The Analects of Confucius

Chapter 1

Concerns the Chi family, which had usurped most of the powers of the Duke of Lu. Eight teams of dancers were
the most allowable to high-level aristocrats or possibly the Emperor himself. The Chi family's crime was in
usurping rites allowed only by members of higher families. It deals largely with matters of ritual and family, so
this is a fitting start.

Chapter 2-4
Confucius mentions the Three Families of Lu, this refers to the Chi, Mang, and Shusun. The Yung Song or ode
mentioned refers to the Book of Songs, whose use was originally only appropriate in the Emperor's court and
not in the Duke's palace. Some historical context is also important here. In 771 BC, the Zhou Dynasty lost most
of its power to regional lords when the royal line was broken. Zhou kings ruled largely in name only, the "Son
of Heaven" refers to the Zhou king.

Chapter 5

This is the direct comparison by Confucius between the peoples of the East and North which believed to be
referring to the Mongolians and Koreans and those of China. Confucius seems to mourn the state of politics in
China and how the centralization of power has been replaced by a more feudal system governed by regional
lords, whereas even more tribal cultures have managed to hold on to their traditions. Other translations quote
Confucius as making a derogatory comparison between the people of China and the people of the East and
North, stating that such tribal peoples, even with their kings, are not equal to the people of China. In keeping
with the theme of the Book, the former interpretation seems more likely, although it is unclear which is correct.

Chapter 6-7

This is the continuation of Confucius's critique of the Chi family. He argues that the Chi family has abandoned
tradition and humility by making offerings at Mount T'ai, a privilege reserved for the Emperor and high
aristocracy. Confucius asks Jan Ch'iu, a court minister for the Chi family, if he could not convince them to avoid
making such a mistake. Though Jan Ch'iu says he cannot, Confucius states that that Mount T'ai would be aware
that an offering made by anyone other than the Duke or Emperor would be ignored. He also comments on
disciple Lin Fang's reputation for being slow-witted.

Chapter 8-9

This chapter talks about Tzu-Hsia inquires about the interpretation of a passage from the Book of Songs,
specifically Song 86. The first two lines occur in Song 86, but the third line appears to have been added in The
Analects. The discussion between Confucius and Tzu-Hsia indicates that the passage is an analogy for ritual and
goodness. A firm groundwork is necessary in matters of tradition and ritual in order for goodness to flourish.
Like many passages in the text, there are a number of interpretations of this chapter. Some scholars translate
Confucius's reply as something akin to "In painting, the plain color is put on last to avoid its being soiled." The
plain color is white and can be seen as an analogy to goodness.

Chapters 10, 11, and 12

It deal directly with the topic of ancestral sacrifice, sometimes referred to as ti. It is clear that Confucius was
not pleased with how this ritual was carried out in Lu, possibly because it too closely resembled Imperial ritual.
In Chapter 11 the text hints toward the somewhat mystical or religious aspect of ancestor sacrifice and Confucius
himself is quoted as saying he cannot explain it. Anyone who could, he continues, would be able to grasp all
things as easily as placing his finger in his own hand. Chapter 12 continues to examine the manner in which
ancestor sacrifice should be conducted.

Chapter 13-14

This presents another saying that Confucius remarks upon. This is a common occurrence throughout the text;
Confucius refutes or explains the significance of the sayings. In many cases they are reinterpreted for a more
modern application, invoking many of the moral tenets that this work espouses. In this passage he examines a
common maxim, which states that it is wiser to pay homage to the hearth and profit with the gift of food than
it is to pay homage to ancestors by wasting food on them. Confucius flat out disagrees with the sentiment,
warning that a break with ritual in this manner is unforgivable and that no amends for it can be made.

Chapter 15

Finds Confucius at the Grand Temple, erected in honor of the first Duke of Chou. A stranger remarks that
Confucius cannot possibly be an expert on ritual if he asks constantly about every aspect of it. Confucius's
upbringing and background seem to form the basis of the prejudice in the remark. Confucius's family was from
Tsou (or Zou in some translations), while Lu was considered the seat of cultural authority in the region. Here,
his expertise is questioned based on his status as something of an outsider. Consider also that the action of
inquiring in detail about all aspects of a ritual speaks to a humility when dealing with such matters. The
presumption of authority seems to be a greater transgression.

Analysis
Some historical context is important here. In 771 BC, the Zhou Dynasty lost most of its power to regional lords
when the royal line was broken. As such, Zhou kings ruled largely in name only. The "Son of Heaven" in the text
refers to the Zhou king.

Consider the relevance the text places on ti in the culture of Confucius's time. Confucius treats it as a means of
understanding all aspects of our existence. In short, the act of paying tribute to one's ancestors also pays tribute
not only to the concept of life after death but to all things unknown. Confucius states that ancestor sacrifice
should be handled with the utmost attention, as if the ancestor in question is actually present. Without this
presence of mind it is as if no tribute was paid. Once again, one's intent is demonstrated to be important.
Compare and contrast this with the chapters in Book II discussing filial piety.
Some scholars believe that at this time Confucius was disillusioned with politics in Lu and was traveling to other
kingdoms in search of a worthy ruler. Wang-sun Chia was the Commander-in-chief of Wei. His question to
Confucius may also be interpreted as a statement by the commander-in-chief asserting his own political
importance over that of the Duke of Wei.
Book III, though dealing primarily with ritual, also touches on government. It can be interpreted that Confucian
ideals saw rulers and government as possible guardians of such ritual. It is also possible to see government itself
as an embodiment of ritual and, as such, inherently instrumental in the maintenance of such customs.

The final rejection of Confucius seems to hint that the state is beyond help. In this we can see the importance
of the relationship between governance and ritual that this Book stresses. It is also important to remember
that The Analects represent a collection of Confucian ideals as collected by his disciples. Some scholars also see
this particular chapter as a means by these disciples to stress the positive attributes of their mentor over the
negative outcome of his travels to Wei.

The Art of War

Chapter 1

The first chapter, "Planning," explores the five key elements that define competitive position
(mission, climate, ground, command, and methods) and how to evaluate your competitive
strengths against those of your competition. This discussion ends with the idea that information
in a competitive environment is limited and that perceptions are often very different from reality.
This difference between objective and subjective information is one of the principle leverage
points for the working of his strategic system.

Chapter 2

"Going to War," defines the economic nature of competition. It explains how success requires
making winning pay, which in turn requires limiting the cost of competition and conflict. This
chapter is critical to understanding why Sun Tzu teaches "winning without conflict." By definition,
conflict is expensive. Beating opponents and winning battles may satisfy the ego, but Sun Tzu
considers that goal a foolish one.

The final chapter, "Using Spies," focuses on the most important topic of all: information
gathering. It specifically discusses the value and methods of developing good information
sources, specifically the five types of sources you need and the way you must manage them. In
this final chapter, Sun Tzu makes it clear that all wars are, at their heart, information wars.

This part of the book explains the basic concepts used in expanding or advancing a strategic position. The
concepts in these chapters are also briefly explained on our page on opportunity exploration.

Chapter 3

"Planning the Attack" defines the nature of strength. It is important to understand that by "attack," Sun Tzu
means specifically the idea of moving into a new territory, not necessarily battle or conflict. Conceptually,
you must expand or advance your existing position in order to survive. While defense is less expensive than
advance over the short term, change undermines existing positions, so if they are not advanced, they must
fail.

Chapter 4

"Positioning," explains how you must use competitive positions. Your abilities to defend yourself and to
advance are both based on your current position. To get where you want to go, you must start from where
you are. You do not create the openings or opportunities that you need to advance because the environment
is too large and complex to control. Instead, you must learn how to recognize opportunities created by
changes in the environment.

Chapter 5

"Force," explores the energy that drives all human endeavors: imagination. One of the reasons competitive
environments are chaotic is that creativity makes prediction impossible. The human imagination is infinite.
Its infinite capacity makes the possibilities of human wealth and progress infinite as well. However, this
creativity must be tied solidly to reality. Creativity doesn't work alone. It must be paired with proven
methods, that is, existing knowledge, to be effective. Together, they create what Sun Tzu called force or
momentum.

Chapter 6

"Weakness and Strength," examines the "circulatory system" of competitive environments, the
underlying mechanism of change. As water flows downstream, there is a natural balance of the
forces in nature. Voids are filled. Excesses are emptied. Sun Tzu uses this process to explain the
deeper nature of opportunity. The multitude of characteristics in the environment can be
reduced to emptiness and fullness. Most importantly, human needs are all forms of emptiness,
and human produce is all forms of fullness. Using opportunities is largely positioning yourself in
the environment to tap into the flow between them.

Chapter 7

"Armed Conflict," explains the dangers of direct conflict. Fighting people over resources is
tempting if you don't understand the true nature of opportunity and creativity. However,
although conflict is best avoided, it cannot always be avoided. In those situations, you must
understand how you can tip the balance in your favor in any confrontation.

This part of the book explores specific situations and the responses that they require in more detail. The
concepts in these chapters are also briefly explained on our page on situation response.

Chapter 8

"Adapting to the Situation," focuses on the need to adapt to the conditions that you encounter.
This chapter serves as the introduction to the next three long chapters. These chapters give a
number of specific responses to specific situations. This chapter presents the idea that every
situation is unique but that it combines familiar elements. While we must be creative and
flexible, we must also work within the rules of "standard responses" and not react out of
ignorance.

Chapter 9

"Armed March," describes the different situations in which you find yourselves as you move into
new competitive arenas. It is the first of the three most detailed chapters. It explains both what
those situations mean and how you should respond to them. Much of it focuses on evaluating
the intentions of others.

Chapter 10

"Field Position," examines the three general areas of resistance (distance, dangers, and barriers)
and the a six types of field positions that arise from them. This is again a long, detailed chapter
filled with specific responses that must be learned. Each of the six field positions that it discusses
offers certain advantages and disadvantages, both in terms of defending and advancing future
positions.

Chapter 11

"Nine Terrains," describes nine common situations (or stages) in a competitive campaign and the
recognition and response required in each. This is the last and the longest of the detailed
chapters. These nine situations can be generally grouped into early, middle, and late-stage
conditions, and they range from scattering to deadly. In each of these situations, there is one
and only one appropriate response.

Chapter 12
 "Attacking With Fire," discusses environmental attacks and responses. As the most deadly form of
destruction in Sun Tzu's era, fire attacks are the framework for discussing both using and surviving moves
aimed at the destruction of an opponent. The chapter does this systematically, examining the five targets
for attack, the five types of environmental attacks, and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
However, it ends with a warning about the emotional use of weapons. While competition can go this
direction, it shouldn't.

This part of the book explains the basic components of the competitive world and how they work. It
provides the basic framework for comparing the strengths and weakness of competing strategic positions.
The concepts in these chapters are also briefly explained on our page on position awareness.

The Book in Three Sentences

Know when to fight and when not to fight: avoid what is strong and strike at what is weak. Know how to
deceive the enemy: appear weak when you are strong, and strong when you are weak. Know your strengths and
weaknesses: if you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles.

The Art of War summary

This is my book summary of The Art of War by Sun Tzu. My notes are informal and often contain quotes from
the book as well as my own thoughts. This summary also includes key lessons and important passages from the
book.

 “According as circumstances are favorable, one should modify one’s plans.”

 “All warfare is based on deception. Hence when able to attack we must seem unable. When using our forces we must

seem inactive. When we are near we make the enemy believe we are far away. When far away we must make the enemy

believe we are near.”

 “Appear weak when you are strong, and strong when you are weak.”

 “If he is superior in strength, evade him.”

 “Attack him where he is unprepared. Appear where you are not expected.”

 “The general who loses a battle makes but few calculations beforehand.”

 “There is no instance of a country having benefitted from prolonged warfare.”

 “A wise general makes a point of foraging on the enemy. One cartload of the enemy's provisions is equivalent to twenty

of one's own.”

 “Supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy’s resistance without fighting.”

 “The worst strategy of all is to besiege walled cities.”

 “There are five essentials for victory: He will win who knows when to fight and when not to fight. He will win who

knows how to handle both superior and inferior forces. He will win who’s army is animated by the same spirit throughout
 all it’s ranks. He will win who, prepared himself, waits to take the enemy unprepared. He will win who has military

capacity and is not interfered with by the sovereign.”

 “If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles. If you know yourself, but

not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will

succumb in every battle.”

 “One may know how to conquer without being able to do it.”

 “In war, the victorious strategist only seeks battle after the victory has been won.”

 “In battle, there are not more than two methods of attack: the direct and indirect.”

 “An army may march great distances without distress if it marches through country where the enemy is not.”

 “You can be sure in succeeding in your attacks if you only attack places which are undefended.”

 “Military tactics are like water. For water, in its natural course, runs away from high places and hastens downwards. So, in

war, the way is to avoid what is strong and strike at what is weak.”

 “Let your plans be dark and impenetrable as night, and when you move fall like a thunderbolt.”

 “Ponder and deliberate before you make a move.”

 “A clever general, therefore, avoids an army when its spirit is keen, but attacks it when it is sluggish and inclined to

return.”

 “It is a military axiom not to advance uphill against the enemy nor to oppose him when he comes downhill.”

 “The art of war teaches us to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy not coming, but on our readiness to receive him.”

 “Make your way by unexpected routes and attack unguarded spots.”

 “If they will face death, there is nothing they will not achieve.”

 “The principle on which to manage an army is to set up one standard of courage which all must reach.”

 “If it is to your advantage, make a forward move. If not, stay where you are.”