0.0 Fig. 4 Typical SEM images of (a), (b), (c) worn surfaces and
25 100 200 300
Temperature / ć
(d), (e), (f) corresponding wear debris of as-deposited
nanostructured coating against Si3N4 at elevated temperature
REFERENCES
[1] Monticelli, C., Frignani, A., Zucchi, F., 2004,
“Investigation on the corrosion process of carbon steel
coated by HVOF WC/Co cermets in neutral solution,”
Corrosion Science, 46, pp.1225–1237.
[2] Yang, Q.Q., Senda, T., Hirose, A., 2006, “Sliding wear
behavior of WC–12% Co coatings at elevated
temperatures,” Surf. Coat. Technol., 200, pp.4208–4212.
[3] Du, L.Z., Xu, B.S., Dong, S.Y., Zhang, W.G., Zhang J.M.,
Yang., H., Wang, H.J., 2008, “Sliding wear behavior of the
supersonic plasma sprayed WC–Co coating in oil
containing sand,” Surf Coat Technol,202, pp.3709–3714.
[4] Jia, K., Fischer, T.E., 1997, “Sliding wear of conventional
and nanostructured cemented carbides,” Wear, 203–204,
pp.310–318.
[5] Zhao, X.Q., Zhou, H.D., Chen, J.M., 2006, “Comparative
study of the friction and wear behavior of plasma sprayed
conventional and nanostructured WC–12%Co coatings on
Fig. 3 Typical SEM images of (a), (b), (c) worn surface and stainless steel,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 431, pp.290–297.
(d), (e), (f) corresponding wear debris of as-deposited [6] Chen, H., Xu, C., Zhou, Q., Hutchings, I.M., Shipway, P.H.,
conventional coating against Si3N4 at elevated temperature Liu, J., 2005, “Micro-scale abrasive wear behaviour of
HVOF sprayed and laser-remelted conventional and
nanostructured WC–Co coatings,” Wear, 258, pp.333–338.
[7] Shipway, P.H., McCartney, D.G., 2005, Sudaprasert, T.,
“Sliding wear behaviour of conventional and
nanostructured HVOF sprayed WC–Co coatings,” Wear,
259, pp.820–827.
622
Wear Behavior of Chromizing-Titanizing Coating
(Extended Abstract)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Basis steel
Chromizing layer 2. STRUCTURE
T itanizing layer
Chromizing-titanizing layer The phase of chromizing-titanizing coating is examined
by XRD. The XRD analysis indicates that six phases exist in
20 different parts of coating. Among them, α-Fe and Fe3C are
main phases in the basis steel, but a small amount of α-Fe
loss (mg)
15
Weight
2
1.5 outside, resulting in different wearability from chromizing
coating and titanizing coating.
1
0.5
0
0
Time (h)
(b)
12
Weight loss (mg)
10
8
6
4
2
Fig. 3 Ingredient analysis
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
CONCLUSIONS
(c) Time (h)
The chromizing-titanizing coating can be formed in surface
6
of carbon steel by low-vacuum packing powder method. The
Weight loss (mg)
1.5
(The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
1
needs it.)
0.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature ( ć )
Fig. 2 Wear resistance at elevated temperature
624
Preparation and Polishing Performances of -Al2O3 /Fe2O3 Composite Particles
Research Center of Nano-science and Nano-technology , Shanghai University , Shanghai 200444 , China
625
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
626
Preparation and Polishing Performances of -Al2O3 /Fe2O3 Composite Particles
considering the Ra value of the polished glass substrate and from 60 min to 180 min. It means that the polishing time of 60
material removal amount, the suitable down force of glass min is enough, and prolonging the polishing time cannot
substrate CMP was 140 Kg. improve surface planarization any more. The MRA increases
rapidly in initial polishing. When polishing time between 60
min to 120 min, the MRA varies little. After 120 min, the
MRA increases rapidly, implying that the material removal
mechanism may be changed here.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig.3 Effect of rotating speed on (a) MRR and (b) Ra
(composite abrasive with 20% Fe2O3 coating, down force
is 140 kg, polishing time is 60 min)
(b)
Fig .5 The influence of polishing time on Ra (a) and MRA (b)
(composite abrasive with 10% Fe2O3 coating, down force
is 140 kg, rotating speed is 23 r/min)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
4. CONCLUSIONS
A kind of novel -Al2O3/ Fe2O3 composite abrasive was
prepared by chemical co-precipitation method. Results of
XRD show that the crystal type of the coated Fe2O3 shell is
hexagonal. The laser particle size analyzer indicates that the
-Al2O3/ Fe2O3 composite abrasive has better dispersion
stability than pure -Al2O3 abrasive. During the chemical
(a) mechanical polishing (CMP) of the glass substrate, the
-alumina/ferric oxide composite abrasive with high Fe2O3
coating content exhibits lower surface roughness, lower
topographical variations and less scratch than that of pure
-alumina abrasive under the same testing conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No 50575131), Natural Science
Foundation of Shanghai (Grant No 07ZR14039), Innovation
Program of Shanghai Municipal Education Commission
(Grant No 09ZZ86) and Leading Academic Discipline Project
of Shanghai Municipal Education Commission Project
Number J50102.
(b)
Fig .6 the effect of the coated Fe2O3 content on MRA (a) and
REFERENCES
Ra (b)
[1] Farid, M., Masood, H., 1995, “Manufacturability of the
In order to investigate the difference of polishing CMP process,” Thin Solid Films, 270, pp.612-615
performances between the prepared -alumina/ferric oxide [2] Lei, H., Luo J. B., 2004, “CMP of hard disk substrate using
core-shell abrasive and pure -alumina abrasive, the a colloidal SiO2 slurry: preliminary experimental
morphology of polished glass substrate surfaces was analyzed investigation,” Wear, 257, pp. 461-470.
by AFM (shown in Fig. 7). It is found that Ra of polished [3] Lei, H., Luo J. B., 2006, “Two-step chemical-mechanical
polishing of rigid disk substrate to get atom-scale
planarization surface,” Chin. J. Mech.Eng. 19, pp.496-499.
[4] Patrick, W. J., Guthrie, W. L., Standley, C. L., 1991,
“Application of chemical mechanical polishing to the
fabrication of VLSI circuit interconnections”, J. Electrochem,
Soc,138, pp. 1778-1784.
[5] Steiferwald, J. M., Muraaka, S. P., Getmann, R. J., 1997,
“Chemical Mechanical Planarization of Microelectronic
Materials”, Wiley.
[6] Lei, H., Lu, H.S., 2006, “Sub-nanometer precesion
polishing of glass substrate”, 7th International Conference on
Frontiers of Design and Manufacturing, V1, pp. 445-448.
(a) [7] Lei, H., Zhang, P, Z., Lu, H.S., 2006, “Sub-nanometer
Precision Polishing of Glass Substrate with a Colloidal SiO2
Slurry”, Lubrication Engineering, 173, pp. 31-34.
[8] Wang, L. Y., Zhang, K.l., Song, Z. T., Feng, S. L., 2007,
“Ceria concentration effect on chemical mechanical polishing
of optical glass”, Applied Surface Science, 253, pp,
4951-4954.
[9] Sorooshian, A., Ashwani, R., Choi, H.K., 2004, “Effect of
particle interaction on agglomeration of silica-based CMP
slurries”, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings ,
816, pp. 125-131.
(b) [10] Carpio, R., Farkas, J., Jairath, R., 1995, “Initial study on
Fig.7 Surface morphology of glass substrates polished with copper CMP slurry chemistries”,Thin Solid Films, 266 , pp.
slurries containing different abrasive. 238.
(a) With pure - Al2O3 abrasive. (b) With -Al2O3 [11] Yano, H., Matsui, Y., Minamihaba, G., Kawahashi, N.,
abrasive coated by 10wt %Fe2O3. Hattori, M., 2001, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 671, pp. M24.
628
Preparation and Polishing Performances of -Al2O3 /Fe2O3 Composite Particles
[12] Wang, J., Liu, Y. L., Zhang, J. X.,2005, “Novel SiO2 [17] Jindal, A., Hegde, S., Babu, S.V., 2003 ,“Chemical
Slurry in CMP”, Technology Column,30, pp. 25-26. mechanical polishing of dielectric films using mixed abrasive
[13] He, H.W., Hu, Y.H., Huang, K. L., Xu, J., 2002, “Factors slurries”, J. Electrochem. Soc,. 150, pp. G314-G318.
and Mechanisms Influencing Granularity Uniformity of [18] Singh, R.K., Bajaj. R., 2002, “Advances in
Nano-sized -Al2O3 Abrasives for preparing CMP”, Mining chemical-mechanical planarization,” MRS Bull. 27, pp.743.
and metallurgical engineering, 22, pp. 42-45. [19] Lei, H., Zhang, P. Z., 2007, “Preparation of alumina/silica
[14]Chen, Y., Chen, J.Q., Chen, Z. G., Chen, A. L.,2004, core-shell abrasives and their CMP behavior,” Applied Surface
“Study on the CMP Mechanism and Property of Silicon Wafer Science, 253, pp. 87548761
by Nan-sized CeO2 Abrasives”, electronic components and [20] Zhang, Z. F., Lei, H., 2008, “Preparation of
materials, 23, pp. 46-48. -alumina/polymethacrylic acid composite abrasive and its
[15] Babu,S.V., Jindal, A., Hedge, S., 2001,US Patent 09/950, CMP performance on glass substrate,” Microelectronic
pp.612. Engineering85, pp.714720
[16] Jindal, A., Hegde,S., Babu, S.V., 2002, “Chemical [21] Lei, H., Lu, H.S., 2007, “Preparation of -alumina-g-
mechanical polishing using mixed abrasive slurries”, polyacrylamide composite abrasive and chemical mechanical
Electrochem. Sol. State Lett., 5 ,pp. G48-G50. polishing behavior,” Thin Solid Films, 516, pp.30053008
629
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Friction and Wear Behavior of MoS2/Graphite Coatings in Vacuum
Jianqun Yang*, Yong Liu, Zhuyu Ye, Dezhuang Yang, Shiyu He
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
(Extended Abstract)
630
Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Friction and Wear Behavior of MoS2/Graphite Coatings in Vacuum
MoS2/graphite coatings on Al substrate after gamma irradiation. The wear rate of unirradiated and irradiated coatings
The average friction coefficient of unirradiated and increase with increasing sliding velocity and normal load in
irradiated coatings against GCr15 bearing steel decreases with vacuum, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. The wear rate
increasing both sliding velocity and normal load in vacuum, as of irradiated coatings rises quickly to a value of 1.78 mg/km
shown in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. when load is greater than 12N. According to Fig. 7, it can be
noted that the wear rate of irradiated coatings has little changes
and is negative when sliding velocity is less than and equal
0.6m/s. However, the tranfer material from the counter couple
GCr15 is absent since the worn surface of GCr15 was little
worn and the tranfer flim was formed , as shown in Fig. 8. This
phenomenon may be effect of gamma irradiation on MoS2/
graphite coatings. Gamma irradiation can increase the surface
imperfection of MoS2/graphite coatings. The kind of coatings
is much more prone to absorb moisture from the air and the
wear rate is considerable low.
631
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
REFERENCES
[1] Savan, A., Pfluger, E., Voumard, P., Schroer, A.,
Simmonds, M., 2000, “Modern solid lubrication: recent
developments and applications of MoS2,” Lubrication
Science, 12, pp.185-203.
(b) [2] Fleishauer, P. D., Bauer, R., 1988, “Chemical and
structural effects on the lubrication properties of
sputtered MoS2 films,” Tribology Transactions, 31,
pp.239-250.
[3] Junan Wang, Deyang Yu, Jinlin Ouyang, 1994, “Study on
the mechanism of lubrication degradation and failure of
MoS2 sputtered films stored in the moist air,” Tribology,
14, pp.25-32.
[4] Fleishauer, P. D., Hilton, M. R., 1990, “Space tribology
in the USA,” Tribology International, 23, pp.136-139.
Adhesion [5] Holbery, J. D., Pflueger, E., Savan, A., Gerbig, Y., Luo,
Q., Lewis, D. B., Munz, W. D., 2003, “Alloying MoS2
with Al and Au: structure and tribological performance,”
Surface and Coatings Technology, 169–170, pp.716–720.
(c) [6] Yang Jing, Jianbin Luo, Siqin Pang, 2004, “Effect of Ti
or TiN codeposition on the performance of MoS2-based
composite coatings,” Thin Solid Films, 461, pp.288–
Adhesion 293.
[7] Fox, V. C., Renevier, N., Teer, D. G., Hampshire, J.,
Rigato, V., 1999, “The structure of tribologically
Crack improved MoS2–metal composite coatings and their
industrial applications,” Surface and Coatings
Technology, 116–119, pp.492–497.
[8] Su, Y. L., and Kao, W. H., 2003, “Tribological behavior
and wear mechanism of MoS2-Cr coatings sliding against
various counterbody,” Tribology International, 36,
pp.11-23
Fig. 9 SEM micrographs of wear tracks on coatings of
[9] Kannel, J. W., Lowry, J. A., Dufrane, K. F., 1991,
(a) and (b) unirradiated coatings under 8 N, 0.8 m/s;
Lubricant Selection Manual, NASA Marshall Space
(c) irradiated coatings under 12 N, 0.8 m/s
Flight Center, Columbus, Ohio. ISBN 43210-2693.
[10] Jin, Y. S., Zhou, C. H., 1997, “The effectiveness of high
CONCLUSIONS temperature lubrication by in situ formation of
Friction and wear behavior of unirradiated and irradiated graphite/MoS2 films,” Wear, 205, pp.77-87.
MoS2/graphite coatings have been studied. The following [11] Wilfried J. Barz, Jinfen Xu, 1991, “Wear behaviour and
results were obtained. failure mechanism of bonded solid lubricants,” Wear,
(1) The average friction coefficient of MoS2/graphite 150-152, pp.231-246.
coatings against GCr15 steel has little changes with irradiation [12] Zeming Gu, 1987, “Investigation of the tribological
doses. Gamma irradiation reduces the wear of MoS2/graphite properties for MoS2-based co-sputtered films,” Solid
coatings and the wear rate is increased with increasing Lubricant, 4, pp.216-220
irradiation doses. [13] Amitabh Jain, Sangeeta Srivastav., 1996, “Treatment of
(2) The average friction coefficient of the irradiated MoS2 film by high-energy heavy ion beams,” Thin Solid
MoS2/graphite coatings also decreases with increasing the Films, 277, pp.128-131.
sliding velocity and normal load in vacuum. The wear rates of [14] Donnet, C., Martin, J. M., Le Mogne, Th., Belin, M.,
the unirradiated and the irradiated MoS2/graphite coatings are 1996, “Super-low friction of MoS2 coatings in various
increased with increasing both of sliding velocity and normal environments,” Tribology lnternational, 29, pp.123-128.
load in vacuum.
632
Preparation of Silica / Alumina Composite Abrasives and Their CMP Behavior on Hard Disk Substrate
(Research Center of Nano-Science and Nano-Technology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China)
(Extended Abstract)
633
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
energy of Al 2p occurs at 79.8ev, corresponding to the The Scherrer equation(R =k/Bcos) was used to study the
aluminum as Al2O3. It means that Al element exists in the crystallite size. Where R equals to the broadening due to small
surface of the composite particles. crystallite sizes, equals to the wavelength of the X-rays,
equals to the Bragg angle, L equals to the average crystallite
size, k equals to a constant (at the best assumption, k equals to
1.0). It can be approximately got that the crystal size of the
composite particle is 12.44 nm.
In order to analyze the dispersibility of the composite
particles in aqueous medium, the morphologies were observed
Fig.1 The TOF-SIMS spectra of the composite particles by SEM as shown in Fig.4. It is found that the composite
particles disperse wellˈand It also shows that the average size
of the composite particle is about 400-500nm. In addition, the
size distribution of the composite particles is shown in Fig.5. It
shows that the average size of the composite particle is
525nm .It approximately coincides with the result of the SEM.
Fig.2 The XPS spectra of element Al of the composite particles Fig.4 SEM images of the composite particles
Further, Table1 shows the elements on the surface of silica
and the composition particles. Compared with silica, Al element
exists in the composite particles. Also the concentration of Si
reduced and the concentration of O increased on the surface of
the composite particles. It means that Al element exists in the
surface of the composite particles.
Table 1 Elements on the surface of silica and the composite
particles
Fig.3 shows the XRD patterns of silica and the composite 2.2. CMP BEHAVIOR OF SLURRY CONTAINING THE
particles. It is clear that diffraction peaks corresponding to the SILICA / ALUMINA COMPOSITION ABRASIVE
peaks of alumina are visible in the diffractograms of the Micrographs of disk substrates before and after polishing in
composite particlesˈindicating that the crystal of alumina shell the composite slurry are shown in Fig.6, respectively. It shows
on the silica is hexagonal . that the prepared slurry gives lower topographical variations
than before polishing: the surface before polishing is very rough
with many scratches, after polishing in the prepared slurry, the
surface becomes smoother, and fewer scratches exist.
Fig.3 XRD spectra of silica and the composite particles Fig.6 Surface profiles of disk substrates
634
Preparation of Silica / Alumina Composite Abrasives and Their CMP Behavior on Hard Disk Substrate
The CMP performances of the silica / alumina abrasives [4]J. Xu et al, 2006, Applied Surface Science 252,
may be attributed to their special type structure. The hard - pp.5846–5854.
Al2O3 shell on the softer SiO2 core can reduce the hardness of [5] H.Lei, P.Zhang, 2007, “Preparation of Alumina/Silica
only - Al2O3 particles and smooth the particle appearance. composite abrasive and their CMP behavior”, Applied Surface
Thus -Al2O3 shell may behave as a hard cushion, which can Science, 253 pp.8754–8761.
increase the material removal rate. The real CMP mechanism [6] Lei H, Luo J B, Lu X C, 2006, “Two-step chemical
may be very complicated. More works need to be done on these mechanical polishing of rigid disk substrate to get atom-scale
in the future. planarization surface”, Chinese Journal of Mechanical
Engineering,19 (4) , pp.496–499.
3. CONCLUSIONS [7]Lei H, Zhang P Z, Lu H S, 2006, “Sub-nanometer precision
1. SiO2 / Al2O3 composition abrasive with average crystallite polishing of glass substrate with a colloidal SiO2 slurry”,
size of 12.44nm was prepared using coprecipitation.And the Lubrication engineeringˈ31(1) , pp.31-34(in Chinese).
abrasive has good dispersion stability in aqueous medium. [8]Li X ZˈChen YˈChen Z G, et al, 2007ˈ“Preparation of
2. The slurry containing SiO2 / Al2O3 composition abrasives CeO2 nanoparticles and their chemical mechanical polishing
exhibits good surface planarization and less scratch in the hard as abrasive”, Tribology, 27(1) , pp.1-5(in Chinese)
disk substrate surface. [9]J.B. Luo, X.F. Xu, J. Yang, et al., 2005, “Movements and
collisions of nanoparticles in two phase flow”, Proceedings of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the World Tribology Congress, vol. III, pp. 355–356.
[10]Sung-WooPark,Chul-BokKim,Sang-YongKim,Yong-JinSe
The work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant No 50575131), Natural Science Foundation of o, 2003,Microelectron,Eng.66, pp.488-495.
Shanghai (Grant No 07ZR14039), Innovation Program of [11]K.Nobuo, H.Masayuki, 2001, “Chemical Mechanical
Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (Grant No 09ZZ86) Polishing 2001-Advances and Future Challenges”,Materials
and Leading Academic Discipline Project of Shanghai Municipal Research Society Symposium Proceedings, vol.671, p. M 2.2.1.
Education Commission ˄Project Number J50102˅. [12] H.Lei et al, 2008, “Preparationof -alumina-g-
polyacrylamide composite abrasive and chemical mechanical
REFERENCES polishing behavior”, Thin Solid Films, 516, pp. 3005–3008.
[13] Z.Zhang, H.Lei, 2008, “Preparation of a-alumina/
[1] B. Zhang, A. Nakajima, 2003, Tribol, Int.36 , pp.291.
polymethacrylic acid composite abrasive and its CMP
[2] H. Lei, J.B.Luo, 2004, “CMP of hard disk substrate using a
performance on glass substrate”, Microelectronic Engineering,85,
colloidal SiO2 slurry: preliminary experimental investigation”,
Wear, 257, pp.461-470. pp. 714-720.
[3] US Patent 6, 2002,461,227 to Cabot microelectronics Co., [14] R.Vacassy, R.J. Flatt, H. Hofmann, 2000, “Synthesis of
Aurora, IL. microporous silica spheres”, J. Colloid Interf. Sci, 227, pp. 302.
635
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Extended Abstract
636
Friction Properties of Laser Surface Texturing and Molybdenum Alloying Duplex-Treated Ni-Based Alloy
637
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Luo Jing / Wuhan Research Institute of Materials Li Jian* / Wuhan Research Institute of Materials
Protection, Wuhan 430030, China Protection, Wuhan 430030, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Cavitation erosion is accomplished by a magnetostrictive
transducer at different experiment input powers on a series of
column steel samples. The bubbles on the sample surfaces are
Ultrasonic generator
observed on different times. The photo records show that
cavitation bubbles which are distributed on the sample surface
like tree branches. It is analyzed that the treelike patterns are
formed by the viscous fingers branch effect. The experiment
results show that the degree and mode of erosion are decided
by the distribution of bubbles and the input power. The Amplitude transformer
cavitation erosion appearances of the samples are measured by
Sample
a 3D surface measuring system on the given time. By the
analysis of the surface, it is found the single hole is deepening Water bath
and expanding to combine and form pits, which are extended Fig.1 Schematic of the magnetostrictive transducer
outwards at lower power and inwards at higher power. But in
the late time, the pits are hardly deepening and the erosion is EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
becoming uniform. It is concluded that the cavitation erosion
The bubbles distributions on the sample emitting surface
appearances are decided by the distribution structure and
and the cavitation erosion appearances of the samples on the
thickness of bubbles.
recorded time at the input powers of 20 W, 80 W and 300 W are
Keywords: Cavitation, Erosion, Bubble, Appearance, Ultrasonic shown in Fig.2, Fig.3 and Fig.4 respectively.
INTRODUCTION
BUBBLE DISTRIBUTION
Ultrasonic cavitation is a phenomenon that nonlinear
time-varying acoustic waves induced into a liquid medium To the naked eye, the bubble pattern which consists of
rupture the liquid apart to create transient bubbles when the individual bubbles appears a fractal structure as connected
tensile stress exceeds the cavitation threshold [1]. The filamentary branches at a lower input power as in Fig.2, but the
cavitation pressure engendered by the violent transient collapse surface is covered with bubble cloud or cluster that branches is
of cavitating bubbles can cause many physical effects such as not apparent except the boundary at a higher input power as in
mechanical effects like erosion and pitting of solid surfaces. Fig.4. The bubble layer and branches and the conical shape
Many investigations show the local distribution of bubbles and streamer where bubbles are centralizing to the center region are
their action is inhomogeneous [2]. Acoustic bubbles are thicker with the increasing of the input power. These
generally localized by the configurations of filaments, clusters, filamentary branches or cloud on the surface are stationary in a
or layers and their positions are almost stationary and the period and becoming uniform as the experiment time is
bubble field oscillates as a function of the acoustic intensity increasing when the sample surface is rougher. It is concluded
periodically [2-5]. However, the ultrasonic cavitation is so that the roughness of the surface can affect the bubbles
complex that few studies have been devoted to the investigation distribution.
of predicting the spatial distribution and properties of cavitation When a less viscous fluid is injected into a more viscous
around a sonic-reactor, which is important and still a one in a radial Hele Shaw cell⧎the same pressure difference
challenging task. In this study, the bubbles distribution on the over a shorter distance where the top of a protuberance of the
surface and the corresponding erosion appearances are less viscous fluid body is closer to the edge of the cell than the
investigated. rest of the interface means a greater flow velocity. Because the
velocity depends inversely on this distance, the protuberance
EXPERIMENT EQUIPMENT grows faster. In a self-similar mode, subsequent protuberances
grow on to form branches. The mode is defined as viscous
The experiment of cavitation erosion is accomplished by a
fingers branch [6-7]. Bubbles are generated and centralized
20 kHz horn type magnetostrictive transducer which can
around the surface of sample when ultrasonic is in the negative
deliver a maximum power of 1000 W. It is implemented as
phase. As the ultrasonic is in the positive phase, the vibration
shown in Fig.1. The diameter and height of sample whose
direction of the sample is same as the gravity, and the
material is 45steel are 24 mm and 10 mm. The roughness of the
buoyancy of bubble is up, therefore this condition can be
emitting surface (Ra) is around 0.03 μm. The samples was
considered that bubble group in the center region is impacting
equipped on the bottom of the horn and immerged into the
the sample surface and injected into the water. Because the
water 5 mm. The distance between the sample and the bottom
viscosity of bubble is far less than the water, the surface pattern
of the water bath is 140 mm, double of the wave length. The
results the viscous fingers branch effect. Therefore, it is
experimental liquid is pure tap water.
speculated that the bubble branches is sensitive to the
*corresponding author. amplitude of the sample, the roughness of the surface and the
E-mail address: lijianwuhan@tom.com. viscosity difference between water and bubble.
638
Erosion Characteristic in Ultrasonic Cavitation Experiment
CONCLUSIONS
The distribution of bubbles and the erosion appearance are
related to the input power and the experiment time. Bubble
patterns are fractal structures by the viscous fingers branch
effect. Accordingly, Erosion appearances are decided by the
30 min 6h distribution of bubbles. Though the cavitation is intensest in the
center where the bubble is densest, the cushion and damper
action of bubbles weakens the erosion intensity as the bubble
layer is too thick, which leads to the differences of erosion
appearances at different input powers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
12h 24h 48h
The authors would like to thank the support provided by
Fig.3 The bubbles distributions on the sample surface and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.50432020)
cavitation erosion appearances of the sample on the recorded and National Scientific and Technical Project of China (No.
time at the power of 80 W in the experiment 2007CB607603). And we also thank the assistant engineer Mr.
Wang Ding for the experiment.
REFERENCES
[1] Philipp, K., Dagmar, K., Topi, T., Robert, M., Werner, L.,
2004, “Bubble path simulations in standing and traveling
acoustic waves,” 18th International Congress on Acoustics,
30min 6h pp.3571-3572.
[2] Appel, J., Koch, P., Mettin, R., Krefting, D., Lauterborn, W.,
2004, “Stereoscopic high-speed recording of bubble
filaments,” Ultrasonic Sonochemistry, pp. 39–42.
[3] Moussatov, A., Mettin, R., Granger, C., Tervo, T., Dubus, B.,
Lauterborn, W., 2003, “Evolution of acoustic cavitation
structures near larger emitting surface,” 5th World Congress
12h 24h 48h on Ultrasonics, pp.955-958.
[4] Robert, M., 2007, “From a single bubble to bubble
Fig.4 The bubbles distributions on the sample surface and the structures in acoustic cavitation,” Oscillations, Waves and
cavitation erosion appearances of the sample on the recorded Interactions, pp. 171–198.
time at the power of 300 W in the experiment [5] Mettin, R., Koch, P., Lauterborn, W., 2006, “Modeling
acoustic cavitation with bubble redistribution,” Sixth
CAVITATION EROSION APPEARANCE International Symposium on Cavitation, pp. 1–5.
The differences of the erosion appearances of the samples [6] Johann, N., 1986, “Fractal viscous fingering: experiments
generated at different input powers are notable. At the lower and models,” Physica, 140, pp.124-133.
power, the cavitation erosion is started from the center of the [7] Lindner, A., Derks, D., Shelleya, M. J., 2005, “Stretch flow
sample surface and expanded to the marginal region as time of thin layers of Newtonian liquids: Fingering patterns and
increasing. At the higher power, the cavitation erosion exists in lifting forces,” Physics of Fluids, 17, pp.072107
the entire surface except the margin and the erosion is uniform [8] Jing, L., Jian, L., Guangneng, D., “Two-dimensional
in the center but severer in the boundary where actinomorphic simulation of the collapse of vapor bubbles near a wall”,
pits are generated. It is interesting that severe erosions in Journal of Fluids Engineering, in press.
middle power which are in center and boundary simultaneously
639
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Modification Effects of Potassium Titanate Whisker on the Water Absorption and Tribological
Properties of PTFE Composites
Jiahua Zhu, Yijun Shi, Xin Feng *, Huaiyuan Wang, Xiaohua Lu
(Extended Abstract)
640
Modification Effects of Potassium Titanate Whisker on the Water Absorption and Tribological Properties of PTFE Composites
641
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
D. G. Wang1, D. K. Zhang2,*
1
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
2
College of Materials Science and Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
642
+
Influence of the C -Implantation Dose on the Wetting and Adhesion Properties of Silicon Surfaces
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS after C+-implantation to the single crystal silicon. Therefore,
X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS the C+-implanted silicon surface mainly contains lots of carbon
Figure 1 shows the X-ray diffractions of the single crystal and some oxygen. The carbon atoms in the subsurface decrease
silicon and silicon wafers implanted by carbon ion with the and the silicon atoms increase accordingly. The O1s peak is
dose of 2×1016 ions/cm2 and energy of 80 keV. A weak estimated to be caused by the physical adsorption of oxygen on
diffraction peak emerging at about the 2 angle of 69° for the the silicon surface. Other elements in the spectra may be
C+-implantated silicon wafer can be observed in comparison to influenced by the base of Ar+ magnetron sputtering target.
two strong diffraction peaks appearing at about the 2 angles of Figure 3(a) and (b) are XPS spectras of Si 2p and C 1s for
29° and 59° for the single crystal silicon. The result the silicon wafer after C+ implantation with the dose of 1×1017
demonstrates that C+-implantation changed the crystal ions/cm2 and energy of 80 keV for different Ar+ sputtering
structures of silicon materials to the structures with the levels, i.e. in different silicon wafer depths. The characteristic
irregular arrange of silicon atoms and the disorder of the crystal, peak values of the two spectras indicate there are lots of carbon
which is different from the regular arrange of the crystal and and some silicon carbides at the silicon surface. That’s because
crystal face of the single crystal silicon. Si 2p signal shifts from the typical binding energy value for
Si-C bonds(100.9 eV) to the lower binding energy value (99.5
eV) for Si-Si bonds with the increase of the sputtering level.
XPS spectra of Si 2p presents a vanishing C concentration in
the greater depth and shows that Si here is exclusively bonded
to Si. The C 1s peak shifts from the typical binding energy
value for bonded C (284.7 eV) to the lower characteristic
binding energy value for C-Si (283 eV) [8, 9, 10].
643
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
4
6x10
E tc h L e ve l 0 S i- C S i- S i
4
E tc h L e ve l 1
5x10 E tc h L e ve l 2
E tc h L e ve l 3
Counts / s
4
4x10
4
3x10
4
2x10
4
1x10
0
106 104 102 100 98 96
B in d in g e n e r g y / e v
(a) XPS spectra of Si 2p
5
1 .0 x 1 0 E ta c h le v e l 0
C -C C -S i
E ta c h le v e l 1
8 .0 x 1 0
4 E ta c h le v e l 2
E ta c h le v e l 3
Counts / s
4
6 .0 x 1 0
4
4 .0 x 1 0
4
2 .0 x 1 0
0 .0
292 290 288 286 284 282 280
B in d in g e n e r g y / e v
(b) XPS spectra of C 1s
Fig 3 XPS spectras of Si 2p and C 1s for the silicon wafer after C+ implantation
644
+
Influence of the C -Implantation Dose on the Wetting and Adhesion Properties of Silicon Surfaces
4
Surface roughness /nm
0
1# 2# 3# 4#
S a m p le
645
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig 7 Histogram of surface contact angles of silicon surfaces with different C+-implantation doses
According to Young Equation [15] whereas there exist the hydrophobic carbon and silicon carbide
¤sg-¤sl=¤lgcos© (1) layers resulting in the bad wetting property and steep slope
i.e. cos©=˄¤sg-¤sl˅/¤lg (2) pull-off force.
sgˉsolid-gas surface tension.
slˉsolid-liquid surface tension.
lgˉliquid-gas surface tension.
©ˉcontact angle.
The formulas indicate that the smaller the contact angle, the
better the wettability. The higher the surface energy of the solid
substrate, the more the liquids which could be the wetting of it
and the stronger the adsorption capacity [6, 16]. Thus the
wetting properties and surface energies of all C+-implanted
silicon surfaces are worse and lower than those of the single
crystal silicon. With the increase of the C+-implantation dose,
the wetting property changes from worse to better and the
surface energy decreases firstly and then increased.
+
INFLUENCE OF C -IMPLANTATION TO ADHESIVE
FORCES
Figure 8 shows the curves of adhesive forces of silicon
surfaces before and after C+-implantation at the humidity of
33%. The curves demonstrate the probe firstly approach the
sample slowly, then is attracted to the sample surface and
finally jumps onto the surface suddenly when the probe
approach to a certain distance. Being away from the sample
surface, the probe can’t retract and be pulled off from the
surface because of its adhesive force until the micro-cantilever
is pulled up further and the interaction force reaches a given
adhesive force. During the pull-off process, the probe firstly
breaks away from the interaction force of the atoms and the
hydrophobic organic layers of the sample surface, and then the
capillary force caused by the water film. The adhesive force is
given by the probe’s pull-off force from the sample surface [2,
17, 18].
The curves demonstrate that the pull-off curve of 1# silicon
wafer has a circular-arc buffering in comparision to the steep (b) Sample 3#
slope pull-off force for 3# silicon wafer. That is because the Fig 8 Curves of adhesive forces of silicon surfaces before and after
single crystal silicon surface has the good wetting property and
large capillary force leading to the slow slope pull-off force; C+-implantation at the humidity of 33%
646
+
Influence of the C -Implantation Dose on the Wetting and Adhesion Properties of Silicon Surfaces
The histogram of adhesive forces of silicon surfaces before silicon surface decreased at first and then increased with the
and after C+-implantation at different humidities is shown in increase of the C+-implantation dose.
figure 9. At the relative humidity of 33%, the adhesive forces ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
for 1#, 2#,3# and 4# sample surfaces are 9.8 nN, 6.2 nN, 4.2nN This research is sponsored by the NSFC (Grant No.
and 7.0 nN, respectively. When the relative humidity varying 50405042) and the Program for New Century Excellent Talents
from 33% to 70%, the adhesive forces of 1#, 2#,3# and 4# in University (Grant No. NCET-06-0479) and State Key Basic
sample surfaces increase by 12.2 nN, 8.3 nN, 9.6 nN and 8nN, Research Development Program (973 Program, Grant No.
respectively. 2007CB607604).
It is concluded that the adhesive forces of all four sample REFERENCES
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humidity is higher than 20%, the capillary force of water size effect of stiction in MEMS,” Master Degree Thesis of
molecules will increase constantly. Meanwhile, Van derWaals Jiangsu Uinversity, Abstract.(In Chinese)
force will decrease due to the water film so that the capillary [2] Li, X., Tang, Z.A., 2005, “Studies on DLC film’s preparation,
force of water plays a leading role. With the increase of the microtribology and application for restraining the stiction in
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and the probe will become thicker resulting in the increased Technology, Chapter five, pp.40-84. (In Chinese)
capillary force [19, 20, 21, 22]. [3] Miyamoto, T., Miyake, S., Kaneko R., 1993, “Wear
At the same humidity, the adhesive force of the resistance of C+-implanted silicon investigated by scanning
C+-implanted silicon surface is obviously smaller than that of probe microscopy,” Wear, 162-164, pp.733-738.
the single crystal silicon surface. With the increase of the [4] Zhang, D.K., Ge, S.R., 2007, “Influence of the
C+-implantation dose, the adhesive force of the silicon surface C+-implantation on the micro-tribological behavior of
decreases firstly and then increases. The adhesive force of the silicon wafer,” Chinese Journal of Materials Reasearch,
silicon surface depends largely on the surface energy. The 21(4), pp. 383-388. (In Chinese)
higher the surface energy, the larger the adhesive force of the [5] Sun, R., Xu, T., Zhang, J.W., Xue, Q.J., 2006, “The study of
silicon surface. From the wetting characteristics of silicon ion amorphous carbon films on single crystal silicon by C
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highest surface energy. With the increase of the C+-implantation [6] Ueda, M., Lepienski, C.M., Rangel, E.C., et al, 2002,
dose, the wetting property changes from worse to better and the “Nanohardness and contact angle of Si wafers implanted
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The crystal structures changed and lots of C and some SiC of SiC buried layer by high temperature C+-implantation,”
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and surface contact angles increased, the wetting properties got and amorphous carbon film formation by plasma immersion
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surface damages got heavier, the surface roughness increased, 136, pp.197-201.
the contact angle increased at first and then decreased, the [9] Ensinger, W., Kraft, G., et al, 2007, “Silicon carbide and
wetting property changed from worse to better and the surface boron carbide thin films formed by plasma immersionion
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of the silicon surface increased with the increase of the relative Technology, 201, pp.8366-8369,
humidity. At the same humidity, the adhesive force of the
647
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
[10] Deng, Z.W., Souda, R., 2002, “XPS studies on silicon [17] Kanda, Y., Iwasaki, S., and Higashitani, K., 1999,
carbonitride films prepared by sequential implantation of “Adhesive force between hydrophilic surfaces in
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[11] Gart, G., Grant, W. A., 1992, Ion implantation in [18] Meincken, M., Berhane, T.A., Mallon, P.E., 2005,
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[13] Zhang, J.Z., Ye, X.Y., Yu X.J., et al, 2001, “Radiation relative humidity on surface adhesion,” Tribology, 26(4), pp.
damage and wettability change of low energy C+-implanted 295-299. (In Chinese)
polytetrafluoroethylene,” Materials Science and [20] Yang, Y., Liu Q.G., Zhao, P., et al, 2001, “A study on the
Engineering, B84, pp.200-204. effect of moisture on surface attractive force using the
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[16] Ma, J.W., Zhang, A.D., Xu, H.y., 2006, “Cleaning of the
gold substrate and the contact angle and surface energy,”
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648
The Effect of Laser Induced Oxygen-Diffusion Hardening on the Surface Structure and Scratch Resistance of Commercially Pure Ti
The Effect of Laser Induced Oxygen-Diffusion Hardening on the Surface Structure and Scratch
Resistance of Commercially Pure Ti
Zhang Min / Laser Processing Research Center, Wuhan
Chen Changjun /Key Laboratory for Ferrous University of Science & Technology Wuhan 430081
Metallurgy and Resources Utilization of Ministry P.R.China
of Education, Laser Processing Research
Center, Wuhan University of Science &
Technology Wuhan 430081 P.R.China ,
Zhang Shichang / Laser Processing Research Center, Chang Qingming / Laser Processing Research Center
Wuhan University of Science & Technology Wuhan Wuhan University of Science & Technology Wuhan
430081 P.R.China 430081 P.R.China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
been performed.The corrosion resistance was revealed in
Titanium and its alloys are mainly to be found in the the present paper, too.
aerospace field in which their high strength to density ration is
particularly attractive. However, their quite poor behaviour in
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
most of the encountered tribological situations, especially
fretting remains a limiting factor. The objective of this research Cross-sction microscope of the treated samples with
was to determine the effect of an oxygen-diffusion hardening ambient Ar together with oxygen is given in Fig.1.
process by laser on the surface morphology, microhardness
and scratch resistance of commercially pure titanium. Pure
titanium substrates have been treated using a pulsed Nd: YAG
laser radiation. The repetition of laser shots at the surface of
the titanium induces the progressive oxidation and to the
formation of oxygen-diffusion coatings. The treated layers
have been characterized by optical and SEM observation,
X-ray diffraction analysis and scratch test. The
oxygen-diffusion hardened samples were obtained in present
work. The treated samples were more resistance to scratch
damage compared to the non-treated samples. The presence of
the surface coating structure has been examined in relation
with the Ti-O phase diagram and consisted of an harden TiO2
surface layer.
Keywords: Laser treatment; Oxygen-diffusion harden;
Titanium; Scratch Fig.1 Microstructure of the sample after laser induced
oxygen-diffusion hardening under Ar+O2
INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloys are characterised by poor tribologyical As shown in Fig.2, the surface phase was identified
properties,which has been a severe barrier to tribological after laser irradiation. The rutile oxide can be obtained
applications. Many surface engineering techniques have been
under Ar+O2 and atmosphere.With decreasing the Ar
investigated and applied to titanium alloys.With the increasing
understanding of the mechanism of oxidation, titanium oxide contration, the amount of the oxide layer increased. The
gradually attracted more research interest.Although laser contrentration of oxygen in the oxygen diffusion layer
radiation have been mainly used in nitride and carbide on was detected by EDX .The oxygen concentration can be
titanium alloys, pulsed lasers also induced a surface oxide on amout to 54.60wt% in the outer surface of the treated
titanium alloy. The relatively thin oxide with a limited layer.The hardness profiles is found to be closely related
diffusion zone can harden a titanium surface deeply without to the laser processing parameters and the ambient gas.
evoking scaling or oxide spallation The hardness of the top layer can be amout to
We report here the formation and characterization of laser 760Hv,while the lowest hardness on the top layer is
induced oxygen-diffusion-hardening on TA2.
about to 450Hv.Scratch tests have been used to measure
EXPERIMENTAL the dynamic load bearing of the laser induced
CP 2mm TA2 plate was used in the present paper.The oxygen-diffusion hardening surface systems[1]. The
irradiations were performed with a 500W Nd:YAG laser results show that the friction force increases linearly
system generating pulses with a nearly Gaussian with the normal load at the beginning and meanwhile the
temporal shape. The gas used in the present study are Ar, first deviation of friction is steady, implying that the
Ar+O2 and atmosphere.Several different laser friction coefficient was nearly constant at the
parameters have been used during this study. Surface beginning[2].
and cross section observation have been carried out by
optical and SEM microscopy. X-ray diffractometer was CONCLUSIONS
used for the XRD analysis.Harness measurements were Charization of laser induced oxygen-diffusion
made using a vickers tester under a load of 50g with a hardening on the surface structure and scratch resistance
holding time of 15s.EDX analyses and scratch test have of commerically pure Ti in Ar, Ar+O2 and atmosphere
649
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Microhardness/HV0.05
,UUDGLWLRQ]RQH ,QWHUIDFH J=160
explained based on the Ti-O phase diagram. The main v=1.1mm/s
500
results can be summarized as follows:
The thickness of the oxygen-diffusion zone induced 400 6XEVWUDWH
by the pulsed laser irradiation is a formation of a melted
pool reacted with oxygen. Due to the oxygen diffusion 300
in the iradiation target, oxygen-rich phases are formed. 0 100 200 300 400 500
The hardness is found to be closely to the laser Depth/nm
Microhardness/HV0.05
700 J=200
treated samples. ,UUDGLWLRQ]RQH
v=2.0mm/s
600
(a) Ar 1
500
J=160/V=1.1
,QWHUIDFH
2 1 AlTi3
S 2 Ti3Al 400
6XEVWUDWH
Intensity/CPS
S ¢- Ti
300
2 /deg
(b) O2/Ar S
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
J=160/V=1.1 S - a - Ti
1 - TiOx
The author Chen Changjun thanks Dr Ma
Intensity/CPS
S
S REFERENCES
S S S
S
1
[1] Lavisse L., Grevey D., Langlade C., B. Vannes.
20 40
2? /deg
60 80 2002, “The early stage of the laser-induced
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(C)
Atmosphere
J=200/V=1.5
S 1 TiO1.04
150-155.
2 TiN
[2] Dani Gustaman Syarif, Atsumi Miyashita, Tetsuya
Intensity/CPS
S a - Ti
S
Yamaki, Taishi Sumita, Yeongsoo Choi, Hisayoshi
1
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2 2
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1
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Itoh. 2002 , “Preparation of anatase and rutile thin
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S S
Applied Surface Science, 193,pp. 287-292.
20 40 60 80
©
2 /deg
J=160
500 ,UUDGLWLRQ]RQH v=1.1mm/s
400
6XEVWUDWH
300
650
Structure and Tribological Characterization of TiB2 / TiBN Multilayer Coatings Deposited by Magnetron Sputtering
School of Material Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, China
(Extended Abstract)
651
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
be seen that TiB2 film consists of a hexagonal TiB2 phase with higher than that of TiB2 single layer films. The results
the strong (001) texture, and the TiBN film is XRD- observed from above experiments have shown that there were
amorphous. “superhardness effects” existed in TiB2/TiBN multilayer
coatings, even though the superhardness effects were not so
obvious as other multilayer coatings reported in other
literatures. The strain coherent theory [10] has been used to
explain the superhardness effects of the multilayer films. It
considered that the coherent strain caused by lattice mismatch
in epitaxial growth can produce alternating stress fields which
inhibit the generation and motion of dislocations, leading to
the strength and hardness increase of the films. The maximum
hardness occurred at a range of modulation period where
coherent stresses exist. Interdiffusion or composition
intermixing between TiB2 and TiBN layers at smaller
modulation period decreased the hardness of the multilayer
coatings because of the decrease of sharpness of the interfaces.
The decrease of hardness at larger modulation period may be
the results of the stress relaxation in incoherent interface.
The highest critical load was observed in the multilayer
film with modulation period 20 nm is, because the film has a
good coordination in hardness and the internal stress inside the
film possibly. It can be seen from Table 1 that multilayer
sample with modulation period 30 nm in this test had the
smallest friction coefficient and the best wear resistance. Low
friction coefficient could be partly ascribed to the smooth
surface of the film. Fig. 2 is AFM image of TiB2/TiBN
multilayer coatings with mp=30 nm. The roughness value
estimated from the image is about 10 nm, which shows that the
films are smooth. Since the film with mp=30 nm has a
property of high hardness, low friction coefficient as well as
smooth surface, the lowest wear rate was measured at this film.
652
Structure and Tribological Characterization of TiB2 / TiBN Multilayer Coatings Deposited by Magnetron Sputtering
REFERENCES [6] Musil J., Karvankova P., Kasl J., 2001, “Hard and superhard
[1] Mitterer C., Mayrhofera P. H., 1999, “Microstructure and Zr-Ni-N nanocomposite films”, Surface and Coatings
properties of nanocomposite Ti-B-N and Ti-B-C coatings”, Technology, 139, pp.101-109.
Surface and Coatings Technology, 120-121, pp.405-411. [7] Barshilia H. C., Rajam K. S., 2003, “Deposition of TiN/CrN
[2] Zhang S., Sun D., Fu Y., 2003, “Recent advances of hard superlattices by reactive d. c. magnetron sputtering”,
superhard nanocomposite coatings: a review”, Surface and Bull. Mater. Sci., 26, pp. 233-237.
Coatings Technology, 161, pp.113-119. [8] Jung D. H., Kim H., Lee G. R., 2003, “Deposition of Ti-B-N
[3] Kunc F., Musil J., Mayrhofer P.H., 2003, “Low-stress films by ICP assisted sputtering”, Surface and Coatings
superhard Ti–B films prepared by magnetron sputtering,” Technology, 174-175, pp.638 - 642.
Surface and Coatings Technology, 174-175, pp.744-753. [9] Zhao W. J., Kong M., 2007, “Effect of SiO2 crystallization
[4] Xu J., Gu M., Li G., 2003, “Microstructure and mechanical on AlN/SiO2 nano-multilayers with superhardness effect”,
properties of polycrystalline NbN/TaN superlattice films”, J. Acta Physica Sinica, 56, pp.1574-1580.
Mater. Sci. 35, pp.3535-3538. [10] Anderson P. M., Foecke T., Hazzledine P.M., 1999,
[5] Veprek S., Niederhofer A., Moto K., et al., 2000, “Dislocation based deformation mechanisms in metallic
“Composition, nanostructure and origin of the ultrahardness nanolaminates”, MRS Bull, 24, pp.27-33.
in nc-TiN/-Si3N4/-and nc-TiSi2 nanocomposites with HV
105 GP”, Surface and Coatings Technology, 133-134,
pp.152-159.
653
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
metal/solution interface is the significant factor of corrosion [3-4]. H2O molecule, and EN is the energy of the gas N atom.
Studies of water adsorption on metal surfaces in atom scale can Table 1 Three possible adsorption sites for
provide the critical theoretical basis of mechanism research on N atom on the Fe (110) surface
electrochemical corrosion. Although reports on water
adsorption on iron metal surface are fewer no matter by Possible adsorption sites Adsorption energy/eV
theoretical or experimental methods, water adsorption on noble
N-atop -7.59
metal such as Au, Pt, Ru, Rh, Pd, Cu, Ag have been extensively
researched based on the mechanism studies of catalysis[5-17]. In N-bridge -8.03
order to provide the new idea about the relationship between
electrical double layer of Fe/water solution interface and N-hollow -8.05
mechanism of corrosion, our group detailed researched the
Fe (110)/ H2O -1.46
adsorption of water on Fe surfaces. In the process of researches,
foreign particle of N is easier brought into the system. But we do
According to Table 1, when the initial sites for N atom are
not know that if N affects the geometric or electronic structure
atop site, bridge site and hollow site, the adsorption energies
of Fe/H2O interface. Therefore, for further understanding the
are -7.59eV, -8.03eV and -8.05eV respectively. The lowest
effect of N on Fe/H2O interface, the theoretical calculation
adsorption energy is hollow site. Therefore, from the viewpoint
based on first principles are used to research it in this paper.
of energy, the favorite position of H2O molecule and N atom on
Fe (110) surface is H2O-atop site and N-hollow site for Fe
2 COMPUTATIONAL METHODS
(110)/ (H2O+N) adsorption system. The absolute value of the
Calculations are based on the DFT-slab models using the adsorption energy of Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) system is 8.05eV,
GGA-PW91 exchange-correlation functional. The electronic which 6.89eV higher than that of H2O adsorbed on clean Fe
states were expanded in a plane wave basis set, with a cutoff (110) surface. This indicates that the addition of N atom into
energy of 340eV. A 3-layer slab, separated by a vacuum spacing the Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) make the total energy rise.
of 15nm thickness, was employed to mimic the Fe (110) surface. The geometric structure parameters of H2O and the
A p (2×2) surface supercell which corresponds to coverage of substrate of Fe (110)/ H2O and Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) system are
1/4 was employed in these calculations. The Brillouin zone is listed in Table 2, where dO-H is the bond length of the H2O
molecule; ğ(HOH) is the bond angle of the H2O molecule; is
:
E-mail: w-zhao05@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn the title angle between the H2O molecule and the substrate; d12
chendr@tsinghua.edu.cn is the distance between the first and the second layer of Fe
654
First Principles Investigation of Water Adsorption on Fe (110) Crystal Surface Containing N
atoms; d23 is the distance between the second and the third layer 3.2 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE
of Fe atoms.
3.2.1 WORK FUNCTION ANALYSIS
Table 2 Geometric structure parameters of
the adsorption systems The surface work function reflects the stability of the
surface electrons. The larger the value of the work function is,
dO-H/ ğ(HOH)/ / d12/ d23/ the more stable the surface electrons are. The formula for the
Surface work function is as follows:
Å ° ° Å Å
H2O 0.97 104.5 - - - ; Evacuum E Fermi ,
Clean Fe (110) - - - 0.26 0.62 where Evacuum is Vacuum energy, and EFermi is Fermi
Fe (110)/H2O 0.98 106.2 9.9 1.70 1.77 energyDŽ
Fe (110)/
(H2O+N) 0.99 107.2 8.21 1.64 1.94 The work functions of the Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) co-adsorption
system and the Fe (110)/ H2O adsorption system are listed in
Compared with H2O adsorbed on clean Fe (110) surface, Table 3.
for Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) adsorption system, bond length and Table 3 The work function of the Fe (110)/H2O and Fe (110)/
bond angle of H2O molecule increase a little bit, which bond (H2O+N) adsorption system
length of H2O molecule is 0.01 Å longer and bond angle of
H2O molecule is 1ebigger than those of H2O adsorbed on Adsorption system Work function/eV
clean Fe (110) surface. And the title angle between H2O and
Clean Fe (110) -6.58
the image plane of substrate has a little bit change, which is
only 1.69esmaller than that of H2O adsorbed on clean Fe (110) Fe (110)/H2O -5.84
surface. Furthermore, the distance between layers of substrate
atoms change a bit, which d12 decrease 0.06 Å and d23 increase Fe (110)/(H2O+N) -5.79
0.17 Å. And the displacements of substrate atoms change a
little bit in X and Y direction, as shown in fig 1. These imply The work function of the clean Fe (110) surface was
that the slightly reconstruction occurs. H2O molecule adsorbed calculated to be 6.58eV and the work function of Fe (110)/ H2O
was calculated to be 5.84eV, 0.74eV lower than that of clean Fe
on Fe (110) surface containing N atom can not make the
(110) surface, suggesting a charge transfer from water to substrate
interface geometry structure have obvious change, especially
surface and coinciding with the Milliken population analysis.
for H2O molecule, but make the substrate atoms reconstructed. However, for Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) adsorption system, the work
function are only 0.05eV lower than that of Fe (110)/ H2O
system, which imply that N atom on Fe (110) surface can not
influence the interaction between H2O and Fe (110) surface.
0.262nm
0.251nm
0.247nm
0.250nm
0.240nm
0.246nm
0.251nm
0.243nm
0.249nm
0.251nm
listed in Table 4.
0.246nm
655
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
PDOS/electrons/eV
charge more positive charges. Therefore, the existence of N 8
atom in the Fe (100)/ (H2O+N) adsorption system change the
charges population of the metal side of the Fe (100)/ (H2O+N)
Fe4s
6
interface, because of the electronegative N atom. In addition,
according to the analysis of geometry structure, it can be seen 4
that the existence of N atom in the Fe (100)/ (H2O+N)
2
adsorption system can not make the big orientation changes of
H2O molecule in the interface of Fe (100)/ (H2O+N), which 0
demonstrate that N atom did not result in big dipole effect on -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
14
the interface. And the work function of Fe (100)/ (H2O+N) also
changes litter. Thus, it can be inferred that the changes of 12
Fe(110)/H2O
surface charges may result from the induced charges of
PDOS/electrons/eV
10 Fe(110)/H2O+N
electronegative N atom, but not the electrons exchanges of
surface electrons. 8
Fe3p
3.2.3 DENSITY OF ELECTRONIC STATE ANALYSIS 6
The PDOSs of H, O, Cl and Fe atoms for Fe (110)/ H2O and
4
Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) adsorption systems are shown in figure 2.
2
4.0
0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
3.5 Fe(110)/H2O 40
3.0 Fe(110)/H2O+N
35 Fe(110)/H2O
PDOS/electrons/eV
2.0
25
1.5 Fe3d
20
1.0
15
0.5
10
0.0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
4.0 5
3.5 Fe(110)/H2O 0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
3.0 Fe(110)/H2O+N
(E-EF)/eV
PDOS/electrons/eV
2.5
656
First Principles Investigation of Water Adsorption on Fe (110) Crystal Surface Containing N
the adsorption of N atom on the substrate make the substrate Foundation of China (NSFC) Project under grant number
atoms restructured, which result in the obvious shape changes 50675112ˈ50505020 and 50721004.
of the apex of DOS of the outmost orbitals of Fe atoms. These
imply that N atom did not affect the interaction between H2O REFERENCES
molecule and surface Fe atom more.
[1] Thiel P. A., Madey T. E., 1987, Surf. Sci. Rep. 7, pp.211 and
references therein
4 CONCLUSIONS [2] Henderson M. A., 2002, Surf. Sci. Rep. 46, pp.1and
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results indicate that the favorite stable structure for Fe (110)/ Beijing: Chemical Industry Press, pp. 45
(H2O+N) adsorption system is H2O-atop and N-hollow and [4] Talbott D., 2002, Corrosion science and technology, (New
H2O molecule prefers to lie parallel to the substrate surface. York: Plenum Publishers) pp.134
The calculation results of adsorption energy and geometry [5] Menzel D., 2002, Science, 295, pp.197
structure show that in contrast to Fe (110)/ H2O system, the [6] Feibelman P. J., 2002, Science, 295, pp.99
absolute value of adsorption energy is bigger for Fe (110)/ [7] Feibelman P. J., 2003, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, pp.186103-1
(H2O+N) adsorption system, the geometry structure of H2O [8 ] Michaelides A., Ranea V. A., Andres P. L. and King D.
molecule and the orientation of H2O molecule on Fe (110) A. ,2003, Phys. Rev. Lett., 90, pp.216102-1
surface had no more changes, but the substrate Fe atoms [9] Michaelides A., Ranea V. A., Andres P. L. and King D.
restructured, which indicate that the existence of N atom have A. ,2004,Phys. Rev. B, 69, pp.075409
not got the significant changes of the geometry structure of Fe [10] Michaelides A., Appl. Phys., 2006, A 85, pp.415-425
(110)/ H2O interface. However, the restructure of the substrate [11] Meng S., Xu L. F., Wang E.G. and Gao S. ,2002, Phys. Rev.
atoms may lead to the change of the electronic states of the Fe Lett. 89, pp.176104
(110) surface. The calculation results of DOS demonstrated [12] Meng S., Wang E. G. and Gao S., 2004, Phys. Rev. B, 69,
this hypothesis. The electronic structure results indicate that pp.195404
the work function of Fe (110)/ (H2O+N) adsorption system [13] Ranea V. A., Michaelides A., Ramírez R., Vergés J. A.,
have no obvious changes, compared with Fe (110)/ H2O Andres P. L. and King D. A., 2004, Phys. Rev. B, 69, pp.205411
system. Mulliken charge population analysis indicate that the [14] Pozzo M., Carlini G., Rosei R. and Alfè D., 2007, J. Chem.
changes of substrate charges result from the induced charges of Phys. 126, pp.164706
electronegative N atom, but not the electrons exchanges of [15] Schiros T., Hap S., Ogasawara H., Takahashi O., Öström
surface atoms. The DOS analysis imply that the orbital energy H., Andersson K., Pettersson L. G. M., Hodgson A. and Nilsson
of H2O molecule have not changed significantly for Fe (110)/ A., 2006, Chem. Phys. Lett. 429, pp.415
(H2O+N) adsorption system, but the restructure of substrate Fe [16] Taylor C. D., Wasileski S. A., Filhol J-S and Neurock
atoms made the obvious changes of DOS of outmost orbitals. M. ,2006, Phys. Rev. B 73, pp.165402
In a word, the existence of N atom has not significantly [17] Taylor C. D., Kelly R. G. and Neurock M., 2007, J.
affected the interaction of H2O molecule Fe (110) surface, but Electrochem. Soc. 154, pp.F217
it makes the substrate Fe atoms restructured. [18] Zhao W., Wang J. D., Liu F. B. and Chen D. R., 2008,
ACTA phys., in publishing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
657
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Extended Abstract
EXPERIMENT DETAILS
Ti-Al intermetallic compound solid lubricate
films were fabricated on substrates of stainless steel Films were fabricated using PSI double electronic
by double-target reactive magnetron sputtering. controlled microwave PVD system. By changing the
Chemical composition of the films ranged from 43.20 relative position of substrates to targets(showed in
to 67.89at%Al by changing the relative position of Fig.1) ,different Ti-Al intermetallic compound films at
substrates to the targets. According to Ti-Al various chemical composition were gained. After heat
equilibrium diagram, the influence of chemical treatment of 650ć h 1h, the microstructure and
composition of films on friction coefficient was chemical composition of the films were respectively
studied by EDS, SEM and friction test in air without investigated by SEM, EDX and XRD. Ball-on-disc
lubricant. These results prove that the friction friction coefficient experiments of different chemical
coefficient of the films ranged from 0.05 to 0.3 at composition films were carried out at room
various chemical composition. Ti-Al intermetallic temperature in air without any lubricant using UMT-3
compound film of Ti-45.59at%Al show the lowest multifunctional friction and wear tribometer.
658
Research on Fabrication and Tribological Properties of Ti-Al Intermetallic Compound Lubricate Film
at% and reached the bottom (43.20 at%) between shows the lowest friction coefficient as 0.045,and in
position 4 and position 5,then became increasing the range from 43.20 to 48.23at% of Al, friction
evidently until position 6.It is estimated that there coefficient is lower than 0.1,outside the range it
exists great difference in sputtering choice during increases rapidly to 0.3.
double-targeted co-deposition sputtering progress. Fig. 5 indicated that wear resistance of films could
XRD RESULTS be effectively improved by heat treatment.
Fig.3 (a) shows when content of Al is 56.78 at%,
γ-TiAl phase is formed in the film.As is showed in
Fig.3 (b),when the content of Al decreased to 45.59
at%, duplex microstructure of α2-Ti3Al+γ-TiAl came
out in the film in accord with Ti-Al equilibrium
diagram.
REFERENCES
[1] Von, R., Cremer, R.,1998, “Composition
binding states structure and morphnology
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Ti0.46Al0.54N film,” Thin Solid Films,
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[2] Bin, Y.A., Chen, G.X., 2001, Effect of
Fig. 3 (a) XRD of film with Ti-56.78 at% Al TiC additions on the formation of Al3Ti
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[3] Jiang, X.Y., Liu, Q.S., 2002, “The
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[4] Kimura, A., Masahiro, K., 2003,
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FRICTION REASULTS
[5] Hampshire, J., Kelly, P. J., Teer, D. J.,
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[6] Ai, T.T., Wang, F. , 2006, “Preparations
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Fig. 4 Variety curve of friction coefficient along with
5-8.
chemical composition of films
(The whole paper will be supplied by the authors
if reader needs it.)
It can be seen in Fig.4 that the film of Ti-45.59at%Al
659
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
XPS and SEM Analyses of Self-Repairing Film Formed by Mineral Particles as Lubricant Additives
on the Metal Friction Pairs
*
Wengang Chen1,2 , Yuzhou Gao2 , Huichen Zhang2
1
Southwest Forestry University(College of Communication, Machinery and Civil Engineering Kunming 650224, China)
2
Dalian Maritime University(Electromechanics and Materials Engineering College Dalian 116026, China)
(b)
Fig. 3 SEM images of worn surface of 1045 steel rings with
different lubricants((a) Lubricant without additive, (b)
Lubricant with additive).
661
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(a)
662
XPS and SEM Analyses of Self-Repairing Film Formed by Mineral Particles as Lubricant Additives on the Metal Friction Pairs
(d)
3 CONCLUSION
(1) The serpentine particles as lubricant additives can
effectively reduce the weight loss of the metal friction pairs
after 100 h friction and wear test.
(2) The serpentine particles directly take part in the formation of
the self-repairing film and constituted the main component of
(e) the film. The film formed by serpentine particles with a great
Fig. 6 The fine XPS spectrum of the Fe2p, O1s, C1s, Si2p and Mg1s deal of micro-holes.
of the self-repairing film((a) C1s, (b) Fe2p, (c) Si2p, (d) Mg1s, (e) (3) The appearance of the FeOOH indicated that the serpentine
O1s). particles decomposed during the friction and wear process and
formed hydroxyl group and a large number of surface dangling
From the above analyses, it can be generalized that the bonds. The hydroxyl group and the large number of surface
additive particles directly took part in the formation of the dangling bonds reacted with the fresh surface and the grinding.
self-repairing film and constituted the main component of the Then the serpentine particles spread on the worn metal surface
film. The following conclusion can be drawn about the under the process of the friction force, friction chemistry,
mechanism of self-repairing film formed on the sample surface: friction heat and load.
(a) the serpentine particles can be ground into smaller size in the
friction process by the surface asperities of the two contacting ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
surfaces. Serpentine minerals are Mg-rich trioctahedral 1:1
This work is supported by the National Natural Science
phyllosilicate. The ideal chemical formula of serpentine is
Foundation of China under Grant No.50472025.
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4. Sheets are bonded by van der Waals forces.
There are unsaturated Si-O-Si, O-Si-O and magnesium bonds
on the fracture surface of the serpentine [23, 24]. In addition, REFERENCES
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and load until self-repairing film covers with the friction pairs behavior of surface-modified ZnS nanoparticles in liquid
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663
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
[7] Hu Z., Lai R., Lou F., et al. 2002, “Preparation and additives in liquid paraffin,” Wear, 248(1-2), pp.48-54.
tribological properties of nanometer magnesium borate as [17] Yu Y., Gu J., Kang F., et al. surface restoration induced by
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nanoparticles blended with zinc dialkyldithiophosphate as
664
Study on the Characteristics of Transferred Lubricating Thin Films on Ceramic Surfaces Generated in Liquid Nitrogen
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT operating loads were detected by OM, AFM, XPS and Roman
The ceramic bearings operated in liquid nitrogen are mainly spectrometry.
lubricated by the thin films transferred from the PTFE based Table 1 Parameters of test bearings
composite retainers. The thin films on silicon nitride balls Dimension /mm 25h52h15
surfaces are generated by the friction and interaction among Initial contact angle /deg. 20-23
the composite retainer, the balls and the ANSI 440C stainless Retainer guidance Outer land-guided
steel rings.
Rotational speed /rgmin-1 40000
The characteristics of transferred lubricating films on silicon
Operating load /GPa 2.4 GPa , 2.8GPa
nitride ball surfaces which generated by working in liquid
nitrogen at 2.4GPa and 2.8GPa are analyzed. The distribution
of thin films on silicon nitride balls surfaces are observed by
metallic microscope. The profiles of transferred thin films are RESUTLTS AND DISCUSSION
measured by atom force microscope. The component and In liquid nitrogen, the hybrid bearings operated well at
structure of transferred thin films are detected by X-ray 2.4GPa while failed with raceway peeling at 2.8GPa. The
photoelectron spectroscopic and Roman spectrometry. The optical microscopic inspection of disassembled bearing
results show that the transferred thin films are interrupted elements shows that all ceramic balls adhered transfer film,
distribution on silicon nitride ball surfaces and the thickness is with partially appeared black wear band. Fig 1 shows the
about half to one micron. The surface layer of transfer films, photograph of transfer film on ball surfaces at different loads.
about 100nm thickness, degraded under heavy load with metal The XPS analysis of the transfer film and black band showed
fluoride generation. The bonding strength between the that the lubricating film degradation occurred with metal
degradation layer and the transfer film is very weak. fluoride generation (Fig 2).
Keywords: Transfer film, Ceramic bearing, PTFE, Liquid
nitrogen
INTRODUCTION
The high-speed ball bearings operating in cryogenic liquid
media, such as liquid hydrogen and liquid nitrogen, are
self-lubricated by a thin film transferred from the bearing
retainers because of the shortage of hydrodynamic lubrication (a) Max load 2.4GPa (b) Max load 2.8GPa
due to the temperature limit and low viscosity of cryogenic Fig. 1 photograph of transfer film on silicon nitride balls
liquids [1]. To ensure the good lubrication in the bearing, many
types of retainer materials, such as HF-etched glass-cloth
reinforced PTFE [2], Ekonol and Aramid fibre enhanced PTFE
[3], were introduced. Also hybrid ceramic bearings, made out
of silicon nitride balls and ANSI 440C stainless steel rings,
have been proven to have better performance than all steel
bearings in cryogenic conditions [4-5]. The fatigue behavior of
ceramic bearings in liquid nitrogen was revealed[6], and the
critical load capacity of PTFE transfer film without bearing
damage in liquid hydrogen was determined to be about 3.0 682 684 686 688 690 692
GPa for the hybrid ceramic bearing and about 2.0GPa for the
F1s binding energy, eV
all-steel bearing[7]. The primary goal of this research is to
Fig. 2 XPS analysis for the surface layer of transfer film
study the transfer films on silicon nitride balls at different
loading conditions in liquid nitrogen. The degradation layer and whole transfer film were
measured by AFM with silicon probe. Fig 3 shows the
EXPERIMENTS
degradation layer characteristics and the thickness
The details about the bearing tester show in [6]. The test measurement. The degradation layer has been moved
bearings are angular-contact, 25-mm-bore ball bearing of easily and piled up by the probe even though negative
precision grade 4 (P4). The ring material is ANSI 440C
normal force applied to the probe. The interface of
stainless steelˊThe ball material is hot-pressed silicon nitride.
scanning once and twice is show in Fig3-b. The interface
The retainer is made of Ekonol and Aramid fiber enhanced
PTFE composites. The main design and operation parameters maximum vertical distance is about 68nm. According to
of the test bearing are listed in Table 1. the scanning process, the probe needs one or two loops
The transfer film on silicon nitride balls at different to move the degradation layer completely. Thus the
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Project Supported by 973 Program (No. 2007CB607602),
NSFC (No. 50605014), and Development Program for
Outstanding Young Teachers in Harbin Institute of Technology
(c) Degradation layer thickness measurement˄68nm˅ (HIT.2006.36).
Fig. 3 Degradation layer of transfer film REFERENCES
[1] Nosaka M., Kikuchi M., Oike M., et al, 1999,
“Tribo-Characteristics of cryogenic hybrid ceramic ball
bearings for rocket turbopumps: bearing wear and transfer
film,” Tribology Transaction, 42, 1, pp106-115
[2] Kannel J W, Dufrane K F, Barber S A, et al, 1988,
“Development of improved self-lubricating cages for
SSME HPOTP bearings, In Advanced Earth-to-Orbit
Technology,” NASA Conference Publication #3012, NASA,
Huntsville, AL, pp175-189.
[3] Jia X, Wang L, Gu L, et al, 2005, “Study on friction and
wear behavior of Ekonol filled PTFE composites under dry
(a) transfer film shape at 2.4GPa conditions,” Lubrication Engineering, 171, pp16-18,42. (In
Chinese)
[4] Wang L, Snidle R. W., Gu L, 2000, “Rolling contact silicon
nitride bearing technology: a review of recent research,”
Wear, 246, pp159㨪173.
[5] Wan G.T.Y., Gabelli A., Ioannides E., 1997, “Increased
performance of hybrid bearings with silicon nitride balls,”
Tribology Transaction, 40, pp.701-707.
[6] Nosaka M., Takada S., Kikuchi M., et al, 2004,
“Ultra-high-speed performance of ball bearings and
annular seals in liquid hydarogen at up to 3 million
DN(120,000 rpm),” Tribology Transactions, 47, pp43-53.
[7] Gu L, Wang L, Jin Y, Li X, 2003, “Fatigue behavior of
hybrid ceramic ball bearings in liquid nitrogen,” Tribology
Transaction, 46, pp494-498.
(The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
(b) transfer film thickness at 2.4GPa (567-818nm)
needs it.)
666
Cr17Ni14Mo3 Powder Laser Cladding on 45Steel Substrate
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
0.6
The relationship between laser power, scan-rate, thickness V=220mm/min
thickness of coating(mm)
of pre-placed powder particles, overlap, preheating and laser D= 0.3mm
0.5 H=0.5mm
cladding coating quality was analyzed. Laser cladding of
Cr17Ni14Mo3 stainless steel powders on 45steel substrate was
0.4
conducted, and microstructure of laser cladding coating was
analyzed. The micro-hardness and wear testing of laser
0.3
cladding layer were examined. The results showed that
microstructure of laser cladding zone was exiguous dentrite,
0.2
and there were dispersion of hard spots in the laser cladding
zone. Performances of erode-resistant, surface hardness and
wear-resistant were improve obviously. The residual stress in 240 260 280 300 320 340
cladding coating usually was tensile stress, with the further
increasing depth of coating, the residual stress began to fall laser voltage (power)(V)
and stabilized gradually, and the residual stress values in Fig.1 The relation between thickness of laser cladding coating
substrate was smaller than in cladding coating. and laser voltage (power)
Keywords: laser cladding, technics parameters, microstructure,
micro-hardness, wear-resistant The relationship between scan-rate and the thickness of
coating is shown in figure 2.
INTRODUCTION 0.6
P=700W
The laser cladding technology as surface modified methods
thickness of coating(mm)
D= 0.3mm
has been developing in recent years. The laser beam melts the 0.5 H=0.5mm
powder particles and a thin coating of substrate to deposit a
coating of the powder particles on the substrate. A great variety 0.4
of materials can be deposited on substrate using laser cladding.
Currently, the coating materials mainly were Ni-based alloys,
0.3
Co-based alloys and Fe-based alloys, coated micro-hardness,
wear-resistant and erode-resistant performance are
significantly enhanced. 45 steel was an example, the 0.2
technology of Cr17Ni14Mo3 stainless steel (namely 316L)
laser cladding was carried out. And it showed that laser 180 200 220 240 260 280
cladding coating with substrate had a nice metallurgical combo,
compact crystal structure, and had even higher hardness, scan-rate (mm/min)
wear-resistant and erode-resistant. Fig.2 The relation between thickness of laser cladding coating
and scan-rate
TECHNICS PARAMETERS OF LASER CLADDING
Figure 3 showed the relationship curves between the
In this paragraph it was detailed that the relationship
thickness of powder and depth of cladding coating.
between laser power, scan-rate, thickness of pre-placed powder
particles, overlap, preheating and laser cladding coating quality
0.6
was analyzed. Laser power increase resulted in increasing P=700W
depth of laser coating(mm)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS & ANALYSIS And the Figure 8 shows the surface aspect of coating and
The fig.5 showed that microstructure of combo between substrate. The surface present plough furrows aspect. The
Cr17Ni14Mo laser cladding and surface of 45 steel. Laser plough furrows were slender and shallow in laser cladding
cladding coating was mainly composed with three zones: coating as 8a shows, and the plough furrows were wide and
cladding zone, melted zone and substrate heat affected zone. deep in substrate materials as 8b shows.
Microstructure of the cladding zone was exiguous dentrite that The residual stress in cladding coating usually was tensile
had compact/uniform crystal structure and no disfigurement off stress, with the further increasing depth of coating, the residual
air-hole and crack. Melted zone was transitional zone from stress began to fall and stabilized gradually, and the residual
cladding zone to substrate heat affected zone, no obvious limit. stress values in substrate was smaller than in cladding coating.
It was white band in fig.6. The melted zone mainly contained The Figure 9 showed that Residual stress distribution of laser
Fe, Ni, Cr and Si elements. It was dentate interface combo with cladding coating.
cladding zone and substrate, and the dentate structure embed
cladding zone like chock. Combinative intensity was enhanced a b
and residua stress was reduced to avoid crack in embedded
zone of cladding zone and substrate. Nice metallurgical combo
was obtained. The substrate heat affected zone was acicular
martensite crystal.
residual stress(MPa)
melted substrate
cladding coating
zone
160
[4] Tsui TY, Oliver W.C., Pharr G.M, 1996, “Influences of
140 stress on the measurement of mechanical properties using
120 nanoindentation: Part 1. Experimental studies in an
100
aluminum alloy,” Journal of Materials Research, 11, pp.
752-759
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 [5] Bolshakov A., Oliver W.C., Pharr G.M, 1996,þInfluences
cladding melted substrate of stress on the measurement of mechanical properties
coating zone using nanoindentation: Part II. Finite element simulations,”.
Distance from coating surface(mm) Journal of Materials Research, 11, pp. 760-768
(The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
Fig.7 Micro-hardness distribution of cladding coating needs it.)
668
Microstructure and Tribological Properties of Plasma Sprayed NiCr/Cr3C2 and NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 Composite Coatings
1
State Key Laboratory of Multi-Phase Complex SystemsˈInstitute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100190, China
2
Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Table 2 Comparison of carbon and oxygen contents in starting powders and deposited coatings
Carbon content (wt.%) Oxygen content (wt.%)
Starting powder Deposited coating Starting powder Deposited coating
NiCr/Cr3C2 8.780 5.525 0.169 3.931
NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 7.365 5.711 0.203 2.008
Cr3C2, and the dark areas are voids and pores. There are fewer
The plasma spray process produces a fairly uniform "splat"
oxides in the interlayer. In Fig. 1(b), the bright areas are NiCr,
type coating with some residual low level porosity. As shown
the grey areas are Cr3C2 and the black areas are voids and
in Fig. 1, layer structure in NiCr/Cr3C2 coating are more
BaF2/CaF2 eutectic. Some properties of two as-sprayed
obvious than in NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating. This may be
coatings are shown in Table 1. It can be found that both
due to the density difference of Cr3C2 and BaF2·CaF2 core
coatings have low porosity, high microhardness and cohesive
particles, which leads to the non-uniformity between
strength. The high microhardness of coatings is very helpful to
NiCr/Cr3C2 and NiCr/BaF2·CaF2 particles. When mixed to
improve the wear resistance. NiCr/Cr3C2 coating has higher
prepare spray powders, the difference amount NiCr/Cr3C2
cohesive strength which may be due to the more uniform
powders is smaller than that amount NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2
coating structure.
powders.
In the spraying process, NiCr is in a melt state, covering the
In Fig. 1(a), the bright areas are NiCr, the grey areas are
surface of the core particles, which can effectively isolate the
670
Microstructure and Tribological Properties of Plasma Sprayed NiCr/Cr3C2 and NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 Composite Coatings
core with O2. Compared to core particles directly exposing to However, it significantly decreases when the load is above 50N.
the atmospheric environment, oxidation and decomposition For NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating, the friction coefficient
have fewer opportunities, which can significantly reduce the always decreases with the increase of load from 10N to 150N.
decarbonization and oxidation of carbide, as well as the 'Load' or the contact stress is the first, most obvious and easily
ablation of fluoride eutectic, to ensure the integrality of all monitored parameter that can affect wear process. The
designed compositions. This often reflects on the variation of magnitude of the normal load or the contact stress is important
carbon and oxygen content between starting powder and since it increases both the area of contact and the depth below
deposited coating. Table 2 shows the carbon and oxygen the surface at which the maximum shear stress occurs as well
contents in both the deposited coatings and the original starting as affects the elastic or plastic deformation states. Moreover,
powders. The carbon content in the deposited coating is lower the temperature increase on the sliding surface owing to
than that in starting powders. This implies the decarburization frictional heating contributes to reduce friction as ambient
occurred during in-flight of the particle and the deposition heating of the surface. As the load increases, the temperature of
process. The main mechanism for the carbon loss of in flight frictional surface increases. This leads to the decrease of plastic
particles is the oxidation of the carbon dissolved in the matrix deformation resistance of frictional pairˈand the decrease of
and carbide in the particle. However, compared the change rate mutual hindering effect between micro peaks in the surface,
of carbon and oxygen in thermal spray Cr3C2-NiCr coatings which directly reduces the friction coefficient.
with other literature [16, 18], this result is equivalent to HVOF Fig.3 presents the friction coefficient of two coatings sliding
process but lower than that in other plasma spray process, against Si3N4 ball from room temperature to 500ć. It can be
which shows the dense coated NiCr plays an important role in seen that both coatings exhibit high friction coefficient at room
plasma spraying process and the starting powder will be of temperature. With the increase of temperature, the friction
significant influence on the carbon loss of Cr3C2 carbide during coefficient of two coatings decreases. At elevated temperature
plasma spraying. The excellent mechanical properties of the (above 400ć), however, the friction coefficient of
coatings can be partially due to the decreasing of oxidation, NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating is significantly reduced. At
decarburization and ablation of Cr3C2-BaF2CaF2 during 500ć, it’s reduced to about 0.38. This may be due to the
spraying because of a protection of NiCr layer of the lubricating effect of the high temperature lubricant additive in
composites powders. NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating, BaF2/CaF2 eutectic. The
3.2 SLIDING FRICTION AND WEAR BEHAVIOR eutectic has been shown to be effective solid lubricant above
Fig.2 shows the friction coefficient of the two coatings sliding 400ć [11]. BaF2•CaF2 eutectic undergoes a transition at high
against Si3N4 ball under normal load from 10N to 150N at temperature, from brittle to plastic state with decreased shear
room temperature. With the increase of the normal load, the strength, which results in the formation of a continuous
friction coefficient of both two coatings decreases. For lubricating layer in the wear track when the ambient
NiCr/Cr3C2 coating, the friction coefficient almost keeps at temperature is above 400ć.
0.76 to 0.82 when the load is changed from 10N to 50N.
Fig.2. Effect of load on the friction coefficient of two as-sprayed coatings (at room temperature).
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
Temperature ć
Fig.3. Effect of temperature on the friction coefficients of two as-sprayed coatings (Load=50N).
Fig.4 shows the wear rates of the two as-sprayed coatings at abrasives dig deeper into the coating at high loads than at low
different load at room temperature. The wear rates of both loads and cause a greater amount of the coating material to be
coatings are shown in Fig.4, and exhibit the same trend with removed. The experiments also show that the wear rate is not
load variation at room temperature. The wear rate of directly proportional to the applied load, implying that the
NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating is higher than that of extent and manner of material removal is not constant.
NiCr/Cr3C2 coating, which is due to the difference of hardness Fig.5 shows the wear rates of the two as-sprayed coatings at
and structure compactness . Increasing load increases adhesion different temperature. In Fig.5, it can be seen that the wear rates
between materials, reflected in a rise in wear rates. Since load of the two as-sprayed coatings increase with the temperature
affects the depth and position of the maximum shear stress, at increases from room temperature to 500ć. When temperature
greater loads more material will tend to be displaced. Moreover, is below 400ć, the wear rates of both coatings exhibit the
the interaction between the contacting materials will increase as same trend with temperature changing. And the
the contact area increases. It is believed that some of the wear NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating has a higher wear rate than
occurs due to the decohension of the splats that form the NiCr/Cr3C2 coating. However, when temperature is up to 500ć,
coating. Higher load also causes greater plastic deformation. As the wear rate of NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating has a dramatic
the material is worn away, the generated wear debris remains in decrease and becomes lower than that of NiCr/Cr3C2 coating.
the wear track and influences the remainder of the test. The The wear rate of NiCr/Cr3C2 coating is still increasing with the
coating wear debris comprises hard carbides and metal particles increase of temperature.
that act as abrasives during further sliding. Thus, these
50
NiCr/Cr3C2
45
NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2CaF2
Wear rate 10-6mm3N m
-1 -1
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Load (N)
Fig.4. Effect of load on the wear rates of two as-sprayed coatings (at room temperature).
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Microstructure and Tribological Properties of Plasma Sprayed NiCr/Cr3C2 and NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 Composite Coatings
80
NiCr/Cr3C2
70
NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2CaF2
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature ć
Fig.5. Effect of temperature on the wear rates of two as-sprayed coatings (load=50N).
3.3 WORN MORPHOLOGY ANALYSIS (b), a continuous glaze lubricating film plus small wear debris
Fig.6 shows the micrographs of the worn surface of the two and mild scratching is a general feature of the worn surface.
coatings tested at room temperature. The worn surfaces of two EDX indicates that more and more self-lubricants flowed and
coatings exhibit a similar morphology including rough region formed glaze film. As the ambient temperature is increased, the
and a few fine scratching. Furthermore, on the worn surface, fluorides soften and are able to develop a lubricous transfer
there are many cracked particles and pullout pits, which are film on the Si3N4 ball since fluorides do wet ceramics [19].
resulted from brittle fracture. The worn surface at room Under the actions of friction and pressure, BaF2·CaF2 can form
temperature appears to be similar to a fracture surface, a thin film on the worn surface due to the plastic deformation.
including inter-splat fracture and delamination. It presents that The high superficial temperature rises at the contacting surface
brittle fracture and delamination are the dominant wear which has effectively activated the self-lubrication property of
mechanisms of the two coatings at room temperature. the BaF2•CaF2 phase and subsequently greatly enhanced the
Fig.7 shows the micrographs of the worn surface of the two wear resistance and reduced the friction coefficient of the
coatings tested at 500ć. When the test temperature is 500ć, coating. Plastic deformation and continuous formation of
the worn surfaces of two coatings appear to be different. From BaF2•CaF2 transfer films became the dominant wear
Fig.7 (a), it can be seen that the worn surface is still rough and mechanisms at 500ć.
contains some plastic deformation. However, as shown in Fig.7
a b
50m 20m
Fig.6. Worn surface of NiCr/Cr3C2 coating (a) and NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coating (b) at room temperature.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
a b
50m 20m
Fig.7. Worn surface of the coatings of NiCr/Cr3C2 (a) and NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 (b) at 500ć.
Fig.8 presents the worn surface of Si3N4 balls at room X-ray signals from the lubricants Ba, Ca, Ni and Cr are,
temperature and 500ć. EDX analysis of the worn surface of however, detected on tribological Si3N4 specimens from high
Si3N4 corroborates the hypothesis of formation of lubricating temperature tests (see Fig.8 (d)). BaF2•CaF2 eutectic is
layer. Little or no detectable transfer of eutectic occurs during non-lubricating in the brittle condition, but becomes lubricating
room temperature sliding. At 500ć, the temperature at the above 500ć, when it undergoes an internal structural change
asperities could be sufficiently high enough to greatly soften of the brittle-to-ductile transition, which functions to reduce
the self-lubricating films, and part of films transfers to the abrasive wear.
surface of the Si3N4 ball during sliding process. Noticeable
a b
20m 20m
c d
Fig.8. Worn surface of Si3N4 surface after sliding against with NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 coatings at room temperature (a) and 500ć (b);
(c) and (d) are corresponding EDX analyses of Si3N4 wear surface in (a) and (b), respectively.
674
Microstructure and Tribological Properties of Plasma Sprayed NiCr/Cr3C2 and NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2·CaF2 Composite Coatings
4 CONCLUSIONS [9] Liu G.H., Robbevalloire F., Gras R., Blouet J., 1993,
(1)NiCr dense coated powders can reduce the decarburization “Improvement in tribological properties of chromium oxide
of carbide, oxidation and ablation in plasma spray process, coating at high temperature by solid lubricants,” Wear, 160,
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(2)NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2•CaF2 composite coating exhibits an [10] Moore G.D., Ritter J.E., 1974, “The friction and wear
improvement in tribological properties at high temperature characteristics of plasma-sprayed NiO-CaF2 in rubbing
than NiCr/Cr3C2 coating. Brittle fracture and delamination contact with a ceramic matrix,” Lubrication Engineering, 30,
are the dominant wear mechanisms of both coatings at low pp.596-604.
temperature. Plastic deformation and continuous formation [11] Sliney H.E., Stom T.N., Allen G. P., 1965, “Fluoride solid
of BaF2•CaF2 transfer films become the dominant wear lubricants forbextreme temperatures and corrosive
mechanisms of NiCr/Cr3C2-BaF2•CaF2 coating at elevated environments,” ASLE Transactions, 8, pp.309-322.
temperature. [12] Dellacorte C., Sliney H,E., 1990, “ibological properties of
PM212: a high temperature, self-lubricating, powder
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International, 34 ,pp.345-351. effect of carbide rebounding on the carbon loss during high
[5] Guilemany J.M., Miguel J.M., Vizcaíno S., Lorenzana C., velocity oxy-fuel spraying of Cr3C2-NiCr,” Thin Solid Films,
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cordierite,” Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 14, USA.
pp.185-194.
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Friction and Wear Property of Amorphous Carbon Films Prepared by Ion Beam Assisted Deposition
Rong Sun*/Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Shuhui Yu/Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518067, P. R. Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518067, P. R.
China China
Ruxu Du/Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Qunji Xue/ State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrications,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518067, P. R. Lanzou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese
China Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China;
(Extended Abstract)
source (Table 1). The internal stress of the a-C films 300 0.712
were calculated from the Stoney equation (Table 2). 450 0.716
The results show that the anti-wear life and adhesion 600 0.759
of the a-C films on the Si substrates were significantly 750 0.755
increased by the assisting of low-energy-argon-ion
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Friction and Wear Property of Amorphous Carbon Films Prepared by Ion Beam Assisted Deposition
150 -298
300 -242
450 -233
600 -390
750 -521
(a)
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(The scan area is 2μm×2μm)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
678
Research on Silicon Content and Structure Relationship of Amorphous Si-DLC Films by Molecular Dynamics Simulations
80 450
(c)
70 400
New
350
50
250
40
200
3
30
150
20 100
10 50
0 0
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4
3
3 Density (g/cm )
Density (g/cm )
Fig. 2 The potential energy (a), the energy differences per
Fig. 1 Comparisons of sp3 content of DLC films for two atom between amorphous and crystal Si-DLC films (Eac) (b),
different cutoff parameters in Tersoff potential and bulk modulus (c) as a function of density, where silicon
NSi and NC are numbers of silicon and carbon atoms, contents are 0(), 0.03(), 0.1(Ƹ), and 0.2(ͪ) respectively
respectively;
can be concluded that the different density of Si-DLC films
ESi and EC are ionization energy of silicon and carbon,
prepared by different methods resulted in the different hardness
respectively; EC =7.37eV, ESi =4.63eV [13].
trends.
Corresponding to the potential energy (Fig. 2(a)), Eac (Fig. The amorphous structures of Si-DLC films can be
2(b)) has a smaller value with low potential energy. Moreover, characterized in part by their pair correlation function (PCF),
Eac at the silicon content 0.2 are larger, and Eac at silicon which is shown in Fig. 3. In order to study the effect of silicon
content 0 and 0.03 are smaller. On the whole, the bulk modulus contents on PCF of Si-DLC films, the density is fixed at 2.9
of amorphous Si-DLC films increase with increasing density. g/cm3. Furthermore, to clarify the structure more, the PCF is
But they occur wide fluctulation at the same density. For decomposed into probabilities of C-C, C-Si, and Si-Si pairs at
example, at the density of 2.9 g/cm3, the bulk modulus of distances. The C-C PCF all have a first peak at about 1.45 Å,
Si-DLC films decreases with increasing silicon content, moreover the first peak values of C-C PCF increase with
however, at the density 3.0 g/cm3, the bulk modulus firstly increasing silicon content. However, the first peak value of C-Si
reaches a maximum at the silicon content of 0.03, and then PCF is biggest at silicon content 0.1. It is also obviously seen
decreases (Fig. 2(c)). The phenomena are consistent with the that the Si-Si PCF increases with increasing silicon content.
paradoxical experimental results, e.g. the different trends in the
hardness of Si-DLC films with the silicon content. Therefore, it 5 (a)
C-C
Pair correlation function
-1.00 4
(a)
-1.02
Potential energy (10 J)
3
-15
-1.04
2
-1.06
1
-1.08
0
-1.10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1.12 Distance (Angstrom)
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4
3
Density (g/cm )
9
-0.38 (b) C-C
8
Pair correlation function
(b)
-0.40 7 C-Si
6 Si-Si
-0.42
5
Eac (eV/atom)
-0.44 4
-0.46 3
2
-0.48
1
-0.50 0
-0.52 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 Distance (Angstrom)
3
Density (g/cm )
679
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
BondNumC4C4/AtomNumC
0.20 !3!= 2.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance (Angstrom) !3!= 2.9
0.15
7
(d) 0.10
6
C-C
Pair correlation function
5 C-Si 0.05
4 Si-Si
0.00
3 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Silicon content
2
1.0 (b)
1
BondNumC3C3/AtomNumC
0.9
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.8 !3!= 2.3
Distance (Angstrom) !3!= 2.6
0.7
Fig. 3 Pair correlation function of Si-DLC films with silicon !3!= 2.9
contents at the density of 2.9 g/cm3. From (a) to (d), silicon 0.6
contents are 0, 0.03, 0.1 and 0.2 respectively
0.5
From Fig. 4 (a), it is seen that sp3/sp2 ratio of all Si-DLC
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
films increases with increasing silicon content, which is Silicon content
consistent with the experiment results [5], but the sp3/sp2 ratio of 0.9
only carbon atoms reaches the maximum at the silicon content (c) !3!= 2.3
BondNumC3C4/AtomNumC
0.8
of 0.03, then decreases with the silicon content (Fig. 4 (b)). This !3!= 2.6
may because that the experimental result that the hardness of 0.7 !3!= 2.9
Si-DLC films with a lower silicon content 0.03 had a larger 0.6
value, but decreased with more silicon addition.
0.5
0.55
(a) 0.4
0.50
0.45 0.3
3 = 2.3
0.40 3 = 2.6 0.2
2
Sp /Sp
3 = 2.9
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
0.35 Silicon content
3
!3!= 2.9
2
0.30 except for density = 2.9 g/cm3, Fig. 6 (d) and (e)). On the whole,
3
0.25 the Si4-Si4, Si4-Si3 and Si3-Si3 bonding ratio are much lower
0.20 than the Si4-C4 and Si4-C3 bonding ratio, which indicates that
silicon atoms are almost surrounded by carbon atoms. In
0.15
particular, when silicon content = 0.03 and density = 2.9 g/cm3,
0.10 there is no Si4-Si4, Si3-Si3 and Si3-Si4 bonding formed, which
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Silicon content is to say that all the silicon atoms are bound with carbon atoms.
Fig. 4 Sp3/sp2 ratio of total atoms (a) and only carbon atoms These results are also in agreement with experimental results
[14]
(b) as a function of silicon contents .
680
Research on Silicon Content and Structure Relationship of Amorphous Si-DLC Films by Molecular Dynamics Simulations
(a) CONCLUSIONS
0.20
BondNumSi4Si4/AtomNumSi
!3!= 2.3 Molecular dynamics simulations with increased cutoff
!3!= 2.6
0.15 !3!= 2.9
parameters in the Tersoff potential have been applied to study
micro-structures of amorphous Si-DLC films at the silicon
0.10 contents 0, 0.03, 0.1 and 0.2. The results show the
microstructures of Si-DLC films have changed greatly with the
0.05 silicon content and density. Moreover, the sp3/sp2 ratio increases
with increasing silicon content. It was discussed that the silicon
0.00 atoms are almost surrounded by carbon atoms in all Si-DLC
films. But in most cases, the experimentally prepared Si-DLC
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Silicon content
films involved a lot of hydrogen atoms. Therefore, we will
study microstructure of hydrogenated Si-DLC films in the
0.010 (b) future.
BondNumSi4Si3/AtomNumSi
!3!= 2.3
0.008 !3!= 2.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
!3!= 2.9
0.006 The work is supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 50805007).
0.004
0.002 REFERENCES
0.000
[1] Oguri K, Arai T., 1992, “Two different low friction
mechanisms of diamond-like carbon with silicon coatings
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 formed by plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition”, J
Silicon content Mater Res, 7: pp.1313
0.004 [2] Varma A, Palshin V, Meletis E I., 2001, “Structure-property
(c)
relationship of Si-DLC films”, Surf Coat Technol, 148:
BondNumSi3Si3/AtomNumSi
0.003 pp.305-314
[3] Kim M G, Lee K R, Eun K Y., 1999, “Tribological behavior
0.002 !3!= 2.3 of silicon-incorporated diamond-like carbon films”, Surf
!3!= 2.6
Coat Technol, 112: pp.204-209
0.001 !3!= 2.9
[4] Papakonstantinou P, Zhao J F, Lemoine P, et al., 2002, “The
effects of Si incorporation on the electrochemical and
0.000 nanomechanical properties of DLC thin films”, Diamond
Relat Mater, 11: pp.1074-1080
-0.001 [5] Iseki T, Mori H, Hasegawa H, et al., 2006, “Structural
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Silicon content analysis of Si-containing diamond-like carbon”, Diamond
0.9 Relat Mater, 15: pp.1004-1010
(d) [6] Lee S, Kim D S, Rhee S G, et al., 1999, “Structure and
!3!= 2.3
BondNumSi4C4/AtomNumSi
681
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
INTRODUCTION
During the past decades, diamond-like carbon (DLC) films Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of PECVD system
have attracted an overwhelming interest from both industry
The samples were put into the vacuum chamber, which was
and the research community. It has already been demonstrated
pumped until the base pressure 1.0×10-4 Pa was achieved, and
that the DLC films exhibit a number of advantages (e.g. low
then they were cleaned by Ar plasma bombarding. After that by
friction, high wear resistance, high hardness, etc.). Therefore,
changing the deposition pressure, deposition time, bias voltage
these wide ranges of exceptional physical, mechanical,
and RF power, the DLC films can be prepared in the condition
biomedical and tribological properties that make them widely
of the precursor CH4, flow rate 30 sccm, rotation speed 0.5
apply in numerous industrial fields, ranging from razor blades
rpm, and the substrate was water-cooled without heating.
to MEM systems, from engine parts to articulated hip and knee
joints, from bearings to machine tools and dies [1, 2]. Measure apparatus
Currently, several kinds of PVD and CVD methods can be
used to deposit DLC films, such as ion plating, activated Nano-indentation tester (Elionix Company, ENT-2100) was
reactive evaporation, cathodic arc-PVD, bias sputter deposition, used to measure the hardness and elastic modulus of the DLC
laser ablation (or pulse laser deposition, PLD), ion-beam films. Diamond indenter was 3-sided pyramidal Berkovich,
assisted deposition and magnetron sputtering processes [3-5]. whose radius was about 100 nm. Load and displacement
In the gas discharge plasmas of the PVD and CVD processes resolution of the nano-indentation tester were respectively 4
mentioned above, usually a hydrocarbon gas (such as methane nN and 0.06 nm. Measurement was carried out in the constant
or acetylene) is used as the precursor for carbon. indent depth mode; and the indent depth was 100 nm for all the
However, previous studies demonstrated the tribological DLC films. Eight points were tested on the every sample;
properties of the DLC films could be affected by a variety of averaging the eight points results got final values. The AFM
deposition methods, parameters and test conditions[5-8]. As a analysis of the DLC surfaces was performed under ambient
result, the mechanical and tribological properties of the DLC laboratory conditions with a Nanoscope IIIa MultiMode
films may differ from one study to another. scanning probe microscope (Digital Instruments). Images of the
In this paper, PECVD was used to prepare hydrogenated surface topography were acquired in contact mode using silicon
DLC films from the precursor CH4. The variation of film cantilevers. The scan area was 1m×1m. Ambient temperature
thickness, frictional force, hardness and elastic modulus under was 25 ć and relative humidity (RH) was 25%.
the different deposition conditions were discussed in detail.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
EXPERIMENT Dependence of the deposition time
Deposition of DLC Films With the condition of the bias voltage 50 V and the
The substrate material was single crystal silicon wafer (100). deposition pressure 1.0 Pa, we considered the effect of the
The wafers were cut into 1cm×1cm samples. Before the deposition times (See Fig. 2). Fig. 2(a) showed the thickness of
deposition, the samples underwent ultrasonic cleaning the DLC films increased with the increasing deposition time,
progressively in de-ionized water, ethanol and acetone. which was independent of the RF power. From Fig. 2(b), when
DLC films were deposited in a plasma enhenced chemical the RF powers were 50 W and 100 W, the frictional force of
vapour deposition system (PECVD) (Fig. 1). The system was DLC films had no obviously changes with the deposition time.
equipped with a vacuum system and a radio frequency (RF) But when the RF power was 150 W, the frictional force changed
abruptly, and reached to a maximum at the deposition time 2 h.
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. For the RF power 50 W, the hardness and Young’s modulus
682
Effect of Deposition Parameters on Nano-Mechanical Properties of DLC Films by PECVD
of the DLC films deduced suddenly with the deposition time films both had a higher value at the RF power 100 W for the bias
varied from 1.0 h to 2.0 h, then increased slowly to 4.0 h. voltage 0V and 50V. The thickness firstly increased, and then
Wherever for 100 W, the hardness and Young’s modulus decreased, finally increased with the increasing RF power. The
deduced slowly with the increasing deposition time. For 150 W, frictional force both increased with the RF power up to 150W,
the hardness and Young’s modulus of the DLC films deduced and then decreased for bias voltage were 0V and 50V (Fig. 3(b)).
slowly firstly, then increased suddenly, finally deduced with the For the bias voltage 0 V, the hardness and elastic modulus firstly
increasing deposition time (Fig. 2(c) and (d)). decreased, and then increased with the increasing RF power.
1.2 While for the bias voltage 50 V, the hardness and elastic
50W
modulus always increased with the increasing RF power (Fig.
1.0
100W 3(c) and (d)).
150W
Thickness/m
0.8 0.55
0V
0.50 50V
0.6
0.45
Thickness/m
0.4
0.40
0.2 0.35
0.30
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Deposition time/h 0.25
(a) 0.20
50 100 150 200 250
1.1
RF power/W
1.0 50W
100W (a)
0.9
Frictional force/nN
150W
1.4
0.8 0V
50V
0.7 1.2
0.6 Frictional force/nN 1.0
0.5
0.4 0.8
0.3 0.6
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Deposition time/h
0.4
(b)
50 100 150 200 250
RF power/W
14000
12000
50W (b)
100W 10000
150W
Hardness/(N/mm )
2
10000 0V
8000 8000 50V
Hardness/(N/mm )
2
6000
6000
4000
2000 4000
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
2000
Deposition time/h
(c) 0
50 100 150 200 250
160
RF power/W
140 50W (c)
100W 90
Young's modulus/GPa
120 150W
0V
80
100 50V
Young's modulus/GPa
70
80
60
60
50
40
40
20
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Deposition time/h 30
(d) 20
50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 2 Thickness (a), frictional force (b), hardness (c), and RF power/W
Young’s modulus (d) of the DLC films as a function of the (d)
deposition time Fig. 3 Thickness (a), frictional force (b), hardness (c), and
Young’s modulus (d) of the DLC films as a function of the RF
power
Dependence of the RF power
With the condition of the deposition pressure 1.0 Pa and the
Dependence of the deposition pressure
deposition time 2 h, the effect of the RF power was studied (see
Fig. 3). Firstly Fig. 3 (a) showed that the thickness of the DLC With the condition of the bias voltage 50 V, the RF power
683
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
112
100 W, and the deposition time 1 h, the effect of the deposition 9000
108
pressure was researched in Fig. 4. It showed that the thickness
8000 104
Elastic modulus/GPa
of the DLC films increased with the increasing deposition
Hardness/(N/mm )
2
7000 100
pressure. But the frictional force changed greatly, and reached a
96
lower value at the deposition pressure 4 Pa and 7 Pa. From Fig. 6000
92
4 (b), the hardness and Young’s modulus of the DLC films 5000
Hardness 88
deduced with the deposition pressure varied from 1 Pa to 7 Pa, 4000 84
Elastic modulus
and then increased with the increasing deposition pressure. Due 3000 80
to the thickness of the DLC films were less than 0.27 m (Fig. 0 50 100
Bias voltage/V
150 200
4(a)) and the indent depth was 100 nm, the hardness results of
the DLC films included the influence of the hardness of Si (b)
substrate. Fig. 5 Thickness and frictional force (a), hardness and
0.8 Young’s modulus (b) of the DLC films as a function of the
0.27 Thickness bias voltage
Frictional force 0.7
0.26
Frictional force/nN
CONCLUSIONS
Thickness/m
0.25 0.6
AFM and nano-indentation tester were used to study
0.24 0.5 nano-mechanical properties of DLC films on Si (100) substrate
0.23 which were prepared by PECVD from the precursor CH4. From
0.4
the experimental results, it showed that the deposition
0.22
parameters (such as: deposition time, RF power, deposition
0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 pressure, and bias voltage) had significant influence on the
Deposition pressure/Pa
thickness, frictional force, hardness and elastic modulus for
(a) different DLC films, which showed that deposition parameters
7500
93 must be chosen carefully for the desired mechanical properties
Hardness
7000 Elastic modulus of DLC films.
90
Elastic modulus/GPa
Hardness/(N/mm )
2
6500 87
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6000 84 This work was supported by the National Natural Science
5500
81 Foundation of China (Grant No. 50805007). The authors thank
Dr. Masahiro Kawaguchi of Tokyo Metropolitan Industrial
78
5000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Technology Research Institute for experimental aids and helpful
Deposition pressure/Pa discussions.
(b)
Fig. 4 Thickness and frictional force (a), hardness and REFERENCES
Young’s modulus (b) of the DLC films as a function of the [1] Robertson J., 2002, “Diamond like amorphous carbon”,
deposition pressure Materials Science and Engineering R, 37, pp.129-281.
[2] Ali Erdemir, Christophe Donnet., 2006, “Tribology of
diamond-like carbon films: recent progress and future
Dependence of the bias voltage
prospects”, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 39, pp.R311-R327.
With the condition of the RF power 100 W, the deposition [3] Baranov A.M., Varfolomeev A.E., Nefedov A.M., et a1.,
pressure 1.0 Pa and the deposition time 1 h, the effect of the bias 2000, “Development of DLC film technology for electronic
voltage was discussed. Fig. 5(a) showed the thickness of the application”, Diamond and Related Materials, 9,
DLC films firstly increased, and then decreased with the pp.649-653.
increasing bias voltage. But the frictional force at first increased [4] Lifshitz Y., 1999, “Diamond-like carbon-present status”,
Diamond and Related Materials, 8, pp.1659-1676.
greatly with the increasing bias voltage up to 100V, and then
[5] Gupta P., Singh V., Meletis E.I., 2004, “Tribological
almost kept unchanged. The hardness and elastic modulus
behavior of plasma-enhanced CVD a-C:H films. Part I:
firstly increased with the increasing bias voltage, secondly effect of processing parameters”, Tribology International,
almost kept invariant, thirdly deduced slowly, and finally 37, pp.1019-1029
increased (Fig. 5(b)). [6] Wei Zhang, Akihiro Tanaka, 2004, “Tribological properties
0.9 of DLC films deposited under various conditions using a
0.32 plasma-enhanced CVD”, Tribology International, 37,
0.8
pp.957-982.
Frictional force/nN
0.7
Koga, 2002, “Structural, mechanical and tribological
0.24
0.6 properties of diamond-like carbon films prepared under
Thickness different substrate bias voltage”, Diamond and Related
0.20
Frictional force 0.5 Materials, 11, pp.1837-1844
[8] Kvasnica S., Schalko J., Eisenmenger-Sittner C., et al, 2006,
0.16 0.4
0 50 100 150 200 “Nanotribological study of PECVD DLC and reactively
Bias voltage/V sputtered Ti containing carbon films”, Diamond and
(a) Related Materials, 15, pp.1743-1752
684
The Effect of Laser Texturing of Steel Surfaces on Film Lubriction Based on Stribeck Curves
The Effect of Laser Texturing of Steel Surfaces on Film Lubriction Based on Stribeck Curves
ABSTRACT
Laser surface texturing (LST) is an emerging, effective
method for improving the tribological performance of friction
units lubricated with oil since it can generate hydrodynamic
pressure between oil-lubricated parallel sliding surfaces. The
purpose of this study is to find the effect of geometric parameter
of surface texture to decrease the friction coefficient of flat
bearings working in oil. Micro-pits, evenly distributed in an
annular array, were selected as the texture pattern, and formed
on one of the friction surfaces by pulsed laser. Experiments
were carried out to evaluate the effects of LST on friction
coefficient of oil lubricating and the compares between textured
(a) cylinder (b) ring
surface and polished surface were carried out. The results are
summarized in the form of stribeck curves. It was found that an Fig.1 The Appearance of the specimens.
appropriate geometric parameter of micro-pits exists, where the
friction coefficient can be decreased at least twice over that of a
polished surface.
Keywords: Laser surface texturing (LST), friction experiments,
lubrication properties.
INTRODUCTION
The surface texturing is the new technology of tribology
that has emerged in the last decade as a viable option of
surface engineering resulting in significant improvement in
load capacity, wear resistance, friction coefficient etc. of
mechanical components. Surface texturing produces a very
large number of micro-pits on the surface and each of these
micro-pits can serve either as a micro-hydrodynamic bearing in
cases of full or mixed lubrication, a micro-reservoir for
lubricant in cases of starved lubrication conditions, or a
micro-trap for wear debris in either lubricated or dry sliding [1]. (a) The photo of a micro-pit produced by LSCM
At the present time, there are a lot of studies about influences
of surface textures on lubrication [2, 3]. The theoretical
modeling of surface texture under full fluid film conditions has
been established which provides a good method for
optimization of the surface textures [4].
In this paper, high-power pulsed laser were used to process
different depth and diameter micro-pits to study the effect of
geometric parameter of surface texture on oil lubricating. In
order to analyse the experimental results, a series of numerical
simulation is carried out, focusing on the effects of dimple size
on friction coefficient. The test adopts a cylinder-ring surface
contact of mild carbon steel specimen under normal pressure
below 0.3MPa. The changes of friction coefficient with rotation
speed under different loads were measured and stribeck curves
can be obtained.
EXPERIMENT
(b) The cross profile produced by Taylorsurf Dektak
The experiments of sliding friction were performed between
the end faces of a cylinder [Fig. 1(a)] and a ring [Fig. 1(b)]. Both Fig. 2 The YAG laser surface textures
cylinder and ring were made of mild carbon steel, and the end
As one pit of YAG laser is formed by one laser point, from
faces were ground to the roughness of Rrms about 0.1m. The
the photo of a micro-pit produced by LSCM as shown in the
end face of the ring was then textured with round micro-pits
Fig.2 (a), it can be seen that the pit was formed in the shape of a
arranged in an annular array as shown in Fig.1(b) by pulsed
sphere, and the roughness of pit bottom was related to the
laser.
685
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
anisotropic melting point of steel material and the additional calculated as follows.
blowing-power. All pits (Fig.2 (b)) were accordant on the whole
surface. The diameters and depths of the pits were controlled by 3T ( R2 R1 )
the power and pulse width of the laser. The arrangement of the f
2W ( R2 R1 R2 R1 )
2 2
pits was determined by a pre-designed pattern. The intervals (2)
between pits were changed to obtain a series of different pit area
ratios (r).
Where T is the friction torque, R1 and R2 are the inside and
outside diameter of lubrication zone of oil film, respectively,
Sp n#d 2
r ,ˁ and W is the load of friction pairs.
Sa # (d12 d 22 ) (1)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Where d is the diameter of the pit, d1 and d2 are outer and The effect of the pits area ratio on friction characteristic is
inner diameter of the ring, respectively, and n is the number of tested by four kinds of LST samples: LST-1, LST-2, LST-3, and
pits. polished sample. Fig.3 shows the effects of pits area ratio on
As this laser machining method provides certain control of friction characteristics. From the results, it is seen that the
the shape and size of the micro-pits, it is used for testing the friction coefficient of polished sample is the greatest, and the
influence of the physical dimensions of the pits on lubrication. friction coefficient of LST decreases as the pits area ratio
Table 1 shows the rings used in this study. The depth of the pits decreases. For the polished sample, as fluid hydrodynamic
ranges from 18 to 70 m, and the area ratio of the pits ranges action is difficult to form, carrying capability of lubricating film
from 0 to 30ˁ. is very small, and the friction coefficient of lubrication film
becomes large. But as the pit area ratio increases, the
Table 1 Geometrical parameters of LST depressurization of lubricating film would be increasing, which
adversely affects the loading capability of lubricating film.
Parameter LST1 LST2 LST3 LST4 LST5 LST6
Therefore, as the pit area ratio of LST increases, the friction
characteristics also deteriorate.
Depth (m) 23 23 23 18 50 70
KP XP
KP XP
Load: 44.453Nǃ133.359Nǃ222.265N
3ROLVK
Contact pressure: 0.06MPaǃ0.18MPaǃ0.3MPa
Rotational speed: 100–600rpm
Sliding speed: 0.2893–1.7357 m/s
Lubricant: Transmission oil
686
The Effect of Laser Texturing of Steel Surfaces on Film Lubriction Based on Stribeck Curves
CONCLUSIONS
KP XP
)ULFWLRQFRHIILFLHQW
687
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
688
Formation and Crystallization Kinetics of Amorphous Alloys
parameters of the formation of amorphous alloys. For each The chemical reaction rates are lower than those of atoms
particular reaction, it should have a characteristic and constant or hydroniums diffusion in electrodeposition solution, the
value. The effect of the kinetic energy and thermal energy of interaction between atoms is smaller than the outside
the particle and the surplus energy for amorphous electromagnetic force. The combination will be effected by
transformation to crystalline were also considered. outside conditions as main factors, but the atom outside
electronic shell is crucial gene for the formation. The free
1 Electronic shells and jumping energetic theories electrons in outmost atoms circumrotate in supreme energy, and
different atom electrons interaction combination is higher than
To estimate the ability of alloys to form amorphous or to the ilk. The interaction between atoms is related with the
define the formed thermostability, the radius ratio of the two chemical bonds numbers, atom radius, free electrons numbers
alloys atoms and their outermost electron range are the main and electrons motivity state. Factors which can be increased by
factors of the effects on forming process. The attraction outside conditions can accrete the interaction of the
between the similarities and differences atoms is higher than combination. The structure will be close-banded with higher
the ilk atoms [24,25]. The electronic energy of different elements interaction force, and the metal with this state will be in steady
will effect the interaction of the two atoms. When the radius state. The formation and thermal stability of the short-range
ratio (Ra/Rb) between the two metal atoms is higher than 112 structure that contains a mixture of all four types of Kasper
percent [25], the alloy which composed with them is prone to polyhedra can be understood as follows. The polyhedra
form amorphous structure. The extensity structure of the represent possible low-energy configurations for atoms to be
formed rests with the main element of the alloy which gives the bonded in solid, in positions that are separated by small energy
core of the nucleus. There are three main types’ configurations differences. During eletrodepositon from liquid or vapour state,
in the pure metal structure, Face-Centered-Cube (FCC), the availability of four types of polyhedra allows several
Body-Centered-Cube (BCC) and Hexagonal-Close-Packed alternatives, or saddlepoint energies, for atoms to be bonded to
(HCP). So the formed amorphous structure is similar to the their neighbouring atoms in a way that prevents long-range
principal part of the atom, or an alternant structure improving atomic rearrangement. The total energy will not be significantly
the blank cubage for the stability energy to amend the forming influenced by those small energy differences as long as the
amorphous possibility. The close-grained degree of the BCC is atoms are locally satisfying the requirement for strong d-d
lower than the others, there are enough blank in the inner to electron interactions. This explains the formation and stability
store the littler dimension atoms. The amorphous formation of the amorphous intertransition metal alloys.
needs this special condition (irregular structure and enough
blank cubage) to satisfy its activation energy, and another
special condition is that, the atom d electronic shell is not filled
with electrons, so that it can absorb other atom’s free electrons.
Thus the formed structure will have the higher chemical bond
power so as to exist steadily at room temperature.
Figure 1 is the sketch map of the energy strip structure
distribution in transition metals electronic shells, the atom d Fig.1 the energy strip structure in elements
electronic shell energy cross s shell so as to satisfy the
interaction of the electrons motivity. When a chemical reaction
took place in two elements, their free electronics will change
their moving trajectory, which effect on the chemical bond with
each, so the structure will transform into other types. Every
configuration has its special vacuum structure with activation
energy distinct from each other. The blank cubage of the BCC
metals is higher than FCC and HCP, and there is enough
activation energy for this structure to form an amorphous
structure. Little dimension atoms will be absorbed into this
Fig.2 Extension state(a) and fargoing state(b)
structure to lock-in blank cubage and increase the transition
energy for this rudimental unstable property. So the amorphous
can be as metastable phase remained in the final formed 2 Thermodynamics and kinetics of the amorphous
structure. Fig 2 is the extension state (a) and fargoing state (b) Three factors effecting on amorphous formation have been
of transition metals. The transition metal in the extension state clarified as main elements[33]. One is the constituted elements
(state a) is prone to form crystallization, because the electrons must be more than three elements, which combined with each
circumgyrate in core atomic nuclei order for the electron other complexly as of different outmost electronic shells.
energy order. Thus the formed alloys in this condition are in Another is the diameters difference between the atoms in the
stable state as crystalline with lower energy. If the electrons in alloys is very obvious, the ratio diameters of the atoms is
state (b), the formed alloys composed of this structure are in higher than 112%, which can improve crystal lattice aberration
unstable with higher energy in inner structure. This will energy of the formed. The other is the negative mixed-caloric
promote the structure in amorphous with higher activity between the main elements must be higher than others. That is
transforming their state to regular crystalline at low to say the elements in forming amorphous must have the higher
temperature, and transform the structure under outside force at entropy.
home temperature. The amorphous structure with unsteady From the analysissitus and the chemistry point of view, the
state and active atoms is changeable and aggrandizes the based elements are out-of-order in short-range to accumulate
possibility of the ability to absorb little dimension atoms to fill together, the first deposited atom in structure is different with
in blank cubage of the configuration. Thus the electronics in the the crystal phase. The based elements and second phase
outmost electron shell are in the queasy state to combine with distribute asymmetricly in long-range configuration. For this
other free electrons. short-ranged metal phase, the higher interfacial energy of the
689
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
solid to liquid can prevent the nucleating. The amorphous formula we can find when and
S f are increased, or
structure with short-range and out-of-order constructer
observed and presented in several crystal lattices in blank
H f is decreased, and will be aggrandized, this method
cubage is linked with metal bonds in higher bonds energy, with
superfluous combined energy existing in this structure. would decrease I and u, and accelerate the forming amorphous
Therefore, the accumulate consistency and the atomic ability. On the other side, if Tg is increased, will be
activation energy will be augmented with the atom dimension aggrandized, and the crystal phase will be prevented, the
difference increasing. At the same the will be increased forming amorphous ability will be accelerated. So there are two
because of the activation energy increase, and the crystal phase main factors effecting on the glass forming ability (GFA), one
nucleus will be melt down, so the crystallization will be is Tg/Tm, and the other higher Tx (Tx=Tx-Tg). And in fact the
prevented with higher energy accelerating process. The macroscopy Tx can reflect the forming amorphous alloys
deposited atoms redistribution will be harder than former, and having some conditions on configuration, thermodynamics and
the forming amorphous ability can be increased. kinetics. Fig 3 is the DTA curve of amorphous transformation
to crystallization. The section of Tx to Tg is the structure
2.1 Discussion on kinetics of amorphous formation laxation process of amorphous phase, which shows the
Some metastable crystalline alloys show spontaneous combined atoms diffusing from out-of-order to regular stage. If
amorphization and subsequent re-crystallization during the pure metal were in complexed structure, the gestation
transformation. This means that the amorphization is the result process would need a long time for laxation, this will promote
of competitive transformation kinetics in which both the the forming amorphous structure. And the formed amorphous
metastable amorphous and stable crystalline phases are formed alloys will be in the same construct similar as the initial
in parallel. However, the amorphous phase formation rate is elements. The thermodynamics free energy of the system from
much larger than that of the crystalline phase, so that in the first liquid to solid can be acted as
G
H T
S . From the
stage of transformation the resulting phase is amorphous. A crystallography of view, the thermodynamic driving is smaller
theoretical description of the kinetics of the amorphous than the normal crystallization in corresponding in liquid, and
formation is presented, taking into account the competitive the ionic atoms in this system are easy to form amorphous not
formation of crystalline and amorphous phases on the crystalline. The researches[28-31,34] on the main composition and
boundaries of grains of the initial phase. The equations of the atom diameter difference effecting on forming amorphous
nucleation and growth of the competitive phases are solved. stages have been reported, and point out that the superfluous
Three factors on affecting the initial stage are discussed: 1) construct energy and atom diameter difference play an
nucleation and growth of the amorphous phase within the grain important role on forming amorphous, and even the alloys in
boundary areas; 2) amorphization of the grains due to the crystal component are prone to form amorphous. Based on the
amorphous phase (nucleated on the grains) growth; 3) the atom diameter dimension difference and chemical activity
stability of the amorphous phase. This simplifies the numerical distinction, the formed construct model can be simulated as fig
solution of the phase transformation kinetic equations. 4. From the model and compound component, the amorphous
From the crystallography, when the metals are concreting phase will be in out-of-order in long-range structure, the
from ionic state or liquid to atom solid, there are many dissimilitude atom will combined together in order in
crystalline nuclei in the liquid. The nucleus growth speeds short-range as the higher chemical bond energy. Thus the
update because of the high gap between the temperature Tx composites will be steady at room temperature according to the
(crystal temperature) and Tg (glass transformation temperature). atoms characteristic.
The nuclear grows as follow:
30 30 b7 3 A
I exp
Tr2 cm 3 @ s 1 (1-1)
? Tr
And the growth velocity u is described as:
10 2 f A
Tr
u 1 exp cm @ s 1 (1-2)
? Tr
T
In these formula, Tr -the ratio temperature, Tr=1-Tr
Tm
-the super-cooling degree, f means local fraction of the Fig. 3 DTA curve of amorphous
interface of the solid to magnify or wipe off the atoms,
16
b # -the nucleus geometrical faction,
3
3.34Tm
? 10 33 exp -sticky modulus,
T Tg
1
(N V ) 3
S f
7 0 -surface tension ratio, A
H f R
means melt entropy ratio, N0 -constant, R-the gas constant,
V-atomic volume, - liquid-solid interphase energy. From the Fig. 4 Model of atoms structure of amorphous alloy
690
Formation and Crystallization Kinetics of Amorphous Alloys
2.2 M (Fe, Ni, Co)-(Re)-P electron structures energy the transition metals’ binding energy lower than the noble
The outmost electrons of transition metals have the higher metals also can be found. According to papers[20,33], the binding
active energy with high speeding circumgyratetion and energy of M-H parameter, the active metal combined free H
unsaturated electronic shell, which make the transition metals with higher chemical bond unreleased free electron for H to
in hop-state. If the appealed atoms are circumgyrating in crystal transgress from the construct. At the same the transition metal
lattice node with chemical bond neighboring, the free M (Ni, Fe, Co)-H is lower than the noble metals, but higher
electronics circumgyrating among the composite will be shared than others. And the electrode activation is related with M-H
to supply the interphase force appealing atoms together. Table chemical bond. So when prepared the electrode materials with
1 shows the binding energy of the transition metals and noble amorphous structure having higher electrocatalysis activation,
metals. From the comparison of the elements in table the the transition metals is the best substitute for noble metal in
unsaturated electrons will appeal other superfluous electrons operating in progress.
for balancing the active energy in outmost electronic shell and
691
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
counterparts follow the crystal chemistry principles as electron The above formation criteria and short-range structures can
compounds. It is expected that binary and ternary amorphous probably be extended to the other amorphous alloys based on
alloys will be formed in the composition ranges in which Fe-P combined phases that are related to the phase.
intermediate phases such as , , , P and R phases are present.
1 n 1
2.3 Crystallization of amorphous transformation dx
The crystallization behavior of amorphous Fe-Ni-P alloy
nK n (1 x)[ln(1 x) 1 ] n
(3-3)
dt
electrodeposits has been studied over a wide range of Thus a log-log plot of volume fraction transformed against time
compositions using both isothermal and dynamic annealing of transformation yields a linear relationship and can be used to
methods. X-ray and electron diffraction along with determine n and K.
microhardness measurements were used to monitor the Eqs.(3-2) and (3-3) are known as the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami
crystallization process. Isothermal crystallization kinetics rate equations and are applicable for isothermal
suggests mainly a growth process on pre-existing random transformation conditions, involving spa-dally random
nuclei. No evidence of metastable intermediate phases was nucleation and growth rate being solely temperature dependent
found in isothermally crystallized alloys. The activation energy and independent of time, i.e., under linear growth kinetics. The
for crystallization is very sensitive to the phosphorus content of general form of the crystallized volume fraction x after
the alloys. The decrease in the activation energy and enthalpy annealing for a time interval t at temperature T is expressed by
for crystallization imply a greater degree of supersaturation t
with increase in the phosphorus content. Both enthalpy and x(T , t ) 1 exp I (T ,C )v(T , t ,C )dt (3-4)
activation data suggest that 10wt% phosphorus is the critical
concentration to obtain an amorphous rather than
0
microcrystalline structure. Where I (T, ) is the nucleation frequency at temperature T and
v (T, t, ) is the extended volume at time t of nuclei formed at
Crystallization of amorphous metal alloys is of fundamental
time .
and practical interest as it involves a phase transformation
The crystallized fraction x can be defined as the ratio volume
process occurring under conditions far from equilibrium. The
crystallized at any time t and between the total volume
amorphous structure is metastable, i.e. thermodynamically not crystallized at full primary crystallization. The nucleation
in equilibrium, and undergoes a crystallization transition on frequency I take the usual expression
heating at relatively moderate temperatures (200-400ć). The
structural relaxation is also associated with changes in 16#7 3 A
I I 0 exp 2
(3-5)
Tt (
Gt )
mechanical, corrosion and magnetic properties.
Crystallization kinetics can be reasonably evaluated using
thermal analysis techniques. DSC and DTA have been the with and the thermodynamic factors, introduced by
major techniques that have been used to study phase Turnbull[43], Tt the reduced temperature; and
transformations. Activation energies for the transformations can N v kT
be determined using a relationship developed by Duswalt[42]. I0 (3-6)
Mainly to the crystallization kinetics of glass forming liquids, 3#a03?
the validity of utilizing DSC techniques for studying crystal
Gt (1 Tt )(1 8 ) 8Tt ln Tt (3-7)
growth in metallic glasses has been demonstrated[28]. Kinetic
data analyses have been performed mainly through the use of
C p
the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami (JMA) analysis. The JMA equation 8 (3-8)
is primarily applicable for phase transformations involving
S m
nucleation and growth under isothermal conditions[27,28], and is where Nv is the atomic density in the liquid, a0 is the mean
shown below: B
x(t ) 1 exp( Kt n ) atomic diameter, ? A exp( ) is the viscosity,
(3-1) T T0
where x is the fraction of transformation completed, t is the
time of transformation, K, a function of temperature, depends
C p is the heat capacity difference between liquid and
on both nucleation and growth rate, and n is the parameter
indicating nucleation rate and/or growth morphology. crystal and
S m the melting entropy. With regards to the
The isothermal transformation rate, dx(t)/dt can be obtained growth mechanism we consider that:
by differentiating Eq.(3-1) with respect to time. 1) the initial steps of growth are controlled by the interface
dx between the nanocrystals(several nucleus) and the surrounding
Knt n 1 exp( Kt n ) (3-2) matrix. That is, the radius at time t of a nucleus formed at time
dt for rr0 is
Using the relationship between x and t given by Eq.(3-1), the
equation can be modified:
r u (t C ) r * (3-9)
692
Formation and Crystallization Kinetics of Amorphous Alloys
693
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
14 Kim D.H., Kim W.T., Kim D.H.. 2004, “Formation and Ni-W-P deposits,” Materials Science and Engineering: A,
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glass,” Thermochimica Acta, 435, pp.129-134 micro/nanofabrication of phase change materials with
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355, pp.239-253 31 Xu Jiang, Xu Zhong, Tao Jie, et al. 2007, “A novel
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xCo0.45Alx(x=0-0.4) electrode alloys,” electrodes,” Electrochemica Acta, 40, pp.1633-1640.
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“Dopant effect on in situ doped metal-induced lateral Alloys and Compounds, 438, pp.92-99
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phase transformation behaviour of electroless Ni-P and
694
Fabrication and Wear Resistance of Ni-CeO2 Nanocomposite Coatings by Electrodeposition under Ultrasound Condition
Yujun Xue*/School of Electromechanical Engineering, Jishun Li/ Henan Key Laboratory of Mechanical Design
Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang and Transmission System, Luoyang 471003, China
471003, China
Wei Ma / School of Electromechanical Engineering, Mingde Duan / School of Electromechanical
Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang Engineering, Henan University of Science and
471003, China Technology, Luoyang 471003, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings were fabricated by a nanocomposite using conventional electrodeposition method
novel method from a modified Watt's type electrolyte had high hardness, good wear and corrosion resistance, and
containing CeO2 nanoparticles with an average particle size of high temperature oxidation resistance.
30 nm, where an ultrasonic field was imposed during Various works have demonstrated that simultaneous
electrodeposition process. Surface morphologies of the ultrasonic irradiation of electrochemical systems can modify
coatings were examined by a scanning electron microscope limiting parameters and greatly improve electrochemical
(SEM) with energy dispersive analyzer system (EDX) to reactions [18-20]. In general, the imposition of ultrasound on
determine the composition of nanocomposite coatings. The electroplating systems gives rise to an increase of effective
crystal structure of coatings was characterized by employing current density and changes in chemical and physical
the X-ray diffraction (XRD). Vickers hardness of properties of deposits [21,22]. However, limited papers have
nanocomposite coatings was measured with a microhardness reported the co-electrodeposition of nanometer particles with
tester. The wear resistance of Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings metal matrix in the presence of ultrasound and the effect of
and pure Ni coating was comparatively investigated on a ultrasonic irradiation on the microstructure and properties of
UMT-2MT test rig in a ball-on-disk contact mode. It was found rare earth oxide reinforced Ni matrix nanocomposite coating.
that the Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating with ultrasonic In this work, the effect of ultrasound on the surface
irradiation exhibited grain structure with finer and compact morphology, crystal structure, hardness and wear resistance of
crystal of Ni matrix compared to pure Ni and the Ni-CeO2 Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating by electrodeposition has been
nanocomposite coating without ultrasonic irradiation. The investigated.
crystal orientation of Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings greatly
changed in presence of ultrasound. Furthermore, the Experimental
imposition of ultrasound gave rise to increasing the hardness Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings were electrodeposited
and wear resistance of the Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating. from a suspension of CeO2 nanoparticles in a nickel sulfate
The results could be considered as the effects of nanoparticles electrolyte. The plating bath was composed of 300 g/l
embedded and ultrasonic irradiation and the finer-grain NiSO4·6H2O, 10 g/l NiCl2, 40 g/l H3BO3, 0.2 g/l
structured coating resulted. The improvement in the wear CH3(CH2)11OSO3Na, and 40 g/l CeO2 nanoparticles. The
resistance of Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings can be average size of CeO2 nanoparticles (purity > 99.99%) was
attributed to the grains refinement of Ni matrix in presence of estimated to be 30 nm. Magnetic stirring was applied to mix
ultrasound as well as the dispersion-strengthening effect to CeO2 nanoparticles and the electrolyte for 8 h prior to
some extent. Because of the aid of ultrasound, the co-deposited electrodeposition. Subsequently, the nickel plating bath with
CeO2 nanoparticles were uniformly distributed in Ni matrix CeO2 nanoparticles was put into 1000 ml beaker immersed in
and contributed to largely increase the microhardness and wear water bath, and was placed in an ultrasonic generator (300 W
resistance of the nanocomposite coatings. power, 28 kHz). A nickel plate was used as anode. The
Keywords: Electrodeposition, Ultrasound, Nanocomposite operating conditions for electroplating were current density 4
coating, Microhardness, Wear resistance A/dm2, stirring rate 600 rpm and bath temperature 50 ˚C.
Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings of about 100 m were
INTRODUCTION deposited on polished steel plate with dimensions of 20 × 50 ×
Electrodeposition is one of the most important methods for 2 mm. Surface morphologies of the coatings were examined by
producing nanocomposite coatings. It has been found that a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive
electrodeposited nanocomposite coatings usually exhibit analyzer system (EDX) to determine the composition of
enhanced mechanical, tribological, anti-corrosion and nanocomposite coatings. The crystal structure of coatings was
anti-oxidation properties as compared to pure metal and alloy characterized by employing the X-ray diffraction (XRD).
coatings as well as composite coatings containing micro-sized Vickers hardness of nanocomposite coatings was measured
particles [1-6]. These improved properties depend not only on with a microhardness tester using a load of 50 gf. The wear
particle characteristics, but also on operating parameters resistance of Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings and pure Ni
(current density, bath agitation and electrolyte composition) coating was comparatively investigated on a UMT-2MT test
[6-11]. Recently, the co-electrodeposition of rare earth rig in a ball-on-disk contact mode.
nanoparticles such as CeO2, Nd2O3, La2O3, and Y2O3 with
metal Ni or Co have been studied extensively owing to the Results and discussion
special characteristics of rare earth oxides [12-17]. The results A regular pyramidal structure as shown in Fig.1(a) is
showed that rare earth oxide reinforced Ni matrix observed at the surface of the pure Ni coating. Whereas, with
the addition of CeO2 nanoparticles, the grain size is reduced
*To whom all corresnondence should be addressed and the morphology is changed to the hemispherical crystal, as
695
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
shown in Fig.1(b). It is seen from Fig.1(c) that the Ni-CeO2 The Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating with ultrasonic
nanocomposite coating exhibited grain structure with finer and irradiation exhibited a higher wear resistance than that of pure
compact crystal of Ni matrix in presence of ultrasound. The Ni and the Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating without ultrasonic
change in the morphology can be associated to the change irradiation. It is suggested that ultrasonic irradiation plays an
from preferred orientation to random oriented composite important role in the complex mechanism of wear behaviors.
deposits. The grain fining and dispersive strengthening effects The improvement in the wear resistance of the Ni-CeO2
become stronger with the aid of ultrasound, thus the Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings as compared to pure the Ni coating is
composite coatings could possess excellent mechanical rationally understood, since the CeO2 nanoparticles embedded
properties. in the Ni matrix, and this is also in agreement with the
microhardness enhancement. The Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite
coating with ultrasonic irradiation has a minimum wear weight
loss, which is in accordance with Archard’s law. The wear
resistance of the Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating with
ultrasonic irradiation enhances due to the introduction of the
ultrasound as well as the dispersion-strengthening effect to
(a) (b) (c) some extent.
Fig. 1 Surface morphology of (a) pure Ni coating, (b) Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating
without ultrasound (6.4 wt.% CeO2) and (c) Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating with
ultrasound (2.9 wt.% CeO2) Conclusions
Fig. 2 shows XRD patterns of pure Ni coating and Ni-CeO2 In this study, ultrasonic irradiation was applied in the
nanocomposite coatings prepared in the absence and in electrodeposition of CeO2 nanoparticles with Ni layer. The
presence of ultrasound. It is clearly observed that the pure Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating with finer crystal grain was
Ni deposit exhibited obvious (2 0 0) preferred orientation. produced under ultrasound condition. The crystal orientation of
The Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating without ultrasonic Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings greatly changed in presence
irradiation exhibited a significant increase in the relative of ultrasound. The Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating with
intensity of (1 1 1) and (3 1 1) orientations. For the Ni-CeO2 ultrasound exhibited higher hardness value than that of the
nanocomposite coating with ultrasonic irradiation, the relative pure Ni and Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating without
intensity of crystal face (2 2 0) increases, but the relative ultrasound. The improvement in the wear resistance of
intensity of crystal face (1 1 1) decreases. 14000
Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coatings can be attributed to the
grains refinement of Ni matrix in presence of ultrasound as
(200)
60000
20000
(200)
(200)
12000
(111)
50000 16000
40000
10000
Intensity
12000
Intensity
8000
30000
20000
6000
4000
8000 Because of the aid of ultrasound, the co-deposited CeO2
(220)
4000
(111)
2000
(222)
10000
(220)
(311)
(222)
(111)
200
0LFURKDUGQHVV+9
500
400
150
Zn–Ni–Al2O3 nanocomposite coatings under ultrasound
300
200
100
50
conditions,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 459,
100
0
1 2 3
0
pp.548-552.
6SHFLPHQV
Fig. 3 Microhardness and wear rate of specimens obtained under the following (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
conditions: (1) Pure Ni, without ultrasound; (2) Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating,
without ultrasound; (3) Ni-CeO2 nanocomposite coating, with ultrasound
needs it.)
696
On the Measurement of Slip Length for Liquid on Super-Hydrophobic Surface
Li Jian (Center for Photon Manufacturing Science and Zhou Ming* (Center for Photon Manufacturing Science
Technology, Jiangsu universityˈZhenjiang, 212013) and Technology, Jiangsu universityˈZhenjiang, 212013)
Cai Lan (Center for Photon Manufacturing Science and Yang Haifeng (Center for Photon Manufacturing Science
Technology, Jiangsu universityˈZhenjiang, 212013) and Technology, Jiangsu universityˈZhenjiang, 212013)
Ye Xia (Center for Photon Manufacturing Science and
Technology, Jiangsu universityˈZhenjiang, 212013)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
To design a surface with well drag reduction for liquid is a Bocquet[12] for the poor precision of this method and the
pop issue in the fields of liquid transporting through pipe and contact area or contact angle affect on the measuring slip
solid body swimming. In this context, it is a crucial problem to length.
measure the slip length of surfaces. Here we propose a novel In this paper, we describes a strategy to measure the slip
method using rheometer for this objective. This method is length of super-hydrophobic surfaces with a well precision by
implemented by regulating the shape and size of the removing the effect of contact angle on the results mentioned
super-hydrophobic area on the sample. The formula for this in Bocquet’s comment[12]. In this method, the sample surface is
method is deduced in this article. To verify this method, the composed by two parts, one is a circle super-hydrophobic area
slip length of 70wt % glyrine on a super-hydrophobic surface (smaller than the area of the fixture) and around this area is the
with stripe structure (the period, width and height of ridges is smooth surface. The slip length is calculated by comparing the
100μm, 80μm and 70μm respectively) is measured. Result torque for the surface covered with super-hydrophobic area to
shows that the slip length can be measured using this method that for smooth surface.
for super-hydrophobic surfaces. This method can also be used
to measure the slip length of hydrophobic surfaces if the EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
measuring system is precise enough.
Keywords: super-hydrophobic surface, slip length, drag Figure 1 shows the concept of this slip length measurement.
The super-hydrophobic part (SH area) of surface is smaller
reduction, rheometer
than the area of the fixture. So the liquid in the gap can contact
INTRODUCTION the hydrophobic area on the surface to ensure that the contact
To design and manufacture a surface with well drag area for the surface covered with super-hydrophobic area is the
reduction for liquid is of physical and technologic interesting same as that for smooth surface. Through this strategy, the
because it is of valuable in MEMS devices and medical affect of contact angle on the slip length is removed by
devices for liquid transporting and solid body swimming. Due comparing the torques for super-hydrophobic surface with that
to its small interaction with liquid, the super-hydrophobic for hydrophobic one.
surfaces sound to be perfect one with larger slippage, which
has being hold as the source of drag reduction. Driven by this
idea, several work groups have fabricated different
super-hydrophobic surfaces by different means such as
self-assembly[1,2],sol–gel method[3] and laser etching[4] and
tested the slip length or drag reduction for these surfaces.
Although several methods, such as μ-PIV, rheometer, have
been employed to measure the slip length or drag reduction on
super-hydrophobic surfaces, how to characterize the slippage
of these surfaces is still an open problem because of the
following reason up to now. First, the composite interface of Fig. 1 the strategy of slip length measurement in
liquid on super-hydrophobic surface will disappear when the consideration of the effect of contact angle
Laplace pressure inside the liquid is too large. So the methods
employed in measurement for the slip length of liquid on To verify this method, the slip length of a surface covered
smooth surfaces by Zhu [5] and other authors[6,7] can not be with a super-hydrophobic area for 70wt% glyrine is measured.
used for super-hydrophobic surfaces. On the other hand, the This super-hydrophobic area is of the diameter of Ф19mm and
slip length measured for structural surfaces is only an effective manufactured by laser etching. The structure of this area is
slip length, which is directly related to the force but can hardly parallel lines; the width of ridge and the distance between two
be deduced from the velocity of particle inside liquid neighboring lines are 80μm and 100μm, respectively. Both of
especially in the case that the velocity on the surface depends the grating surface and the reference smooth surface are treated
on the position on the surface. Thus the μ-PIV [8,9] and other with silane(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl silane). After that, the
methods [10] related to the particle velocity can not satisfy the grating surfaces becomes super-hydrophobic(the contact angle
need for slip length measurement on super-hydrophobic is 157±4°) and the smooth surface is hydrophobic (the contact
surface, on which there are rich in micro structure. On this angle is 110±2°). The measurement is performed on the
context, the method using rheometer sounds a fitting method AR-G2 rheometer (TA Instruments, New Castle, Delaware,
for this slip length measurement. Actually, this method has USA). The position of fixture is firstly marked on the patier
been proposed by Choi and Kim[11], who have measured the plate and then the sample is placed on the plate to make sure
slip length of nano-structural surface of 20μm, which is the center of the super-hydrophobic area is coinciding with the
impossible on the theory and have been commented by center point of the fixture. Zeroing the fixture position and
mapping the fixture to get rid off the systemic error. After that, Figure 3 shows the slip length calculated by the method in
the torque and shear rate can be read from this rheometer this paper. The slip length is about 40μm for our surface in
precise enough. In this course, the gap D is set as 900μm. wide shear rate scale. This result shows that the wetting state
of liquid on this structure surface did not transit from Cassie to
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION Wenzel state in the measuring course. If the slip length of
The radius of the fixture and super-hydrophobic area of the hydrophobic surface can be neglect, the slip length calculated
sample in figure 1 are R and r, respectively. The torque for a in this paper is a credible one. This method is fit for measuring
hydrophobic surface is: the slip length of super-hydrophobic surfaces, on which the
wetting state of liquid is hardly to transit.
ωr − ω ′′r R ωr − ω ′′r
3 3
(1)
M H = ∫∫ ⋅ μ ⋅ r ⋅ rdrdθ = 2πμ ∫ dr
Ω
D 0 D
Where M H is the torque applied on the fixture in the case
for a hydrophobic surface, ω is the rotating speed of the
fixture, ω ′′ is the slip rotating speed on the sample, D is the
gap between both surfaces, μ is the viscosity of liquid filled
in the gap and Ω is the area contributing to the torque. If the
slip rotating speed is neglected, the torque will be:
1 ωR 4
MH = πμ (2)
2 D
Using the same method, the torque for the sample covered
with super-hydrophobic area is:
1 ⎛ ω − ω′ 4 ω 4 1 ωR 4 − ω ′r 4
Fig. 3 the slip lengths calculated by the method we
M SH = πμ ⎜
2 ⎝
4 ⎞
r + (R ) (3)
− r ⎟ = πμ propose in this paper
D D ⎠ 2 D
Where M SH is the torque applied on the fixture in the CONCLUSION
case for the surface covered with super-hydrophobic area, ω ′ In summary, the slip length of super-hydrophobic surfaces
is the slip rotating speed of liquid on super-hydrophobic can be measured by modulate the super-hydrophobic area
surface and other factors are the same as that mentioned there distribution on the surface, which aims to get rid of the effect
before. According to navier hypothesis [13]: ω ′ = b(ω − ω ′) / D , of contact angle or contact area on the measuring slip length.
By this method, the difference on the slip length of different
the torque for the surface with super-hydrophobic structure
surfaces can also be detected if the measuring system could be
writes:
controlled precisely, which allows the detection of slip length
bω 4
ωR 4 − r on a hydrophobic surface. Especially, this method is fit for
1
M SH = πμ D +b (4) measuring the slip length of super-hydrophobic surfaces on
2 D which the wetting state of liquid is hardly transit even the
Then the slip length can be deduced: measuring system is not precise enough.
M
1 − SH
(5)
MH ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
b= D
⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ M SH ⎞
4
698
Effect of Plasma Surface Niobizing of ¤-TiAl Alloy on Wear Resistance
Xiaoping Liu*/ Research Institute of Surface Bingying Wang/ Research Institute of Surface
Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan
030024,China 030024,China
Zhiyong He/ Research Institute of Surface Engineering, Li Cao/Institute of Science and Technology, Shenyang
Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan Ligong University, Shenyang 110168, China
030024,China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
with SiC paper with the number from 120 to 1000 grit,
Niobium alloying of γ-TiAl has been of great interest in
followed by polishing with 0.25μm Al2O3 suspension, cleaning
resent years because of its better oxidation resistance. But for
in acetone and drying in air. Plasma Nb alloying was
the application of TiAl in automobile or aircraft engine
performed in a double glow plasma alloying furnace with a
components, the wear resistance is very important. In this work,
source cathode voltage (Nb target) of 850 V, substrate cathode
a Nb-alloyed layer, about 20μm in thickness, was formed in
voltage of 450 V and Ar gas pressure of 50 Pa. Samples were
the surface of γ-TiAl. The alloyed layer was composed of
heated at temperature of 1373 K for 3 h and cooled down to
Nb2Al and Nb3Al. The hardness of the induced surface layer
room temperature in the vacuum chamber after treatment.
was about 600HV, higher than untreated TiAl. The optical
The wear experiments were carried out on ball-on-disc
microscopy and scanning electronic microscopy were used to
sliding wear apparatus at room temperature and 873K,
observe morphology of the surface and cross section of plasma
respectively. The alloyed specimens were fixed on the disc and
alloyed TiAl; the chemical composition of the surface layer
slided against the balls. The counterpart ball for room
was examined by glow discharge spectrum; the hardness was
temperature test was made of ASTM W1-111/2 harden steel
measured using micro-hardness tester with the Koop
with a hardness of 60HRC and diameter of 3 mm, and for 873
values. Untreated and alloyed TiAl samples were subjected to
K wear test, it is Si3N4 ball whose hardness and diameter were
dry sliding wear against steel counter ball and their tribological
1590HV0.05 and 3mm. The abrasion data are presented as the
response was studied. A ball-on-disk type apparatus was used.
specific wear rate ω, which is calculated according to the
Volume loss measurements were done to determine the wear
rate. Immediately after the tests, the wear scar was examined equation ω = VW W • x . In this equation, VW is the
microscopically. The result shows that the surface alloyed volume of materials lost from the specimen during the wear
layer of TiAl has a graded distribution of the hardness value test (mm3), W the normal load on the specimen (N) and x the
and the wear rate is less than the untreated TiAl. In other sliding distance (m). ω has the unit of mm3/Nm.
words, the plasma alloying of niobium can increase the wear The microstructures, composition and surface
resistance of TiAl alloy. morphologies of specimens were observed by Axiovert
Keywords: -TiAl, Plasma alloying, Wear resistance 25CA(Zeiss) optical microscopy (OM), JEOL/JSM-5610LV
scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with energy
1. INTRODUCTION
dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and GDS. The crystal structures
There has been great interest in TiAl based alloys (TiAl) in of the oxide were investigated by Rigaku D/max 2500 X-ray
the past two decade duo to their excellent high-temperature diffraction (XRD).
strength in combination with a low density [1]. But they now
are limited in developing those components used at elevated 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
temperatures duo to their deficiency in resistances of oxidation
and wear [2]. Many efforts have been made to improve their 3.1 Nb-alloyed layer
oxidation resistance by addition of niobium [3]. Our previous
work on effect of the surface plasma niobium alloying on the (a)
TiAl based alloy by using double glow plasma surface alloying
technique has been reported. However, there is a lack in the
study on the tribology behavior of plasma Nb-alloyed TiAl. In
this study, the main emphasis is placed in the mechanism of
friction and wear of the alloyed layer formed on TiAl by
contrasting worn morphology, microstructure, loss volume or
specific wear rate between untreated and Nb-alloyed TiAl
samples. The investigation is important for the components (b) (c) (d)
subjected to surface contact and sliding wear in service, for
example, exhaust values in car engines and gas turbine blades
in aero engines.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Sheets of cast TiAl with a dimension of 13 mm in width,
13 mm in length and 3.8 mm in thickness and a composition of
50Ti-46.5Al-2.5V-1Cr in at.% were prepared for the present
investigation. Each surface of all the samples was polished Fig.1 SEM image (a) and corresponding Nb (b), Al (c) and Ti
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. (d) elemental maps of the cross section of the Nb-alloyed layer
*liuxiaoping@tyut.edu.cn
699
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The SEM image of the Nb-alloyed layer formed on the The friction coefficient of Nb-alloyed TiAl is stable
TiAl at 1100ć/3h with corresponding EDS elememtal maps during sliding and higher compared with untreated TiAl
are shown in Fig.1. A niobium-rich region forms in the surface (see Fig.5). The worn cross-sectional figure shown in Fig.6
of the alloyed layer. The result of X-ray diffraction shows the indicates that the lower wear occurs for Nb-alloyed TiAl
surface layer is mainly composed of AlNb3 and AlNb3. The sample and its specific wear rate decrease approx. 95 times
hardness of the Nb alloying surface is approx. 600HV0.025. than untreated TiAl. By comparison, very slightly
scratching can be observed on the wear track of
160 ƾ--AlNb3 Ʒ
Nb-alloyed TiAl, shown in Fig.7.
ƹ
140 ƹ--Nb
Ƶ--AlNb2
120
Ʒ--AlNbTi2 1.6
100
cps
80 1.4
COF
60
ƾ Ƶ 1.2
ƵƷ TiAl-Nb
40 ƹ Ƶ ƹ
20 ƾ
Ƶ
ƾ Ʒ 1.0 TiAl
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
o 0.8
2Theta / 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Distance from surface / km
Fig.2 XRD spectra of the Nb-alloyed layer
Fig.5 Friction Coefficients of untreated and Nb-alloyed TiAl
3.2 Wear behavior samples under the load of 100g
5
Variation of friction coefficient with respect to sliding time
obtained at room temperature is plotted in Fig.3. The friction 0
coefficient of the Nb-alloyed layer increases after the load is
Depth / μm
over 100g and is close to the value of untreated TiAl (0.5-0.6). -5 TiAl-Nb
But the volume losses under loads of 50g-150g listed in Table
TiAl
1 are less than those of untreated TiAl. The worn scars show a -10
severe abrasive and adhering wear at the load of 150g.
-15
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0.8
50g Width / μm
100g Fig.6 Worn profile of untreated and Nb-alloyed TiAl
Friction coefficient
0.6 150g
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Sliding time / min
Table1 Volume losses under different loads Fig.7 Wear surfaces of (a) untreated and (b) Nb-alloyed TiAl
Volume loss (mm3) samples under 100g
Load (g)
TiAl TiAl-Nb
50 0.121 0.009 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
100 0.154 0.120 The financial support for this research was provided by
150 0.546 0.153 National Natural Science Foundation of China (50671071,
50271045) and the Provincial Natural Science Foundation of
(a) (b) Shanxi under grant (2006011052).
REFERENCES
[1] Kim, Y. W., Dimiduk, M. D., 1991, “Progress in the
understanding of gamma titanium aluminides,” JOM, 43,
pp.40-47.
[2] Stolo, N. S., L, C. T., Deevi, S. C., 2000, “Emerging
applications of intermetallics,” Intermetallics, 8,
250m 200m pp.1313-1320.
[3] Hornauer, U., Richter, E., Wieser, E., et al., 1999,
“Improvement of the high temperature oxidation resistance
Fig.4 The worn surfaces of Nb-alloyed layers
of Ti50Al via ion-implantation,” Nuclear Instruments and
under loads of (a) 100g and (b) 150g
Methods in Physics Research, B148, pp.858-862.
700
Tribological Properties and High-Speed Drilling Performance of Zr-C:H:Nx% Coatings with Different Contents of Nitrogen
W. H. Kao, Institute of Mechatronoptic Systems, Chienkuo Y.L.Su, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National
Technology University, Changhua, Taiwan, China Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, China
S.H.Yao, Chang Jung Christian University, Tainan, Taiwan,
China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
across each coating at a continuously increasing loading rate of
The Zr-C:H:Nx% coatings with different nitrogen contents
1 N s-1.
have been deposited on AISI M2 steel substrates and
2.3. DRILLING TESTS
micro-drills by Closed Field Unbalanced Magnetron (CFUBM)
To investigate the suitability of the coatings for industrial
sputtering. The tribological properties of the coatings have
machining applications, the coatings were deposited on
been tested against AISI 52100 steel balls under loading 10N
micro-drills (MD020, Tera, Taiwan) and used in a series of
or 100N using an oscillating friction and wear tester.
high-speed through-hole drilling tests under dry conditions
Additionally, high-speed through-hole drilling tests are
using PCB substrates. The drilling operation was performed
performed on printed circuit boards (PCB) to investigate the
using a commercial machining center (W1686-10,
drilling performance of the coated micro-drills. The results
Schmol-Mashinen, Germany) with a rotation speed of 160000
demonstrate that the excellent tribological properties is
rpm and a feed rate of 1.4 m/min.
Zr-C:H:N8% coating sliding against AISI 52100 steel ball
included low wear depth on coating, low friction coefficients
and long lifetime. Finally, it is shown that coating micro-drills 3. RESULTS
3.1. COMPOSITION, MECHANICAL AND ADHESIVE
with Zr-C:H:N8% increases the tool life by a factor of five
PROPERTIES
compared to uncoated micro-drill when used for the
Table 1 lists the composition of the Zr-C:H:Nx% coatings
high-speed through-hole drilling of PCBs.
with varying flow rates of nitrogen. Listed x% values show
Keywords: Zr-C:H:N coating, tribology, micro-drill
nitrogen contents of 0%, 8%, 12%, 20%, 23%, and 29%
atomic percentage. The coating hardness decreases as the
1. INTRODUCTION nitrogen content is increased from 0 at.% to 29.5 at.%.
DLC coatings can be separated generally from Coatings Zr-C:H:N0% and Zr-C:H:N29% have the highest and
hydrogen-free diamond-like carbon coatings (ta-C) and the lowest hardness values. As shown in Table 1, the scratch
hydrogenated diamond-like carbon coatings (a-C:H). The test results revealed that the coatings of Zr-C:H:N8% and
carbon source of the ta-C coatings usually originated in only Zr-C:H:N12% possess high critical loads (> 84 N) the scratch
graphite target and the a-C:H coatings usually originated in results indicated that a suitable range of nitrogen doping
reactive gas. In order to improve their adhesive and improves the coating adhesion property and the high content of
tribological properties by developing so-called a-C:Me or nitrogen leads to a reduction in adhesion strength.
Me-C:H coatings, in which the a-C or a-C:H film is doped 3.2. TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND LIFETIME
with additional metal materials. Newly, a tendency from DLC Table 2 presents the wear depths and mean values of the
films toward carbon nitride films, which are very attractive in friction coefficients of the current coatings obtained after wear
the fields of tribological, electronic, and optical investigation. testing for 24 minutes against AISI 52100 steel ball and
But nitrogen-doped Me-diamond-like carbon (Me-C:H:N) lifetime. It shows all of these coatings, the Zr-C:H:N8% coating
coatings have received comparatively little attention. possesses the best anti-wear and anti-friction properties.
In this study, zirconium metal target, carbon source of 3.3. HIGH SPEED DRILLING PERFORMANCE
reactive gas and solid target and various nitrogen flow rate The Zr-C:H:N8% coating always provides the optimal
were used to deposit Zr-C:H:Nx% coatings. The mechanical, corner wear resistance The Zr-C:H:N8% coatings showing the
adhesive, tribological properties and high speed micro-drilling best corner wear resistance in the drilling tests was selected for
application of Zr-C:H:Nx% coatings were discussed. the tool life in terms of the total attainable number of drilled
holes before the corner wear value reached a value of 34.4μm
2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS (i.e. the corner wear of an uncoated drill after drilling 2000
2.1. WEAR TEST holes ). It is observed that the Zr-C:H:N8% coating provides the
The basic tribological properties of the coatings were maximum attainable number of drilled holes above 10000
investigated using an SRV (Schwingung Reibungund holes.
Verschleiss) oscillation friction and wear tester (Optimol, 3.4. DRILLING QUALITY IN DRILLING HOLE
Germany). The investigation considered the ball-on-disk point Fig. 1(a)–1(d) show the quality of the drilled holes at the
contact wear mode, the upper specimen was a AISI 52100 steel 20,00th and 60,00th hole drilled for the uncoated micro-drill
ball of diameter 10mm. Wear testing was performed using a and for the Zr-C:H:N8% coated micro-drills, respectively. Fig.
constant 1 mm stroke, 10 N or 100 N normal load, a 24 minute 1(a) shows the presence of significant smearing at the 20,00th
test duration and a 50Hz oscillation frequency. drilled hole and the 60,00th hole is clearly distorted with
2.2. HARDNESS AND ADHESION TESTS significant smearing and burring in evidence in and around the
The hardness of each coating was measured using a hole as shown in Fig. 1(b) for the uncoated micro-drill.
nanoindentation tester (TriboScope, Hysitron Inc., USA) with Therefore, the uncoated micro-drill provides a poor quality of
a force at final contact of 1mN. The adhesive properties of the drilled hole. The 20,00th drilled hole (Fig. 1(c)) produced
various coatings were also examined by performing scratch using the Zr-C:H:N8% coated micro-drill displays a much
tests in which a 300 μm diameter diamond stylus was driven improved hole quality, almost no any burring and smearing in
701
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
and around the hole. Furthermore, its quality of the 6000th Zr-C:H:Nx% coatings adhesion are found for Zr-C:H:N8%
hole (Fig. 1(d)) is superior to the 2000th hole (Fig. 1(a)) that of and Zr-C:H:N12%, and these are suitable sliding against
produced using the uncoated micro-drill. Therefore, the AISI 52100 steel ball. This is because Nx% of 8 and 12
Zr-C:H:N8% coated micro-drill not only provides an extended provide suitable solid lubricant effects, thus possess low
tool life, but also improves the quality for the high-speed friction coefficients, high wear resistance and long
through-drilling of PCBs under dry conditions. lifetime.
3. The optimum coating for sliding against AISI 52100 steel
4. CONCLUSIONS ball is the Zr-C:H:N8% coating. A solid lubricant layer
from the coating is transferred to the 52100 steel ball. The
Based on the results of this study, we can conclude the
fact that solid lubricant layer transition occurs between
following:
the coated disk and the 52100 steel ball implies that
1. The hardness of the Zr-C:H:Nx% coatings decrease as the
adhesive wear and friction can be largely reduced.
nitrogen content increases. Therefore the Zr-C:H:N0%
4. The present results have shown that coating micro-drill
coating and Zr-C:H:N29% coating possess the highest and
with Zr-C:H:N8% increases the tool life by a factor of 5
lowest hardness, respectively.
times and improves the quality of drilled holes, compared
2. A suitable nitrogen content can improve coating adhesion,
to the uncoated tool case.
the optimal content being found in the nitrogen content
range of 8%-12% atomic percentage. The best
Table 1
Nitrogen flow rate, film thickness, elemental composition, mechanical property and adhesion property of various Zr-C:H:Nx%
coatings
Coating Nitrogen coating Elemental composition (at.%) Mechanical Adhesion
flow rate thickness property property
(sccm) (μm) C Zr N H Hardness Critical load (N)
(kgf/mm2)
Zr-C:H:N0% 0 1.5 86 6.2 0 7.8 1463 63
Zr-C:H:N8% 1 1.8 85 2 8 5 1213 87
Zr-C:H:N12% 2 1.9 82 2 12 4 880 84
Zr-C:H:N20% 3 2.0 75 2 20.2 2.8 766 38
Zr-C:H:N23% 4 2.2 73 2 23.2 1.8 551 33
Zr-C:H:N29% 5 2.3 67 2 29.5 1.5 429 28
Table 2
Wear results of Zr-C:H:Nx% coatings sliding against AISI 52100 steel ball under normal loading 10N and 100N, respectively: μa :
average value of low friction coefficients during stable stage; μb : average value of high friction coefficients during fluctuating
stage; D: wear depth of wear scar on coating for during 1440 testing time. And L: lifetime of the time from the start of testing
until the time at which the friction coefficient suddenly increases and starts to fluctuate
Coatings ball-on-disk point contact wear mode
Friction coefficient Wear depth Lifetime
10N 100N 10N 100N 10N 100N
μa μb μa μb D (μm) L (sec.)
Zr-C:H:N0% 0.17 --- 0.13 0.46 1.6 2.6 3384 1093
Zr-C:H:N8% 0.07 --- 0.04 0.43 1.0 2.0 3418 1366
Zr-C:H:N12% 0.14 --- 0.06 0.26 1.9 2.9 3126 1127
Zr-C:H:N20% 0.13 --- 0.05 0.47 3.4 10.5 2675 646
Zr-C:H:N23% 0.16 --- 0.08 0.52 3.6 19.5 2356 68
Zr-C:H:N29% 0.21 0.78 0.22 0.61 4.7 41.5 286 19
Uncoated --- 0.75 --- 0.56 9.68 100.1 --- ---
702
Tribological Behavior of Sputtered CrAlNbN Hard Coatings at Elevated Temperatures
G.A. Fontalvo*/ Christian Doppler Laboratory for C. Mitterer/ Christian Doppler Laboratory for Advanced
Advanced Hard Coatings at the Department of Physical Hard Coatings at the Department of Physical Metallurgy
Metallurgy and Materials Testing, Montanuniversität and Materials Testing, Montanuniversität Leoben,
Leoben, Franz-Josef-Straße 18, A-8700 Leoben, Austria Franz-Josef-Straße 18, A-8700 Leoben, Austria
(Extended Abstract)
EXPERIMENTAL
In the present study, CrAlNbN films were deposited on Fig. 1 XRD patterns of the coatings without Nb (A), and with
high-speed steel substrates by reactive d.c. magnetron Nb / metal ratios of 17% (b), and 53% (C)
sputtering in Ar+N2 from one Nb and two CrAl (25 at% Al) 2”
diameter targets, at a total pressure of 0.37 Pa, with a
flow-controlled nitrogen partial pressure of 44%. The current
on the CrAl targets and the substrate bias voltages were kept
constant for all depositions at 0.7A and -80V, respectively. Two
different variations of CrAlNbN coatings were obtained by
varying the current on the Nb target (0.35 and 1A). The
deposition time was varied such that a film thickness of 3μm
was reached. The coatings were characterized by X-ray
diffraction (XRD, Bruker AXS D8 Advance), scanning
electron microscopy (SEM, Zeiss Evo50), energy-dispersive
X-ray analysis (EDS, INCA) and nanoindentation
measurements (UMIS II). Ball-on-disc tests (CSM THT) were
conducted in ambient air at temperatures up to 600°C using
alumina balls as counter-faces, a load of 5N and a sliding
distance of 200m. Wear tracks on the samples were Fig. 2 Hardness and Young’s moduli of the coatings
characterized using Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron
microscopy and white light profilometry (Wyko NT1000).
At room temperature, the coefficient of friction (COF) of
CrAlN sliding against alumina is about 0.5 while that of the
RESULTS Nb containing coatings is around 0.6. Both CrAlN and the
EDS analysis of the coatings reveal that the Nb metal ratio coating with a Nb / metal ratio of 17% show almost no wear,
(at.% Nb / at.% Nb + at.% Cr + at.%Al) increases from 17% to while the coating with 53% Nb / metal ratio shows a wear
53% with increasing current on the Nb target. track which is about 1μm deep (cf. Fig. 3(a)). As temperature
Fig.1 shows XRD patterns of the coatings without Nb (A), increases, the COF decreases to 0.45 for CrAlN, and to 0.5 for
with a Nb / metal ratio of 17% (B) and 53% (C). The coatings the Nb containing coatings. Wear increases for all coatings as
show a cubic structure with preferred [200] growth orientation. temperature raises. However, in case of CrAlN, the coating
With increasing Nb content, the peaks move from the positions fails (Fig. 3(b)). The Nb containing coatings behave different.
corresponding to CrN towards those of the fcc-NbN. For the The coating with a Nb metal ratio of 17% shows almost no
highest Nb content, the [200] orientation becomes significantly wear and there is transferred material in the wear track,
particularly on both sides of the track (cf. Fig. 3(c)). The coating
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
703
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
with a Nb / metal ratio of 53% shows less wear than the CrAlN Composite Materials GmbH (Lechbruck, Germany) and
coating, and the wear track is about 1.5μm deep (cf. Fig. 3d). Oerlikon Balzers Coatings AG (Balzers, Liechtenstein) is
highly acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Endrino, J., Derflinger, V., 2005, “The influence of
alloying elements on the phase stability and
mechanical properties of AlCrN coatings,” Surface
and Coatings Technology, 200, pp.988-992.
[2] Münz, W.-D., Lewis, D.B., Hovsepian, P.Eh., Schönjahn,
C., Ehiasarian, A., Smith, I.J., 2001, “Industrial scale
manufactured superlattice hard PVD coatings,”
Surface Engineering, 17, pp.15-27.
[3] Kutschej, K., Mayrhofer, P.H., Kathrein, M., Polcik, P.,
Mitterer, C., 2004, “A new low-friction concept for
Ti1-xAlxN based coatings in high-temperature
applications,” Surface and Coatings Technology, 188-189,
pp.358-363.
Fig. 3 Two-dimensional surface profiles of the wear tracks of [4] Franz, R., Neidhardt, J., Sartory, B., Kaindl, R., Tessadri,
(a) 53% Nb / metal ratio at RT, and (b) CrAlN, (c) 17% Nb/ R., Polcik, P., Derflinger, V.H., Mitterer, C., 2006, “High
metal ratio, (d) 53% Nb/ metal ratio after testing at 600°C. temperature low friction properties of vanadium-alloyed
AlCrN coatings,” Tribology Letters, 23, pp.101-107
CONCLUSIONS [5] Fateh, N., Fontalvo, G.A., Mitterer, C., 2007, “Influence of
high-temperature oxide formation on the tribological
Within this work, the influence of Nb in the structure and behaviour of TiN and VN coatings,” Wear, 262,
the tribological behavior of low Al containing CrAlN coatings pp.1152-1158.
at room and 600°C was investigated. Alloying of CrAlN with [6] Erdemir, A., 2000, “A crystal-chemical approach to
Nb results in an fcc structure consisting of a solid solution of lubrication by solid oxides”, Tribology Letters, 8,
CrN and NbN that grows with a preferred [200] orientation. As pp.97-102
consequence of the increasing Nb content, both hardness and [7] Fontalvo, G.A., Terziyska, V., Mitterer, C., 2007, “High
Young’s modulus increase as well. Alloying of CrAlN with Nb temperature tribological behavior of sputtered NbNx thin
results in a better tribological behavior at elevated films,” Surface and Coatings Technology, 202,
temperatures. pp.1017-1022
704
The Method of Elastic Coatings Diagnostics from Indentation Data
E. Torskaya / Institute for Problems in Mechanics RAS, S. Chizhik / A.V.Lykov Insitute of heat and mass
101, 1, Vernadskogo prosp., 119526, Moscow, Russia transfer, 15, P.Brovkà Street, Minsk BY-220072,
Republic of Belarus
S. Siroezkin / A.V.Lykov Insitute of heat and mass
transfer, 15, P.Brovkà Street, Minsk BY-220072,
Republic of Belarus
(Extended Abstract)
be considered in assumption that the layer thickness and the where p(r) is the contact pressure.
elastic properties of the substrate are known values [4, 5]. The The conditions of perfect adhesion at the layer-substrate
widespread techniques of the extra-thin layers formation at the interface (z=0) are considered:
non-uniform surface of the foundation don’t provide the
w(1) = w(2) , ur(1) = ur(2) ,
constant thickness of the coating. (3)
In this study a new approach is realized to characterize thin soft σ z(1) = σ z(2) , τ rz(1) = τ rz(2) , τ θ(1)z = τ θ(2)z
layers adhered to relatively hard substrate. The elastic modulus
and the thickness of the layer are obtained simultaneously from The method of Hankel integral transforms makes it possible
the indentation data. The data is the force-displacement to obtain the displacements of the layer upper surface under
dependence for a fixed surface point. The calculation procedure the known normal load distribution [6]. This solution is then
is used for hypothetical ranges of the layer thickness and elastic used as a basis for the solution to the axisymmetric contact
modulus. problem using the method proposed developed in [7]. To solve
torskaya@mail.ru
705
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
depth (nm)
rings are determined by the function f (r). A system of N 20
5
ALGORITHM OF THE LAYER THICKNESS AND THE
ELASTICITY MODULUS CALCULATION 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Load (nN)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Russian Foundation for
Basic Research (grant numbers 06-01-81021-Bel-a and
07-01-00282-a) and Belarusian Republican Foundation for
Fundamental Research (grant F06R-207).
Fig. 2
1. The data complex, which is not change during the REFERENCES
calculations, at this stage of the program development don’t [1] Burnham, N. A., Colton, R. J., 1989, Measuring the
include elastic properties of the indenter (it considered to be nanomechanical properties and surface forces of materials
rigid). using an atomic force microscope, J.Vac. Sci.Technol., vol.
2. The indentation data include the number of indentation steps A7, pp. 2906−2913.
N, and the dependence wnex ( Pn ) , where wnex and Pn are [2] Burnham, N. A., Colton, R. J. and Pollock, H. M., 1993,
penetration and force values for n-th step. Interpretation of force curves in force microscopy,
3. Pn is used to calculate (based on the contact problems Nanotechnology, vol. 4, pp. 64−68.
[3] Chizhik, S. A., Huang, Z., Gorbunov, V. V., Myshkin, N.
solution) the maximum displacement wnc of the indenter as K., Tsukruk, V. V., 1998,.Micromechanical properties of
a function of elasticity modulus and the coating thickness for elastic polymeric materials as probed by scanning force
hypothetical ranges of E1 and h. microscopy, Langmuir, vol. 14, 9, pp. 3012–3015.
4. The function is compared with the experimental value of [4] Burnham, N. A., Domingues, D. D., Mowery, R. L., Colton,
penetration for the step. The pairs ( E1 , h) , which provide the R. J., 1990, Probing the surface forces of monolayer films
with an atomic force microscope, Phus. Rev. Lett., vol. 64,
values of wnc equal to wnex , form a multitude Ωn . pp. 1931−1934.
5. At the last stage all magnitudes are compared with each other. [5] Tsukruk, V. V., Sidorenko, A., Gorbunov, V. V., Chizhik,
The perfect case is the only pair ( E1 , h) , which is an element S. A., 2001, Surface Nanomechanical Properties of
Polymer Nanocomposite Layers, Langmuir, vol. 17, pp.
of all multitudes. Really there are many pairs which are rather
6715–6719.
close to each other. The average values are obtained.
[6] Nikishin, V. S. and Shapiro, G. S., 1970, Space problems
of elasticity theory for multi-layered bodies (in Russian),
AN EXAMPLE OF LAYER THICKNESS AND
(AN-SSSR: Academy of Sciences (U.S.S.R), Moscow).
ELASTICITY MODULUS CALCULATION
[7] Torskaya, E. V., Goryacheva, I. G., 2003, The effect of
A thin film adhered to silicon substrate have been tested by interface imperfection and external loading on the
indentation. The silicon elasticity modulus is 180 GPa; Poisson axisymmetric contact with a coated solid, Wear, vol 254,
ratio ν 2 =0.4, and ν1 =0.45. The radius of indenter (the probe pp. 538–545.
curvature) is 20nm. The indentation results are presented at (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
Figure 3. needs it.)
706
The Effect of Electric Field on Adhesion Force with Liquid in MIM Structures
The Effect of Electric Field on Adhesion Force with Liquid in MIM Structures
Xiong Yi1, Zhang Xiangjun1*, Liu Yonghe2, Zhang Xiaohao1, Mikhail Kosinskiy2
1
State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
2
Technical University Ilmenau, Ilmenau 98693, Germany
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
z Z stage Computer
The effect of electric field on adhesion force with liquid in
Signal of adhesion
MIM (Metal-Insulator-Metal) structures has been y force A/D
experimentally researched. Two kinds of liquid (polar and x
Fiber sensor
non-polar) are used, and voltage is applied between steel balls
and silicon wafers with silicon nitride film on, which is used to Spring beam
Current and voltage signal
simulate MIM structures. Then the adhesion force is measured, Upper sample-
ball V
and it is observed that the effect of polar liquid is different from Lower sample
'&
non-polar liquid. The polar liquid can eliminate the electric Microscope A
PZT
force caused by the voltage but the non-polar liquid cannot; the
adhesion force with non-polar liquid in will be changed by CCD
3 direction stage
amplitude and applied time of voltage, which is caused by
electric force and charge trapping of dielectric film. When the
liquid become smaller and smaller, the effect on the model with
polar liquid in will be changed; the voltage can change the
adhesion force too. Because the adhesion force is depended on Fig.1 The schematic of the experimental apparatus
the capillary force which is correlative with the liquid volume
too, we can adjust the adhesion force by voltage and liquid
volume. &DQWLOHYHUEHDP
Keywords: electric field, adhesion force, polar (non-polar) 9 6WHHOEDOO
liquid )OXLG 'LHOHFWULFILOP
INTRODUCTION 7UDQVSDUHQWHOHFWULFILOP
Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) structures have been used in
(a)
micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) frequently. In this
field, the most important problem is the charging of dielectric
film, which can affect the adhesion force and thus induce the &DQWLOHYHUEHDP
failure of the whole structure[1~3]. Many researches have been 9 6WHHOEDOO
done to investigate the relation of voltage and adhesion force in )OXLG 'LHOHFWULFILOP
MIM structures [1~3]. If liquid is imported into the structure,
forming Metal-Liquid-Insulator-Metal (MLIM) structure, the 7UDQVSDUHQWHOHFWULFILOP
adhesion force will display some new characters which may be
used in micro-pipe driving by static electric force or other (b)
fields. The adhesion force of MLIM structure with voltage Fig.2 (a) Dip the ball into the liquid to avoid the capillary
applied is related to the charge trapping, electrowetting, force to get the electric force only (b) Change the liquid into a
capillary force, and so on. So it is very important to be micro-drop to get the adhesion force changed by voltage and
investigated. volume of liquid
EXPERIMENT MATERIALS
EXPERIMENT
In the experiment, steel balls of 3mm diameter and silicon
EXPERIMENT INSTRUMENT wafers with silicon nitride film (200nm) as dielectric film are
A micro-/ nano-adhesion apparatus is modified and used as used as upper and lower samples. Two kinds of liquid are filled
a MIM structures simulator in this study. A diagram schematic in the container to investigate the effect of the liquid, which are
of the experimental apparatus is given in fig.1. the glycerin (polar) and n-hexadecane (non-polar). The
The ball-on-flat configuration is used to simulate the MIM parameters of liquid samples are listed in table.1.
structures, and then the liquid is introduced into it. The Tabel.1 Parameters of liquid samples (23 OC and normal
experiment can be described in fig.2. atmosphere pressure)
During experiments, different voltages are applied between
the ball and the wafer, while volume of liquid is also changed.
Molecular Relative Electric
Then adhesion force is measured.
formula permittivity conductivity
( E 1m 1 )
Glycerin (CH2OH)2CHOH 42.5 6.40*10-6
* Email address: xjzhang@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
N-hexadecane CnHh2n+2 n=16 2.046 2.04*10-10
707
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
+ + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - -
+
-
+
-
+
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+
-
+ +
- -
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
708
The Effect of Electric Field on Adhesion Force with Liquid in MIM Structures
From the fig.6 (a), it is observed that voltage displays more China(NSFC) with Grant 50575123/50730007. It was also
effect with decreasing of polar liquid volume, which may be for supported by PPP project from CSC and DAAD.
the reduce of spreading area. It is strange that adhesion force
change caused by electrowetting isn’t observed. A possible REFERENCES
reason is that the original contact angle of glycerine on silicon
[1] Steven T. Patton, 2006, “Effects of dielectric charging on
nitrogen is too small and electrowetting can not occur.
fundamental forces and reliability in capacitive
From the fig.6 (b), it is observed that the adhesion force
microelectromechanical systems radio frequency switch
almost doesn’t change with volume of n-hexadecane, and can
contacts”, Journal of applied physics, 99.
be stable controlled by voltage.
[2] M. Exarchos, V. Theonas, 2005, “Investigation of charging
in Metal-Insulator-Metal structures”, Microelectronics
CONCLUSION Reliability, 45, pp.1782-1785.
According to the results and discussion, the following [3] Herbert R. Shea, 2004, “Effects of Electrical Leakage Currents
conclusions could be got: on MEMS Reliability and Performance”, IEEE Transactions
(1) The polar liquid can eliminate the electric force caused on Device and Materials Reliability, 4, pp.198-207.
by the voltage but the non-polar liquid cannot; [4] Sufi Zafar, Alessandro Callegari, etc., 2002, “Charge
(2) The adhesion force with non-polar liquid in will be Trapping in High K Gate Dielectric Stacks”, international
changed by amplitude and applying time of voltage, which is electron devices meeting, San Francisco CA pp. 517-520
caused by electric force and charge trapping of dielectric film. [5] Zhang Xiaohao, Zhang Xiangjun, etc, 2007, “Impact of
Comparing with air, it will enhance the charge trapping with confined liquid thin film upon bioadhesive force between
n-hexadecane between ball and flat. insect pads and smooth solid surface”, Acta Physica Sinica,
(3) Voltage displays more effect with decreasing of polar 8, pp.4722-4727
liquid volume, and no composing of adhesion force caused by [6] Stefano Millefiorini, Alan H., etc., 2006, “Electrowetting of
electrowetting is observed. For non-polar liquid, the adhesion Ionic Liquids”, J. AM. CHEM. SOC, 128, pp.3098-3101
force almost doesn’t change with volume, and can be stably [7] Jr-Lung Lin, Gwo-Bin Lee, etc., 2006, “Model Description
controlled by voltage. of Contact Angles in Electrowetting on Dielectric Layers”,
Langmuir, 22, pp.484-489
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [8] Shawn W. Walker, Benjamin Shapiro, 2006, “Modeling the
Fluid Dynamics of Electrowetting on Dielectric (EWOD)”,
Acknowledgement is made to Technical University Ilmenau
Journal of Microelectro-mechanical Systems, 4, pp.986-1001
for providing the experiment instruments and materials. This
work was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of
709
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
F
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(Extended Abstract)
710
Simulation of Friction Composite Behavior Using Heat Treatment
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711
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
712
In-situ Microtribology with High Local Resolution
surrounding process where it is no more possible to simulate Current scratch tests use a steel tip with a radius of
real contact areas and local pressures correctly. Since the curvature of 1 mm as penetrator which is a realistic value.
effective geometry and contact areas affect the local material Evaluation of damage takes place after 24 hours which is
behaviour massive, e.g. the viscoelasticity can increase erratic disadvantageous since there is a correlation between the
especially if local plastification or melting of polymers occurs, damage and the temporal interval until its evaluation especially
all numeric models collapse that do not consider these specific for polymers with viscoelastic properties. So, besides spatial
properties. Due to the penetration behaviour of the tip, directly resolution temporal logging is important to appraise time
beneath the surface lies a region of strong plastic behaviour so dependent processes.
that in contrast to pure elastic material it becomes clear that Nanoindentation techniques use radii of curvature of less
because of the contact area a zone of high tension and surface than 100 nm. This leads to extremely high local pressures
pressure forms. which are completely out of touch with reality for abrasion and
Due to the characteristics of polymer materials considering wear processes. The shape of the tip is mostly pyramidal or
elasticity, plasticity and viscoelasticity it is extremely hard to elliptic. In the literature no evidence is found for the
develop a prediction of a specific material behaviour with measurement of its shape or topography in built-in condition.
regard to its scratch behaviour. Up to now there is no suitable An acquisition of the real geometries would be imperative for
extensive model to describe, picture and predict the scratch and precise statements about the contact area and local pressures.
wear process. Thus, scratches created by nanoindentors are not very realistic
because of the high local pressures and the obtuse angles of the
CRITICAL REFLECTION penetrator.
Even if we assume homogenous material properties The same applies to AFM machines especially if they are
different local abrasion mechanisms result from different used as scratch testers. The radii of curvature of the tips range
regional surface structures of both friction partners. Within a from 1 μm to only a few atom layers. It could be shown that the
tactile relative motion different mountains on both material and tip itself wears off right from the start of the abrasion process.
stylus meet each other. Which demolishing mechanism occurs This leads to a constantly changing geometry of the tip. Due to
on a certain point of the surface depends on the local the unknown contact geometry reproducible abrasion processes
topography. Although the local topography affects the are not possible. Besides, the measuring of absolute height
tribosystem crucial, common scratching techniques take neither profiles with a tip changing its shape is impossible.
the spatial resolution nor the geometries of the tribologic Furthermore, the AFM has no lateral guide. If the tip meets an
partners into account. Roughness parameters are not useful area of greater hardness it will sidestep to softer regions making
since these values summarize over the structure or topography an exact determination of the x- and y-coordinates on the
surface impossible. All this makes the AFM an instrument that
and give no hint on local or punctual effects.
is not reasonably applicable for the evaluation of abrasion and
A tribosystem that deals with inhomogeneous material
wear processes.
properties and also takes the interaction between material
An improvement of the available techniques should
behaviour and topography into account has to include and
perform and evaluate abrasion and wear processes in a
consider properties and topographies of both tribologic partners,
comprehensible and reproducible way even on coated and
material and penetrator. So, for detailed insights into the wear
composite materials. It should be applicable not only to flat but
and abrasion mechanisms the border and crossover zones like
also to convex or concave surfaces. In addition, geometry and
in composites have to be comprised.
topography appraisal of the tip in built-in condition should be
To force a surface abrasion it is essential that the penetrator
accomplishable fast and exactly.
has a greater hardness than the specimen. Only then micro
plowing or micro cracking can occur. These effects are
DESCRIPTION OF METHOD
generated by the actual local pressure on the surface as well as
the material or composite behaviour near to the surface. To The innovation consists of a patented method for
capture the different aspects of micro plowing, cutting, determination of deformation values of a surface called micro
exhaustion and breaking an evaluation of the damage after the structure analysis MISTAN. The measurement procedure can
load process is not enough. In fact it is necessary to measure be divided into three measuring steps (Fig. 1) which are
local deformations, distortions and dislocations during the performed continuously in sequence with linear speed and one
abrasion process to make a statement about cause and effect of calculation step (Fig. 2):
the abrasion.
All existing environmental simulation techniques are only
applicable to flat surfaces and are not able to gather information
spatially resolved. Abrasion values determined in that way are
only summarized results, like loss of weight, glance and
volume or gain of roughness. Furthermore, relatively large
specimen are needed that have to be planar and flat. On rough
and structured surfaces these techniques fail, reproducibility is
not assured. Information about the abrasion and wear process is
not available since the evaluation takes place only after the load
process. One has to measure in real time to get in-situ values for
not only the permanent but also the elastic and total
deformation. Fig. 1 MISTAN procedure, height profiles
713
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
714
In-situ Microtribology with High Local Resolution
715
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
716
Optimization of Energy Efficiency of Transparent Conducting Oxide Thin Films in the Field of Solar Cells by Microtribological Rating
Results and discussion while its elasticity remained. Contrary, the elasticity of the on
Table 1 Results of deformation and micro friction under load of Coring glass deposited ZnO:Al film was enlarged during
30mN etching, while the plasticity of that film remained.
sample Ve in μm Vp in μm fR in mN Moreover, ZnO:Al films showed high micro friction than
1 0,42 0,10 12,51 SnO2:F films. The micro friction via radio frequency magnetron
2 0,40 0,11 13,22 sputtering deposited ZnO:Al films are highest. The micro
friction of the etched ZnO:Al films are higher than before
3 0,41 0,09 17,39
etching, as expected [4]. Especially the micro force of the on
4 0,40 0,14 11,20 Coring glass with radio frequency magnetron sputtering
5 0,36 0,19 12,10 deposited ZnO:Al (sample 14) is noticeable higher than others,
6 0,35 0,32 17,46 which has the roughest surface texture as well. The micro
7 0,42 0,13 14,14 friction depends on the vertical loading and the roughness of the
8 0,39 0,21 18,42 surface texture. Those behaviour correlate with the results of via
atomic force microscope (AFM) obtained surface morphology.
9 0,40 0,11 12,31
10 0,37 0,24 14,44 Table 3 Critical load step when sudden increase of force
11 0,40 0,16 13,91 occurred
12 0,38 0,25 14,50 sample Critical load step in mN
13 0,49 0,22 17,06 4 78
14 0,41 0,21 26,01 11 89
15 0,46 0,01 10,81 13 34
16 0,42 0,05 11,15 15 67
17 0,44 0,09 11,71 16 56
Table 2 Results of deformation and micro friction under load of
17 78
60mN The poor scratch resistance of a material is mirrored by a
sample Ve in μm Vp in μm fR in mN sudden increase of permanent deformation and/or micro force
1 0,74 0,18 22,71 during the measuring. And the poorer scratch resistance does
2 0,78 0,23 26,92 along with a sudden increase force at lower step.
3 0,76 0,14 23,52
4 0,80 0,16 23,98 Table 3 shows, the SnO2:F films have poorer scratch
resistance than ZnO:Al films. The via radio frequency
5 0,64 0,26 25,15
magnetron sputtering prepared ZnO:Al films (sample 11 and
6 0,72 0,27 29,91 13) show poor scratch resistance, the scratch resistance will be
7 0,77 0,21 23,57 improved by etching. Except sample 4 the by in-line reactive
8 0,71 0,32 30,37 AC magnetron sputtering deposited ZnO:Al possess good
9 0,64 0,25 25,19 scratch resistance.
10 0,75 0,30 28,75
11 0,67 0,23 28,51 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
12 0,63 0,38 29,18 This work was supported by Fraunhofer-Institute for Surface
13 0,84 0,27 32,83 Engineering and Thin Films IST and INNOWEP GmbH
14 0,70 0,32 33,65 Measuring and Testing.
15 1,12 -0,07 21,80
16 1,11 -0,03 22,49 REFERENCES
17 0,78 0,13 24,42 [1] Kaiyang Zeng, Furong Zhu, Jianqiao Hu, Lu Shen, Keran
Zhang, Hao Gong, 2003, “Investigation of mechanical
The Deformation and micro friction of all samples could be properties of transparent conducting oxide thin films,” Thin
determined successfully. The Difference between the samples Solid Films, 443(2003), pp.60-65.
could be distinguished. In contrast to ZnO:Al films the SnO2:F [2] Te-Hua Fang, Win-Jin Chang, 2005, “Nanomechanical
films possess higher plasticity and lower elasticity. Negative characteristics of SnO2:F thin films deposited by chemical
permanent deformation occurred on the by an offline vapor deposition,” Applied Surface Science, 252(2005),
CVD-method deposited SnO2:F films. That means, the material pp.1863-1869.
is removed and deposited somewhere else during second step. [3] INNOWEP GmbH, Universal Surface Tester (UST®)
Manual V4.10; January 2007
The permanent deformation of by in-line reactive AC [4] V. Sittinger, F. Ruske, W. Werner, B. Szyszka, B.Rech,
magnetron sputtering deposited ZnO:Al films was raised J.Hüpkes, G. Schöpe, H. Stiebig, 2005, “ZnO:Al films
through etching. The elastic deformation of those films deposited by in-line reactive AC magnetron sputtering for
decreased through etching under load of 60 mN, while under 30 a-Si:H thin film solar cells,” Thin Solid Films, 496(2006),
mN their elastic deformation remained. pp.16-25.
The plasticity of by radio frequency magnetron sputtering on (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
SGG-Diamond-glass prepared ZnO:Al film rose after etching, needs it.)
717
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
718
Contact Analysis of a Spherical Wear Particle between Elastomeric Seal and Coated Steel Surface
719
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Yuxiong Liu / The Key Laboratory of Beijing City on Yafei Lu / The Key Laboratory of Beijing City on
Preparation and Processing of Novel Polymer Materials, Preparation and Processing of Novel Polymer Materials,
Box 82, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Box 82, Beijing University of Chemical Technology,
Beijing 100029, China Beijing 100029, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
graphite or antimony sulphide as lubricants would not require
Friction materials are multicomponent composites, where alkali metal titanats as filler. Therefore the specific filler to be
is very important to maintain homogeneity of material, which used depends on the constituents of the friction material.
can be assured using an adequate components with optimal On the other hand, abrasives in a friction material increase
particle size. Friction components can be produced using the friction coefficient while also increasing the rate of wear of
techniques which not always prioritize to achieve the the counter face material. Examples of abrasives are hard
homogeneity of final friction composite. For that reason we particles of metal oxides, silicates and carbides. The abrasives
used special preparation technique to produce the particles typically have Mohs hardness values of around 7-8, and a few
with nearly identical shape - the jet milling technique. This examples of the commonly used abrasives include zirconium
technique is a simple method for preparation of particles with oxide, zirconium silicate, aluminium oxide, chromium oxide or
defined size and reactive surface. silicon carbide [3].
The effect of the size and shape of composite components On these two types of friction components we can see the
on the homogeneity and stability of mixtures before and after variety in chemical composition of friction materials.
friction process was evaluated. Therefore, homogeneity of friction composites must be
Keywords: Multicomponent composites, Particle size, attainment in uniformity of particles size and shape, particle
Shape size distribution and crystallinity. It is very important to know
the variances of properties of individual particles fraction,
INTRODUCTION because many properties of solid particles are not only a
function of the materials bulk properties, but also depend on
Friction performances of automotive brake linings request
the particle size distribution. These changes of properties arise
the friction materials with specific surface, structure and
from the increasing influence of surface properties in
morphology. Very important is also morphology of individual
comparison to volumetric bulk properties as the particle size
compounds.
decreases.
Brake linings composite usually contain [1,2]:
The shape of friction components may be categorized to four
a) friction additives, which determine the frictional
main groups: fibrous reinforcement (e.g. aramide fibers),
properties of the brake pads and comprise a mixture of
layered materials (e.g. clay minerals), metallic chips (e.g.
abrasives and lublicants;
copper particles, brass chips and steel wool) and friction
b) fillers, which reduce the cost and improve the
modifiers (e.g. Al2O3, clay/PTFE composites). The shape of the
manufacturability of brake pads;
particle also significantly influences particle behavior, such as
c) binder, which holds components of a brake pad together;
particle packing and/or suspension rheology.
d) reinforcing fibres, which provide mechanical strength.
The preparation of particles used for friction composites
The complete compositional disclosure of brake friction
can be made by different methods such as homogeneous
material is not known [1]. In fact, each classified component
precipitation, chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel process,
has in brake linings individual role and include to specifically
solid-state reaction method. In this research the milling
friction performances.
process has been applied as a process of solid-state reaction
In particularly, fillers are focal category of friction
method leading to the production of particulate materials.
components. Fillers play an important role in modifying
certain characteristics of brake friction material. The actual
choice of fillers depends on the particular components (size MECHANICAL ACTIVATION OF PARTICLES
and shape) in friction material as well as the type of friction Modern technologies open the possibilities to fabricate the
materials. Typical inorganic fillers include barium sulphate, nanomaterials with various dimensionalities of structures. The
mica, vermiculite and calcium carbonate. Metallic pad that milling methods represent one of the most popular approaches
generates a lot of braking noise would require higher amount to produce particles and nanoparticles by the mechanical way.
of filler such as cashew, mica and/or vermiculite. Mica (or Milling techniques are very difference (include ball milling,
vermiculite) is able to suppress low-frequency brake noise due vibration milling, cryogenic milling etc.), but all are typically
to it having a plane netlike structure. However, due to its used to produce particles that haven’t a homogenous particle
stratified structure, it has a low interlayer strength. shape.
Semi-metallic brake pads with mixture of metallic and organic As milling preparation technique we used ball mill and jet
compounds having varying thermal expansion coefficients mill (Sturtevant Micronizer®). Jet milling is relatively simple
would require a large amount of molybdenum trioxide to preparation method for particles with defined size, particle
prevent lining craking. Brake pads with large quantities of shape and although is energy consuming.
720
Effect of Particles Size and Morphology of Selected Compounds of Friction Composite on Friction Performance
Principle of grinding in jet mill is in regulation of feeding Mechanically modified particles were added to friction
and grinding pressure (kPa). The pressure of compressed air composite and after friction process were characterized again.
provides the grinding energy. The milling in jet mill consists of These oxides, sulfate and clay mineral play in friction
two stages: 1) the mixing of solid materials with compressed composites two important roles as fillers and abrasives.
air; 2) the acceleration of compressed air and solid materials
flow in the grinding chamber. High speed rotation of materials
in chamber causes the particle-on-particle collisions creating CONCLUSION
increasingly smaller particles. In the case of ball milling the
Comparison of shape, particle size and structure of selected
balls in the mill (made of wolfram carbide) rotate together with
components particles using two milling methods was
the ground material and optionally some medium.
performed. Milled materials was added to the composite
The aim of our experiments was ball milling and jet
composition and evaluated after friction process again.
milling of four potential components MgO, Al2O3, BaSO4 and
vermiculite. The particles size distributions of jet milled
vermiculite (Fig.1) proved fact that high grinding energy
(grinding pressure) leads to narrow distribution curve and fine ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
particles with round morphology. The present work was solved in the frame of the research
project of Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of Czech
Republic MSM 619 891 0016 and 1P05ME741 & ME 08040.
REFERENCES
[1] Chan, D., Stachowiak, G.W., 2004, “Review of automotive
brake friction materials” Proc. Insta. Mech. Engrs.,
PartD:Automobile Engineering, 218, pp.953-966.
[2] Popov, V.L., Psakhie, S.G., 2007, “Numerical simulation
methods in tribology” Tribology International, 40,
pp.916-923.
[3] Kobayashi, M., 2002, Non-asbestos friction materials. US
Pat. 6413622.
It was observed that the particles change the size, shape and
particle size distribution after milling processes. It was found
that jet milled particles have not only narrow distribution curve
but reactive surface also. For observation of changes in
vermiculite structure we employed XRD analysis. We should
presume that ball and jet milling itself representing friction
process also.
721
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
722
New Technique of DLC Coating Obtaining for Tribology Applications
723
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
substrates because of very high particle velocity. J. Jayaraj et
Fe-based metallic glass coating was prepared on
al. have reported that Ni–Zr–Ti–Si–Sn fully amorphous
Ti-3Al-5Mo-5V-4Cr-2Zr substrate by air plasma spraying
metallic coatings were obtained by vacuum plasma spraying
(APS). The effect of spraying power (current) on amorphous
(VPS) [2]. However, it seems difficult to obtain a fully
phase content and properties of the coating were investigated.
amorphous metallic coating by air plasma spraying (APS). In
It was revealed that appropriate spraying current was
the process of APS, various spraying parameters can influence
necessary to produce fully amorphous coating, and the
the phase composition and properties of the coating, but
amorphous phase content in the coatings decreased with the
powder feed rate and spraying power are two important
increase in spraying current. The thermal stability and
parameters [3]. In this paper, an attempt had been made to
cross-section Vickers microhardness of the coating were also
develop an amorphous coating with Fe-Mo-Cr-Ni-P-Si-B-C
studied by DSC and microhardness tester, respectively. The
powders on Ti-3Al-5Mo-5V-4Cr-2Zr substrate by APS.
highest cross-section microhardness of the coating was
Following coatings, the microstructure and surface
HV0.51260, roughly four times as high as that of the substrate.
morphology of the metallic glass coatings at different spraying
Keywords: Fe-based metallic glass coating, Air plasma
conditions (current, working gas pressure, powder feed rate,
spraying, Thermal stability, Vickers microhardness
etc) were examined, and the porosity and crystalline phase
INTRODUCTION were discussed. For the mechanical properties, cross-section
Bulk metallic glasses (BMGs), which were discovered in Vickers microhardness of the coatings was measured with
the late 20th century, have attracted a lot of interest due to Hx1000 microhardness tester at a load of 50g for 15s. In
their excellent properties such as very high strength, elastic addition, microstructure of powders and the coatings was
strain limit [1]. However, because of their low ductility and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning election
toughness at room temperature and maximum thickness [2], microscopy (SEM) and transmission election microscopy
BMGs are difficult in the application of structural materials. It (TEM), and thermal stability were examined with differential
has been shown that BMGs show higher hardness and scanning calorimeter (DSC).
wear/corrosion resistance because of their structure
homogeneity and lack of grain boundary. Such properties RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
make them well suited for using as coatings. MICROSTRUCTURE AND PHASE ANALYSIS
Metallic glass coatings can be deposited by thermal Spraying parameters for the APS process were listed in
spraying process, in which the sprayed powders are heated to a Table 1. Fe-based metallic glass coatings with the thickness of
molten or half-molten state, accelerated to the substrate and about 300μm were obtained on Ti-3Al-5Mo-5V-4Cr-2Zr
then the amorphous coating is formed due to rapid cooling. substrates by air plasma spraying process at different current
Among the thermal spraying process, plasma spraying is an of 100A, 300A and 500A. Fig. 1 is the XRD patterns of the
effective spraying technique to form coatings with dense spraying powders and sprayed coatings. A fully amorphous
structure and high bond strength between coatings and coating was successfully obtained at 100A although the
724
Effect of Spraying Parameters on Microstructure and Thermal Stability of Fe-Based Metallic Glass Coatings
spraying powders were not fully amorphous. This may provide power (current). The coating sprayed at 100A was fully
an economical way to prepare coatings-replacing amorphous amorphous, whereas the amorphous phase content in the
powders with alloy powders to spray. The cross-section SEM coatings sprayed at 300A and 500A were both up to 60%, and
images revealed that the sprayed coatings were dense, the main crystalline phases were oxide and boride.
adhering well to the substrates, and with low porosity and no MICROHARDNESS ANALYSIS
crack. The porosity of the coating was inversely proportional The sprayed Fe-based metallic glass coatings had very
to the spraying current. The coating sprayed at 500A had the high cross-section Vickers microhardness. The cross-section
lowest porosity and thus the densest structure. The bond Vickers microhardness of sprayed coatings increased in
strength between the coatings and the substrates increased proportion to the current, and the highest was about HV0.51260,
with the increase in current, and it was about 30MPa for the roughly four times as high as that of the substrate, for the
coating sprayed at 500A. coating sprayed at 500A. In addition, Vickers microhardness
Table 1 Spraying parameters for APS process along the cross-section decreased with the increase in distance
Parameter Condition from the surface of the sprayed coating. From analysis it was
Current/A (b) 300 depend on the amount of various phase in the coating,
Arc gas (argon) pressure/MPa 0.7 microstructure and properties allowed determination of the
Auxiliary gas (helium) pressure/MPa 0.65 optimum conditions that ensured fine grained uniform
REFERENCES
[1] Hui X.D., Chen G.L., 2007, Bulk Metallic Glasses,
Chemical Industrial Press, Beijing.
Fig. 1 XRD patterns of the spraying powders and Fe-based
[2] Jayaraj J., Sordelet D.J., Kim D.H., Kim Y.C., Fleury E.,
metallic glass coating deposited at: (a) 100A, (b) 300A and (c)
2006, "Corrosion behavior of Ni–Zr–Ti–Si–Sn amorphous
500A
plasma spray coating," Corrosion Science, 48, pp.950-964.
It was also found that the spraying power had a significant
[3] Boulos M.I., Faushais P., Vardellc A., Pfender E., 1993,
effect on the amorphous phase content and thus the properties
Plasma Spraying: Theory and Applications, World
of the coatings. Appropriate spraying power was necessary to
Scientific Publishing Co, Singapore.
produce fully amorphous coatings, and the amorphous phase
(The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
content in the coatings decreased with the increase in spraying needs it.)
725
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
726
Factors Influencing the Fluid-Assisted Surface Cracking under Rolling-Sliding Contact Loading
727
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
Ni59Zr16Ti13Si3Sn2Nb7 amorphous material was deposited significant way to improve the surface properties of materials
by laser cladding onto Ti-3Al-5Mo-5V-4Cr-2Zr titanium alloy. by surface modification. Microstructure, phase and
Despite trials with wide range of process parameters, the microhardness distribution of amorphous coating was studied in
728
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
730
Friction Modifiers Optimization of the Ceramic Composites for Automotive Applications
731
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
732
Friction and Wear Behaviors and Rolling Contact Fatigue Life of TiN Film on Bearing Steel by Plasma Immersion Ion
Implantation and Deposition Technique
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Liu Xiaojun * (Hefei University of Technology, China) Liu Kun (Hefei University of Technology, China)
Wang Wei (Hefei University of Technology, China) Gui Changlin (Hefei University of Technology, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
In order to understand the correlation between the pixels. For arbitrary two measured points, if there exists a path
connection of surface microstructures and lubrication and seal between them in the measuring area, then the two points is
performances, a novel method to characterize the connectivity connected. All the points which are connected constitute a
of the 3D surface topography based on mathematical connected component.
morphology is presented. A new concept of surface Let μ ( Ai ) be connectivity index of set Ai which is a
connectivity index is proposed. Quantitative description of the connectivity measure on Ai , 0 ≤ μ ≤ 1 . Erosion-based
connectivity of 3D topography in digital space is made by
recursive operation of multiscale erosion. The variations of the connectivity measure can be defined as [5]:
surface connectivity index with the penetration height are μ ( Ai ) = 1 − e − λ0 rε ( Ai )
approached. The reliability of the surface connectivity measure {
rε ( Ai ) = inf r ≥ 0 : ε Br ( Ai ) ∉ C \ ∅} λ0 > 0 (1)
method is analyzed. As a practical application, the connectivity
of the 3D topography of cylinder liner of engine is evaluated. where ε B ( Ai ) denotes a multiscale erosion on set Ai , or
r
The results of calculation and analysis indicate that this ε Br ( Ai ) = Ai Θ rB , B is a compact convex structuring
approach has an explicit signification and reliable arithmetic,
element, and C is connected set.
and it can effectively describe the connection characteristics of
surface structures. Expression above means that the connectivity measure of a
connected component can be realized by recursive operation of
Keywords: 3D surface topography, characterization, connec-
multiscale erosion. When a connected component becomes
tivity, mathematical morphology disconnected or vanishes after recursive erosion, the
geometrical measure of the narrowest path of the connected
INTRODUCTION
region is obtained.
The tribological properties of contacting surfaces have a CONNECTIVITY MEASURE OF 3D TOPOGRAPHY
close relationship with the micro-structure characteristics of The penetration of the surface, composed of many
the surfaces. Lubricant needs surface valleys to be stored and connected void regions, can be represented as a binary image.
wear particles need space to dorge. The transportation and the In order to describe the degree of the connectivity of surface
distribution of the lubricant are realized by the connections structure, surface connectivity index is proposed to
between the valleys [1, 2]. Therefore, when considering the differentiate strong connections from weak connections of
effects of the rough surface on the lubrication, the valleys and valleys at a certain penetration of the surface. The connected
the connections between them are the crucial factors involved components of penetration image can be separated by use of
in it. The surfaces with different texture structures have labeling arithmetic. Let μ i and s i denote the connectivity
different connection characteristics, even if they have the same
arithmetic mean roughness. The surfaces with the same texture index and area of a connected component respectively, and
structure but different structure parameters have different weight p i of a connected component be defined as
connections. Connectivity of surface structures has an p i = s i s 0 , with s 0 being the sampling area, the surface
important effect on the lubrication and seal. But, up to now, connectivity index μ is defined as:
there is no evaluation method of the surface connection n
characteristics.
The 3D surface topography can be represented as a 2D matrix ∑μ p i i
and pattern recognition [4-7]. Senin and Ziliotti [8] analyzed The larger the surface connectivity index is, the better the
the adaptation of image segmentation techniques to the connection of the surface microstructure.
partitioning of the 3D micro and nano topography of
engineered surfaces by study of the choice of clustering CONNECTIVITY ANALYSIS OF 3D SURFACE
methods, the design of feature vectors and similarity metrics. TOPOGRAPHY
In this paper, a novel method is presented to characterize the
connectivity of the 3D topography of engineered surfaces VARIATION OF THE SURFACE CONNECTIVITY INDEX
based on the morphological transforms. A new concept of WITH PENETRATION HEIGHTS
surface connectivity index is introduced. At the different penetration height, the material area and
the void area change. Figs. 1 and 2 show the changes of the
CONNECTIVITY MEASURE OF SURFACE STRUCTURES surface connectivity index of cross texture surface and regular
crater surface with the penetration height. It is seen that the
THE CONCEPT AND MEASURE OF CONNECTIVITY surface connectivity index decreases as the penetration goes
In surface image, the 3D surface topography is represented deeper. At the highest penetration, there are no material areas,
as a 2D matrix of discrete measured points. The connection but only void area, the connectivity index equals 1. With the
between measured points is actually the connection between deeper penetration, the connectivity index decreases, as the
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. void areas decrease and the material areas increase.
734
Connectivity Characterization of 3D Surface Topography Based on Mathematical Morphology
CONCLUSIONS
(1) 3D surface connectivity evaluation method based on
mathematical morphology can effectively describe the
Fig. 1 Variation of the surface connectivity index of cross connection characteristics of valleys of surface microstructures.
texture surface with the height The approach, performing operations on the geometrical
structures of the binary image of the section, has an explicit
signification and reliable arithmetic.
(2) The surface connectivity index of 3D topography decreases
with the deeper penetration of the surface. The measure result
of the surface connectivity has no relation with the sampling
area.
(3) Evaluated at the transition height of fine plateau structure
and rough groove texture, the surface connectivity index of the
cylinder liner of engine can characterize the transportation and
the distribution of the lubricant.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research work was financially supported by Hi-Tech
Fig. 2 Variation of the surface connectivity index of regular Research and Development Program of China under grant No.
crater surface with the height 2007AA04Z119.
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF THE CONNECTIVITY
EVALUATION REFERENCES
In order to analyze the reliability of the connectivity [1] Steinhoff, K., Rasp, W., Pawelski, O., 1996, “Development
measure, the surface connectivity index of cross texture of deterministic-stochastic surface structures to improve
surfaces and circle texture surfaces is calculated on 5 different the tribological conditions of sheet forming process,”
sampling areas (Fig. 3). The results show that the relative Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 60,
change ratio of the surface connectivity index on different pp.355-361.
measure areas is less than ±3%. The surface connectivity index [2] Zhen, L.Q., 1994, Principle of Tribology, Higher Education
is independent on the measure area. The connectivity evaluation Press, Beijing.
method based on the morphological operation is reliable. [3] Liu, X.J., Liu, K., Jiao, M.H., 2004, “Feature extraction of
the 3D multi-scale surface topography,” The 3rd
International Symposium on Instrument Science and
Technology, Xi’an, pp.135-139.
[4] Braga-Neto, U., Goutsias, J., 2003, “A theoretical tour of
connectivity in image processing and analysis,” Journal of
Mathematical Imaging and Vision, 19, pp.5-31.
[5] Tzafestas, C.S., Maragos, P., 2002, “Shape connectivity:
Multiscale analysis and application to generalized
granulometries,” Journal of Mathematical Imaging and
Vision, 17, pp.109-129.
[6] Braga-Neto, U., Goutsias, J., 2005, “Constructing
multiscale connectivities,” Computer Vision and Image
Understanding, 99, pp.126-150.
[7] Mukhopadhyay, S., Chanda, B., 2003, “Multiscale
Fig. 3 Changes of the surface connectivity index with the morphological segmentation of gray-scale image,” IEEE
sampling area Transactions on Image Processing, 12(5), pp.533-549.
[8] Senin, N., Ziliotti, M., Groppetti, R., 2007,
CONNECTIVITY OF CYLINDER LINER SURFACE OF “Three-dimensional surface topography segmentation
ENGINE through clustering,” Wear, 262, pp.395-410.
The 3D plot of cylinder liner surface of engine measured [9] Liu, X.J., Liu, K., Fang, X.Y., Wang, W., Gui, C.L., 2007,
shows that it is composed of form error, fine plateau structure “Multiscale characterization of 3D surface topography of
and rough groove texture. These three parts can be effectively cylinder liner of engine,” Transactions of CSICE, 25(5),
separated based on the multiscale graylevel morphological pp.475-479.
transform [9], and the transition point of the fine plateau
735
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
736
Effect of Microstructure on the Friction Properties of the Electroless Ni-P Deposit
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ABSTRACT samples were prepared, (see Table 2). The active hydrogen of
Two kinds of spray elastic polymer coatings were made of the two samples was dehydrated in the vacuum condition about
polyurethane-urea and pure polyurea. The dynamic mechanical from 100ć to 110ć. The samples were cooled and filtrated by
properties of the coatings were measured by the dynamic a sieve with the precision 0.074 mm when the contents of the
mechanical analysis (DMA). Their corresponding wear water were less than 800 ppm.
performances were investigated by the Taber tribo-machine and Table 1 The detailed information of the employed materials
the high-pressure water jet erosion tester. The topographies of
the coatings were observed by the scanning electron microscopy Materials Tradename Characteristic Manufacturer
(SEM), the chromatic confocal 3D profiler and the atomic force Hydroxyl terminated GR-403 hydroxyl number: Shanghai Gaoqiao
polyether 770±35 mgKOH/g
microscopy (AFM). The elasticity and the relationship between Polyetheramine D2000 viscosity: 200-300 Huntsman
the coatings’ components and their erosion resistances were mPa$s/25ć
analyzed as well. The results show that the spray polyurea Chain extender Ethacure®-100 viscosity: İ155 Albernarle
coating provides with excellent damping properties and mPa$s/25ć Vorporation
anti-wear performance which can be used under the hydraulic Cure catalyst. A-33 viscosity: İ100 Air Products
condition. mPa$s/25ć
cross linking agent R9480 viscosity: 400~600 Huntsman
Keywords: Elastic Polymer Coating, Dynamic Mechanical
mPa$s/25ć
Properties, Erosion, Hydraulic condition
Table 2 Proportion of active hydrogen of polyurethane samples
1. INTRODUCTION
Sample Hydroxyl terminated Polyetheramine/% Chain Cure
Under the hydraulic condition, the structure of the concrete polyether/% extender/% catalyst/%
was not safe enough to stay long, which makes the regular 1 30 40 29.7 0.3
maintenance and reinforcement necessary. It was still a 2 - 70 30 -
challenge to improve the erosion performance of the concrete The elastic coatings were sprayed on the nummular glass
under the hydraulic condition [1-3]. Polyurea spray coating pieces cleaned by the acetone. The paint equipments include the
technology has been recently developed in the polyurethane special spray punishment (MH-III A, by Glas-Craft) and spray
coatings industry [4-6], showing extreme application properties gun (GX-8, by Gusmer). The spray pressure and temperature
such as rapid cure (even at temperature below 0 ć), chemical were 15 N/mm2 and 60ć. The thicknesses of coatings were all
and water resistance, insensitivity to humidity. In addition, it
around 2.0 mm. After cured, the coatings were peeled off from
offers exceptional physical properties such as high hardness,
the glass pieces.
flexibility, tear and tensile strength, which grants its good
weathering and abrasion resistance [7, 8]. The system was
2.2. Characterizations
100%-solids, which makes it comply with the strictest VOC
(volatile organic compounds) regulations. Meanwhile, due to its According to HG/T 3831-2006 Spray polyurea for
specific curing profile and exceptional film properties, it has materials protection, the hardness, elongation at break, tear
been rapidly developed in many various fields, especially in strength and tensile strength of the two coatings were measured.
corrosion protection, containment, membranes, linings and The dynamic mechanical properties were estimated by
caulks [9, 10]. However, up to date, few studies on the erosion virtue of Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA, Model: Q800,
behaviors of polyurea elastic polymer coating have been TA company) with single cantilever mode. The tests were
reported [11-17], and the application of spray polyurea coatings performed at the 1 Hz frequence by changing the temperature
under the hydraulic condition is still a blank [18-22]. In this from -80ć to 200ć with an velocity 5 ć/min.
paper, we first study the dynamic mechanical properties and The erosion performance of the coatings was measured by
erosion performance of elastic coatings and investigate the the high pressure jet impact erosion testing machine (GSPS-S).
interrelation between the coating’s components and its The abrasive in slurry was crystallized silica with an average
performance. We expect that the investigative results will diameter of 0.061 mm and the percentage of crystallized silica
provide some evidences for the potential application of the was 8% to 10%. The pressure of slurry was 15MPa and the
elastic polymer coating under the hydraulic condition. testing lasts 5 min with the jet impact angles of 45° and 90°.
The dry wear behavior of the coatings was measured by
2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION using the Taber wear tester (TORSSEE, by Japanese TKS). The
velocity of the turnplate was 60r/min. The type of grinding
wheel was CS17. The load of pressure was 7.5 N.
2.1. Materials
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JSM-5600, by
The materials used in this study were listed in Table1. JEOL), the chromatic confocal 3D profiler (MICROMESURE 2,
According to the different proportions of active hydrogen, two by STIL S. A.), and the atomic force microscopy (AFM, XE-70,
by Park systems) were employed to observe the topographies of
*Corresponding author. these coatings.
E-mail address:lijianwuhan@tom.com
738
Erosion Behaviors of Elastic Polymer Coatings
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION speed of action. The isocyanate which is sensitive to the
moisture could react with the water in the air to produce a great
3.1. Dynamic mechanical analysis deal of poles in the coating when curing so as to reduce the
physical properties of the coating. There was no hydroxyl
Fig.1 shows the storage modulus-temperature curves terminated polyether in the sample2. The activity of the
for these tests, which tells us that the material state polyetheramine and the isocyanate was high enough so that the
changed from a rubbery behavior at the lowest storage curing reaction would be accomplished rapidly under the
modulus (127ć, 49 MPa) to a glassy behavior at the condition of room temperature without catalyst. The curing
highest storage modulus (-79ć, 3275MPa) when the reaction could not produce a great deal of poles in the coating,
temperature decreased from 200ć to -80ć. This shows which made the coating had the good mechanical properties.
that the coatings could maintain in good flexility under Figs.3 and 4 shows the SEM topographies with different
the hydraulic condition. The Tan delta-temperature magnifications. It is clear that the poles could be seen in the
micro-structure of the coating (Fig 3), destroying the
curves for the two samples were also discussed, as shown
mechanical properties of the coating due to their formation
in Fig.2. The results show that the value of Tan delta disfigurements. On the contrary, the surface shown in Fig. 4 was
becomes bigger than 0.02 with the increasing of relatively smooth.
temperature from -50ć to 127ć, suggesting that the
elastic polymer has excellent damping properties [23]. Table 3 Performances of coatings
Furthermore, the values of internal friction (tan) of the Sample Hardness Elongation Tear strength Tensile strength
coatings were so high that it could help to exhaust the /shore A at break/% /kN·m-1 / N/mm2
heat energy under erosion condition. The heats, 1 88 250 70 12
2 94 320 75 11
originated from the internal friction which might
aggravate the erosion, could not damage the coatings
badly since it could be taken out by high pressure water
flow [24]. Therefore, it comes to a conclusion that the
two kinds of elastic polymer coatings were suitable for
the hydraulic transition parts.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
coating was high tough and flexile. There were so many holes in polyurea coating, so the wear loss of the coating was low.
the sample 1, suggesting that the damage of coating was more
serious than the sample 2. Table 5 Data of Taber test experiment
Sample Wear mass/mg(500 r,7.5N)
Table 4 Erosion capacity of samples
1 13.5
Sample Erosion angle/(°) Ration of wear mass/mg(MPa·min)-1 2 6.0
1 45 8.567
90 2.678
2 45 2.007
90 0.767
740
Erosion Behaviors of Elastic Polymer Coatings
Resources and Hydropower Engineering, 2001, 32(3):15-18. Weinong Chen. Stress-strain behavior of a polyurea and a
[3] PENG En-gao. Erosive wear performance of materials in polyurethane from low to high strain rates. Polymer, 48 (2007):
contained sand water jet. Beijing: China Academy of 2208-2213.
Machinery and Techology, 2006. [15] R.A.Beck, R.W.Truss. Effect of chemical structure on the
[4] PrimeauxĊD. J. A study of polyurea spray elastomer behaviour of polyurethane-urea elastomer. Wear,
systems. High Solids Coatings, 1994, (15):2-7. 218(1998):145-152.
[5] Broekaert M. Polyurea spray coatings, the technology and [16]D.K. Chattopadhyay, P.S.R. Prasad, B. Sreedhar, K.V.S.N.
latest developments, polyurethanes for high-performance Raju . The phase mixing of moisture cured polyurethane-urea
coatings II[C]. ECC, Berlin, March 14-15, 2002. during cure. Progress in Organic Coatings, 54 (2005): 296-304.
[6] John Henningsen. Polyurea: Leading a revolution in coating [17]Dawn M. Crawford, John A. Escarsega. Dynamic
technology. Paint and Coatings Industry, 2002, (1):58-63. mechanical analysis of novel polyurethane coating for
[7] HUANG Weibo. Spray polyurea elastomer. Beijing, military applications. Thermochimica Acta, 357-358
Chemica Industral press, May, 2005. (2000):161-168.
[8] Broekaert, M. Modified MDI-prepolymers improve [18]ZHONG Ping, PENG En-gao, LI Jian,XIAO Xing. Study of
theinitial physical properties and reduce the 'In-Service' time of erosion behavior of polyurethane-urea coating. Tribology, 2007,
aromatic polyurea coatings. In: Proceedings of the 6th Nurnberg 27(5):447-450.
Congress - Creative advances in coatings technology, April 2-4, [19]Wu H G. Study on spraying polyurea elastomer
2001, Nurnberg, Germany. abravion-resistant coatings technology applied in hydrautic
[9] Marc Broekaert. Polyurea spray-applied systems for concrete structures. Journal of China Institute of Water
concrete protection. The Fourth European Congress on Resources and Hydropower Research, 2005, 3(1):40-43.
Construction Chemicals on April 10, 2003 in Nurnberg, [20] Xu X F, Si M J, Hu D C. Study of wear-resisting impact
Germany. resistant coating used for marine release works. Chemical
[10] PrimeauxĊD. J. Polyurea spray technology in Materials for Construction, 2003,(2):21-23.
commercial applications. In: 60 years of Polyurethanes: [21]Xu X F, Yang C Z, Qiu Y J, at al. Approach to facing
International symposium and exhibition. University of Detroit techniques of abrasion-resistance coat used for hydraulic outlet
mercy: January, 1998:224-238. works. Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering, 2003,
[11]R. Zhou, D.H. Lu, Y.H. Jiang, Q.N. Li. Mechanical 34(6):21-23.
properties and erosion wear resistance of [22]Kang J X, Zhao W Z, Zhu J H. Review of the progress in
polyurethane matrix composites. Wear, 259(2005):676-683. erosion resistant of materials. Materials Protection, 2001,
[12]Kwashore K. Jena, D.K. Chattopadhyay, K.V.S.N. Raju. 34(10):22-23.
Synthesis and characterization of hyperbranched [23] WANG Yanbin, HUANG Zhixiong, ZHANG Lianmeng.
polyurethane–urea coatings. European Polymer Journal, 43 Application of DMA in polymeric material. Science and
(2007):1825–1837. Technology of Overseas Building Materials, 2004, 25(2):
[13]D.J.T.Hill, M.I.killeen, J.H.O’Donnell, P.J.Pomery, 25-27.
D.St.John and A.K.Whittaker. Laboratory wear testing of [24] ZHONG Ping, LIAO Youwei, LI Jian. Wear behavior of
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[14] Sai S. Sarva, Stephanie Deschanel, Mary C. Boyce, Engineering, 2008(9):7-9.
741
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Wei-Yu Ho / Dept. Materials Science and science Chi-Lung Chang / Dept. Materials Science and science
(MingDao University, Taiwan, China) (MingDao University, Taiwan, China)
Chih-Wei Chen / Dept. Materials Science and science Chun-Nane Chen / Dept. Materials Science and science
(MingDao University, Taiwan, China) (MingDao University, Taiwan, China)
Li-Wei Shen / Dept. Materials Science and science Chi-Chun Hwang / Dept. Materials Science and science
(MingDao University, Taiwan, China) (MingDao University, Taiwan, China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
In this study, TiAlSiN coatings were deposited by cathodic The microstructure of the coatings was analyzed by using
arc evaporation from titanium, aluminum and silicon alloy X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy
targets in a reactive nitrogen atmosphere at substrate bias of (SEM). Wear tests were performed on a ball-on-disc tribometer
−50 V. The as-deposited coatings were then subjected to post (CSEM). The tests were conducted with no lubricant in
heat treatment at 400 oC in nitrogen atmosphere. The annealing ambient air. A 6.0 mm diameter WC-Co ball traveled along a
treatment has an expected effect on the wear resistance. The circular track of 20mm diameter against the samples at 0.3 m/s
TiAlSiN coating subjected to heat treatment in nitrogen under a normal load of 10N.
atmosphere presented wear resistance better than the
as-deposited coatings. The friction coefficient of the TiAlSiN RESULTS
coatings subjected at 400oC in nitrogen atmosphere was
Fig. 1 compared the X-ray diffraction patterns of the
decreased due to the effect of the structure modification.
Keywords: Hard coatings; Cathodic Arc deposition; Wear as-deposited and the heat-treated TiAlSiN coatings. The
diffraction patterns of both of the TiAlSiN coatings show the
same crystalline microstructure which is same as TiN that
INTRODUCTION exhibits B1 NaCl structure with (200) preferred orientation
TiAlSiN is a good candidate as an alternative to located at 43.7°. XRD peaks related to Si3N4 and w-AlN
conventional TiN coatings especially for high temperature phases were not shown due to amorphous structure existed in
oxidation-resistance applications. Many researches were the coating [6]. From the Fig. 1, it is expected that grain size of
reported to confirm the excellent oxidation resistance of the TiAlSiN coating remains stable at a temperature of 400 oC.
TiAlSiN coatings [1-6]. The hardness of the TiAlSiN coatings The thermal stability of the coating was confirmed at the
increased with the increase of silicon content and substrate bias temperature of 400oC for 3 hours.
by a cathodic arc evaporation (CAE) process. The grain size of
the TiAlSiN coatings remains stable in protective argon
atmosphere up to a temperature of 1000 oC for 30 min [1]. The
results showed that TiAlSiN exhibited a very good chemical
stability and could be used at high cutting speed where
chemical wear dominates. Structure and stability of vacuum
arc-deposited TiAlSiN coatings were studied after thermal
treatment under N2 atmosphere at 1000 oC for 1 h. [5]. A
significant hardness drop due to structural relaxation occurs
after thermal treatment, indicating that the initial hardening
effect was due mainly to compressive stresses in the films,
caused by the ion bombardment conditions during deposition.
In this study, the effect of the heat treatment on the ʳ
as-deposited TiAlSiN coatings was compared for the samples Fig. 1 XRD diffraction patterns of the TiAlSiN coating.
treated in the different atmospheres at low annealing TiAlSiN-as:as-deposited coating, TiAlSiN-ht: heat treated at
temperature of 400 oC. 400oC in N2 atmosphere
742
Mechanical Properties of the TiAlSiN Coatings by Post Heat Treatments
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, TiAlSiN coating was synthesized by
cathodic-arc evaporation. The results provided a comparative
characterization of the synthesized coatings with respect to the
wear resistance. After annealing treatment at 400 oC for 3h, the
nitrides phases of the TiAlSiN retained the same structure as
compared to that of the as-deposited coating. The coefficient of
friction of this coating decreased as the coating conducted with
annealing treatment under N2 atmosphere. The result revealed
the better wear resistance of the coating conducted with
(a) addition heat treatment in this study. The expected reason is
under study in the near future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Mr. Shein-Chen Liu from
Surftech Corp. for generously providing the CAE deposition
system to accomplish all the experiments. In addition, the
funding from the National Science Council of Taiwan under
the contract NSC-96-2221-E-451-005 is sincerely appreciated.
REFERENCES
(b) [1] Holubář P., Jílek M., Šíma M., 1999, “Nanocomposite
Fig. 2 SEM image of the TiAlSiN coating after annealing nc-TiAlSiN and nc-TiN̄BN coatings: their applications on
treatment. (a) cross-section, (b)surface morphology substrates made of cemented carbide and results of cutting
tests”, Surface and Coatings Technology, 120-121,
A pin-on-disk tribometer was used to evaluate the friction pp.184-188.
coefficient of the TiAlSiN coatings against a WC-Co ball. Fig. [2] Durand-Drouhin O., SantanaA.E., Karimi A., Derflinger
3 shows the coefficient of friction versus travel distance under V.H., Schütze A., 2003, “Mechanical properties and failure
a load of 10 N. The coefficient of friction of as-deposited and modes of TiAl(Si)N single and multilayer thin films”,
the heat treated TiAlSiN coatings increased initially to the Surface and Coatings Technology, 163 –164, pp. 260-266.
range of 0.6 ~ 0.7 for the run-in stage, and then drop to 0.45 [3] Jilek M., Cselle T., Holubar P., Morstein M.,
and 0.3 for the as-deposited and the heat-treated coatings, Veprek-Heijman M. G. J., Veprek S., 2004, “Development
respectively, until the 2250 m of the travel distance. After that, of Novel Coating Technology by Vacuum Arc with
the sharp increase of friction coefficient seen for both of the Rotating Cathodes for Industrial Production of
tested coating implied the worn-out of the TiAlSiN coatings. nc-(Al1−xTix)N/a-Si3N4 Superhard Nanocomposite Coatings
The observed lower friction coefficient of the heat-treated for Dry, Hard Machining”, Plasma Chemistry and Plasma
TiAlSiN compared to that of the as-deposited coating is seen. Processing, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 493-510.
The narrower wear track of the TiAlSiN after heat treatment [4] Jobin M., Burdet B., Escudeiro Santana A., Bergmann E.,
implied the better wear resistance compared to that of the 2004, “AFM of ion-etched cross-sections: a method for
as-deposited one. The differing friction coefficient for the analyzing the morphology of dense hard coatings”, Thin
heat-treated TiAlSiN coating may result from the increase of Solid Films, 469-470, pp.398-403.
the hardness. From the study of Parlinska-Wojtan et al [5], for [5] Parlinska-Wojtan M., KarimiA., Coddet O., Cselle T.,
the case for Al-rich TiAlSiN films, in which the fine, Morstein M., 2004, “Characterization of thermally treated
nanocomposite structure remains stable after the heat-treatment. TiAlSiN coatings by TEM and nanoindentation”, Surface
However, the hcp-AlN is formed, which contributes to the & Coatings Technology, 188-189, pp.344-350.
small changes in hardness. [6] Dobrzański L.A., Pakuła D., Hajduczek E., 2004,
“Structure and properties of the multi-component TiAlSiN
coatings obtained in the PVD process in the nitride tool
ceramics”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology
157-158, pp.331-340.
743
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
744
In-situ Measurements of Surface Temperature Fields on Ring-Block Contact Surface under Friction Using an Infrared Thermography
A portion of this side is contained in the target region (TR) specimen (K), is the wavelength of the thermal radiation (m),
shown in Fig. 1. The surface preparation of the block prior to and C1 and C2 are black body radiation constants(C1 = 3.74 x
coating and the coating procedure were identical to that used in 10-16 (W$m2), C2 = 1.44 x 10-2 (K$m)).
a calibration experiment (see next section). Radiation from the Calibration was done by focusing ITG onto a heated
TR was measured to obtain temperature values. The TR copper sample, coated with the same black paint (calibration
consists of contact regions of the ring and block where the sample) as that used on the TR during the experiments. The
friction heat is generated. In the experiments, the TR is “fixed” sample was polished with 1500-grit sand paper prior to coating
in total experiments in order to contrast the result. to reduce its surface roughness. A thin coating of commercially
A medium wavelength, high-speed ITG (made by FLIR available black paint (Rutland Stove Paint) was applied to the
Systems) was used to measure the radiation being emitted from sample to enhance the emissivity of the metallic surface. The
the TR (Fig. 1). The ITG consists of a CCD detector array and coated surface had an emissivity (^) of 0.9, thereby increasing
an infrared micro-scope assembly. The objective lenses were the intensity of thermal radiation emitted by it and incident on
made of semiconductor materials viz. silicon (Si) and the FPA. A K-type thermocouple was attached to the sample in
germanium (Ge). These lenses focus the infrared radiation onto
the region of interest from which radiation intensity images
a two-dimensional focal plane array (FPA) of 320240
were captured. As the sample was heated up by a strip heater,
detectors, effectively creating an image of the source on the
intensity and temperature was measured simultaneously by
FPA. The FPA is a two-dimensional CCD array of indium
antimonide (InSb) detector elements (pixels) that are highly ITG and thermocouple, respectively. The data were acquired
sensitive to radiation in the medium-wavelength infrared range, using a high-speed interface (IEEE-1394) and a digital
allowing a temperature change as small as 0.025°C to be instrument with RS232 serial port, respectively. Calibrations
detected in a black body. The size of single pixel is 30m were done in the temperature range of 30°C to 300°C.
30m, with a total field range of 6.1 mm 4.6 mm (TR). This The infrared camera output radiance are plotted as dotted
TR is made up of roughly equal areas of ring and block. The curves with changes in temperature of the heater (obtained by
pixels of the FPA have a time constant low enough to enable thermocouple) through two replicate calibration experiments
system operation at shutter speeds as small as 50s, which done at the same ambient temperature of 30°C (see Fig. 2).
allows observation of transient events. A band-pass filter (Fig.
1) is fitted into the microscope assembly to cut off radiation
6
outside the spectral range of 3.16-3.80m. A neutral density Calculated
(ND) filter is also incorporated into the optical path at the rear Measured
of the lens assembly (Fig. 1) to attenuate the amount of
Measured
4.5
radiation incident on the FPA. The increase of the maximum
3
specimens was in friction. This maximum temperature value
can be increased to well over 1000°C by using an ND Filter of
lower transmissivity (0.1%). The ITG could be operated at
1.5
framing rates of up to 100 frames per second by sacrificing
either the field of view or the spatial resolution. An integration
time of 6 ms and a frame rate of 50 frames per second were
used to capture a full-Field image of 6.2 mm 4.6 mm with
18m spatial resolution. Details of the measurement set-up are 0
shown in Fig. 1.
In a few of the friction experiments, there was slight 0 80 160 240 320
Block Temperature(`C)
discoloration and, occasionally, peeling off the black paint at
the very surface of the block. Radiation measurements from Fig. 2 Calibration curves relating radiation to temperature
these experiments were excluded from the results. But even in
the vast majority of experiments, where the integrity of the The closeness of the two calibration curves in Fig. 2 shows
paint at the block surface appeared to be intact, the radiation that the measurement is highly repeatable. Using Eq. 1, S(T)
measurements were taken only up to and including one pixel was calculated on the basis of the assumption that the spectral
below the block surface. The temperature at the surface was response, 4~12 m, was constant [6]. The solid curve in Fig. 2
then obtained by extrapolation from the subsurface values. It is was obtained when the radiance was calculated with
this value that is reported for the friction interface temperature. temperature as a variable. The dotted curve is close to the solid
curve, with a correlation coefficient of 0.99. The calibration
CALIBRATION curve (equation) for temperature derivation from the radiance
Temperature was derived from the equivalent measured was acquired when the solid curve was modified by changing
thermal radiation using Planck's black body radiation law [6]: its variable from radiance to temperature. A single calibration
curve was derived using a Least-Squares polynomial fit to the
2 C1 data.
S (T ) d (1)
1 C
5 (exp( 2 ) 1) R = 7.110-7 T3
2.210-4 T2 + 0.0308 T
1.1456 (2)
T Where R is radiance and T is temperature.
where S(T) is the radiance (W/m2), T is the temperature of the
745
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Thus, a given infrared intensity value, when mapped to depth of 3 mm into the specimen in Fig. 5 is essentially flat at
temperature using this calibration curve, gives a temperature a constant temperature of 40°C which is close to the ambient
value accurately. It should be noted that the intensity values temperature. The variation of temperature with depth into the
plotted on the Y-axis in Fig. 2 are differential intensity values. specimen may also be obtained from the temperature field.
A differential intensity value is obtained by subtracting the
intensity reading corresponding to the background or stray
radiation from the measured infrared intensity value. The
intensity of stray radiation was measured before each pass in
experiments. Because of the background random radiation
noise, there was a temperature estimation error which was less
than ±3°C. The lower limit of detectable temperature was
100°C with a signal-to-noise ratio of 1.15. In the ensuing, only
the radiation emitted by the specimen region of the TR is
analyzed and discussed. This region constitutes roughly
one-half of the entire TR that is exposed to ITG.
746
In-situ Measurements of Surface Temperature Fields on Ring-Block Contact Surface under Friction Using an Infrared Thermography
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [3] Sakagami, T., Ogura, K. and Kub, S., 2000, "Application of
This work was supported by the Young Innovation Infrared Thermography for Contact Problems," Proc.
IUTAM, 82, pp.603-610.
Foundation of Tech. (No.102-037023) and Institute of
[4] Bogdanovich, P., Belov, V. and Tkachuk, D., 2007,
Tribology of Hefei University of Technology. "Determination of Temperature Field in Zone of Cutting of
Diamond Crystals by Thermography," J. Friction and Wear,
28(1), pp.44-50.
REFERENCES [5] Information on http://www.flir.com
[1] Bair, S., Green, I. and Bhushan, B., 1991, "Measurements [6] Nettesheim, S. and Zenobi, R., 1996, "Nanosecond Time
of Asperity Temperatures of a Read/Write Head Slider Scale Temperature Measurement Using Black Body
Bearing in Hard Magnetic Recording Disks," ASME J. Trib. Radiation," Chem. Phys. Lett., 255(4), pp.39-44.
113(3), pp.547-554. [7] Jaeger, J.C., 1942, "Moving Sources of Heat and the
[2] Kennedy, F.E., 1992, ASM Handbook, 18, ASM Temperature at Sliding Contact," J. Proc. R. Soc. N. S. W.,
International Publishers, Metals Park. 76(3), pp.203-224.
747
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Hu Xiaoli* (School of Mechanic Engineering, Shanghai Zhang Chenhui (State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Dianji University, Shanghai, China) Tsinghua University, Beijing,China)
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
To improve the tribological properties of the magnetic head DID-3000 AFM and Contact Start Stop Test (CSS) systm
and increase its anti-contaminantion abilities, self-assembly of respectively.
silane with hydroxyl group on the substrate was adopted to
prepare a SAM(self-assembled monolayer) of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanetr- ichorosilanes (FDTS) on the The organosilane SAMs could be prepared on the magnetic
magnetic head. TOF-SIMS (Time-of-flight secondary ion mass head, because the hydroxyl group reacts with the hanging-up
spectrometer), XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy), AFM bonding in sp3 phase of DLC film[7-8]. The XPS spectra of
(atomic force microscopy), and contact angle measurement FDTS coated on the magnetic head surface is shown in Fig. 1.
were used to characterize the FDTS SAM. A component There are six peaks at 282.513 eV (A), 284.605 eV (B),
centered at Binding Energy of 287.627eV appearing in the C1s 286.105 eV (C), 287.625 eV (D), 291.395 eV (E) and 293.726
XPS spectra of FDTS SAM, suggests that the FDTS SAM eV (F), which are assighned to C-Si bonds originated from
deposited on the magetic head surface with the C-O-Si bond. FDTS molecules and DLC bulk, C-C bonds attributed to DLC
The experimental results show that an ultra-thin smooth FDTS bulk, C-O bonds adsorbed from environment, C-O-Si bonds,
SAM, with a thickness of 2.3 nm, Ra value of 0.123nm and a CF2 species and CF3 species, respectively. In the present study,
water contact angle of 130.7º, can be prepared on the magnetic the 287.625 eV is mainly attributed to C-O-Si bonds.
head surface by controlling reaction time. Having good
durability property, the FDTS SAMs made the stiction of the
magnetic head less than 1g after the 20000 Contact Start Stop
(CSS) test, and leads to considerably improved tribological
properties of the magnetic head surface.
Keywords: magnetic head; 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanetric-
horosilanes; SAMs; characterization; tribological properties
INTRODUCTION
Over the past years, the recording density of HDD increased
remarkably. The flying height of head in a hard disk with a
recording density of 100 Gbit/in2 should be limited within
6-7nm, which lead to more rigorous requirements for all kinds
of HDD performance [1-2]. The Diamond-like carbon (DLC)
and perfluoropolyether (PFPE) were always used to protect the
surface of the magnetic head or the disk. The self-assembled
monolayers (SAMs) on DLC were studied by Dr. Choi, and
these results indicated that the
heptadecafluoro-1,1,2,2,-tetradecyltrietoxysilane (FTE) SAMs
coated DLC surfaces showed better frictional characteristics
compared to the un-lubricated DLC and there is possibility of
organosilane monolayer films as lubricants for disk drives[3-5]. Fig. 1 X-ray photoelectron C1s spectra of the FDTS SAMs on
In this paper, a fluoroalkyltrichlorosilane SAMs on the the magenetic head surface
magnetic head is prepared, which represents a better
hydrophobicity and tribological properties, and contributes to In Fig. 2, the roughness of FDTS SAMs on the magnetic
keep the magnetic head surface clean. head surface reduced to 0.144 nm and 0.123 nm at 50
min and 12 h, respectively, which indicate that the
EXPERIMENTAL
smooth SAMs could be formed possibly. Fig. 3 shows
After a 2nm thick DLC film deposited on the magnetic head the reaction time dependence of thickness and CA
surface, and the sample was cleaned according to the slider values of FDTS on the magnetic head surface. After
normal cleaning process in SAE Magnetics (H.K.) Ltd. In an
inclosed glove-box filled with nitrogen, the precleaned sample
reacting for 50 min, the thickness was 1.2 nm and the
was immersed in 10 mM solution of FDTS in isooctane at 60 CV value was 107.4º. As the reaction time was 12 h, the
ć, , 45㨪50㧑 humidity[6]. Taken out of the glove-box, thickness was 2.3 nm and the CV value was 130.7º (the
the sample was cleaned again, just the same as preclean measuring figure shown in Fig. 4). The chain length of a
process. Finishing nitrogen-drying, the sample was kept in FDTS molecular is 1.33 nm in theory [9]. The densely
non-dust drying cabinet at 120 ć for 30min. packed SAMs with a small tilt angle were formed on the
The thickness, water contact angle (CA) value, surface surface. From the thickness, CA value and roughness
roughness and tribological properties were measured by the data, we may conclude that a smooth FDTS monolayer
PHI TRIFT II ToF-SIMS, VCA2500XE CA apparatus, and a smooth FDTS double-layers were formed at 50
*Wenjin Road 88#, Shanghai, China
748
Research on the Preparation, Characterization and Tribological Properties of Ultra-Thin Self-Assembled Monolayers on the Magnetic Head Surface
1.2
1.0
5RXJKQHVVQP
0.8
0.6
0.0 CONCLUSION
0 30 60 90 120 1400 2800 The FDTS SAMs were successfully prepared on the magnetic
5HDFWLRQ WLPHPLQ head surface, and verified by the TOF-SIMS, XPS, and CA
Fig. 2 The roughness as function of reaction time for the FDTS measurements. As the reaction time was 12 h, the thickness,
SAMs on the magenetic head surface CA value and roughness of the FDTS SAMs were 2.3 nm,
40 140 130.7º and 0.123nm, respectively. At this experimental
35
condition, the FDTS SAMs coated magnetic head could lead to
130
better tribological properties.
30
7KLFNQHVV˄DXQJVWURPV˅
120
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
&RQWDFWDQJOH˄R˅
25
110
20
We acknowledge Dr. Tian H. and Dr. Liu Y. W. of SAE
100 Magnetics (H.K.) Ltd.
15
10 90 REFERENCES
7KLFNQHVV
5 &RQWDFWDQJOH 80 [1] Bogy D. B., 2002, “Some Tribology and Mechanics Issues
for 100-Gb/in2 Hard Disk Drive,” IEEE Transactions on
0
0 50 100 150 200 1500 3000
70 Magnetic, 38, pp.1879-1882.
5HDFWLRQWLPH˄PLQ˅
[2] Shinji Yonemura A, Stefan Weissner B, Lin Zhou. 2005,
“Investigation of disk damage caused during load/unload
Fig. 3 The thickness and contact angle as function of reaction
using a surface reflectance analyzer,” Tribology
time for the FDTS SAMs on the magenetic head surface
International, 38, pp.81-87.
[3] Choi J. H., Kato M., Kato T., 2002, “Self-assembled
monolayer formation on magnetic hard disk surface and
friction measurements,” Journal of applied physics, 91,
pp.7574-7578.
[4] Choi J. H., Kawaguchi M., Kato T., 2003, “Possibility of
organic monolayer films as lubricants for disk drives:
comparative study of PFPE and organosilane,” Journal of
tribology, 125(4), pp.850-853.
[5] Choi J. H., Kato T., 2005, “Self-assembled monolayers as
Fig. 4 Contact angle of the FDTS SAMs on the magnetic head
lubricants for magnetic disk drives,” IEEE Trans.
surface at 12h of the reaction time
Magn., 41(2), pp.599-603.
The FDTS SAMs coated magnetic head at 12 h was used [6] Noemi Rozlosnik, Micheal C., Gerstenberg, Niels B.
Larsen, 2003, “Effect of solvents and concentration on the
in tribological properties measurements. In Fig. 5, the formation of a self-assembled monolayer of
stiction of the magnetic head maintained less than 2g octadecylsiloxane on silicon(001),” Langmuir, 19,
during 20000 CSS cycles. And Fig. 6 shows that the pp.1182-1187.
20001st start-stop cycle friction of the magnetic head [7] Kasai P. H., 2000, “Carbon overcoat: Structure and bonding
was 2.207g. In the quality control, the stiction and of Z-DOL,” Proceeding of international Tribology
20001st start-stop cycle friction were 2-4 g and 4-6 g, Conference, Nagasaki, pp.63-68.
respectively. [8] Shukla N., Gellman A. J. 2000, “The interaction of
CH3CH2OH and (CF3CF2)2O with amorphous carbon
films,” Langmuir, 16 (16), pp.6562-6568.
[9] Atsushi Hozumi, Kazuya Ushiyama, Hiroyuki Sugimura,
1999, “Fluoroalkylsilane monolayers formed by chemical
vapor surface modification on hydroxylated oxide
surfaces,” Langmuir, 15, pp.7600-7608.
749
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Jian Sui/State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China
Yanjie Zhang/State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China
Shufang Ren/State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China
Monika Rinke/ Institute for Materials Research I, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH, Karlsruhe 76021, Germany
Jinjun Lu/State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, P.R. China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Carbon coating on Ti3SiC2 with combined (Ti3SiC2), are important engineering materials. Because of
superhydrophobic and self-lubricating properties is synthesized their excellent mechanical properties and chemical inert, it is
by high temperature chlorination followed by modification of rather difficult to fabricate a super-hydrophobic surface on
organic film in this paper. Raman spectroscopy confirms the carbides by aforesaid methods. Constructing stable
conversion from titanium silicon carbide to highly graphitized super-hydrophobic surface on carbides is attractive for both
carbon coating at 1000°C. Scanning electron microscopy fundamental and real applications. In addition, bi-functional or
(SEM) observation shows a highly porous microstructure of multi-functional surfaces are more attractive than
graphite flakes on the coating surface. Both the size and shape mono-functional surface to scientists and engineers. In this
of Ti3SiC2 grains vary after high temperature chlorination. The connection, low friction and high wear resistance are still
original grains are transformed to graphite flakes, and important properties for modified CDC coating.
separated into two and more parts. The porous structure as well In this article, fabrication of a super-hydrophobic and
as organic film on carbon coating endows the surface with self-lubricating carbon coating on top of polycrystalline
super-hydrophobic property. Because of chemical inertia of Ti3SiC2 by high-temperature chlorination and modification of
carbon coating and the modifier, the superhydrophobic surface hydrophobic compound is reported.
is stable under various environments. Carbon coating is good
solid lubricant and greatly reduces the friction coefficient of EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Ti3SiC2 sliding against Si3N4, which is important for Ti3SiC2
used as engineering materials. MATERIAL SYNTHESIS AND MODIFICATION
Keywords: Carbide derived carbon; Porous structure; Super-
Ti3SiC2 bulk samples introduced in this work was
dhyrophobic Surface; Self-lubricating fabricated by hot-pressing process, and the surfaces were
INTRODUCTION polished (average Ra of 0.06 μm). The chlorination etching of
Selective etching of carbides in halogens is an attractive Ti3SiC2 was performed in a quartz tube placed in a furnace that
method to produce various carbon structures. Carbon can be heated to 1000°C. The quartz tube was purged with
synthesized by this process is called carbide derived carbon high flow rate of Ar gas before heating at a rate of 60°C /min
(CDC) [1]. CDC shows potential applications in many areas, to the desired reaction temperature. Once the desired
including molecular sieve, hydrogen storage, supercapacitor, temperature was reached, the reaction gas mixture (8%Cl2+Ar)
catalysis, and tribology [1]. Considerable studies on the was introduced for chlorination. Post-treatment of samples at
tribological behaviors of CDC coating on top of SiC revealed 1000°C for 2 hours with high flow rate of Ar gas was
that CDC coating is good solid lubricant in sliding against conducted to remove the residual Cl2 adsorbed in the CDC
Si3N4 and steel over a wide range of humidity and different sample. During the cool-down period, the sample was secured
atmospheres [2-5]. Since CDC coating is characterized by under Ar gas all the time. Surface was modified as follow:
rough surface with binary porous structures at micro- and samples were ultrasonically cleaned in acetone bath, and then
nanometer scales, it can be deduced that super-hydrophobic immersed in solution (C8H18: CF3(CF2)5CH2CH2SiCl3 = 1000)
surface of CDC coating on carbides can be obtained after for 5 hours. Finally, the sample was dried in vacuum.
modification with hydrophobic compounds while retaining its
self-lubricating property. WETTABLE AND TRIBOLOGICAL TESTS
Theoretically, super-hydrophobicity is defined as water
Contact angles were measured on Drop Shape Analysis
contact angle above 150° and sliding angle below 10° [6,7].
System DSA100 (Kruss, Germany) in room air. The average
Super-hydrophobic surfaces have attracted considerable
CA value was obtained by measuring seven different positions
interests in recent years due to their great importance in both
for each process. The sample was immersed in water, acid
fundamental research and potential industrial application
(volume fraction of sulfuric acid is 5%), basic (1 mol/L NaOH
[6,8-10]. Relatively easy and feasible chemical etching method
solution), and acetone for 5 hours in turns to study the stability.
was selected to fabricate a series of stable super-hydrophobic
After each immersing process, sample was dried to measure
surfaces successfully on engineering materials, including
contact angle. Tribological tests were performed on a
aluminum alloy, steel, titanium alloy, and copper alloy [11,12].
UMT-2MT tribo-meter (CETR, USA) with a ball-on-disk
Super-hydrophobic surfaces was easily constructed through
configuration at room temperature in air (relative humidity is
chemical etching of acid, basic or other solution on metal or
30-40%). The Si3N4 ball has a diameter of 3 mm and a surface
alloy, but not on ceramic. As we know, carbide ceramics
including some ternary carbide, e.g. titanium silicon carbide roughness Ra of 0.02 μm. The load, speed and duration are 3 N,
750
Super-Hydrophobic and Self-Lubricating Carbon Coating on Ti3SiC2
0.02 m/s, and 40 minutes, respectively. The ball makes tribo-meter. CDC coating is good solid lubricant under the
oscillating movement on the disk. The friction coefficient was same condition. The average friction coefficient of as-received
recorded by the tribo-meter. CDC coating against Si3N4 is 0.35, which is much lower than
that of bulk Ti3SiC2. Moreover, friction coefficient is very
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION steady throughout the test. In order to investigate the effect of
roughness, CDC coating was carefully ground to an average
WETTABILITY roughness of 2 μm. The friction coefficient of the ground CDC
coating is as low as 0.24, which is comparable to that of
The surface wettability of the modified CDC coating and
commercially available graphite. The tribological results
Ti3SiC2 substrate has been contrasted in our study. The
showed that CDC coating on top of Ti3SiC2 is good solid
polished Ti3SiC2 surface (average Ra of 0.06 μm) is lubricant and can greatly improve the tribological performance
hydrophilic having average contact angle of 72.7° for water. of Ti3SiC2, extending its application in many areas.
After high temperature chlorination, the metal luster of Ti3SiC2
surface was changed to black and a rather rough surface
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(average Ra = 8 μm) was acquired. When the sample was
soaked in water, numerous small bubbles were escaping fleetly The present work is financially supported by National
from the surface to envelop the sample, illustrating a large Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 50675216).
amount of air was trapped on the surface. However, the
as-grown CDC coating is super-hydrophilic and water droplet REFERENCES
spread on the surface and permeated into interior quickly, due [1] Nikitin A, Gogotsi Y., 2004, Nanostructured
to the high surface energy. After modification, the water carbide-derived carbon, Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and
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between water droplet and surface is so low that water can California.
easily fall away without any trace when the surface is leaned or [2] Carroll B, Gogotsi Y, Kovalchenkob A, Erdemirb A,
wobbled slightly. These results can be theoretically explained McNallanc MJ, 2003, “Effect of humidity on the
by Cassie and Baxter equation, which reflects the contact tribological properties of carbide-derived carbon (CDC)
between water and surface closed to reality. films on silicon carbide,” Tribol Lett, 15, pp51-55.
cos θ r = f1 cos θ − f 2 (1) [3] Erdemir A, Kovalchenko A, McNallan MJ, Welz S, Lee A,
f1 + f 2 = 1 (2) Gogotsi Y, Carroll B, 2004, “Effects of high-temperature
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Where θrand θ are the contact angles on rough and smooth
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Technol, 188-189, pp588-593.
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air trapped on the surface increase the contact area between McNallan MJ, Carroll B, Gogotsi Y, 2006, “Synthsisi and
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carbon coating. It is clear that a super-hydrophobic surface on Ceram Technol, 3, pp236-244.
top of Ti3SiC2 was synthesized successfully. [5] Gao F, Lu J, Liu W, 2007, “Tribological behavior of
In order to evaluate the stability of superhydrophobicity in carbide-derived carbon coating on SiC polycrystal against
various environments, the sample was immersed in water, acid SAE52100 steel in moderately humid air,” Tribol Lett, 27,
(5 vol. % sulfuric acid solution), basic (1 mol/L NaOH pp339-345.
solution), and acetone for 5 hours, in turns. After each [6] Blossey R, 2003, “Self-cleaning surfaces — virtual
immersing process, water contact angle was measured. realities,” Nat Mater, 2, pp301-306.
Surprisingly, water contact angles after each process are quite
[7] Sun T, Feng L, Gao X, Jiang L, 2005, “Bioinspired surfaces
stable, and the average contact angle is still 149° even after the with special wettability,” Acc Chem Res, 38, 644-652.
whole operation. Such stability may be explained in two
[8] Barthlott W, Neinhuis C, 1997, “Purity of sacred lotus, or
aspects. The first one is the microstructure of CDC coating escape from contamination in biological surfaces,” Planta,
remains unchanged after the chemical attacking of the
202, pp1-8.
chemicals. The second one is due to the strong adsorption of [9] Lafuma A, Quéré D, 2003, “Superhydrophobic states,” Nat
the modifier to surface and chemical resistance of the modifier
Mater, 2, pp457-460.
to the chemicals. It can be concluded that this [10] Gao X, Jiang L, 2004, “Biophysics waterrepellent legs of
super-hydrophobic surface is of great stability in various
water striders,” Nature, 432, pp36-36.
environments, which is important for engineering materials [11] Guo Z, Zhou F, Hao J, Liu W, 2005, “Stable biomimetic
used in real application.
super-hydrophobic engineering materials,” J Am Chem Soc,
127, pp15670-15671.
TRIBOLOGICAL RESULTS [12] Qu M, Zhang B, Song S, Chen L, Zhang J, Cao X, 2007,
Generally, friction coefficient of a material can be affected “Fabrication of superhydrophobic surfaces on engineering
by surface roughness which is necessary for acquiring materials by a solution-immersion process,” Adv Funct
superhydrophobic property in most sliding contacts. However, Mater, 17, pp593-596.
carbon coating with high roughness produced by high (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
temperature chlorination effectively reduced the friction
needs it.)
coefficient of Ti3SiC2 substrate in sliding against Si3N4. After a
short running-in period, the friction coefficient of Ti3SiC2
fluctuates rather heavily around 0.8 in open air. Because of
high friction coefficient and severe wear, the tribological test
was factitiously stopped at about 350s to protect the
751
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
(Extended Abstract)
EXPERIMENTS
The ultra-thin DLC films studied in this paper were
prepared on cuprum deposited on silicon wafers by a FCVA
system. The silicon wafers were cleaned ultrasonically in the
acetone and alcohol for 15 min respectively and then immersed
in hydrofluoric acid solution with concentration of 0.5% for 15
s to remove the oxide layer on the wafer surface. The silicon
wafer were sputtered by Ar+ ions with energy of 500 eV, beam
current of 50 mA, and incident angle of 45 degree. The
chamber was evacuated to a base pressure less than 5h10-4 Pa,
Fig. 1 the cross sectional TEM image of the DLC film with
and the working pressure increased to about 2h10-3 Pa. The
deposition duration of 9min
films were prepared under a pulse bias with duty ratio of 20%
and amplitude of -100 V. The deposition duration of cuprum The surface morphologies of the cuprum and DLC-coated
was 3 min and for DLC was varied in the range of 3~15 min in cuprum respectively measured by AFM are shown in Fig 2. To
order to obtain ultra-thin DLC films with thickness of 3~15 study the corrosion protection of the DLC film, the surface
nm. morphologies before and after soaked in de-ionized water for 1
The deposition rate was calculated from the film thickness hour are presented in Fig 2. As shown, the surface of cuprum
measured by a JEM-2010F transmission electron microscope after soaked became much rougher than before. However, the
(TEM) and the deposition duration. A digital instruments surface of DLC-coated cuprum was almost the same as before.
752
Corrosion Protection of Ultra-Thin Diamond-Like Carbon Films on Cuprum
REFERENCES
[1] Casiraghi, C, Robertson, J, Ferrari, A.C, 2007,
“Diamond-like carbon for data and beer storage,”
Materials today, 110, pp.44-53
[2] Ferrari, A.C, 2004, “Diamond-like carbon for magnetic
storage disks,” Surface and Coating Technology, 180-181,
pp.190-206.
[3] Tomcik, B, Osipowicz, T, Lee, J.Y, 2000, “Diamond-like
film as a corrosion protective layer on the hard disk,” Thin
Solid Films, 360, pp.173-180.
[4] Bernhard, P, Ziethen, Ch, Ohr, R, et al, 2004,
“Investigations of the corrosion protection of ultrathin a-C
and a-C:N overcoats for magnetic storage devices,”
Surface and Coatings Technology, 180-181, pp.621-626.
[5] Tomcik, B, Seng, S.C, Balakrisnan, B, et al, 2002,
“Electrochemical tests on the carbon protective layer of a
hard disk,” Diamond and Related Materials, 11,
pp.1409-1415
Fig. 3 surface roughness of cuprum and DLC–coated cuprum (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
with different DLC film thickness before and after soaked in needs it.)
de-ionized water for 1 hour
753
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
1. EXPERIMENT
Tween-60㧘span-20㧘span-80㧘polyether㧘ceriem oxides
nanoparticales and 500 SN base oil were used in this paper㧚To
prevent the agglomeration of nanoparticles㧘oil-soluble CeO2
nanoparticles were prepared by surface-treated with surfactants㧚
Fig.1 TEM morphology of nano-CeO2
* Corresponding author㧦Gu Zhuoming (1945- )㧘Male㧘Doctor㧘Professor㧘
Research field㧦nanometer materials and tribology,(zmgu@mmc.shmtu.edu.cn)㧚
754
SEM and AFM Study on Nanoparticles Used as Lubricating Oils Additives
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors here sincerely thank the support from the
Shanghai Science and Technology Committee and the
Fig.3 SEM morphology of wear scars of base oil Shanghai Education Committe for this research㧘and gratitude
also goes to the National Microanalysis Center of Fudan
University and Shanghai Huaming High Science and
Technology Company㧚
REFERENCES
[1]GAO Jieming㧘ZHOU Hongping㧘LIU Zhinong㧘ZHOU
Shijie㧘YI Jin㧘2002㧘ĀProgress in study of nanometer
powders of rare earth compoundsˈāMaterials review㧘
16(11)ˈpp.39-43㧚
Fig.4 SEM morphology of wear scars of oil [2]GUO Yun㧘LU Guanzhong㧘2007㧘 ĀCurrent status and some
with CeO2 nanoparticles perspectives of rare earth catalytic materialsˈāJournal of
the chinese rare earth society㧘25(1)ˈpp.1-6㧚
[3]HUANG Xiaohua㧘ZHOU Qing㧘ZHANG Guangsheng㧘
2005㧘ĀAdvances on rare earth application in pollution
ecologyˈāJournal of rare earths㧘23(1)ˈpp.5-10㧚
[4]WANG Ling㧘CHENG Xianghu㧘2006㧘ĀPreparation and
tribological investigation of rare earth nanofilm on
single-crystal silicon substrate ls㧘āJournal of rare earths㧘
24(1)ˈpp.44-49㧚
[5]JIANG Song㧘WEI Yunlong㧘CHENG Xiyun㧘CHEN
Boshui 㧘 2005 㧘Ā Tribological performance and
tribochemical mechanism of lanthanum
dialkyldithiophosphateˈ āJournal of rare earthsˈ
23(1)ˈpp.20-25㧚
(The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
Fig.5 AFM morphology of wear surface of base oil
needs it.)
755
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Study on Wear Model for Piston Ring and Strengthened Cylinder Wall of Engine
756
Study on Wear Model for Piston Ring and Strengthened Cylinder Wall of Engine
cast iron, high phosphorus cast iron is acted as the contrast needs to solve contrary matrix A1 [10]. Then A + 0 . Namely,
material.
parameter 2 and 4 must meet
REGRESSION ROTATION EXPERIMENT DESIGN 4 p
METHOD + (6)
2 p 2
The choice of the experiment method is a key of scientific Therefore, the instance must be avoided in the regression
research, especially researche with multifactor and multilevel rotation design. It is called the non-degeneration condition of
[9]. The regression rotation experiment design method has the quadratic regression rotation design.
better application in the internal combustion engine experiment. The only condition that the equal sign in formula (6) come
The points with the equal distance to experiment center have into existence is that n experiment points are on the same
the same variance [10], namely experimental forecast values
sphere. Namely, as long as n experiment points are not on
that are distributed on the same spherical surface have the
same variance. This is called rotation. On the one hand, the the same sphere, it is possible to attain the quadratic regression
regression rotation design basically remains the merits of the rotation design project.
orthogonal regression design, such as less experiment number, In the central combine design project, n experimental
simple calculation, and partly eliminating pertinence among points are distributed on three spheres with different radiuses.
regression coefficients. On the other hand, it can make the So mc experiment points are on the sphere of the
quadratic design have the rotation. This is helpful to avoid the radius 3 c p . 2 p experiment points are on the sphere of
predicted value variance to depend on the experiment point
position in factor space of the regression orthogonality design. the radius 3r r ;. mo experiment points ˄central point˅
Conditions of Rotation Experiment Design are distributed on the sphere of the radius 3o 0 .
In general p dimensions d degrees regression equation, the Thus the experiment design can’t cause the degeneration of
general element statement in coefficient matrix A of normal coefficient matrix A.
equation corresponding to regression equation is
Parameter Determination of Quadratic Rotation Design
n
(x
ap
x "x
a1 a 2
i1 i 2 ip (1) To make the experimental design meet rotation condition,
i 1
central combination design demands
Where, the exponent a1 , a2 ,", a p respectively takes r 4 mc (7)
non-negative integer, such as 0,1,2 " 2 d etc, and must meet It is obvious that if p 2 , then mc 4 , so r 1.414 .
0 F a1 a 2 " a p F 2d (2) If the design has not only the rotation, but also the
orthogonality or approximate orthogonality, the elements of
To the regression rotation condition, the elements in the non diagonal in the coefficient matrix must be zeros, namely
coefficient matrix A should be
g (1 h / n) 2 mc 4(r 2 n / m)( h / n) (8)
K p ( h / n ) 2 ( n m c 4)
H nGai! where, h mc 2r 2 .
n HHa i1 all ai are even integer or zero
(
a
xia11 xia22 "xipp J n/2 p ai In formula (8), mc is given, now r has been determined,
i1 H 2 G (
i1 2
)! (3)
H and n mc 2 p m . Thus g only is a function about mo ,
HI0 one ai is odd integer at least
when g 0 , mo can be solved. If the received mo is integer,
Where, n üexperiment number the design is the orthogonal rotation design. If the received
mo is not integer, mo takes proximal integer. Then the design
a ücoefficient, a a1 a2 " a p
is the approximate orthogonal rotation design. For example,
a üundetermined coefficient, subscript a must be p 2 , mc 4 , r 1.414 , r 2 2 , n g mo , then by
even integer, and 0 1 the formula (8),
To the quadratic regression rotation design, coefficient mc2 4mc 2 4 4
matrix A in formula (2) meets g mc r r 0
n n n
0 F a1 a 2 " a p F 4 (4) The results are n 16 and mo 8 . So this is an orthogonal
And a1 , a2 ,", a p must all be even integers or zeros. rotation design.
There are several instances as below: Thus, based on parameters r , mo , mc and the
n combination experiment method, the orthogonal rotation
(x
i 1
2
ij 2 n i, j 1,2," , p
(5)
experiment project with two factors can be determined.
757
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
designed. Its features are high rotation speed, stepless speed coefficient formulas of the quadratic orthogonal rotation
regulation and there is no resonance phenomenon in the whole regression equations. With programming computing, the
speed range. mathematical models on where the friction losses of high
phosphorus cast iron and electroless nickel plating, change
with respect to the load and speed based on the engine running
Wear Experiment Method condition are shown as below.
With regression rotation experiment design method, the yˆ 38.23 1.48 x1 4.88 x 2 0.27 x1 x 2 (9)
points of which are equidistant from experiment center have 1.07 x12 0.03 x 22
the same variance, namely the experimental forecast values
which are distributed on the same spherical surface have the yˆ 15.99 3.66 x1 0.91x 2 0.13x1 x2 (10)
same variance. The regression rotation design not only has less 0.29x12 0.02x 22
experiment number and sample calculation, but also can partly To check the validity of these equations, it needs make the
eliminate pertinence among regression coefficients. Because statistical significance test, namely F test.
the design is rotational, it is overcome that the predicted value
variance depends on experiment point position on factor space mean square of lack of fit ;
in regression orthogonality design. F1
mean square of error
Since the regression rotation design can overcome the
shortages of orthogonal design and decrease experiment mean square of regression
numbers, it is chosen as the experiment design method in the F2
wear mechanisms research of engine cylinder.
mean square of residue
Wear Experiment Factors The value F1 is used to show if there is other factors have
The main reasons affecting the wear of the engine cylinder notable effect on the test target besides test factors. If the result
are load, speed and temperature etc. The condition of load and is notable, it needs check the reasons and change quadratic
speed affects obviously on the stress state of cylinder and regression model. The value F2 is used to show the
cause severe wear of engine cylinder [11-12]. The relative significance on fitting degree between test factors and
speed and pressure between piston ring and cylinder wall are regression equation. The F test results of regression equation
determined as main wear factors of engine cylinder, and are shown in table 1.
abrasion value of cylinder is chosen as wear resistance target.
In order that the wear experiment of hardening plating is Table 1 F Test Results of Regression Equation
close to the worst conditions of the engine cylinder, according Test Index
to the wear rule of the engine cylinder and the relative speed F1 F2
Material
and pressure between piston ring and cylinder wall on
1mm~8mm below top dead center of cylinder in expansion High Phosphorus Cast Iron 3.16 41.82
stroke, the ranges of experimental parameters are chosen. By Electroless Nickel Plating 1.17 26.23
analysis and calculation on construction and operating
performance of TOYOTA 12R engine, the speed and pressure Note: F critical value, F1= F0.05=4.35, F2=F0.01=6.64
range between the top piston ring and cylinder wall of piston
ring relative to cylinder wall is determined. In addition, The F1 values of the materials all are smaller than F1
according to the size of the grinding wheel, the application critical values. This shows that the fitting error compared with
range of the force is 14.7N~42.1N, and the application speed experimental error is quite small. The F2 values of the
range takes 1500 r/min ~4000 r/min. materials are bigger than F2 critical values. This shows that
Wear Experiment Project the quadratic regression model has perfect fitting.
Based on the factor code table of the quadratic regression Analysis of Factor Contribution Rate
rotation design, the experiment project is established, shown in
According to the variance ratio of each regression
table 1. In the table, x1 is the code value of the load P, x2 is the
coefficient in the model equations, F( j ), F( i j ) and F( j j ),
code value of the speed V. The distance of the wear experiment
the influence degree of different factors to index can be
is 200m. So the operating time is different at the different wear
experiment level. calculated. The factor contribution rate
j is defined.
1
j j
2
( ij jj (11)
758
Study on Wear Model for Piston Ring and Strengthened Cylinder Wall of Engine
Table 2 Factor Contribution Rate corresponding to the load and speed of engine cylinder
Factors working condition, the change of its abrasion loss is less.
x1 x2 Because its abrasion loss changes smoothly, it ensures not to
Materials
cause severe partial wear on cylinder wall. But the whole
High Phosphorus Cast Iron 1.81 0.98 abrasion loss is greater. It is inevitable that the whole wear
Electroless Nickel Plating 2.35 1.32 resistance of cylinder liner is not perfect.
(2) Electroless Nickel Plating
In contribution rates of the load and speed to the abrasion
Under test conditions, the wear rule, that electroless nickel
loss of high phosphorus cast iron, the effect of the load is
plating layer is mated with chromium plating layer, is shown in
greater, and the speed has less effect. Namely when engine run
fig.2. It is very small and approximately remains
normally and piston ring arrives top dead center in expansion
invariableness level that the speed effects on abrasion loss.
stroke, the load reaches maximum value and abrasion loss also
This explains that the two kinds of materials have a good
is maximum. This is accordant with practical wear of engine. It
match. The load effect on abrasion loss is relatively greater
is obviously that this kind of material has worse wear
than the speed. With the increase of load, abrasion loss only
resistance in worst operating condition of engine.
slowly rises. Thereby, in the most severe wear area of cylinder
To the electroless nickel plating, the results show that the
liner, the change scope of abrasion loss of electroless nickel
load has greater effect on the abrasion loss than the speed. The
plating layer is very little and smooth. This is very perfect to
material wear is accordant with general wear rule. Especially
improve wear resistance of engine cylinder liner. At the same
in course of test, the plating layer shows fine self-lubricating
time, electroless nickel plating layer still has excellent
characteristic. One of main reasons, why abrasion loss at top
performance of adhere wear resistance. So it is quite perfect
dead center of engine cylinder is maximum, is bad lubricating
hardening material for engine cylinder liner.
condition. Then the electroless nickel plating with
.
self-lubricating characteristic will help to solve this problem.
Wear Mechanism Analysis of Hardening Material CONCLUSION
With the equations (9)~(10), the three-dimensional surfaces The cylinder liner and piston ring is considered as a whole
of the load-speed-abrasion loss of hardening material is drawn, friction system. Based on experimental research and theoretic
as shown in fig.1~ fig.2. According to the three-dimensional of analysis, the wear mechanisms and wear resistance of
wear loss, the relations between the relative speed and pressure hardening material of engine cylinder are studied.
of piston ring and cylinder wall and wear loss of materials are According to general regression rotation design conditions,
analyzed synthetically. the degeneration-proof of quadratic rotation design with two
factors is discussed, and experiment design parameters are
(1) High Phosphorus Cast Iron determined.
As shown in fig.1, when high phosphorus cast iron is Based on the quadratic orthogonal rotation regression
mated with chromium plating material, the curved surface of experiment method, the wear experiment of hardening cylinder
the material abrasion loss is flatter near top dead center in liner and piston ring is designed. The wear mechanisms of high
expansion stroke. The load effect on the abrasion loss is phosphorus cast iron and electroless nickel plating are
approximate twice than the speed. It shows that the load effect approach. According to the wear experiment results of the
on the abrasion loss of this material is obvious. The change of hardening material, the wear mathematical models which
the abrasion loss with respect to the speed always straightly abrasion losses change with respect to load and speed are
keeps increase. So the quadratic effect of the speed is established.
unimportance. Therefore, with change trend of 3D curved For the quadratic regression mathematical model that
surface, friction performance of high phosphorus cast iron is abrasion losses change with respect to load and speed, it shows
perfect in the test range. Namely, in the test range that the two factors are the main factors. By significance test,
Wear loss (mg)
Wear loss (mg)
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
the quadratic regression mathematical model fit better. high-pressure apparatus,” Journal of the Society of
In the most severe wear area of cylinder liner, abrasion loss Materials Science, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 258-263.
of electroless nickel plating material changes very small and [5] Xue Shaoping, Yan Qinlao, 2001, “Test study on shallow
smooth. This is perfect for hardening cylinder liner wall of surface layer of diesel engine cylinder liner with
engine. bidirectional rotation laser hardening technique,”
Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Machinery, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 117-118.
[6] Tian Bin, Yue Wen, Zheng Xian, et al, 2006, “Effect of
The correspondence author is Haiqiao Wei. This work is
cermet additive on nitriding and chromeplating cylinder
supported by the science and technology development program
liners,” Lubrication Engineering, no. 6, pp. 74-77+80.
of Beijing municipal commission of education.
[7] Hwang Jong-Hyun, Han Myoung-Seoup, Kim Dae-Young;
2006, “Tribological behavior of plasma spray coatings for
REFERENCES marine diesel engine piston ring and cylinder liner,”
[1] Dearnley P.A., Kern E.; Dahm K.L., 2005, “Wear response Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, vol.
of crystalline nanocomposite and glassy Al2O3-SiC 15, no. 3, pp. 328-335.
coatings subjected to simulated piston ring/cylinder wall [8] Wang Yu, Ma Wenyan, 2000, “Study on wear resistance
tests,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical and reliability of engine cylinder liner,” Automobile
Engineers, Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Technology, no. 8, pp. 24-26.
Applications, vol. 219, no. 2, pp. 121-137. [9] Cui Hongzhi, 2000, “Cylinder liner quenching hardening
[2] Xu Fangda, Zhang Yongkang, 2001, “New technologies with digital controlled plasma technique,” Materials for
for improving wear-resistant properties of cylinder bore by Mechanical Engineering, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 50-51.
laser-strengthening,” Journal of Jiangsu University of [10] Xu Zhongru, Optimum Regression Design of Agriculture
Technology Science and Technology (Science and Experiment, Harbin city, China: Heilongjiang science and
Technology Edition), vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 18-21. technology press, 1988.
[3] Chen Fengbin, Bi Rui, 2001, “New laser-strengthening [11] Hu Zehao, Liu Changxheng, 2002, “Matching in materials,
technologies for improving wearability of the engine tolerance and surface hardening process of cylinder and
piston ring,” Journal of Jiangsu University of Technology piston (ĉ),” Internal Combustion Engine, no. 3, pp.16-18.
Science and Technology (Science and Technology Edition), [12] Hu Zehao, Liu Changxheng, 2002, “Matching in materials,
vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 22-25. tolerance and surface hardening process of cylinder and
[4] Takaoka Katsuya, Hirota Ken, Kato Masaki, et al, 2006, piston (Ċ),” Internal Combustion Engine, no. 4, pp. 14-16.
“Fabrication of meta-stable monoclinic zirconia ceramics
with a high density using a piston-cylinder type
760
State of the Art in Laser Surface Texturing
Izhak Etsion
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Technion, Haifa 32000
Israel
etsion@technion.ac.il
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT This is because the laser is extremely fast and allows short
Surface texturing has emerged in the last decade as a viable processing times, it is clean to the environment and provides
option of surface engineering resulting in significant excellent control of the shape and size of the texture, which
improvement in load capacity, wear resistance, friction allows realization of optimum designs. By controlling energy
coefficient etc. of tribological mechanical components. Various density, the laser can safely process hardened steels, ceramics,
techniques can be employed for surface texturing but Laser and polymers as well as crystalline structures. Indeed, LST is
Surface Texturing (LST) is probably the most advanced so far. starting to gain more and more attention in the Tribology
LST produces a very large number of micro-dimples on the community as is evident from the growing number of
surface and each of these micro- dimples can serve either as a publications on this subject. LST produces a very large number
micro-hydrodynamic bearing in cases of full or mixed of micro-dimples on the surface (see Fig. 1) and each of these
lubrication, a micro-reservoir for lubricant in cases of starved micro-dimples can serve either as a micro-hydrodynamic
lubrication conditions, or a micro-trap for wear debris in either bearing in cases of full or mixed lubrication, a micro-reservoir
lubricated or dry sliding. The paper reviews the current effort for lubricant in cases of starved lubrication conditions, or a
being made world wide on laser surface texturing in particular. micro-trap for wear debris in either lubricated or dry sliding.
It presents the state of the art in LST and the potential of this The pioneering work on LST started at Technion in Israel
technology in various lubricated applications like mechanical as early as 1996 [1, 2]. At about the same time work on laser
seals, piston rings, thrust bearings, magnetic recording etc. The surface texturing was done in Germany but unfortunately, most
paper also describes some fundamental on-going research of it is published in the German language and hence, is not
around the world with LST. even referenced in English archive journals. A few exceptions
Keywords: Tribology, Friction, Surface texturing are papers coming from the group lead by Geiger at the
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg e.g. [3, 4]. This group uses
INTRODUCTION an eximer laser with a mask projection technique, a mask is
illuminated with the laser beam and its geometrical
Surface texturing as a means for enhancing tribological
information is projected onto the textured surface. This method
properties of mechanical components is well known for many
was applied to a punch, used in a backward cup extrusion
years. Perhaps the most familiar and earliest commercial
process for the production of rivets, and showed a substantial
application of surface texturing is that of cylinder liner honing. increase of up to 169% in cold forging tool life. These as well
Today surfaces of modern magnetic storage devices are
as many other papers on LST are described in a review of the
commonly textured and surface texturing is also considered as state of the art of LST covering this subject until 2005 [5].
a means for overcoming adhesion and stiction in MEMS
Laser surface texturing has been used in the magnetic storage
devices. Fundamental research work on various forms and industry [6, 7] mainly to prevent stiction during start up. This
shapes of surface texturing for tribological applications is
issue will not be dealt with in the present review. Instead, the
carried out worldwide and various texturing techniques are potential of LST in enhancing Tribological performance during
employed in these studies including machining, ion beam
continuous operation will be described.
texturing, etching techniques and laser texturing. Of all the
practical micro-surface patterning methods it seems that laser
surface texturing (LST) offers the most promising concept.
STATE OF THE ART
The evolution of research works on surface texturing, and
mainly on LST, over the last decade is presented in Fig. 2.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
As can be seen an exponential growth in number of operating conditions. The micro-dimples produced on the
publications took place since 2003. In the three years from surface by a pulsating laser beam can act as
2005 through 2007 alone some 50 papers were published on micro-hydrodynamic bearings in cases of full or mixed
this subject, in the English literature, by researchers coming lubrication with either incompressible or compressible
from many countries all over the world as can be seen from Fig. 3. lubricants. These dimples can serve as micro-reservoirs for
lubricant in cases of starved lubrication conditions, in EHL,
14 and for solid lubricants, and they can also provide micro-traps
12 for wear debris in either lubricated or dry sliding. Many
10 theoretical and experimental studies on surface texturing were
8 performed by a large number of researchers with various types
6 of texturing geometries and with different texturing
4 technologies. These researchers come from many countries
2 around the world as shown in Fig. 3. The figure presents the
0 distribution of researchers by countries of origin and references
corresponding to work done in the period from 2005 through
th an
G ny
a
Po d
Fi lic
el
Tu nd
ge ia
G nce
Sw nd
itz en
pu l
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A
Fr d
UK
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h Bra
Ne ap
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Automotive
• piston rings REFERENCES
• cylinder liner [1] Etsion, I. and Burstein, L. 1996, "A Model for Mechanical
• piston pin Seals with Regular Microsurface Structure," Tribology
• disk brakes Transactions, 39, pp. 677-683.
[2] Etsion, I., Halperin G., and Greenberg, Y. 1997, "Increasing
Bearings and Seals Mechanical Seal Life with Laser-Textured Seal Faces,"
• thrust bearings Proc. 15th Int. Conf. on Fluid Sealing, BHR Group,
• air bearing sliders Maastricht, pp. 3-11.
• journal bearings [3] Geiger, M., Roth, S., and Becker, W. 1998, "Influence of
• mechanical face seals Laser-Produced Microstructures on the Tribological
• gas seals Behavior of Ceramics," Surface and Coatings Technology,
100-101, pp. 17-22.
Elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication [4] Geiger, M., Popp, U., and Engel, U. 2002, "Eximer Laser
Micro Texturing of Cold Forging Tool Surface- Influence
Magnetic Storage on Tool Life," Annals of the CIRP, 51, pp. 231-234.
• hard disk sliders [5] Etsion, I. 2005, "State of the Art in Laser Surface
Texturing," J. of Tribology Trans. ASME, 127, pp.
• magnetic tapes
248-253.
[6] Ranjan, R., Lambeth, D.N., Tromel, M., Goglia, P., and Li,
Miscellaneous
Y. 1991, "Laser Texturing for Low-Flying-Height Media,"
• machine tools guideways
J. of Applied Physics, 69, pp. 5745-5747.
• hydraulic motors [7] Zhou, L., Kato, K., Vurens, G., and Talke, F.E. 2003, "The
• reservoirs for solid lubricant Effect of Slider Surface Texture on Flyability and
SUMARRY Lubricant Migration under Near Contact Conditions,"
Tribology Int., 36, pp. 269-277.
A review of surface texturing, and more specifically laser
surface texturing (LST), has revealed the potential of this
technology in improving tribological performance of various (The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
mechanical components over a wide range of different needs it.)
762
La2O3 Effect on Microstructure, Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Ni-W Coatings
Baolei Han (State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China)
Xinchun Lu (State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China)
Extended Abstract
In this work, a Ni-W-La2O3 composite coating was prepared
by electrodeposition method. Microhardness tester and
environmental scanning electron microscope equipped energy
dispersive spectroscopy were employed to investigate the
microhardness and the surface morphology of the composite
coatings respectively, and the high temperature friction
behavior and corrosion resistance of the coatings against
molten glass were investigated by using a high temperature
tribometer. The results show that La2O3 can refine the
microstructure effectively, and make the element distribution Fig. 1 SEM micrographs of the La2O3 particles
uniform, which leads to the increase of average microhardness. was polished by using an UNIPOL-150L Precision
La2O3 particulates decrease the friction coefficient from Lapping/Polishing Machine, and the surface roughness (Ra) of
nearly 0.48 to about 0.22 during the composite coatings sliding the coatings changed from 0.7~0.5 to 0.3. The thickness of the
against the molten glass at about 973 K, and also decrease the coatings is about 16 um. The chemical composition of seven
variation of the friction coefficient value remarkably. sample groups is shown in Table 1.
Furthermore, La2O3 particulates can improve the corrosion Table 1 Chemical composition of coatings
resistance of the Ni–W alloy at high temperature effectively, Sample groups Chemical composition
and the mechanism of anti-friction and anti-corrosion is also 0# Substrate-stainless steel
discussed. 1# Ni-W
2# Ni-W doped with 2.5̚3.5% La2O3 coating
Keywords: Rare earth oxide; Ni-W- La2O3; Composite coating; 3# Ni-W doped with 4.5̚5.5% La2O3 coating
High temperature tribological properties 4# Ni-W doped with 6.5̚7.5% La2O3 coating
5# Ni-W doped with 8.5̚9.5% La2O3 coating
6# Ni-W doped with 10.5̚11.5% La2O3 coating
INTRODUCTION 7# Ni-W doped with 12.5̚13.5% La2O3 coating
Many molding dies and forming tools are used in a terrible Surface morphology of coatings before and after high
condition. The working surfaces of these tools are exposed to temperature test against molten glass was examined by an
the chemical active environment and also subjected to environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM, FEI,
mechanical and thermal cyclic operations at high temperature Quanta 200 FEG, Netherlands) with X-ray energy disperse
(up to 800 K). These severe conditions require the surface of spectroscopy (EDS) to determine the composition of the
the dies to be self-lubricating and corrosion resistant [1]. In composite coatings. Microhardness measurements were done
glass precision molding, the frictional behavior of molten glass using a Vickers indenter (DM-400, LECO, USA) under a load
as a special phase with a solid surface counterpart is very of 200 g with the duration of 15 s. The friction tests were
complex, so the study on the coatings against molten glass carried out by using a self-developed high temperature
focuses on the wettability of coatins, but few people tribometer, as illustrated in Fig. 2, and the high temperature
investigated the frictional behavior of coatings to molten glass. corrosion tests between coatings and molten glass were
[1,2] completed by this tribometer, too.
Electrodeposited composite coatings show a significant
improvement on material’s properties, such as microhardness,
wear resistance, or corrosion resistance, as compared to the
pure metal coatings [2,3]. La2O3 particles, which are used as
filler, can give good friction and wear-reducing properties for
the polytetrafluoroethylene-based composites [4] and can
largely improve the tribological properties at high-temperature .
Therefore, in this study, Ni-W coatings with different amounts
of La2O3 were prepared using composite plating, and the high Fig.2 Schematic diagram of high temperature tribometer
temperature tribological and corrosion resistance performances 2. Results and discussion
of the coatings against molten glass were also investigated. 2.1 surface morphology and composition
1. Experimental procedure Fig. 3 (a) and (b) show the surface SEM micrographs of the
Ni-W-La2O3 composite coatings were electrodeposited from a Ni-W-La2O3 (4#) and the Ni-W (1#) coatings. It is observed
suspension of La2O3 particles in a Ni-W electrolyte. The that the matrix microstructure of the 4# coating with rare earth
composition of the plating bath was: 33 g/L Na2WO4·2H2O, 25 is smoother, finer and more compact than that of undoped the
g/L Ni(NH2SO3)2, 72.5 g/L (NH4)3C6H5O7·H2O. The La2O3 1# coating. Fig. 3 (c) and (d) show the SEM micrographs of
particles were added to the solution from 20 to 80 g/L. The sectioned surface of the Ni-W-La2O3 (4#) and the EDS
average size of the La2O3 particles (purity>99.99%) was spectrum of the Ni-W-La2O3 coating (4#) after being polished.
estimated to be less than 3 um as illustrated in Fig. 1. It is observed that the La2O3 particles distribute uniformly in
The electroplating parameters were cathode current density 5 the Ni-W matrix, and the microstructure of the Ni-W-La2O3 is
A/dm2, stirring rate of 800 rpm, PH 7~7.5, bath temperature dense, compact and less porous. The EDS spectrum shows the
65 ć, plating time 40min. After composite plating, the sample composition of the composite coating.
763
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig. 3 SEM micrographs and the EDS spectrum of coatings Fig. 7 SEM micrographs of the coating surfaces of sample group 1# and
4# after high temperature corrosion
2.2 microhardness
Fig. 4 shows the relationship between the microhardness of the group 1#, so it indicates that the oxidation resistance is
Ni-W-La2O3 composite coatings and the content of improved effectively as La2O3 particulates doping.
co-deposited La2O3 in the coatings. It is seen that the
Ni-W-La2O3 composite coating (752 Hv for 6.5~7.5% La2O3)
has a much larger microhardness than that of the Ni–W alloy
coating (587 Hv).
Fig. 8 Mass change vs. time for cyclic oxidation of coatings of sample
group 1# and 4# at 973K for 15h cyclic oxidation
3. Conclusions
Fig. 4 microhardness values of different sample groups (1)La2O3 particles refine the microstructure of the Ni-W
2.3. Friction behavior against molten glass plating and can substantially eliminate cracking in the coating.
Fig. 5 shows the friction coefficient values of sample group 0#, (2) La2O3 particulates can increase the microhardness of the
1# and 4# varying with the sliding time. There are 5 repeated Ni-W coating remarkably from 587 Hv to about 752 Hv.
tests for each coating, and it is observed that the frictional (3)La2O3 particles also can decrease the friction coefficient
curves are well repeated and stable during the sliding process. from nearly 0.5 to about 0.22 during the composite coatings
sliding against molten glass at about 973K, and proper quantity
of La2O3 can decrease the fluctuation range of the friction
coefficient value. The optimized quantity is wt6.5~7.5%, the
friction coefficient is about 0.22, and the range of the friction
coefficient value varies smally.
(4) La2O3 can improve the corrosion resistance of the Ni-W
coatings effectively at high temperature.
Fig. 5 Friction coefficient values vary with the sliding time ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors appreciate the financial support from the National
Fig. 6 shows the relationship between the friction coefficient of Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.50575121).
the Ni-W-La2O3 composite coatings and the content of
co-deposited La2O3 in the coatings. It is seen that the REFERENCES
Ni-W-La2O3 composite coating has a much lower friction
[1] Zhong, D., Mateeva, E., Dahan, I., Moore, J.J., Mustoe,
coefficient than that of the Ni–W alloy coating.
G.G.W., Ohno, T., Disam, J., Thiel, S., 2000, “Wettability of
NiAl, Ni-Al-N, Ti-B-C, and Ti-B-C-N films by glass at high
temperatures,” Surf. Coat. Technol., 133–134, pp.8-14.
[2] Kleer,G., Kaiser, E., Döll, W., 1996, “Behaviour of Ti-Al-N
coatings for tools applied in the thermoplastic moulding of
inorganic glasses,” Surf. Coat. Technol., 79, pp.95-102.
Fig. 6 Friction coefficient of different sample groups [3] Wu, G., Li, N., Zhou, D., Mitsuo, K., 2004,
2.4 High temperature corrosion tests between coatings and “Electrodeposited Co–Ni–Al2O3 composite coatings,” Surf.
molten glass Coat. Technol., 176, pp.157-164.
Fig. 7 shows the SEM micrographs of the coating surfaces of [4] Zhang, Z.Z., Xue, Q.J., Liu, W.M., Shen, W.C. 1999,
sample group 1# and 4# after high temperature corrosion for 4 h.
It is observed that the coating of sample group 1# without “Effect of rare earth compounds as fillers on friction and wear
La2O3 particles was corroded much more seriously than the behaviors of PTFE-based composites, ” J. Appl. Polym. Sci.,
coating of sample group 4# with La2O3 particles. 72, pp.361-369.
Fig. 8 shows the mass change vs. time for cyclic oxidation of
the coatings of sample group 1# and 4# at 973K for 15h cyclic
(The whole paper will be supplied by the authors if reader
oxidation. It is observed that the mass gain of the coating of
sample group 4# was lower than that of the coating of sample needs it.)
764
A Comparative Study of Growth Process and Tribological Behavior between Single Component and Mixed Alkylsilane
Self-Assembled Molecular Films
A Comparative Study of Growth Process and Tribological Behavior between Single Component and
Mixed Alkylsilane Self-Assembled Molecular Films
765
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
alkylsilane reagents to chloroform were both 1:2000. length results in a higher water CA. Since the molecular films
The morphologies of the alkylsilane self-assembled are becoming more and more orderly and compact with the
molecular films deposited on the silicon substrates were increase of the immersion time as evidenced by the AFM
investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM). A multimode pictures in Fig. 1, the water contact angles of all the molecular
Nanoscope V AFM (Digital Instrument, Santa Barbara, CA) films were increasing and the error bars were decreasing all
and an ambient tapping mode cantilever holder were used. along.
Commercial silicon cantilevers with resonant frequencies 281
kHz and spring constant 49.51N/m obtained from Digital
Instrument were applied in all measurements Instruments at the
room temperature of 20±1ºC, and the humidity of about 41%.
The water contact angle (CA) of the prepared films were
measured with a JC2000A (Shanghai, China) contact angle
system under ambient condition. Water droplets (about 3μL)
were dropped carefully onto the self-assembled molecular films.
The average contact angle value was obtained by measuring at
least six different positions on the sample. The tribological
experiments were carried out under ambient atmosphere with
the humidity of 42%-52%. The immersion time of the samples
for the tribological experiments was 12 hours. A ball-on-disk
Universal-Micro-Tribometer (UMT-2, CETR, rotary style) was
used to study the frictional properties of those prepared samples.
A steel ball (Ra 5nm) with a diameter of 4mm was fixed at the
top of the pin on the counterpart of the tribometer in this
experiment. There was no lubricant acted in the tribological Fig. 1 The 3D AFM images of bare Si and the alkylsilane
experiments. molecular films self-assembled on silicon surfaces at different
immersion time. (a) Bare Si, (b) C8F-1s, (c) C8F-5s, (d)
C8F-30s, (e) C8F-120s, (f) C8F/C12-1s, (g) C8F/C12-5s, (h)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION C8F/C12-30s, (i) C8F/C12-120s, (j) C8F/C16-1s, (k)
Fig. 1 showed a series of three-dimensional AFM images of C8F/C16-5s, (l) C8F/C16-30s, (m) C8F/C16-120s
bare Si, the single component and the mixed self-assembled
molecular films at different immersion times. It could be
observed that the silicon surface was smooth and uniform.
During the whole process of silicon wafers immersed in the
alkylsilane solutions, the molecules of C8F, C8F/C12 and
C8F/C16 aggregated in the form of small islands at the very
beginning. With the increase of the immersion time, more new
islands were formed and the former islands were growing and
merging into larger agglomerates. An important phenomenon
was that the forming of C8F film was the fastest. This is
possibly due to the stronger van der Waals interaction between
the molecular chains of C8F than that of C8F/C16 or C8F/C12.
It is well known that fluorine atom has a bigger volume than
hydrogen atom; hence the mutual interactions between the
alkylsilane molecular chains could be weakened in that some
functional fluorinated group (CF3-) in C8F was substituted by
CH3- in C8F/C12 and C8F/C16. Also, it is believed that a
longer silane chain length could lead to a stronger van der
Waals interaction; therefore the molecular film of C8F/C16
grew faster than the one of C8F/C12. It should be pointed out Fig. 2 Variation in the water contact angles of the single
that the enhanced van der Waals interactions between the component and mixed self-assembled molecular films with the
alkylsilane molecular chains could result in the orderly immersion time. The volume of the water droplet was 3 μL
molecular films. Consequently, the single component C8F film
was more ordered and compact than the mixed ones of C8F/C16 The immersion time of the molecular films for the
and C8F/C12. Also, the film structure of C8F/C16 was better tribological experiments was 12 hours. The roughness and the
than C8F/C12, as evidenced by the AFM images at the structure of the molecular films could influence the frictional
immersion time of 120 seconds. properties significantly, and the AFM images of these films
Fig. 2 showed the variation of the water contact angles of the were shown in Fig. 3. Obviously, C8F has the most ordered
single component and mixed self-assembled molecular films film conformation and the lowest roughness which followed by
with the immersion time. Clearly, the water CA of C8F was C8F/C16, and this was in accordance with Fig. 1. As discussed
larger than those of C8F/C12 and C8F/C16. Probably, the CH3- above, the van der Waals interactions between the molecular
terminated functional group in C12 and C16 have a higher chains should be the leading factor for this phenomenon. As
surface tension than the CF3- group in C8F. Comparing the regards the effect of chain lengths, it could be drawn that the
water CAs of C8F /C12 and C8F/C16, it could be found that the longer chain lengths resulted in more orderly molecular films.
water contact angle has a slight dependence on the carbon chain The variation in the friction coefficients of the prepared
length of the non-fluorinated alkylsilane molecules in the mixed self-assembled molecular films was shown in Fig. 4. The
self-assembled molecular films, i.e., a longer carbon chain experiments were carried out under different normal loads
766
A Comparative Study of Growth Process and Tribological Behavior between Single Component and Mixed Alkylsilane
Self-Assembled Molecular Films
767
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The correlation between the wettability and friction should be large enough. Figure caption has the same font
coefficient of the molecular films was shown in Fig .6. It could and size of the main text.
be drawn that the wettability has the influence on the tribological - Tables should be inserted in the text.
properties of the molecular films and the more hydrophobic the - Please number all equations, Figures and Tables.
films are, the less the friction coefficients. A possible reason
should be due to the adhesion, since the much more hydrophobic ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
C8F has a lower surface energy as the contact angle
The authors thank the National Natural Science Foundation
measurement shown, so the adhesion force between C8F and the
(Grant No. 50730007 and 50805086). The Foundation of
steel ball should be less than that of C8F/C12 or C8F/C16 [30],
Tsinghua Basic Research for financial suppor is also
which leaded to the lower friction. More over, the carbon chain
acknowledged
length of the alkylsilane molecular films has slight effect on the
friction coefficient, it has been shown that the adhesion force
decreases with the increase of the chain length [31], therefore the REFERENCES
friction of C8F/C16 is lower than that of C8F/C12. [1] Poirier, G. E., Tarlov, M. J. and Rushmeier, H. E. (1994),
“Two-Dimensional Liquid Phase and the px.sqroot.3 Phase
of Alkanethiol Self-Assembled Monolayers on Au (111),”
Langmuir, 10, pp 3383-3386.
[2] Poirier, G. E. and Tarlov, M. J. (1995), “Molecular ordering
and fold migration observed in butanethiol self-assembled
monolayers using scanning-tunneling-microscopy,” J. Phys.
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[3] Tang, Z.Y., Jing, W. G. and Wang, E. K. (2000),
“Self-Assembled Monolayer Growth of Phospholipids on
Hydrophobic Surface toward Mimetic Biomembranes:
Scanning Probe Microscopy Study,” Langmuir, 16, pp
1696-1702.
[4] Messerschmidt, C., Draeger, C., Schulz, A., Rabe, J. P. and
Fuhrhop, J. H. (2001), “Rearrangements of Metastable
Micelles to Different Molecular Bilayers on Planar Graphite,
Fig. 6 Water contact angle and friction coefficient (sliding Mica, Silicon, and Hydrocarbon Surfaces,” Langmuir, 17,
velocity: 1mm/s, normal load: 20g) of the molecular films pp 3526-3531.
[5] Woodward, J. T., Doudevski, I., Sikes, H. D. and Schwartz,
D. K. (1997), “Kinetics of self-assembled monolayer growth
explored via submonolayer coverage of incomplete films” J.
CONCLUSIONS
Phys. Chem. B, 101, pp 7535-7541.
In summary, the growth process and tribological properties of [6] Woodward, J. T. and Schwartz, D. K. (1996), “In situ
the single component and mixed alkylsilane self-assembled observation of self-assembled monolayer growth,” J. Am.
molecular films were investigated and compared in detail. The Chem. Soc., 118, pp 7861-7862.
experimental results showed that due to the strong van der [7] Fenter, P., Eisenberger, P. and Liang, K. S. (1993),
Waals interaction between the chains of the single component “Chain-length dependence of the structures and phases of
fluorinated molecular film, the growth of its molecules on the CH3(CH2)n-1 SH self-assembled on Au(111),” Phys. Rev.
silicon substrates was faster than the mixed ones. Also, the Lett., 70, pp 2447-2450.
single component fluorinated alkylsilane molecular film [8] Vallant, T., Brunner, H., Mayer, U., Hoffmann, H., Leitner,
brought on the ordered and compact film structure, which T., Resch, R. and Friedbacher, G. (1998), “Formation of
leaded to a lower friction coefficient than the mixed self-assembled octadecylsiloxane monolayers on mica and
self-assembled molecular films. silicon surfaces studied by atomic force microscopy and
- Paper format: standard A4 (21 cm x 29.7 cm). infrared spectroscopy,” J. Phys. Chem. B, 102, pp
- Vertical typing area is 24 cm (for A4 this means top margin 7190-7197.
3 cm, bottom margin 2.7 cm). [9] Guyot-Sionnest, P., Superfine, R., Hunt, J. H. and Shen, Y.
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columns of 8 cm each, with an inter-column spacing of 1 at air/solid and liquid/solid interfaces using sum-frequency
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- Font and size: Times New Roman 9 pt, single line space. thickness, wettability, and molecular orientation” J. Am.
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- Do not include page numbers. [11] Wasserman, S. R., Tao, Y. T. and Whitesides, G. M. (1989),
- Indentation: 5mm but only for first paragraph following a “Structure and reactivity of alkylsiloxane monolayers
heading. formed by reaction of alkyltrichlorosilanes on silicon
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face; Sub-headings should be all capitals and italic. [12] Jeon, N. L., Finnie, K., Branshaw, K., Nuzzo, R.G. (1997),
- Figures will be printed in black and white, and color “Structure and stability of patterned self-assembled films of
figures are not recommended for legibleness. All figures octadecyltrichlorosilane formed by contact printing,”
should be inserted in the text. The size of each figure Langmuir, 13, pp 3382-3391.
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A Comparative Study of Growth Process and Tribological Behavior between Single Component and Mixed Alkylsilane
Self-Assembled Molecular Films
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(1994), “An Intrinsic Relationship between grazing incidence diffraction from alkylsiloxane monolayers
Molecular-Structure in Self-Assembled n-Alkylsiloxane on silicon wafers,” J. Chem. Phys., 95, pp 2854-2861.
Monolayers and Deposition Temperature,” J. Phys. Chem., [24] Xiao, X. D., Hu, J., Charych, D. H. and Salmeron, M.
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monolayer by fractal aggregation,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 69, pp pp 235-237.
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(1995), “Preparation, Structure, and Mechanical Stability of Lubrication Capabilities of n-Alkanethiolate Monolayers
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different tribo-pairs: A size effect study,”Appl. Surf. Sci., [28] Ma, J. Q., Pang, C. J., Mo, Y. F. and Bai, M.W. (2007),
254, pp 7022-7028. “Preparation and tribological properties of
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Ocko, B. M., Peshan, P. S. and Axe, J. D. (1989) J. Am. (MAC)-octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) double-layer film
Chem. Soc., 111, pp 5852-5861. on silicon,” Wear, 263, pp 1000-1007.
[20] Angst, D. L. and Simmons, G. W. (1991), “Moisture [29] Kasai, T., Bhushan, B., Kulik, G., Barbieri, L., and
absorption characteristics of organosiloxane self-assembled Hoffmann, P. (2005), “Micro/nanotribological study of
monolayers,” Langmuir, 7, pp 2236-2242. perfluorosilane SAMs for antistiction and low wear,” J. Vac.
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silicon substrate using FTIR-ATR spectroscopy,” Langmuir, W. J. (1996), “Nanotribological properties of composite
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[23] Tidswell, I. M., Rabedeau, T. A., Pershan, P. S., Kosowsky,
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The Effect of Surface Morphology on the Friction Behavior of HF-CVD Diamond Films
(Extended Abstract)
Keywords: HFCVD, diamond film, surface morphology, stroke of 6 mm, the average sliding velocity between the
tribological properties counterparts is ~0.06 m/s.
INTRODUCTION RESULTS
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond film has long Fig.1 exhibits the surface morphologies of as-deposited
been investigated as an important coating material for a variety diamond films. The MCD film shows a rugged surface and
of mechanical components, due to its many excellent well-faceted diamond crystallites with grain size of ~1-2 μm,
mechanical and tribological properties, e.g. extremely high most of which have sharp octahedral shape and exhibit
hardness, low friction coefficient and excellent wear resistance. <111> or <100> crystallographic orientations. Fig.1 (c)
The tribological behaviors of CVD diamond films have been presents the surface of pMCD film, on which the sharp edges
known to show significant dependence on both sliding of diamond grains are worn down but some hollows still exist.
environment and its surface characteristics. The investigation For the FGD film, many cauliflower structured clusters of
on the effect of sliding conditions like normal load, sliding diamond crystallites are visible on its surface, instead of the
velocity, counterpart material and lubricant have been reported faceted diamond grains. The diameter of these diamond grain
extensively in available literatures. Nevertheless, the studies on clusters is about ~4-5μm. Fig.1(d) is the SEM image of
the influence of grain size, surface roughness and homogeneity as-deposited USCD film consisting of one layer of fine-grained
mainly concentrate on the CVD diamond film self-mated MCD film and three layers of NCD films, on which an
tribosystem [1-2]. Inadequate attention has been put on the ultra-smooth and uniform surface can be observed. The surface
heterogeneous contact of CVD diamond film with metal or roughness values (Ra) of the four types of diamond films
ceramics material, which is a considerable frequently used measured using surface profilometer are: MCD ~395 nm, FGD
contact type in its mechanical applications, especially for the ~312 nm, pMCD ~176 nm and USCD ~88.8 nm.
CVD diamond coated cutting inserts or drills. The friction coefficient curves for these contacts exhibit
In this study, we reveal the influence of surface similar evolution tendency, as plotted in Fig.2. Generally, the
morphology of CVD diamond films on their friction behaviors whole sliding process can be divided into three stages. At very
in dry sliding against ball-bearing steel, copper and alumina beginning of the sliding process, a high friction coefficient
ceramics counterpart materials. Four types of CVD diamond peak is always visible. Thereafter, a short transitional period
films with different surface morphologies are deposited on with unstable fluctuating friction curve is observed. Finally,
Co-cemented tungsten carbide (WC-6wt%Co) substrates, this curve culminates in a long steady state, during which the
respectively named after microcrystalline diamond (MCD) friction coefficient maintains a relatively stable value.
film, polished MCD (pMCD) film, fine-grained diamond Fig.3 plots the average friction coefficients for these
(FGD) film and ultra-smooth composite diamond (USCD) film. contacts in the stable stage. It can be indicated that the friction
The CVD diamond film samples are fabricated using hot behavior of CVD diamond film shows significant dependence
filament CVD (HFCVD) method, which is most popular for on their surface morphology. The MCD film, for a given
fabricating CVD diamond films in industry allowing for the counterpart, always presents the highest friction coefficients
imperative requirement on reducing capital and operating cost. comparing with others. The obtained friction coefficients for
The friction tests are conducted on a ball-on-flat reciprocating MCD films are in the range of ~0.27-0.29 while sliding against
friction tester in ambient air atmosphere.
EXPERIMENTS
The CVD diamond films are deposited in a homemade bias
enhanced HFCVD apparatus. The MCD and FGD films are
deposited using different deposition parameters in order to
favor rough coarse grained or smooth fine-grained diamond
films respectively. The pMCD films are fabricated by polishing
the surface of MCD films with diamond grits (1μm). The
USCD films are deposited using a novel deposition method
combining HFCVD and polishing technique, which consists of
a layer of MCD film and multiply layers of NCD films. The
surface characterizations of as-deposited CVD diamond films
are studied using SEM, AFM, surface profilometer and Raman
spectroscopy.
The friction tests for as-deposited CVD diamond films are
carried on a ball-on-flat reciprocating friction tester, with
ball-bearing steel (AISI 52100), copper and alumina ceramic
balls as counterpart. The diameter of counterface balls is 4 mm.
The normal load and reciprocating frequency are fixed to 4.0 N Fig. 1 SEM images of CVD diamond film (a) MCD (b) FGD
and 5 Hz respectively for all sliding processes. With friction (c) pMCD (d) USCD
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The Effect of Surface Morphology on the Friction Behavior of HF-CVD Diamond Films
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Particles Detection and Analysis of Hard Disk Substrate after Post-CMP Cleaning
Yating Huang1, Xinchun Lu1, *, Guoshun Pan1, Bill Lee2, Jianbin Luo1
1
State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
2
Shenzhen Kaifa Megnetic Recording Co. Ltd.
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Particles Detection and Analysis of Hard Disk Substrate after Post-CMP Cleaning
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ABSTRACT
Hard coatings have been used for many decades to provide chromium nitride (CrN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), silicon
wear resistance. In this paper, the industrial requirements and nitride (SiN) and cubic boron nitride (c-BN).
benefits of such hard coatings are introduced. Common hard Titanium nitride, known as one of the most common hard
coatings (nitrides, carbides, multi-components, etc.) and some coatings in use today, combines hardness, toughness, inertness,
of the new generation coatings (multiple layers, multi-layers, and usually shows good adhesion strength on the substrates. It
gradient and nano-scaled) are reviewed and compared. is therefore called a ‘general purpose’ coating and it has been
Furthermore, typical industrial applications and performances widely used, especially on tools [5]. Besides TiN, both
as well as common coating processes characteristics are zirconium nitride and chromium nitride [6] coatings exhibit
summarized. Finally, recent development directions and new high hardness and ability to withstand elevated temperatures
possibilities for coating manufacturers to produce films with (up to 600°C and 700°C respectively) and generally lead to
better performances are briefly discussed. slightly different properties than TiN.
Keywords: hard coating, wear resistant film Cubic boron nitride (c-BN) is the second hardest single phase
material after diamond. Although polycrystalline c-BN is well
1 INTRODUCTION established as one of the hardest cutting material, such coatings
Coatings have been widely used for many decades in just begin to find their use in the industry because of adhesion
tribological applications to protect various tools and parts from and stability issues [7], and mainly their high cost.
wear. The development of wear-resistant coatings started in the As to silicon nitride (SiN), it is widely applied as single
1960’s along with both chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and protective layer for its good thermal shock resistance and low
physical vapour deposition (PVD) techniques, which are coefficient of thermal expansion. Furthermore, it is found that
nowadays a key figure in many industrial fields providing SiN can also be deposited on top of other hard layers, (e.g.
dramatic improvements in terms of productivity, part lifetimes metal nitrides) in order to improve thermal stability, or as an
and therefore cost reductions [1-3]. However, selections of the inter layer to improve diamond growth on cemented carbide
best coating and its deposition process is not often straight tools [8].
forward, as the number of proper hard coating materials, Carbon nitride coatings (CNx) have raised an important interest
their combinations, as well as the different deposition to the coating community as it is theoretically expected to be
techniques are constantly increasing. harder than diamond under a specific crystalline structure
Materials such as nitrides, carbides, carbon-based, oxides and (-C3N4) [9].
borides [4], are widely used in hard coating technology for their 2.1.2. CARBIDES
outstanding mechanical and tribological properties. Besides the Silicon carbide (SiC) is widely used in tool coating
high hardness and wear resistance, excellent chemical stability technology due to its high hardness. It is also commonly
and oxidation resistance in severe environments are also applied in conjunction with other elements (e.g. thermal
regarded as the recurrent features. sprayed Si-C-N coatings [10]) or with a dry-film lubricant
In this review, the different coating materials and their coating to enhance its mechanical properties and tribological
combinations, from common coatings to ‘new generation’ hard performance.
thin films, are introduced. Then, the benefits of the hard Tungsten carbide (WC), one of the traditional coating materials,
coatings in the industry are demonstrated, providing some can be deposited through various processes. Combined with
typical coating application examples and related performances. cobalt, tungsten carbide has particularly shown very good
Finally, the new trends and future developments in coating properties when deposited with high velocity oxyfuel (HVOF)
technology are also discussed. [11], and it is believed to be one of the most promising
alternatives to hard chromium.
2 COATING MATERIALS Vanadium carbide (VC), which has good thermal shock
2.1. COMMON COATINGS resistance and high thermal conductivity, is suitable for coating
Whereas some hard coatings have an intrinsic hardness applications under high temperature conditions, such as forging
directly related to the raw material’s properties (diamond, cubic and forming operations. It exhibits good performances and
boron nitride, etc.), extrinsically hard coatings get their superior properties on carbon-containing substrates especially when
hardness from a combination of different materials, layers, applied as a thermal diffusion coating, which enables to get
phases and structures (multi-components, multiple layers, high thickness, good adhesion and hardness [12].
multilayered, solid lubricants and nano-composite films). The Boron carbide (BC) coatings offer smooth and non-porous
materials applied in hard coating technology consist mainly of surfaces with natural lubricity, which will drastically reduce
nitrides, carbides, carbon-based, oxides and borides. friction and heat during machining. However, it should be
2.1.1 .NITRIDES mentioned that brittleness and poor adhesion on substrates may
Recently, the common hard coatings in the industry are be the disadvantages of such a material.
mostly based on nitrides, including Titanium nitride (TiN), Titanium carbide can be used in both single layer coatings and
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Hard Wear-Resistant Coatings: A Review
as a component in multi-layered PVD or CVD configurations. Additionally, zirconium oxide (ZrO2) films have considerably
It has been applied as one of the most successful hard coating attracted attention for wear-resistant coating uses, as it also
material, and it is typically used on cutting tools as well as provides an interesting combination of thermal, chemical and
high-load forming tools. mechanical properties. Finally, some of the other oxides that
Finally, chromium carbide (CrC) coatings can effectively are often utilized in hard coating technology consist mainly of
replace electroplated hard chromium and TiN coatings utilized zinc oxide [18], silicon- and titanium sub oxides (SiOx, TiOx
as protective layers against abrasive wear and corrosion. They respectively), although they are mainly used for electronic and
are nowadays widely applied to many substrates for a large optical applications [19] , [20].
variety of applications, such as metal forming and plastic 2.1.5. BORIDES
injection molding [13]. Among the different ceramic coating materials, less
2.1.3. CARBON-BASED research and development have been carried out on borides for
Diamond, the hardest known material, provides an industrial applications. They show however a unique
impressive combination of properties. However, it also has combination of properties. Because of their high hardness and
limitations as the reaction with strong carbide forming metals good adhesion on the underlying substrate, crystalline coatings
and dissolves in Fe, Co, Mn, Ni, Cr and the platinum-group based on the diborides of transition metals (e.g. Ti, Cr, Mo, V)
metals. Polycrystalline diamond (micro-, nano- or ultra-nano offer a good alternative for wear-protective films. Especially
crystalline [14]) leading to properties similar to varying degrees when dry machining non-ferrous materials such as aluminum
to single crystal diamond can be deposited on tools and various and its alloys, diboride coatings offer chemical inertness and
parts. Although diamond layers cannot be directly applied to hardness. Moreover, alloying borides with nitrogen enables to
ferrous substrates, it has been demonstrated that diamond can obtain finely grained multiphase hard coatings which show
be deposited on steels and cemented carbides by using inter outstanding wear resistance and anti-corrosion behavior [21,
layers (silicon, silicon nitride, chromium nitride, etc.) which 22].
enable their growth with good adhesion [15]. 2.1.6. MULTICOMPONENT COATINGS
Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings show outstanding One of the very first successful applications of the binary
tribological properties. One of the recurrent problems of DLC hard coating materials were titanium nitride and titanium
films is the low adhesion resulting from high internal stresses. carbide, of which properties and performances have been
Therefore, in order to improve adherence onto metal substrates, extensively studied. Applying such titanium-based binary hard
DLC layers can be applied on top of interface layers such as Si, coatings on parts and tools shows a significant improvement in
Ti, Zr, W, Nb, Cr or WC. In comparison to traditional diamond, terms of wear and abrasion resistance. From these initial binary
DLC film fabrication requires less processing times, hence materials, it had been shown that alloying metal and/or
lower costs. In addition, while CVD diamond film fabrication metalloid components leads to a considerable coating
requires very high temperatures and pressures, DLC can be performance enhancement, particularly when adding aluminum
deposited from ambient temperature gas phase species, even (e.g. (Ti,Al)N) and carbonitrides of various compositions (e.g.
rending polymer coating possible. According to these Ti(C,N)). In most cases, the base metal for multi-component
advantages, the use of DLC films has become economically hard coatings is titanium or chromium, and a large variety of
feasible for industrial mass production [16]. alloying elements has been studied, comprising of W, V, Nb,
2.1.4. OXIDES Mo, Al, Si, Cr, Zr and B elements with many different chemical
Alumina (Al2O3) is one of the most widely used compositions [23].
wear-resistant ceramics. The coating structure can be Furthermore, quaternary or higher components are chosen and
amorphous or exhibit several crystalline phases, which used in coating technology resulting in different properties. For
generally show higher hardness [17]. The structure obtained instance, (Ti,Al,Y)N and (Ti,Al,Cr)N have shown
strongly depends upon the process parameters, and thus, the considerable improvements particularly in terms of high
film properties can vary considerably. temperature oxidation resistance [24, 25], while in some recent
Chromium oxide thin films (Cr2O3) can be applied as single studies, it was observed that coatings like (Ti,Si)(C,N),
layers and nucleation inter layers (e.g. allowing alumina growth (Ti,Si,B)N, (Ti,Al,B)N, and (Ti,Al)(C,N) have shown an ideal
on some substrates) and in combination with other layers (CrN combination of high hardness, low friction and good adhesion
for instance), so as to improve adhesion and tribological strength which makes them good candidates for tribological
properties. and machining applications [26].
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Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig.1. Alloying elements of ternary Ti- and Cr-based nitride hard coatings [23]
The ideal combination of coating properties required for most materials, with thicknesses up to a few tens of a micrometer.
tribological applications has become possible through the use The numerous interfaces between layers result in an increase in
of multi-components. From this basis, advanced coatings, such hardness and strength, with structure differing from those
as multiple-films, multi-layers, as well as gradient are realized which can be found with individual thicker layers. Again,
and well developed. materials most frequently investigated are Ti compounds where
2.2. NEW GENERATION COATINGS a TiN layer is often applied first for its strong adhesion to
2.2.1. MULTIPLE-FILM COATINGS various substrates. As examples, among the different multilayer
Multiple-layer coatings consist of two or more stacked coating structures which are particularly used in cutting tool
films that achieve complimentary properties, and which are technology are CN/TiCN/TiN; TiN/TiCN/TiC; TiAlN/CrNx;
generally constituted by the basic materials listed in part 2.1. CrN/CrC/(Mo,W)S2; TiN/TiCN/TiC/Al2O3/TiN ([23], [28- 30]).
The use of such coatings leads to a considerable enhancement 2.2.3. GRADED COATINGS
in terms of adhesion or tribological performances. Common The development of multi-component coatings led to the
two-layer systems consisting of a nitride coating with a metallic appearance of graded coatings. Consequently, desirable
interlayer, such as Ti/TiN, result in an improvement in adhesion characteristics of each of the constituent phases can be
onto the underlying substrate. Other two layer sequences such achieved, such as a combination of a hard and a soft phase, or
as TiN/Al2O3 or TiN/Ti(C,N) resulted in an increase in an association of a highly and a lower thermally conductive
performance, and lubricating/hard layer pairs have been applied phase [31]. Layers presenting a continuous variation of
exhibiting good tribological properties, especially under dry or concentration of the different components can be obtained by a
low lubrication machining (e.g. TiC/(WC/C) ; DLC/MoS2 [27]). drastic control of the deposition process. Hence, a reduction of
Fig.2 shows the simple schematic structure of a three-layer the possible mismatch in chemical or mechanical properties
coated carbide tool. between two different components is possible. Furthermore,
2.2.2. MULTI-LAYERS such coatings can considerably improve adhesion of particular
Multi-layer coatings consist of a periodically repeated coatings on substrates such as DLC, mentioned above.
arrangement of lamellae that are composed of 2 or more
Fig.2 Schematic structure of a three-layer sandwich coating applied on a carbide cutting insert
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Hard Wear-Resistant Coatings: A Review
The different cutting tools can be classified into five groups, as well as drastically reduce emissions. One of them is the
namely high speed steels, cemented tungsten carbides, ceramics, reduction of energy losses through friction and wear, which
cermets and super-hard materials. On the other hand, there is amount to approximately 15% of the total energy losses in a
quite a large variety of hard coatings applied on cutting tools, vehicle. In particular, the system cylinder liner/piston
including carbides (TiC, WC, ZrC, etc.), nitrides (TiN, CrN, ring-piston is responsible for most of the friction related losses.
ZrN, etc.), carbonitrides (TiCN, ZrCN) and oxides (Al2O3, Therefore, a typical use of coating technology in the
ZrO2). Furthermore, other coatings comprising of multilayer automotive industry is piston ring films.
(TiC/TiN, TiC/Al2O3, etc.) and multiphase (MoS2/TiN, Piston rings can be made of a wide variety of materials,
Al2O3+ZrO2, etc) systems have also been successfully utilized including cast irons, bronze, steels, etc. Traditionally, they have
for cutting tools in the last twenty years. Finally, high mostly been coated using chromium electroplating, but in the
performance films (diamond, c-BN, hard DLC, WS2, etc.) are recent years, research and developments have been made to
used in applications in which, despite their high costs, their use employ other coating materials, due to environmental issues
is justified. related to the latter process. Nowadays, a wide variety of
3.2. AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY surface treatments and coating materials are available for piston
The employment of surface treatments and high ring coatings, depending on the type of engine and
performance tribological coatings in the automotive industry manufacturing costs. Thermal spraying, nitriding and PVD
implies many advantages in terms of performance, reliability, have become common techniques used to apply such films. It is
fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions reduction. By noteworthy that PVD is the most expensive technique for
using traditional or advance coating materials such as DLC-, piston rings coatings among these processes.
MoS2-, carbide- based coatings, opportunities are available for
improving car systems and components, such as coatings for 4 CONCLUSION
gears, piston rings, cylinder bores, bearings, valve The hard coatings have an impressive record of innovation
seats/springs. and will have more effect on industrial efficiency and economic
Several approaches are attempted to improve engine efficiency growth. In this paper, the coating materials and their
777
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
combinations are introduced in terms of ‘common coatings’ and Surface and Coatings Technology, 120-121, pp. 622-628.
‘new generation hard coatings’. Furthermore, typical industrial [14] Mubarok, F., Carrapichano, J.M., Almeida, F.A.,
applications and performances as well as the coating processes Fernandes, A.J.S., Silva, R.F., 2008, “Enhanced sealing
characteristics are summarized. It is attempted to give a brief performance with CVD nanocrystalline diamond films in
overview of the proper materials together with efficient self-mated mechanical seals ,” Diamond and Related
fabrication process. Materials, In Press.
[15] Reinoso, M., Álvarez, F., Huck, H., 2007, “Hard carbon
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS coatings deposited on steel,” Applied Surface Science,
The corresponding author, Dr. J.H. Zhang, would like to 254, pp. 181-184.
acknowledge the financial support provided by the Science and [16] Erdemir, A., Donnet, C., 2006, “Tribology of diamond-like
Technology Committee of Shanghai under the grant number of carbon films: recent progress and future prospects,”
04 QMX1442 and partially support by Shanghai Leading Journal of physics. D, Applied physics, 39, no18, pp.
Academic Discipline Project, Project Number: Y0102. Mr. T. 311-327.
Hoornaert and Mr. Z.K. Hua would like to acknowledge the [17] Cremer, R., Reichert, K., Neuschu, D., Erkens, G.,
financial support provided by the Graduate Innovation Fund of Leyendecker, T., 2003, “Sputter deposition of crystalline
Shanghai University, Project Number: A.16-0109-07-002. All alumina coatings,” Surface & coatings technology, 163-64,
the authors are grateful to Professor C. Richard at UTC, France, pp. 57-163.
for her consultation during this work. [18] Prasad, S. V., Zabinski, J. S., 1997, “Tribological behavior
of nanocrystalline zinc oxide films,” Wear, 203-204, pp.
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[4] Donnet C., Erdemir A., 2004, “Historical developments and [22] Dehlinger, A. S., Pierson, J. F., Roman, A., Bauer, Ph.,
new trends in tribological and solid lubricant coatings,” 2003, “Properties of iron boride films prepared by
Surface and Coatings Technology, 180 –181, pp.76–84. magnetron sputtering,” Surface and Coatings
[5] Peng, Z., Miao, H., Qi, L., Yang, S., Liu, C., 2003, “Hard Technology, 174-175, pp. 331-337.
and wear-resistant titanium nitride coatings for cemented [23] Jehn, H. A., 2000, “Multicomponent and multiphase hard
carbide cutting tools by pulsed high energy density coatings for tribological applications,” Surface and
plasma,” Acta Materialia, 51, pp 085-3094. Coatings Technology, 131, pp. 433-440.
[6] Broszeit, E., Friedrich, C., Berg, G., 1999, “Deposition, [24] Donohuea, L. A., Smitha, I. J., Miinza, W. D., Petrovb, I.,
properties and applications of PVD CrxN coatings,” Greeneb, J.E., 1997, “Microstructure and
Surface and Coatings Technology, 115, pp. 9-16. oxidation-resistance of Ti,Al,YN layers grown by
[7] Keunecke, M., Yamamoto, K., Bewilogua, K., 2001, combined steered-arc/unbalanced magnetron-sputter
“Mechanical and tribological properties of cBN films on deposition,” Surface and Coatings Technology, 94-95, pp.
silicon and tungsten carbide substrates,” Thin Solid 226-231.
Films, 398-399, pp. 142-149. [25] Lewis D. B., Donohue L. A., Lembke M., Münz W. -D.,
[8] Yu, L., Xu, J., Dong, S., Kojima, I., 2008, “Surface KuzelJr R.., Valvoda V., Blomfield C. J., 1999, “The
morphology and growth mechanisms for sputtered influence of the yttrium content on the structure and
amorphous silicon nitride thin films,” Thin Solid properties of Ti1
x
y
zAlxCryYzN PVD hard coatings,”
Films, 516, pp. 1781-1787. Surface and Coatings Technology, 114, pp. 187-199.
[9] Takadoum, J., Rauch, J. Y., Cattenot, J. M., Martin, N., [26]Shtansky D.V.,T, Sheveiko A.N., Petrzhik M.I.,
2003, “Comparative study of mechanical and tribological Kiryukhantsev-Korneev F.V., Levashov E.A., Leyland A.,
properties of CNx and DLC films deposited by PECVD Yerokhin A.L., Matthews A., 2005, “Hard tribological
technique,” Surface and Coatings Technology, 174-175, Ti–B–N, Ti–Cr–B–N, Ti–Si–B–N and Ti–Al–Si–B–N
pp. 427-433. coatings,” Surface and Coatings Technology, 200, pp.
[10] Wagner, N.J., Gerberich, W. W., Heberlein, J. V.R., 2006, 208-212.
“Thermal plasma chemical vapor deposition of [27] Wang D.Y., Chang C.L., Ho W.Y., 1998, “Microstructure
wear-resistant, hard Si–C–N coatings,” Surface and analysis of MoS2 deposited on diamond-like carbon films
Coatings Technology, 201, pp. 4168-4173. for wear improvement,” Surface and Coatings
[11] Ruggiero, P.F., 2005, “Tungsten carbide coatings replace Technology, 111, pp. 123-127.
chromium,” Advanced Materials and processes, July 2005, [28] Morant C., Prieto P. , Forn A. , Picas J.A. , Elizalde E. ,
pp. 39-40. Sanz J.M., 2004, “Hardness enchancement by
[12] Wang, G.B., 1997, “Wear mechanisms in vanadium CNyTiCNyTiN multilayer films,” Surface and Coatings
carbide coated steels,” Wear, 212, pp.25-32 Technology, 180-181, pp. 512-518.
[13] Wang, D. W., Weng, K. W., Chang, C. L., Ho, W. Y., 1999, [29] Rie K.-T., Gebauer A., Wöhle J., Tönshoff H.K., Blawit C.,
“Synthesis of Cr3C2 coatings for tribological applications,” 1995, “Synthesis of TiN/TiCN/TiC layer systems on steel
778
Hard Wear-Resistant Coatings: A Review
and cermet substrates by PACVD,” Surface and Coatings the residual stress of polytypoidally joined Si3N4–Al2O3,”
Technology, 74-75, pp.375-381. Materials Science and Engineering, A 434, pp. 160–165.
[30] Panjan M., Šturm S., P. Panjan, ekada M., 2008, “The [32] Zhang S., Sun D., Fu Y., Du H., 2003, “Recent advances of
influence of rotation during sputtering on the superhard nanocomposite coatings: a review,” Surface and
stoichiometry of TiAlN/CrNx multilayer coating,” Coatings Technology, 167, pp. 113–119.
Surface and Coatings Technology, In Press, Accepted [33] Veprek S., Jilek M., 2002, “Super- and ultrahard
Manuscript. nanacomposite coatings: generic concept for their
[31] Lee C.S., Ahn S.H., DeJonghe L.C., Thomas G., 2006, preparation, properties and industrial applications,”
“Effect of functionally graded material (FGM) layers on Vacuum, 67, pp. 443-449.
779
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The Cavitation Erosion of the Mild Carbon Steels Implanted with Titanium and Nitrogen
Liu Fengbin / State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Wang Jiadao / State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
Chen Darong / State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Xu Yanji / State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua
Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China University, Beijing, 100084, China
Zhao Ming / State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, 100084, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
The polished 0.45% C steels (45# steels) were implanted thickness of 6mm. The samples were polished and cleaned
with titanium, nitrogen and titanium+nitrogen at fluence of ultrasonically in absolute alcohol.
2×1017 ions/cm2, 2×1017 ions/cm2 and 4×1017 ions/cm2, The polished 45# steels were implanted with titanium,
respectively. To evaluate the cavitation erosion resistances of nitrogen and titanium+nitrogen at fluence of 2×1017 ions/cm2,
the ion-implanted 45# steel samples, the cavitation erosion 2×1017 ions/cm2 and 4×1017 ions/cm2, respectively. The plasma
experiments were carried out by using rotating disk facility. energy was 80keV and the implantation time was 2h. After
The surface hardness and the polarization potentials implantation, the samples were cooled to room temperature in
corresponding to the ion-implanted samples were also vacuum. To evaluate the surface properties of the
investigated by using nano-indentation tester and ion-implanted samples, the nano-indentation experiment was
electrochemical techniques. The results showed that relative to carried out at the position of 20nm depth below the surface. In
the initial 45# steel, the surface nanohardness and the addition, the polarization potentials corresponding to the
polarization potentials corresponding to the ion-implanted 45# samples were investigated by using a single compartment
steel samples all improve to varying degrees. The cavitation electrochemical cell with three electrodes (samples as test
erosion resistances corresponding to these ion-implanted electrode, platinum wire as counter electrode, Hg/Hg2SO4/KCl
samples enhance with the increase of their polarization (sat) as reference electrode) in deionized water. To investigate
potentials. However, it seemed that it is little affected by the the surface structures of the ion-implanted 45# samples, the
surface hardness. X-ray diffraction were investigated.
To elucidate the cavitation erosion resistance of the The cavitation erosion of the ion-implanted 45# steel
ion-implantde 45# steel samples, the phase structures of the samples was investigated by using a rotating disk facility. The
steel samples implanted with Ti, N and Ti/N were studied by rotating speed was 45m/s and the test lasts 100min. to weaken
using X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results indicated that the the effects of the high temperature, the cycle cooling system is
ion-implantation alters the structure of the 45# steel and new applied during the whole cavitation erosion experiment. By
phases form. The new phases are the domination factors that analysis of the cavitation pits observed by the scanning
have contributions to the improvements of the surface electron microscopy (SEM) at the same regions for different
properties of the samples. samples, the cavitation erosion resistance of the different
Keywords: Cavitation; Mild carbon steel; Ion implantation; ion-implanted 45# steel samples was estimated.
Phase structure
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
Fig. 1 is the cavitation erosion results of the initial, Ti
Mild carbon steels are extensively applied in the field of ion-implanted, N ion-implanted and Ti/N ion-implanted 45#
mechanical engineering due to its good mechanical properties steel samples. The results reveal that after 100min cavitation
as well as low cost. Improving its cavitation erosion resistance erosion experiment, many cavitation pits appear on the surface
to reduce damages for high-speed hydraulic machinery of the initial 45# steel. Compared with the conventional
working in liquid d environments is quite significant. corrosion pits, the cavitation pits on the 45# steel sample are
Cavitation erosion is a surface phenomenon and thus, surface much larger and deeper, which are in the range of several
modification is a natural route to improve cavitation erosion dozens of micrometers. After ion-implantation processes, the
resistance. Surface modification enhances the surface cavitation erosion resistance of the 45# steels improves
properties and retains the bulk properties, thus allowing significantly. Among the three ion-implanted 45# steel samples,
combinations of desirable surface and bulk properties. the Ti ion-implanted one exhibits the worst cavitation erosion
Among various surface modification techniques, resistance, which many cavitation pits appear after 100min
ion-implantation method is more attractive because of its many experiment. In contrast, the Ti/N ion-implanted samples show
advantages [1,2]. the best cavitaiton erosion resistance, which nearly no obvious
In this paper, several ion-implanted 45# steel samples were cavitation pits appear on its surface.
prepared. Their cavitation-erosion experiments were performed The nano-indentation experiment results are listed in
by using the rotating disk facility. Their surface hardness and Table 1. The results show that after ion-implantation, the
polarization potential were investigated by using surface nanohardness of the 45# steels all increase relative to
nano-indentation tester and electrochemical techniques. By the initial 45# sample. The 45# steel implanted by Ti/N ions
means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), the surface structures of the possesses the highest hardness of 2.523GPa, 0.38GPa and
ion-implanted 45# steels were studied and the surface 0.12GPa higher than the N and Ti ion-implanted 45# steel
modification mechanisms were discussed. samples, respectively. The increases of the nanohardness can
EXPERIMENT be attributed to the changes of the surface components after
The initial and ion-implanted 45# steel samples were different ion-implantations, which would be discussed in detail
prepared in a form of 30mm×40mm coupons with the in following sections. However, it could not be deduced in this
780
The Cavitation Erosion of the Mild Carbon Steels Implanted with Titanium and Nitrogen
work that the surface hardness has great impact on the The XRD results are illuminated in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 reveals
cavitation erosion. that for the initial 45# steel, it is mainly composed of α-Fe and
Fe3C. When the Ti ions were implanted into the 45# steel, no
Table 1 The nanohardness of the different ion-implanted obvious new phases was found. It reflects that the solution of
45# steels (unit: GPa) the Ti atoms does not significantly affect the phase structures
samples 45# 45#+Ti 45#+N 45#+Ti/N of the 45# steel. However, the surface hardness increases after
hardness 2.054 2.402 2.142 2.523 Ti ion-implantation. It follows that some new phase forms
though it is too tiny to be detected, Concerning the N and Ti/N
D E ion-implantations, the ceramic phases like FexN (x=1-4) form
on the surface of the 45# steel. In addition, for the Ti/N
ion-implantation, new phase like TiN also forms. These
ceramic phases not only strengthen the surface of the 45# steel,
but also alter its surface electronic structures [3].
1000
900
800
700
I/ Count
F G 600
500 7L
400 -Fe
FexN
Fe3C -Fe Fe N
300 Fe3C x
7L
200
TiN
100 ˇ7L1
0
30 40 50 60 70 80
o
Fig. 1 the cavitation erosion results of (a) the initial 45# steel, 2θ/
(b) Ti ion-implanted 45# steel, (c) N ion-implanted 45# steel Fig. 3 XRD spectra of initial and ion-implanted 45# steel
and (d) Ti/N ion-implanted 45# steel samples
From the above analysis, it can be concluded that the new
Fig. 2 presents the polarization potentials for the initial, Ti
ceramic phases on the surface of the 45# steel induced by
ion-implanted, N ion-implanted and Ti/N ion-implanted 45#
ion-implantation could give rise to the high cavitation erosion
steel samples. The results indicate that relative to the initial
resistance. On one hand, the surface ceramic phases induced
45# steel, the polarization potentials all increase after Ti, N and
by Ti, N and Ti/N ion-implantations certainly improve the
Ti/N ion-implantations. Among the three ion-implanted 45#
surface hardness of the 45# steel; on the other hand, the
samples, the polarization potential corresponding to the Ti/N
implantation of the Ti and N could also increase the electron
ion-implanted 45# steel is the highest, whereas the polarization
affinity of the 45# steel. The surface high electron affinity
potential corresponding to the Ti ion-implanted sample is the
would increase the polarization potentials and thus, improve
lowest. This follows that the ion-implantation would improve
the cavitation erosion resistance of the 45# steel.
the corrosion resistance of the 45# steel, in which the Ti/N
ion-implantation takes the most effective role in strengthening
the surface properties of the 45# steel. Therefore, it can be CONCLUSIONS
concluded that the polarization potential affects the cavitation Ion-implantation could improve the cavitation erosion
erosion resistance significantly. With the increase of the resistance of the 45# steel. Among the surface modification
polarization potential, the cavitation erosion resistance also samples, the Ti/N ion-implanted 45# steel exhibits the best
increases. cavitation erosion resistance. This can be attributed to the
increase of the polarization potentials after Ti/N
-150
45# ion-implantation. The increase of the polarization potentials
45# + Ti arises from the new ceramic phases induced by the Ti/N
-200 45# + N
45# + Ti/N ion-implantation.
E/mV vs. SCE
-250
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
-300 This work was supported by the NSFC Project under grant
number 50675112 and National Basic Research Program of
-350 China under grant number 2007CB707702.
-400
REFERENCES
-450 [1] J.V. Mantese, I.G. Brown, N.W. Cheung, G.A. Collins. MRS
1E-9 1E-8 1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 Bull. 1996, 21 pp.52.
Log(j) [2] C. Anandan, V.K. William, V.E. Selvi, K.S. Rajam. Surf.
Fig. 2 the polarization potentials of the different Coat. Tech. 2007, 201 pp. 7873.
ion-implanted 45# steel samples [3] G.L. Zhang, J.L. Wang, Y.F. Liu, C.Z. Liu, S.Z. Yang. Chin.
Phys. 2004, 13 pp.1309.
781
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Jiang Nana, Liu Shihan, Chen Haosheng, Wang Jiadao, Chen Darong
State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
ABSTRACT EXPERIMENT
The pits formed at the incipient stage of cavitation erosion The cavitation erosion experiment was carried out by using
of 45 steel have been investigated by using a standardized a vibrating cavitation apparatus (according to ASTM G32-92,
vibration cavitation apparatus with de-ionized water. Scanning the schematics of which is showed in Fig.1), which is widely
electron microscopy (SEM) was used to characterize the used in cavitation investigation for its high erosion rate, small
morphology and composition of the pits. The results show that size of the device and low energy consumption [11]. The
there are more than 20 percent of the erosion pits accompanied experiment was conducted with 20 kHz of frequency and 12
with MnS inclusions. It is considered that these pits are induced
micrometers of double amplitude in de-ionized water at room
by MnS inclusions and formed by a series of actions: first, the
temperature (23ć). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was
MnS inclusion is attacked and activated, then it dissolves and
accelerates the local corrosion process, finally the dissolution of used to observe the morphology and composition change of the
both the inclusion and the matrix around it will lead to the sample (Quanta 200F). The surface profile of the sample was
formation of the pit. measured by the Phase shift optical interferometer.
Keywords: Cavitation erosion; Pitting; MnS inclusions M8
INTRODUCTION
10
The collapse of cavitational bubbles accompanied by the
3
emission of shock waves or micro-jets [1], hot spots, free
Ø15
radicals [2,3] and other products will result in material damage,
which is known as cavitation erosion. It usually occurs on
propellers, hydraulic turbine blades, vanes, ultrasonic devices,
pipelines, etc [1]. A great deal of work related to the cavitation
12.2
phenomena has been published, but the mechanism of material
damage by cavitation attack has not been understood
completely yet.
Because many hydraulic machines work in corrosion condition, 1-Magnetostrictive oscillator;
the effect of environmental corrosion condition on cavitational 2-Amplifying horn; 3-Sample;
weight-loss was considered by using electrochemical methods 4-Test liquid; 5-Water bath
with different electrolytes [4,5], but few literatures have Fig.1 Schematics of the vibrating cavitation apparatus
mentioned simultaneous chemical reaction caused by cavitation
itself. In this experiment, the sample was made of 45 steel with a
On the other hand, the manganese sulphide inclusions (MnS) nominal composition of 0.50̚0.80% Mn, 0.17̚0.37% Si,
are known to be precursor sites for pitting corrosion in corrosion 0.42̚0.50% C and Fe left. It was finally polished with 1嘕m
science [6-8]. Chemical and electrochemical dissolution in and polishing cloth, then cleaned with acetone by ultrasonic
around inclusions will trigger pitting corrosion and help the pits machine before experiment. The inclusions could be found in
expand [8,9]. The different mechanisms proposed in the the original surface of the sample and were mostly in ferrite
literatures for pit initiation on MnS inclusions about carbon zone, which is shown in Fig. 2a. The average size of inclusions
steel and stainless steels are usually attributed to oxidant and was 2̚3 嘕m in diameter and the number of inclusions is 0.8̚
corrosive halogen ion (such as chloride ion) [7, 10]. 1.2 in area of 100 x100 嘕m2 (which was a statistic by a 500 x
In this article, it was found there are more than 20 percent of the SEM images). The energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
pits caused by cavitation accompanied with MnS inclusions at reveals that almost all inclusions showed a high Mn and S
the incipient stage of the cavitation erosion experiment. These content with atomic ratio of about 1:1 (Fig. 2b).
pits are quite similar to the pits triggered by MnS inclusions in
pitting corrosion, however, they do not occur in corrosive
medium but in deionized water. Through the experiment, the
pits induced by MnS inclusions at the incipient stage of
cavitation erosion are investigated and the effect of the
cavitation on this phenomenon is taken into account. It is
expected that these results will help to understand the
mechanism of the material damage at the incipient stage of
cavitation erosion.
782
Research of the Pits Induced by MnS Inclusions at the Incipient Stage of Cavitation Erosion
a-after 5min test (26000×) b-after 10min test (10000×) b-Fe content c-Mn content d-S content
Fig. 4 Pit with different extent of matrix dissolution Fig.7 Map scan of the pits
Then, the inclusion drops off from the matrix and a pit forms. From both the experiment results above and the recognized
The pit is bigger than the inclusion itself ( Fig.5b is in-situ models of pit corrosion in corrosion science [7], it is suggested
observation of the area in Fig.5a). that the occurence for pitting erosion in this article can be
783
Technical Sessions — Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
represented as Fig.8: More than 20 percent of the erosion pits accompanied with MnS
inclusions form after vibrating cavitation experiment.
2) A mechanism is proposed to explain the formation of the pit
accompanied with MnS inclusion, which is descried as follows:
firstly MnS inclusion is activated by mechanics effect of
cavitation; Secondly, heat and the active free radicals created by
bubble collapse provide an extra local chemical environment, in
which a release of sulphur of MnS inclusion forms sulphur
products that take charge of dissolution of the matrix around the
inclusion at first; Then hydrolysis caused by Fe2+ occurs and
makes the corrosion process speed up and continue in a local
aggressive environment which is kept by the interspaces
Fig.8 Schematic representation of the processes of pits induced around MnS inclusions; Finally the inclusion drops off and a pit
by MnS inclusions that is bigger than the inclusion itself forms.
784
The Water Wettability of the Hydrogenated and Oxygenated Diamond Films
Wang Jiadao / State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Liu Fengbin / State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
Chen Darong / State Key Laboratory of Tribology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
(Extended Abstract)
EXPERIMENT
150000
The diamond films were deposited onto low-resistivity
silicon (p-type) substrates from a hot-filament activated 100000 O1s
methane hydrogen gas mixture. For hydrogenation, the
deposited diamond surface was exposed to microwave 50000
the oxygenated diamond film, the hydrogenated diamond film Binding energy(eV)
was boiled for one hour in a solution of conc. HNO3/H2SO4
(1:3) at 350oC. The as-prepared hydrogenated and oxygenated 80000
C1s
diamond films were characterized by X-ray photoelectron 70000
E
spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman spectroscopy. The surface
Intensity(arb. un.)
60000
785
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
70000
Literature 2.12 -2.42 -
60000 [6]
50000
The surface energy of the clean surfaces can be
40000
calculated relative to bulk diamond. While, the Surface energy
30000 of the hydrogenated and oxygenated surfaces can be calculated
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 relative to bulk diamond plus two free hydrogen or oxygen
-1
Wavenumber (cm ) atoms per cell. The calculated surface energies for clean,
Fig. 2 Raman spectra of the hydrogenated and oxygenated mono-hydrogenated and oxygenated C(100) surfaces in this
diamond films paper and other literature were listed in Table 1. The results
showed that the surface energy of the mono-hydrogenated
The contact angle results for oxygenated and hydrogenated C(100) surface is -2.01eV, which possesses the lowest surface
diamond films were illuminated in Fig. 3 (a) and (b), energy. The surface energy of the oxygenated C(100) surface is
respectively. It indicated that the hydrogenated diamond film 1.64eV, much higher than that of the hydrogenated one. In
shows hydrophobic with a water contact angle of 92.5o. A contrast, the clean C(100) surface possesses the highest surface
significant decrease of the water contact angle (33.0o) is energy because of its uncovered dangling bonds. It is certain
observed for the oxygenated diamond film, which shows that the higher surface energy favors a lower water contact
hydrophilic. These values are in keeping with published results angle. Thus, the hydrogenated diamond film shows more
[4,5]. hydrophobic than the oxygenated one. Our results are
consistent with the reports from other literature. The C-H and
(a) C-O structures on diamond films exhibit different surface
energy. Probably, it can be attributed to the different electron
affinity of the two configurations. The surface negative
electron affinity of the hydrogenated diamond film is in favor
of its hydrophobility.
CONCLUSIONS
The hydrogenated and oxygenated diamond films show
hydrophobic and hydrophilic, respectively. The calculated
surface energy of the two diamond films indicated that the
hydrogenated diamond film possesses a lower surface energy
than the oxygenated one. The different surface energy induced
(b) by surface-terminations dominates their wettability.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the NSFC Project under grant
number 50675112 and National Basic Research Program of
China under grant number 2007CB707702. The authors would
like to thank Material Engineering Department of Tsinghua
University for providing computing server.
REFERENCES
Fig. 3 the water contact angles for (a) hydrogenated and (b)
oxygenated diamond films [1] M.I. Jones, I.R. McColl, D.M. Grant, K.G. Parker, T.L.
Parker, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2000, 52, pp413.
The wettability of the diamond films is dominated by [2] C.H. Goeting, F. Marken, A.G. Sosa, R.G. Compton, J.S.
their surface energy. Many literatures demonstrated that the Foord. Diamond Relat. Mater. 2000, 9: pp390-396
surface energy of the diamond film can be attributed to its [3] P.E. Pehrsson, J.P. Long, M.J. Marchywka, J.E. Butler.
surface topography and the sp3/sp2 ratio. However, in Appl. Phys. Lett. 1995, 67, 3414.
this paper, the hydrogenation and oxygenation processes alter [4] L. Ostrovskaya, V. Perevertailo, V. Ralchenko, A.
the surface topography little, which are revealed by the SEM Dementjev, O. Loginova. Diamond Relat. Mater. 2002, 11,
images of the hydrogenated and oxygenated diamond films. In 845.
addition, the sp3/sp2 ratio is hardly affected by the [5] J.M. Garguilo, B.A. Davis, M. Buddle, F.A.M. Kock, R.J.
surface-treated processes for their Raman spectra keep similar Nemanich. Diamond Relat. Mater. 2004, 13, 595.
to each other. Thus, the different wettability of the [6] J. Furthmüller, J. Hafner, G. Kresse. Phys. Rev. B. 1996, 53,
hydrogenated and oxygenated diamond films mainly depends 7334.
786
Investigation on the Effect of Transverse Grooves on Friction Force
787
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
1.2
1.1
(b) Discontinuous traveling wave
1.0
Discontinous travelling wave sample and its front and back accessories. So the pressure
20000
force would transfer to the supporting and only the friction
force was measured.
18000
Samples were cylindrical pipes with a length of 325mm
and a diameter of 39mm. Sample 1# was a common pipe, i.e.
16000
slippery one. On the surface of sample 2# was discontinuous wavy
14000
grooves, which was as wavy wall. The morphology of the two
samples was measured by a Talysurf 5P-120 profilometer
12000 (Taly-Hobbson). The roughness of Sample 1# was about
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0.6m. The depth of the traveling wave was about 60m and
Number of the travelling wave
distance between each wave was about 1200m (see Fig. 5).
(b) Vorticity magnitude
788
Investigation on the Effect of Transverse Grooves on Friction Force
different flow rate. Every point was the average of more than
three measured data. The friction force was increased quadratic
with the velocity. The force of the 2# sample with wavy wall
was lower than 1# sample: a more than 12% drag reduction
was gained under the velocity of 17 to 22 m/s.
4.4
1# Sample (common one)
4.0
3.8
3.6
3.4
(a) Flow circulation system
3.2
3LSHRIWHVWVHFWLRQ 17 18 19 20 21 22
6OLSULQJ 3LQ
6OLSULQJ Velocity (m/s)
)ORZGLUHFWLRQ
(a) Difference of test voltage
13.33
6HQVRU
+HDG 6DPSOH 6XSSRUWLQJ 3LQ 7DLO 13.28
%DODQFH
12.78
40 Magnification of A
Depth (m)
20
0
-20
-40
750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
Length (m)
(a) Flow in the traveling wave
(b) Single traveling wave
Fig. 5 The morphology of samples
Each time the test was done from low speed to high speed
gradually. The fluid medium was tap water and the temperature
was about 20ć (with a fluctuation of less than 2ć during test).
In order to avoiding cavitations of the water tunnel, the system
pressure of the inlet of the contraction was maintained 5.3atm.
The signal of the force sensor was magnified by a strain gauge
and the voltage was gained by a computer, which were
proportion to the skin-friction force.
(b) Static pressure along the wavy wall
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Fig. 7 Vortex formed in the wave and the pressure distribution
Fig. 6 shows the voltages of the two samples under along the wavy wall (Two periods)
789
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
direction. The flow direction on the upside of the vortex was [4] D.W. Bechert, M. Bruse, W. Hage, J. G. T. Van Der Hoeven,
the same with the main flow, which would bring the reduction G. Hoppe, 1997, “Experiments on drag-reducing surfaces
of the viscous shear force partly. The function of the vortex in and their optimization with an adjustable geometry”, J.
the groove was similar with a rolling bearing. In the outer layer Fluid Mech., 338, pp.59-87
of fluid field, the vortex increases the height of the turbulent [5] Debisschop J R, Nieuwstadt T M., 1996, “Turbulent
boundary layer, and decreases the turbulent intensity of main boundary layer in an adverse pressure gradient:
fluid field, increases the height of the turbulent boundary layer, Effectiveness of riblets”, AIAA Journal, 34 (5), pp.932̚
decreases the slope of velocity (Seen in Fig. 8) and the friction 937
force. Considering the pressure distribution, only when the [6] Neumann D, Dinkelacker A., 1991, “Drag measurements
pressure force, induced from the wavy wall, lower than the loss on V-grooved surfaces on a body of revolution in axial
of viscous shear force, the total drag would lower. In other flow”, Applied Scientific Research, 48 (1), pp.105̚114
words, only the wavy wall was in proper dimensions, it would [7] Jin-jun Wang, Shi-long Lan, Guang Chen, 2000,
be useful in drag reduction. And at moment, the Kármán vortex “Experimental study on the turbulent boundary layer over
street gives us a good reference. riblets surface”, Fluid Dynamics Research, 27, pp.217-229
Considering the complexity of flow, the shape and [8] Gallagher J A, Thomas A S W., 1984, “Turbulent boundary
dimension of wavy wall would change with the flow layer characteristics over streamwise grooves”, AIAA
conditions including the fluid medium, velocity, object shape Journal., AIAA-84-2185
and so on. More researches will be needed in the future. [9] Bacher E V, Smith C R., 1985, “A combined
visualization-anemometry study of the turbulent drag
0.0020 Common wall reducing mechanisms of triangular micro-groove surface
0.0018 Wall with travelling waves modifications”, AIAA Journal., A IAA-85-0548
0.0016
[10] Starling L, Choi K-S., 1997, “Non-linear laminar-
Distance from the wall (m)
0.0014
turbulent transition over riblets”, In Proceedings of the
0.0012
Laminar Flow Workshop, Queen Mary and Westfield
0.0010
College, London
0.0008
0.0006
[11] M. J. Walsh, D. M. Bushnell, J. N. Hefner, (Eds.), 1990,
0.0004
“Viscous drag reduction in boundary layers”, Prog.
0.0002
Astronaut. Aeronaut. 123, pp.203-261
0.0000
[12] Yiqing Du, V. Symeonidis, G. E. Karniadakis., 2002,
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 “Drag reduction in wall-bounded turbulence via a
Velocity (m/s)
transverse travelling wave”, J. Fluid Mech. 457, pp. 1-34
Fig. 8 The velocity distribution contrast in the boundary layer [13] D.N. Riahi, 1999, “Boundary wave-vortex interaction in
near the wall channel with a wavy wall at high Reynolds numbers”,
Fluid Dynamics Research, 25, pp.129-145
[14] M. Asai, J.M. Floryan., 2006, “Experiments on the linear
instability of flow in a wavy channel”, European Journal
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS of Mechanics B/Fluids, 25, pp.971–986
The authors would like to thank Li Yongjian (Tsinghua [15] Yong-Sun Wie, Mujeeb R. Malik, 1998, “Effect of surface
University) for his great contributions in this work. This work waviness on boundary-layer transition in two-dimensional
was supported by the Major State Basic Research flow”, Computers & Fluids 27(2), pp.157-181
Development Program of China (973 Program, No. [16] Pan Guang, Guo Xiao-juan, Hu Hai-bao, 2006,
2007CB707702) and NSFC Project (No. 50721004). “Numerical Simulation of Semicircular Traveling Wave
Surface and Study on its Drag-Reduction Mechanism”,
Journal of System Simulation, 18(11), pp.3073-3094 (in
REFERENCES
Chinese)
[1] Walsh M J., 1982, “Turbulent boundary layer drag [17] Zhang Xiao-ci, 2001, “Traveling Wave Pasted Layer of
reduction using riblets”, AIAA Journal., AIAA-82-0169 High-speed Underwater Vehicles for Reducing Noise and
[2] Walsh M J., 1983, “Riblets as a viscous drag reduction Drag”, Journal of Ship Mechanics, 5(2), pp1-4 (in Chinese)
technique”, AIAA Journal., 21(4), pp.485-486 [18] Wang Jiadao, Zhou Gang, Shao Tianmin, Li Ang, Chen
[3] Choi K-SˈOrchard D M., 2000, “Turbulence management Darong, 2007, “A kind of test device of circular skin
using riblets for heat and momentum transfer”, Int. J. Exp. friction force”, Publication number: CN101050995
Thermal Fluid Sci., 15(2), pp.109-124. (Chinese patient)
790
Research for Forming Mechanism of Benard Coating Shaped Bi-Unit Composite Structure
Research for Forming Mechanism of Benard Coating Shaped Bi-Unit Composite Structure
INTRODUCTION
COATING PREPARATION AND TOPOGRAPHY FORMING MECHANISM OF FIRST RANK CAVE CAUSED
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
This process was synchronous with that of the coating Low surface energy additives induced surface energy
solidification caused by the evaporation of the solvent at the graduation between surface layer and bottom of the wet
surface layer and of what was driven to the surface layer by coating, which could brought strong convection. Without them,
the convection. Edges of the Benard convection cells Benard convection was driven only by temperature graduation
protuberated and centers subsided, which made the convection and density graduation caused by evaporation of solvent at the
cells to be caves, and the topography of these caves became surface layer, whose intensity was lower. That’s why the depth
immovable after the solidification of the coating finished, as is of Benard caves in this condition was just 2m, as is shown in
shown in figure 3. The caves caused by Benard convection figure 6. As
, dimensionless number of the dosage,
were the first rank topography of the coating, which were increased from 1, 1.5 to 2, the cave depth firstly increased
shaped taper with depth of 0~20m and diameter of from 15m to 20m synchronously and then came to be stable
500~5000m, as is shown in figure 4. at 20m.As 7 increased to 2.5, the cave depth deceased to
15m, as is shown in figure 7. Overlapping between
convection caves was the main reason of depth downtrend.
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Research for Forming Mechanism of Benard Coating Shaped Bi-Unit Composite Structure
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
794
Research for Forming Mechanism of Benard Coating Shaped Bi-Unit Composite Structure
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
796
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of TiCN Coatings Prepared by MTCVD
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig.2 SEM images of the cross-section morphology of TiCN coatings after etched at different etching conditions as shown in Table 1
798
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of TiCN Coatings Prepared by MTCVD
GPa, respectively. And the elastic modulus for TiC, TiN and substrate observed by optical microscope. Lc2 is determined
TiCN coatings ranged from 264.81 to 272.06 GPa, 182.83 to by the time the friction coefficient has an evident
199.28 GPa and 170.34 to 180.25 GPa, respectively [12]. transformation due to the complete failure of TiCN coating. In
Compared with TiC, TiN and TiCN coatings deposited by Fig.6 (b), the bright area was cemented carbide substrate while
PECVD, MTCVD-TiCN coating exhibits a higher hardness the dark region was TiCN coating, showing the TiCN coating
and elastic modulus. completely flaked away from the substrate. The value of Lc2
was also identified as the adhesion parameter between coating
and substrate. From Fig.5, the scratching loads corresponding
to Lc1 and Lc2 can be obtained as 53±0.5 N and 64±0.5 N
respectively. Additionally the CPRs value for TiCN coating
was calculated as 583 N2. From Fig.6, it could be concluded
that the TiCN coating failed by flaking rather than by cracking
or delaminating due to its long needle-like grains during
scratch testing.
Scratch test
During the scratch test, Lc1 has been identified as the
critical load that corresponds to the first crack or the primary
flaking of coating in optical microscopy. The higher crucial
load Lc2 corresponds to a dramatic failure of the coating. The
parameter CPRs=Lc1×(Lc2
Lc1) is calculated based on the
data obtained from the scratch test. This characteristic is
suggested as a “scratch crack propagation resistance” and
could be a measure of the fracture toughness of the coating
[13]. Flaking (adhesive failure) is the most common
phenomena for MTCVD-TiCN coatings. Fig.5 shows the
scratch test curve of TiCN coating. (b)
Fig.6 Micrographs of scratch test tracks corresponding to (a)
lower critical load Lc1 and (b) higher critical load Lc2
SUMMARY
In this study, the SEM with EDS, CSM nanoindentation and
scratch testers were carried out for TiCN coatings deposited on
cemented carbide cutting tools by MTCVD to investigate the
microstructure and mechanical properties. The results shows
that the surface and cross section morphologies of TiCN coating
exhibit lenticular (taper-shaped) and fibrous structure with long
needle-like grains. Additionally the TiCN coating has an FCC
crystal structure (Fm-3m) with lattice parameter a= 4.297Å. The
chemical formula of the coating is TiC0.7N0.3 determined by
EDS combined with XRD. The hardness and elastic modulus of
Fig.5 Scratch test curve of TiCN coating at a scratching load of TiCN coating are 21.154 GPa and 601.02 GPa respectively. Lc1,
100 N Lc2 and CPRs values for TiCN coating are obtained as 53±0.5
N, 64±0.5 N and 583 N2 respectively. The TiCN coating fails by
Lc1 is determined by the time when the acoustic emission flaking rather than by cracking or delaminating due to its long
changes rapidly because of local coating flaking away from the needle-like grains during scratch testing.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [8] Kudapa, S., Narasimhan, K., Boppana, P., Russell, W.C.,
Prof Zhou-Cheng Wang thanks for the financial support 1999, “Characterization and properties of MTCVD TiCN
from National Key Technology R&D Program of China and MTCVD ZrCN coatings”, Surface and Coatings
(No.2007BAE05B04). Technology, 120-121, pp.259-264.
[9] Bonetti-Lang, M., Bonetti, R., Hintermann, H.E., 1981,
“Carbon Nitride coatings at moderate temperatures
REFERENCES
obtained from organic C/N compounds”, in: M.B. John Jr.,
[1] Klocke, F., Krieg, T., 1999, “Coated tools for metal cutting G.E. Vuillard, G. Wahl (Eds.), Proc. 8th Int. Conf. on
- features and applications”, Ann. CIRP, 48, pp.515. chemical Vapor Deposition, The Electro-chemical Society,
[2] Pancielejko, M., Precht, W., Czyzniewski, A., 1999, Pennington, NJ, pp.606-616.
“Tribological properties of PVD titanium carbides”, [10] Bonetti, R.S., Wiprachtiger, H., Mohn, E., 1989, “CVD of
Vacuum, 53, pp.57-60. titanium carbonitride at moderate temperatures”, in: T.S.
[3] Kwasny, W., Brytan, Z., Pancielejko, M., 2002, Sudarshan, D.G. Bhat (Eds.), Surface Modification
Proceedings of the Sixth International Research/Expert Technologies ċ, The Minerals metals˂Materials Society,
Conference on Trends in the Development of Machinery Warrendale, PA, pp.291-308.
and Associated Technology (TMT 2002) . [11] B.D. Beake, N. Ranganathan, 2006, “An investigation of
[4] Randhawa, H., 1987, “Cathodic arc plasma deposition of the nanoindentation and nano/micro-tribological behaviour
TiC and TiCxN1
x films”, Thin Solid Films, 153, of monolayer, bilayer and trilayer coatings on cemented
pp.209-218. carbide”, Material Science and Engineering , A423,
[5] Knotek, O., Loffler, F., Kramer, G., 1993, “Deposition, pp.46-51.
properties and performance behaviour of carbide and [12] T.-H. Fang, Sheng-Rui Jian, Der-San Chuu, 2004,
carbonitride PVD coatings”, Surface and Coatings “Nanomechanical properties of TiC, TiN and TiCN thin
Technology, 61, pp.320-325. films using scanning probe microscopy and
[6] Arrando, F., Polo, M.C., Molera, P., Esteve, J., 1994, nanoindentation”, Applied Surface Science, 228,
“Comparative study of high corrosion resistant TiCxN1
x pp.365–372.
and TiN hard coatings”, Surface and Coatings Technology, [13] G.S. Fox-Rabinovich et al, 2006, “Effect of mechanical
68/69, pp.536-540. properties measured at room and elevated temperatures on
[7] Deng, T., Braun, M., 1994, “Tribological behavior of TiN, the wear resistance of cutting tools with TiAlN and AlCrN
TiCxNy and TiC coatings prepared by unbalanced magnetron coatings”, Surface and Coatings Technology, 200, pp.
sputtering techniques”, Surface and Coatings Technology, 5738-5742.
70, pp.49-56.
800
Erosion-Wear Behavior and Mechanism of HVAS Coatings
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT were flying ashes of the power plant. The mass loss was
Erosion-wear properties of 45PS, SL30 and FeAl/Cr3C2 determined by weighing the samples before and after the test
coatings sprayed by high velocity arc spraying (HVAS) at using an electronic analytical precision balance (TG328B) with
different temperature and impact angle were investigated using an accuracy of ±0.1 mg.
an air solid particle erosion rig. Erosion-wear mechanisms were The patterns, compositions of the eroded surface were
also investigated by means of scanning electronic microscopy investigated by SEM, EDAX and XRD.
(SEM), energy-dispersive analysis X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX)
and X-Ray diffraction (XRD), respectively. Results show that RESULTS
the erosion-wear rate decreases with the increase of temperature The erosion rates of HVAS coatings with the environment
for all of the three coatings. The variation of the erosion-wear temperature are described in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the three
rate with the impact angle is different for different coating. The coatings have good erosion-wear resistance and the erosion
erosion-wear mechanisms under different conditions are rates decrease with the temperature increasing. And it
different also. decreases less from 550 ć to 650 ć, while it decreases more
Keywords: HVAS, coatings, erosion, mechanism from 650 ć to 800 ć. The EDAX and XRD results of eroded
coatings show that the coatings are oxidized, especially at 800
INTRODUCTION ć. The mass gain by oxidation influences the results of the
Turbines, engines and fluidized bed combustion boilers are mass loss by erosion.
normally exposed to erosive environments and the erosion has
led to many accidents [1-3]. The coatings are considered as
powerful barriers against deterioration of machine parts
exposed to particulate flow at high temperatures [4-9]. The
erosion resistance of the coatings is influenced by the impact
angle and environment temperature, but strongly dependent on
the coating material’s property and the coating prepared
process [10-12]. Ni-Cr matrix alloy and Fe-Al matrix
composite have attracted lots of attentions in recent years due
to their excellent high-temperature strength, low density, good
erosion resistance, high-temperature oxidation and sulfuration
resistance. High velocity arc spraying (HVAS) technique is a
widely used traditional spraying technology [13, 14], which Fig. 1 Erosion rates of HVAS coatings with the environment
utilizes an electric arc as the heat source to melt wires into
temperature at 90` impact angle
droplets. The droplets are then sprayed onto substrates by the
high velocity compressed air. Because of the higher velocity Figs. 2 show the SEM morphologies of eroded HVAS 45PS,
and better atomizing of melted droplets in the spraying process, FeAl/Cr3C2 and SL30 coatings with 90` impact angle at
the HVAS coatings have low porosity, dense structure and high different environment temperature. The eroded pits and the
bond strength [15]. loose scale can be seen obviously on the eroded coatings
In the present study, the Ni-Cr matrix alloy (45PS and surfaces. The brittle erosion characters are found on the eroded
SL30) and Fe-Al matrix composite (FeAl/Cr3C2) coatings were scar at 550 ćand 600 ć, but it is not evident on the eroded
prepared by HVAS. The erosion-wear properties of the scar at 800 ć.
coatings were investigated.
The changing of erosion rates of HVAS coatings with
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS the impingement angle are shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen
that the influence of the impact angle on the erosion rate
Before it was sprayed, the non-sprayed surface of AISI
of different coatings is different. For HVAS 45PS and
1020 steel substrate (25×16×4 mm3) has been treated by power
FeAl/Cr3C2 coatings, the erosion rates decrease firstly
calorizing (power: 15% Al, 84 % Al2O3, 0.5% NH4Cl and
and then increase. While for HVAS SL30 coating, the
0.5% KHF2; process condition: 900 ć×4 h) to reduce the erosion rates increases at all times.
influence of oxidation at high temperature on the erosion test.
The spayed materials were 45PS, SL30 and FeAl/Cr3C2, a b
respectively. The coatings were sprayed by high velocity arc
spraying.
The erosion tests were carried out using a gas-sand
elevated temperature erosion apparatus at the temperature of
550 ć, 650 ć and 800 ć, respectively. The samples were
preheated about 15 min prior to erosion. The erosion particles
*Tel.: +86-451-82518173.
E-mail address: lili_heu@hrbeu.edu.cn (L. Li)
801
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
5000
J FeAl
J
Q Cr2O3
4000 3 FeCr O
2 4
Cr7C3
Fe3Al
Intensity (Cps)
3000
# Fe2O3
L Al2O3
e f 2000
3
1000 J
Q# J
3
Q Q L Q #
L
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
Diffraction Angle ( )
18000
g h 3
Q J NiO
16000
Q (Ni-Cr)
J
14000 3 CrO
Cr2O3
12000
Intensity (Cps)
NiCr2O4
10000
L TiO2
8000
3
6000 Q
4000
L
J
2000 L L
J J
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
Diffraction Angle ( )
i
Fig. 5 XRD spectra of eroded HVAS 45PS coating at 550 ć
c d
802
Erosion-Wear Behavior and Mechanism of HVAS Coatings
CONCLUSIONS [7] Kim D.Y., Han M.S., Youn J. G., 1996, in: C.C. Berndt
The HVAS SL30, 45PS and FeAl/Cr3C2 coatings have (Ed.), Thermal Spray: Practical Solutions for Engineering
good erosion-wear resistance and the erosion-wear rates Problems, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, USA,
decrease with the temperature increasing. The erosion-wear 1996, pp.123-128.
mechanisms of the HVAS coatings are influenced by the [8] Seong B.G., Hwang S.Y., Kim K.Y., 2000, “High-
environment temperature. The wear of the coating is temperature corrosion of recuperators used in steel mills,”
concomitant with the oxidation of the coating, especially at Surface and Coatings Technology, 126 (2-3), pp.256-265.
800 ć. And the influence of the impact angle on the erosion [9] Mann B.S., Prakash B., 2000, “High temperature friction
rate for different coatings is different. and wear characteristics of various coating materials for
steam valve spindle application,” Wear, 240 (1-2),
pp.223-230.
REFERENCES
[10] Qureshi, J., Tabakoff, W., 1988, “The influence of coating
[1] Habib, M.A., Badr, H.M., Ben-Mansour, R. M., Kabir, E., processes and process parameters on surface erosion
2007, “Erosion rate correlations of a pipe protruded in an resistance and substrate fatigue strength,” Surface and
abrupt pipe contraction,” International Journal of Impact Coatings Technology, 36, pp.433-444.
Engineering, 34, pp.1350-1369. [11] Lin, F., Shao, H., 1991, “The effect of impingement angle
[2] Kulu, P., Hussainova, I., Veinthal, R., 2005, “Solid particle on slurry erosion,” Wear, 141, pp.279-289.
erosion of thermal sprayed coatings,” Wear, 258, [12] Franco, A., Roberts, S.G., 1998, “The effect of impact
pp.488-496. angle on the erosion rate of polycrystalline -Al2O3,”
[3] Huttunen-Saarivirta, E., Stott, F.H., Rohr, V., Schütze M., Journal of European Ceramic Society, 18, pp.269-274.
2007, “Erosion–oxidation behaviour of pack-aluminized 9% [13] Newbery, A.P., Rayment, T., Grant, P.S., 2004, “A
chromium steel under fluidized-bed conditions at elevated particle image velocimetry investigation of in-flight and
temperature,” Corrosion Science, 49, pp.2844- 2865. deposition behaviour of steel droplets during electric arc
[4] Hocking, M.G., Vasantasree, V., Sidky, P.S., 1989, sprayforming,” Materials Science and Engineering A, 383,
Metallic and Ceramic Coatings: Production, High pp.137-145.
Temperature Properties and Applications, Longman [14] Planche, M.P., Liao, H., Coddet, C., 2004, “Relationships
Scientific and Technical Press, UK. between in-flight particle characteristics and coating
[5] Matthews S., Hyland M., James B., 2003, “Microhardness microstructure with a twin wire arc spray process and
variation in relation to carbide development in heat treated different working conditions,” Surface and Coatings
Cr3C2–NiCr thermal spray coatings,” Acta Materialia, 51 Technology, 182, pp.215-226.
(14), pp.4267-4277. [15] Liu, G.M., Rozniatowski, K., Kurzydlowski, K.J., 2001,
[6] Takeuchi J., Murata Y., Harada Y., et al., 1998, in: C. “Quantitative characteristics of FeCrAl films deposited by
Coddet (Ed.), Thermal Spray: Meeting the Challenges of arc and high-velocity arc spraying,” Materials
the 21st Century, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, Characterization, 46, pp.99-104.
USA, 1998, pp.1425-1430.
803
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Current studies have shown that surface texturing and
coating technology are two different effective ways to improve
the tribological properties of material surfaces. In this paper, we
try to combine these two methods in order to obtain better
tribological performances.
Masks were machined by wire cutting. By covering the
surface of the substrate with mask, Ti textured coatings were
prepared on the substrate of Si.
Friction and wear tests were carried out under dry
condition. The effects of test conditions, such as load, sliding Fig. 1 Mask machined by wire cutting
speed, mask space ratio were also studied. The results showed
that by producing textured coating on the surfaces, tribological The textured coating prepared by the masked-deposition
properties could be evidently improved. was characterized by the DM400 microscope and the 3D
Keywords: Ti coating, Surface texture, Masked deposition, morphology visualizer MicroXAM.
Tribological property An UMT ball on disk friction and wear test machine was
used to study the friction behavior of the textured coating. WC
INTRODUCTION ball was used as the counterpart to the specimen. Friction test
Surface texturing[1] is an effective way in improving perpendicular to the texture direction was performed. The
tribological performances of materials. It changes surface sliding speed was 6mm/s, the load was 20g, 35g and 50g
morphology by various techniques such as laser ablation, respectively.
mechanical machining, and so on. Micro-dimples[2], parallel
channels, crossed channels are usually obtained in the surface RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
texturing process. Textured Ti coatings with different ratio of coating width
Film-deposition technique is another effective way to to gap width were prepared. Fig.2 was the morphology of the
improve the mechanical and chemical properties of materials. textured coating with the ratio of 1:1. Table 1 gives the data of
By depositing a thin film on the substrate, different properties the different texture density.
are brought in by the new kind of the material, and at the same
time, the thickness and the volume of the film are very small,
so the properties are also different from the bulk materials.
Film-deposition technique and surface texturing both have
pros and cons. During the deposition process, in order to
achieve better quality of the film and increase the binding force,
the energy of the plasma and the temperature in the vacuum
chamber are usually high, which may result in higher internal
stress within the films. On the other hand, surface texturing can
only change the morphology, while there is no substantial
improvement in chemical properties. So in order to obtain
better tribological performances, these two methods were
combined by masked deposition in this paper. Fig. 2 Morphology of the textured coating
EXPERIMENTAL Table 1 Data of the textured coatings
Mask was specially designed and fabricated. Substrate of
Ratio of Density of the Width of the Thickness of the
Si (100) was covered by the mask and was put into the vacuum
coating width coating coating˄m˅ coating
chamber. Multi-arc ion plating was used to prepare Ti film on
to gap width (nm˅
the substrate. During the deposition process, the film was
deposited on the vacancy of the substrate where it was not
covered by the mask. As a result, the film on the substrate 1˖1 50% 280 705
prepared in this way could have the morphology of the texture 1˖2 33% 285 710
and the surface properties of the material might be totally 1˖3 25% 290 720
changed. 1˖4 20% 280 670
In this paper, the mask was machined by wire-cutting, the
minimum gap width was 0.2mm, The sketch of the mask was Fig. 3 gives the friction coefficient under the sliding speed
shown in Fig. 1. 6mm/s, in dry friction and the load was 20g. The density of the
804
Tribological Properties of Textured Ti Coating Prepared by Masked Deposition
0.6
supported by the National Key Basic Research program
full Ti film 973(2007CB607605) and the National Natural Science
0.5
Foundation of China [Project No. 50721004].
0.4
textured Ti film REFERENCES
0.3
[1] Etsion, 2004, “Improving tribology performance of
0.2 mechanical components by laser surface texturing”,
0.1 Tribology letters, 17, pp.733-737
Si [2] S.Schreck, K-H.Zum Gahr, 2005, “Laser-assisted
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 structuring of ceramic and steel surfaces for improving
Time/s tribology properties”, Applied surface science, 247, pp.
612-622
Fig.3 Friction coefficient vs. time
805
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
(Extended Abstract)
ABSTRACT
Surface texturing is a technique used to produce Laser
desirable patterns on material surfaces. Recent researches
showed that properly selected surface textures could
significantly improve tribological performance of materials. Optical fiber
According to applications, the characteristic size of surface
Substrate
textures could be in the scale of millimeter, micrometer or
nanometer. At present, various machining techniques are Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of optical fiber focusing
available to produce surface textures, among them, laser
surface texturing is widely used due to its advantages such Micro-textures were produced on silicon Si(100)
surface. Optical fibers with different diameters were chosen
as non-contact, non-pollution, high machining precision
as the focusing unit and different pulse laser energies were
and etc..
applied. Influence of processing parameters like laser
A conventional laser surface texturing technique energy, focusing distance, ambient medium and etc. on the
generally uses pulsed laser to irradiate material surface etching quality was studied. Results of extensive
obtaining desirable surface patterns. Nowadays, the laser experiments proved that parallel grooves and meshed
machining technique for fabricating surface textures in the textures with the width of 2̚3m could be produced when
scale from tens micrometers to millimeters is quite mature the optical fiber with the diameter of 200m and pulsed
and commercially available. However, laser surface laser energy of 400mJ were selected.
texturing in micrometer scale or in sub-micron scale is still
not widely used due to either high-cost or requirement of
sophisticated equipment.
In this presentation, a new method of laser surface
texturing based on optical fiber focusing was introduced. A
device was developed and described. A Nd: YAG solid
laser beam was focused by an optical fiber, whose axis was
perpendicular to the laser beam, and irradiates onto the
surface of the substrate as shown in Fig.1. Under a certain
energy density, surface material in the laser irradiated area
could be etched. A 2D plateform with an accuracy of 2 m
was used for producing parallel grooves with different pitch
spacing between them. In order to get desirable focusing
effect, a focusing distance adjusting system was built,
which consists of a lifting platform, a digital depth ruler
and a ring. Optical fiber was fixed on the bottom of the ring.
The distance between the fiber and the substrate surface
was controlled by the lifting platform and the value could
be read accurately on the digital depth ruler. Different Fig. 2 A typical meshed texture produced on the surface of
groove width and depth could be obtained by adjusting the Si(100) with the pitching spacing of 20m
focusing distance.
Key words: laser surface texturing, optical fiber, focusing
806
Application of Laser in Surface Technology—An Overview of the Research Work Performed in SKLT
Tianmin Shao
State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
shaotm@tsinghua.edu.cn
(Extended Abstract)
807
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Influence of Heat Treatment on Hardness, Elastic Modulus and Bonding Strength of Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN
Nanomultilayer Coatings
H. F. Gong, T. M. Shao *
ABSTRACT sublayers (TiN or TaN) with identical thickness. The top layer
was nitride layer and a transition metal layer was deposited
Pulsed laser arc deposition system with precise control of before multilayers were prepared. All the nanomultilayers had
film thickness was applied to prepare the group of multilayers 40 periods(80 sublayers). On design, the total thickness was
Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN. Heat treatment at 593K in vacuum and in air 200nm and the modulation period (bilayers period) was 5nm
was carried out for the coatings. Hardness, elastic modulus and for all the multilayers (Table 1).
bonding strength were assessed by nano-indentation and Pulsed laser arc deposition (LAD) system was applied to
scratch test, respectively. The results showed that, heat prepare the multilayers with different sublayer materials. This
treatment in vacuum caused decrease of hardness and increase system ionizes target by laser-induced arc to yield ion plasma,
of elastic modulus for all the coatings, which reduced the H/E which was intensified by the electrical field in the system
ratios of the coatings. Heat treatment in air at 593K improved and deposited on the surface of substrate. This method
the hardness, but weakened the bondings strength of the
coatings. Comparing to the monolayers, multilayers had Table 1 Design parameters and sublayer materials of the group
relatively higher H/E ratios and better bonding strength for the of Ti/Ta/ TiN/TaN nanomultilayers
as deposited coatings and for the heat-treated coatings in
vacuum and in air. Sample Material of Period, Total
Keywords: Nanomultilayer coatings; Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN; number sublayer nm thickness,
Heat treatment; Hardness; Bonding strength nm
1 TiN -- 200
1 INTRODUCTION
2 TaN -- 200
In recent years, TiN based nanomultilayer coatings had
proved to exhibit superior mechanical and tribological 3 TiN/Ti 5 200
properties in enhancing the wear and corrosion resistance of 4 TaN/Ta 5 200
cutting tools[1-3], punched dies[4], gear and bearings[5],turbine
blades[6]and magnetic disc[7] and so on. For the multilayers 5 TaN/Ti 5 200
with a stacked structure of layers, the introduction of interior
interfaces parallel to the substrate could work as deflect cracks 6 TiN/Ta 5 200
or provide barriers to dislocation motion and improved the
toughness, strength and hardness of the coatings[8-10].
7 TiN/TaN 5 200
Moreover, the multilayers could combine the advantages of
two or more film materials to satisfy the need of various has little pollution, high ionization rate of target and precise
applications. Further studies showed that, hardness, elastic control of film thickness. The material purity of Ti and Ta
modulus, the ratios of hardness and elastic modulus (H/E targets was above 99.99% and the purity of N2 used in the film
ratios) and bonding strength, were the important factors deposition was above 99.999%. One side polished Si(100)
influencing the tribological properties of coatings[11-14]. wafer was used as the substrate. Before preparation, the Si
Temperature was one of the exterior parameters affecting wafer was soaked in the acetone and ethanol and rinsed by
the service life of coatings. In some applications, such as ultrasonic cleaning for 15min, respectively. The substrate was
cutting tools, bearings and turbine blades etc., the parts worked then bombarded by Ar+ ions for 10min(Ar pressure was 2.0 Pa)
in high temperature environment, which increased the and a metal layer about 5nm was deposited as transition layer
necessity of finding multilayers coatings that could function in to enhance the bonding with substrate. Then the
the high temperature environment. Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN multilayers were prepared by turning on and
This work focused on the hardness, elastic modulus and off N2 periodically and moving the Ti and Ta targets alternately.
bondings strength of the group of Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN The TiN and TaN monolayers with identical thickness were
nanomultilayers and the relevant TiN and TaN monolayers. also prepared (Table 1). The main deposition parameters were
The objective had been to analyze the influence of heat listed in Table 2:
treatment on hardness, elastic modulus, H/E ratios and
bonding strength of Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN nanomultilayer coatings. 2.2 Characterization
808
Influence of Heat Treatment on Hardness, Elastic Modulus and Bonding Strength of Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN Nanomultilayer Coatings
Nanohardness (GPa)
about 1/10 of the total thickness of the coatings. Average of 15
test results in six equispaced indentation points represented the 14
hardness and elastic modulus. 13 As deposited
Bonding strength of the coatings was measured using a 12
scratch tester, having a triangle diamond indenter and the tip 11
radius was 5 m. With a continuously increasing load, the 10
diamond tip underwent three steps, including contacting with 9 Heat treatment in vacuum
the surface of sample, scratching the sample and unloading, to 8
result in failure of the coatings. The critical load (bonding 7
strength) for coating detachment was determined by observing 6
the saltation in the scratch curves and examining the scratch TiN TaN TiN/Ti TaN/Ta TaN/Ti TiN/TaTiN/TaN
scars using an optical microscope. An average of the results of
two scratches was taken to represent the coating failure loads. 300
The total length of the scratch was 300 m, which included (b)
the length of contacting (20 m) and unloading (20 m) and
Elastic modulus (GPa)
270
the actual scratching length was 260 m. The length of Heat treatment in vacuum
240
scratching was kept identical. But different feed rates As deposited
of load, such as 0.4mN/ m,0.5mN/ m and 0.6mN/ m 210
were used for different samples.
180
The ratio of hardness and elastic modulus (H/E ratio) was 0.11 Heat treatment in air
one of important factors characterizing the tribological 0.10
properties of the coatings. The comparison of the H/E ratios in 0.09
the three cases between the monolayers and the multilayers As deposited
0.08
was presented in Fig.2. There was evident influence of the
H/E
heat treatment on the H/E ratios of all the coatings. However, 0.07
it was found that, the H/E ratios of the multilayers exceeded to 0.06
that of monolayers in the three cases of as deposited, heat 0.05
treatment in vacuum and heat treatment in air. Moreover, all
the H/E ratios of the multilayers increased remarkably after 0.04
heat treatment in air. Comparing to monolayers, multilayers 0.03
Heat treatment in vacuum
might indicate better mechanical characters and tribological 0.02
properties in the temperature service environment. TiN TaN TiN/Ti TaN/Ta TaN/Ti TiN/TaTiN/TaN
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Fig.4(a),(b) presented the relevant surface topography of the of TiN, TaN monolayer. The modulation of the TiN and TaN
scratching scars. Fig.5 gave the results of bonding strength of monolayers into TiN/TaN multilayers enhanced the bonding
the monolayers and multilayers. strength with substrate in the three case of as-deposited, heat
treated in vacuum and in air. It was deduced that the inner
interfaces in multilayers released the growing stress and
I II decreased interior stress concentration of multilayers[10], which
III
greatly help to elevate the bonding strength.
Saltation
position
ķ
ĸ
(a) TiN monolayer
6DOWDWLRQ 120
SRVLWLRQ As deposited
110
ķ
100
Force (mN)
ĸ 90
Heat treatment in vacuum
80
Heat treatment in air
70
810
Influence of Heat Treatment on Hardness, Elastic Modulus and Bonding Strength of Ti/Ta/TiN/TaN Nanomultilayer Coatings
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. [9] A. Duck, N. Garner, W. Gesatzke, M. Griepentrog,
50721004). W.Osterle, M. Sahre, 2001,Ti/TiN multilayer coatings:
deposition technique, characterization and mechanical
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titanium carbonitride multilayer films Part II. The effect of Behavior of TiN/Ti Multilayer Coatings, Journal of Inorganic
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behavior of candidate coatings for Al die casting dies, Surface [14] A. Leyland, A. Matthews, 2000, On the significance of
and Coatings Technology, 172, pp.117-127. the H/E ratio in wear control: a nanocompositecoating
[5] Kenneth Holmberg, Allan Matthews, Helena approach to optimised tribological behaviour, Wear, 246,
Ronkainen,1998,Coatings tribology-contact mechanisms and pp.1-11.
surface design, Tribology International, 31,pp.107-120. [15] Dheepa Srinivasan, Trupti.G.Kulkarni, K.Anand. Thermal
[6] Henja Jensen, Gunnar Sorensen, Ilze Mannike, Faina stability and high-temperature wear of Ti-TiN and TiN-CrN
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nanostructured multilayer coatings and their tribological Tribology International, 2007,40,pp.266-277.
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116-119,pp.1070-1075. mechanical properties and failure mechanisms of TiN and
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of metallic multilayer filmsˈThin Solid Films, 444,pp.199-207. 76-77,pp.297-302.
[8] J.S.Koehler, 1970, Attempt to Design a Strong Solid,
PHYSICAL REVIEW B,2,pp.547-551.
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
812
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Titanium Reinforced Polybenzimidazole
the wear volume (Q) of the PBI or Ti/PBI composites was Temperature
500 Vacuum
measured using a Micro-XAM 3D non-contact surface 0.4
Temperature ( C)
0.3
Vacuum (Pa)
o
300
Synthesis of poly-2,2’-(m-phenylene)-5,5’-bibenzimidazole
0.2
[17] 200
Strength (MPa)
(100 mesh) was added gradually and dissolved. The solution
was isolated by pouring into water, washed thoroughly with
water, and dried in a vacuum oven at 50 °C. 100
813
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
The low frictional coefficient of PBI composites at high powders as the filler, the PBI matrix would experience more
temperature could be attributed the transfer film of the PBI on severe friction-induced damages such as adhesion, scuffing,
the surface of steel ball (see Figure 4). Under low temperature, and spalling.
PBI was hard and a lot PBI granular was produced during
friction. However, the surface of PBI was softened and transfer
film was produced under high temperature. So the frictional -5 PBI
1.4x10
coefficients decrease with increasing temperature. 5% Ti/PBI
-5
10% Ti/PBI
1.2x10
3
1.0x10
-6
8.0x10
-6
6.0x10
-6
4.0x10
-6
2.0x10
0.0
0 100 200 300
o
Temperature ( C)
CONCLUSIONS
Bulk Ti/PBI composites were prepared using hot-press
sintering in vacuum, at a medium load of 20 MPa and
Fig. 4 SEM images of wear scars on the balls subjected to wear moderate temperature of 160-450 °C. The prepared Ti/PBI
test at: (a) 22 °C; (b) 100 °C; (c) 200 °C; (d) 300 °C composites had much larger tensile and compressive strength
than PBI, though the inclusion of the Ti filler at a relatively
On the other hand, only signs of slight scuffing and plastic high mass fraction (10 wt%) was harmful to the tensile and
deformation were observed on the worn surfaces of the compressive strength of the composites. Besides, the
PBI/5wt% Ti sliding against the steel balls at elevated incorporation of the Ti filler had almost no effect on the
temperature of 300 °C (Figure 5c and 5d), and the worn friction behavior of the Ti/PBI composites at ambient and
surfaces in this cases seemed to have been polished to some elevated temperatures, but it led to deterioration to some extent
extent, which might well correspond to the decrease of the in the wear resistance of the composites. Thus further work is
friction coefficient thereat, since at elevated temperature PBI need for improving the wear resistance of the PBI-Ti
would be more easy to experience plastic deformation and composites prepared via hot-press sintering in vacuum.
form transfer film on the counterpart steel sliding surface
under repeated sliding stress. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No.50575217), the 973 project
(Grant no. 20070B607601) and the Innovation Group Fund
from NSFC (Grant No.50421502) for financial support.
REFERENCES
[1] Chung T, Xu Z and Huan C., “Halo formation in asymmetric
polyetherimide and polybenzimidazole blend hollow fiber
membranes,” J. Polym. Sci. Part B: Polym. Phys., 1999, 37,
pp.1575-1585.
[2] Kim C and Park SH, “Characteristics of supercapacitor
electrodes of PBI-based carbon nonofiber web prepared by
electrospinning,” Electrochim. Acta, 2004, 50, pp.877-881.
[3] Kim J and Reneker D., “Mechanical properties of
composites using ultrafine electrospun fibers,” Polym.
Compos., 1999, 20, pp.124-131.
[4] Kim J and Wneker D., “Polybenzimidazole nanofiber
Fig. 5 SEM images of worn surfaces of 5 wt.% Ti/PBI produced by electrospinning,” Screen, 1999, 39,
composites disks subjected to wear test at: (a) 22 °C; (b) 100 pp.849-854.
°C; (c) 200 °C; (d) 300 °C [5] Choe S, Karasz F and MacKnight W., “Phase behaviour in
miscible polybenzimidazole/polyetherimide blends,”
The specific wear rate increased sharply with increasing Contemp. Top. Polym. Sci., 1988, 6, 493-504.
temperature. The PBI was softened and more easily abraded. [6] Natarajan K, Kumar R, Reddy P, Gowda N and Rao R.,
The inclusion of the Ti powders led to deterioration to the wear “Thermal and toughness property studies on a
resistance of sintered PBI, which was more prominent at polybenzimidazole-modified epoxy resin system,” Polym.
elevated temperatures (see Figure 6). In the presence of Ti Int., 2000, 49, pp.1321-1323.
814
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Titanium Reinforced Polybenzimidazole
[7] Chung T, Schlask A and Kurschus D., “Stable solution of [13] Asensio JA and Borros S., “Sulfonated
polybenzimidazole and polysulfons blends,” US Patent, poly(2,5-benzimidazole) (SABPBI) impregnated with
5,208,298, 1993. phosphoric acid as proton conducting membranes for
[8] Xue G, Guo S and Qian Y., “Interfacial modification of polymer electrolyte fuel cells,” Electrochim. Acta, 2004, 49,
polymer/metal joints by a two-component coupling system pp.4461-4466.
of polybenzimidazole and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole,” [14] Mecerreyes D, Grande H, Miguel O, Ochoteco E, Marcilla
Appl. Surf. Sci., 1995, 84, pp.351-356. R and Cantero I., “Porous polybenzimidazole membranes
[9] Sun H, Venkatasubramanian N, Houtz M, Mark J and doped with phosphoric acid: highly proton-conducting
Arnold F., “Microcellular foams from aminated solid electrolytes,” Chem. Mater., 2004, 16, pp.604-607.
polysulfone/polybenzimidazole molecular composites,” [15] Suffredini L., “Sintered polymers,” US Patent, 3,340,325,
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[10] Wainright J, Wang J, Weng D, Savinell R and Litt M., [16] Vogel H and Marvel C., “Polybenzimidazoles, new
“Acid-doped polybenzimidazoles: A new polymer thermally stable polymers,” J. Polym. Sci., 1964, 50,
electrolyte,” J. Electrochem. Soc. 2006, 142, pp.121-123. pp.511–539.
[11] Bouchet R and Miller S., “A thermodynamic approach to [17] Iwakura Y and Uno K., “Polyphenylenebenzimidazoles,” J.
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[12] Asensio JA and Borros S., “Proton-conducting membranes
based on poly(2,5-benzimidazole) (ABPBI) and
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Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Diamond-Like Carbon Thin Films Deposition on Glass Using an Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR)
Microwave Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) System
1. State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Lanzhou 730000, China
2. Institute for Plasma and Metal Materials, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 73000, China
Corresponding author: State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
Tel: +86931 4968335; Fax: +86931 4968335
E-mail address: gazhang@lzb.ac.cn (Guangan Zhang)
816
Diamond-Like Carbon Thin Films Deposition on Glass Using an Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) Microwave Chemical
Vapor Deposition (CVD) System
In this study, the XPS measurements of the films were prepared at -400 V bias convince us that the large content of
performed on a Perkin-Elmer PHI-5702 multi-functional oxygen in the film surface.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscope, using Al-Ka radiation For further investigation of the relationship of the
(photon energy 1476.6 eV) as the excitation source. The binding energy of C 1s in the DLC films with negative
XPS spectra were collected in a constant analyzer energy substrate bias, the C 1s region was also investigated in the
mode, at a chamber pressure of 10-8 Pa and pass energy of high-resolution mode and the normalized C 1s spectra for
29.4 eV, with 0.125 eV/ step. To prevent charging, Au thin the films are shown in Fig. 2. The energy scale of the spectra
films about 0.5 nm thick were deposited on the tested was calibrated using the Au 4f7/2 signal (84 eV). Although
surfaces of all the samples by thermal evaporation, and the the absolute values of the peaks positions and areas need to
binding energy of Au (Au 4f7/2 84.00 eV) used as the be corrected using standards and surface cleaning, the state
charge-up correction. Sliding friction and wear life test were of the surface is convinced that the wear process was just a
performed in ambient atmosphere (18 ć,40% RH), using a surface contact process and the result is convictive. Three
UMT-2MT micro-tribometer (CETR Co., USA). A steel ball dashed lines in Fig. 2 showed the binding energy position of
of 3 mm in diameter, with a hardness of 6.1 GPa, was used sp3 carbon, sp2 carbon and C-O carbon, respectively. The
as a counterbody. The samples were tested under 20 g for binding energy of the C 1s is various for the DLC film
friction coefficient test and 50 g load for wear life test with a prepared under various bias, while the binding energy of the
reciprocative frequency of 2 Hz. sample prepared at -400 V appears at a highest binding
energy is probably due to the presence of the strong
oxidation of film surface and is in agreement with the survey
3. Results XPS spectra analysis. Further increase of the substrate
negative bias to -500 V, the binding energy keeps at a
relative lower energy compared to -300 V and -400 V. This
may show that the DLC film possess low content of
oxidation contamination. Further increase of bias voltage
leads to increase of the binding energy corresponding to
large content sp3 bond in the DLC films.
817
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
0.5
The inverted peak corresponding to the wear of the
DLC-glass mixed layer. The total duration of the first two
0.4
stages was indicative of the wear life of the films and
0.3 depended on the applied substrate negative bias. By plotting
these data, Fig. 5 is generated. In this study, the effect of bias
0.2 in the DLC films deposited process on the wear life is found
to be significant. DLC films prepared at -300V presented
0.1 lowest wear life in the as-deposited DLC films. The wear life
-700 -600 -500 -400 -300
Bias Voltage (V) shows a monotonous increase with the negative bias, which
also shows an increase substrate-film adhesion. The wear life
Fig. 3 The friction coefficient of the DLC films deposited on shows a tremendous improvement (for about 100 times
glass as a function of the applied negative substrate bias
increase from -300V to -700V bias) with the bias increase.
This increasing tendency of wear life with increasing the
Fig. 3 shows the average friction coefficients obtained by
negative bias voltage might be related with the energy of
averaging the frictional coefficient at 10 min measurement.
impinging ions to the growing film that helps improve the
The friction coefficient are higher for the DLC film prepared
film-substrate interface diffusion and enhance the
at -300 V to -400 V bias. From the previously results, the
film-substrate adhesive. This can avoid the film flaking away
DLC films show a relatively higher friction coefficient in
from the glass surface. The lower friction coefficient also
oxygen or high oxidation state environment [16]. The film
causes an improvement of wear life of the DLC film.
surface suffered strong oxidation condition in the sample
deposited at -300V and -400V in accordance with the C1s
3000
XPS results [Fig 1 and Fig 2]. Further increase bias, the
friction coefficient show a relatively lower value in the range 2500
of 0.2-0.3. However, this value was higher than that of DLC
on Si substrate, because the roughness of the glass was larger 2000
Wear life (s)
1000
500
0
-700 -600 -500 -400 -300
Bias Voltage (V)
4. Conclusion
Fig. 4 Evolution of the friction coefficient of DLC film
deposited on glass at various negative substrate bias The present study is dealing with the structure and
tribological behaviours of about 40nm thick diamond-like
Fig. 4 shows the typical friction traces of the DLC films carbon thin films deposited by the ECR microwave CVD
deposited under various negative bias. The applied normal technique on glass substrates. The XPS spectra, friction
load was selected to be 50 g and reciprocated frequency of 2 coefficient and wear life of DLC films provided obviously
Hz. As shown in Fig. 4, the friction coefficient presented changes with the negative substrate bias changes. The
three distinct stages. At the first short-time stage, the friction highest oxidation state and friction coefficient values were
coefficient fluctuated in a relatively larger range due to the measured for the films prepared at -400 V substrate bias. The
initial roughness of the two surfaces in contact. And during higher friction coefficient of film is accompanied with
the following stage, the friction coefficient remained surface condition such as oxidation. However, the wear life
constant and without obvious fluctuation, which is typical of of the DLC films was increase dramatically (for about 100
818
Diamond-Like Carbon Thin Films Deposition on Glass Using an Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) Microwave Chemical
Vapor Deposition (CVD) System
times from -330V to -700V bias) with the substrate bias. 3 H.Y. Ueng, C.T. Guo, Appl. Surf. Sci. 249 (2005) 246
This improvement of film properties usually is normally 4 F. Piazza, D. Grambole, L. Zhou, F. Talke, C. Casiraghi,
accompanied with related with the energy of impinging ions A.C. Ferrar, J. Robertson, Diamond Relat. Mater. 13 (2004)
to the growing film that helps improve the film-substrate 1505
interface diffusion and enhance the film-substrate adhesive. 5 K.H. Lai, C.Y. Chan, M.K. Fung, I. Bello, C.S. Lee, S.T.
From these results, we conclude that the substrate bias can Lee, Diamond Relat. Mater. 10 (2001) 1862
effective adjust the ion energy and improve the mechanical 6 Alan H. Lettington, Carbon 36 (1998) 555
properties of DLC thin films on glass substrate. And ECR 7 Ashraf M.M. Omer, Sudip Adhikari, Sunil Adhikary,
microwave CVD was an effectively method to deposition Mohamad Rusop, Hideo Uchida, Tetsuo Soga and
DLC thin films on glass. Masayoshi Umeno, Diamond Relat. Mater., 15 (2006) 645
8 V.S. Veerasamy, H.A. Luten, R.H. Petrmichl, S.V.
Thomsen, Thin Solid Films 442 (2003) 1
Acknowledgement 9 H.X. Li, T. Xu, J.M. Chen, H.D. Zhou, H.W. Liu, Appl.
Surf. Sci. 227 (2004) 364
The authors are grateful to the National Natural Science 10 N.A. Morrison, S.E. Rodil, A.C. Ferrari, J. Robertson,
Foundation of China (Granted No: 50772115)ˈthe National W.I. Milne, Thin Solid Films 337 (1999) 71
Key Basic Research Program (No. 2007CB607601) and the 11 Namwoong Paik, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200 (2005) 2170
prearranged project of General Armament Department 12 Mei Xian-Xiu, Liu Zhen-Min, Ma Teng-Cai, Dong
(maintenance techniques subject) for financial support. Chuang, Chinese Physics Letter 20 (9) (2003) 1619
13 M.-L. Theye, V. Paret, A. Sadki, Diamond Relat. Mater.
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819
The Biotribological Behavior Researches on the α -Tocopherol Doped and Gamma-Irradiated UHMWPE
Corresponding author: GE Shi-rong, Email-address: was evaluated by using MicroXAM surface mapping
nizf@cumt.edu.cn Tel: +86-516-83591916
823
Technical Sessions—Proceedings of CIST2008 & ITS-IFToMM2008 Beijing, China
Table 2 Tensile properties and wear loss of UHMWPE [3] Xiong, D., Ge, S., 2001, “Friction and wear properties of
824
The Effects of Protein and pH on the Tribo-Corrosion Performance of Cast CoCrMo
– A Combined Electrochemical and Tribological Study
Extended Abstract higher under pH 4.0 than for pH 7.4 under SC conditions. The
In this study, the wear-corrosion of cast CoCrMo, more CoCrMo surface is more prone to corrosion attack in more
specifically, sliding wear-corrosion and abrasive wear- acidic environments [3], which resulted in corrosion-enhanced
corrosion (using ~ 4 μm SiC abrasive particles) have been wear. For the BS containing solutions, however, the lower pH
investigated using a modified ball-cratering rig with a three- solution resulted in a slight decrease of the SWR, this could be
electrode electrochemical cell. The concentration effects of due to pH 4.0 being close to the isoelectric points of the
proteinaceous material (25% and 50% bovine serum) and pH proteins within the serum [4] and therefore there is a greater
levels, i.e., pH 4.0 (the possible pH for an infected joint area) tendency for protein adsorption (less repulsions between
and pH 7.4 (the normal pH for a healthy joint) on the tribo- adsorbed proteins) [5]. The fact that the majority of the
corrosion performance of the alloy are explored. Results show proteins are positively charged at pH 4.0 could possibly
that protein adsorption was dependent on pH and protein influence their entrainment kinetics into the bearing contact. It
concentration. The protein adsorption in turn influenced the has been reported in animal studies that positively charged
overall tribo-corrosion performance of the CoCrMo alloy, proteins enter the joint more rapidly than negatively charged
including the in situ electrochemical noise, the specific wear proteins, and they also are retained for a longer time within the
rates, as well as the wear scar morphologies. The proteins and joint [6]. In this study, the positively charged proteins under