Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Wind Energy
systems
A Buyer’s Guide
Important Note
The aim of this publication is to provide guidance to readers who wish to assess the benefits and
risks of buying and installing a small-scale wind energy system. Because the subject is complex, and
the decision to purchase or install a system depends on many variables, this guide alone does not
provide sufficient information to evaluate fully all the aspects of a potential system. The guide is
also not intended to serve as a “how to” manual for the installation, operation and maintenance
of a system. In all cases, qualified advice and assistance to supplement the information provided
here should be sought.
Prospective buyers should consult local utility and government agencies to ensure that proposed
installations will meet all relevant electrical codes, building and site regulations.
Natural Resources Canada assumes no liability for injury, property damage, or loss from using
information contained in this publication. This guide is distributed for informational purposes
only and does not reflect the views of the Government of Canada nor constitute an endorsement
of any commercial product or person.
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Table of Contents
About This Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
7 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
How much does the system cost? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Compare the Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Using Simple Payback to Evaluate a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
1
Appendices
Appendix A, Typical Power Ratings of Appliances and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Appendix B, Worksheet #1. Annual Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Appendix C, Worksheet #2. Selecting BOS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Appendix D, Worksheet #3. Costing Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Appendix E, Worksheet #4. Dealer Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Appendix F, Using Net Present Value (NPV) to Evaluate a Project and
Comparing Unit Costs of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
2
About this Guide
3
1. The Power and Potential of the Wind
4
Measuring Wind Speed
Wind speed is measured by an instrument called an anemometer (Figure 2) which
turns faster as the wind blows harder on it. A data logger can be used to record
instantaneous observations of wind speed, or to store a long term record for later
analysis. A wind vane indicates the direction of the wind.
Wind speed is generally reported in kilometres per hour (km/h) or in metres
per second (m/s): 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h. Direction is indicated in degrees azimuth
or compass points.
most often at the speed corre- the amount of wind energy avail-
sponding to the highest point on able.
▼ the curve. In the Rayleigh distri-
Figure 2. An anemometer. A small increase in wind speed
bution, the most frequent wind
leads to a large increase in the
speed is about 75 percent of the
amount of energy available
average annual wind speed.
(because volumes of air are being
How much energy Features on the ground will moved, the energy available in the
is in the wind? impact the speed of the wind. wind is proportional to the cube
One of the first steps in deter- Hills, ridges and valleys can block of the wind speed).
mining if a wind energy system the wind or create undesirable tur-
is feasible is finding out how bulence for a wind energy system.
much wind energy is available. Air movement is also slowed by
Harnessing the
To do this, wind speeds are
friction close to the ground. As Wind’s Energy
you move higher, wind speed A wind energy system is simply a
measured over a period of time,
increases. For most open spaces, method of extracting the energy
making note of the amount of
wind speed increases 12 percent from the wind and converting it
time the wind blows at various
each time the height is doubled. into useful energy. This conversion
speeds. From this, an average
can be to mechanical energy, where
annual wind speed is calculated. A Locating a wind energy system on
wind energy system usually needs a hill, and on a tower will increase
an average annual wind speed of
at least 15 km/h to be practical.
It is also important to know
the variation in wind speed. 2 Vave
Hours per Year
5
A basic wind energy system con- The “cut-out” speed, usually
Wind Speed sists of a turbine (a propeller-like around 70 km/h, is where the
Conversions rotor, a gear box and a generator), system stalls to protect itself
Wind speeds are often measured in a tower, and a Balance of System from damage.
metres per second but, for simplicity, (BOS) package. Components of
The precise amount of energy
we will refer to wind speeds in a BOS package vary, and will be
kilometres per hour. that can be extracted from the
discussed further in Chapter 3.
wind depends on many factors,
m/s km/h
You cannot rely on the wind, so which are reflected in standard
4 14.4 some applications will require a formulae. The formulae are
6 21.6 battery system to store electricity, complicated and depend on
while some will be supplemented such factors as the variability
8 28.8
with a diesel, gas or propane and distribution of wind speed,
10 36.0 powered generator which operates the height of the rotor and the
12 43.2 when the wind is not blowing. density of the air.
14 50.4 Typically, wind speeds greater The diameter of the area swept
than 15 km/h are needed before by the rotor is also important
16 57.6
a wind energy system can begin (see box below and Figure 4).
to generate electricity. This is
the wind turns a rotor which drives known as the “cut-in” speed.
a mechanical device such as a gear
or lever system running a water
pump. The conversion can also be
to electrical energy, where the rotor About Wind Energy Theory
runs a generator. Energy production from the wind depends on several key factors:
The diameter of the area swept by the rotor blades (known as the “swept
area”). The rotor blades of a wind turbine sweep through a circular area. Because
we are dealing with circular area, increasing the rotor diameter, greatly increases
power output. For example, doubling the rotor diameter quadruples power output.
Swept
Area of Rotor
Blades Diameter
The speed of wind. To start with, the length of time the wind is blowing above
the cut-in speed is a critical factor. It is also important to remember that small
increases in wind speed lead to large increases in available power. A 10 percent
increase in wind speed can cause an increase in power of about 30 percent.
The variability of wind speed over time at the site. The total energy pro-
duced by a wind energy system over a period of time depends on the distribution
and variability of wind speeds over time. Not surprisingly, the annual average wind
speed at a site is more important than the speed at any given moment.
The density of the air. Wind power is directly related to air density, which
increases as the temperature drops (warm air rises). About 16 percent more
energy could be available at minus 20°C than at plus 20°C.
The Betz Limit
When energy is extracted from the wind, its speed decreases. In theory, if you
took all the energy out of the wind, the wind would stop completely! In reality,
▼ however, you cannot remove all the energy from the wind. The most energy that
Figure 4. The “Swept Area” is an ideal wind energy system can extract is approximately 59 percent. This value
the area through which the rotor
is known as the Betz limit.
blades travel.
6
2. Different Types of Wind Energy Systems
• You need different Mechanical systems are relatively system may also be an option if
types of systems to simple. They can be used to the cost of storage (i.e. batteries)
fill different needs aerate ponds, pump water for is high due to large loads.
• Systems range from very livestock, irrigation or drainage, Wind energy systems all have a
small to grid-connected and to supply water to remote power rating known as the rated
households, farms and small output. This is the maximum
This guide deals mainly with non communities. You can think of a
grid-connected systems. That is, power output of the system in a
water tank as storage in a mechan- strong wind under ideal conditions.
the wind energy system does not ical system. More than a million
connect to the main electrical grid mechanical systems are said to For purposes of this guide,
(such as a municipal electrical be in use today, mostly on farms. we will group systems into
system). Changes in the way the following categories:
electrical utilities operate, however, Hybrid systems are used in
are leading to some innovations locations where the wind may Micro Systems:
which we will touch on briefly fluctuate or where users might 100 watts or less
at the end of this section. not want to be totally dependent They are useful for:
on the wind. Hybrid systems can
• portable systems for lighting
include solar energy or diesel
Terminology Issues and communications radios
generation. These systems can
at hunting and fishing camps
provide a reliable supply of energy
Wind energy systems that generate
electricity are often referred to as regardless of wind conditions, but • small appliances on yachts,
wind turbine generators (WTGs). can also be costly and complex. recreational vehicles, in
For the purposes of this guide, all cabins and cottages
systems that recover and convert
wind energy will be referred to
Hybrid Systems for • electric fences
7
Another force at work is concern
for the environment. Climate
change and Canadian internation-
al commitments to reduce green-
house gas emissions have brought
attention to the carbon emissions
from fossil fuel generation. Future
attempts to reduce these emissions
may encourage the use of “green”
or non-polluting electricity.
Natural Resources Canada and
Environment Canada are setting
an example by purchasing green
power for their facilities in Alberta.
Large wind turbines that feed
electricity directly into the utility
grid are commercially available in
sizes ranging from 300 kilowatts
(kW) to 1.5 megawatt (MW).
▼ These turbines are typically
Students of Assiniboine College in Manitoba install an 850 watt turbine. installed in arrays known as wind
(Photo courtesy of Nor’wester Energy Systems Ltd.) farms, although installations
of single large turbines are not
uncommon. Wind farms usually
• telecommunications systems
Grid-Connected become economically viable
• area and emergency lighting
Systems only at the megawatt scale.
• refrigeration and ice making Canada is entering an era of
for retaining quality of fish change with the way in which its Standards
at remote locations utilities are regulated and how
The Canadian Standards Association
• water and waste treatment they obtain or purchase electrical
(CSA) Standard CSA-F418-M91 Wind
power from others. New regula-
• waste water pumping energy systems – Interconnection to
tions will make electricity more the Electric Utility deals with these
• trash rack cleaners of a tradable commodity. Power issues, as well as related topics such
(in irrigation systems) markets are now opening up to as requirements for installation and
private suppliers. This means operating specifications.
• cathodic protection
that wind energy will have the
• alarm systems opportunity to compete with
conventional carbon-emitting
Small Systems: fossil fuel and expensive nuclear
10 kilowatts to 50 kilowatts alternatives. Utilities in various
These are large enough to supply provinces, for example Alberta
the electrical needs of a farm and Ontario, are already moving
or business, and could serve as in this direction.
an energy supply for remote
communities or camps.
8
It is also technically possible
to connect small-scale systems
to a utility grid. This allows for
“net billing”. In most cases, how-
ever, it is uneconomical to do so.
Certain local or provincial utili-
ties, Hydro One for example, are
now working to make grid-
connection more attractive to
owners of smaller systems.
A utility’s key requirements for
grid-connected wind energy
systems are safety and the quality
of the power. The utility will
require that the system meets
certain standards and that it poses
no risk to their personnel or equip-
ment. Quality defines the need
for the electricity generated by
the wind energy system to match ▼
the characteristics of the grid Profile of a 25 kW Wenvor-Vergnet wind turbine.
electricity. This will avoid damage (Photo courtesy of Wenvor Technologies Inc.)
to sensitive electronic equipment.
For small grid-connected wind
energy systems, power quality
problems are rarely a cause for
real concern. Other issues to
consider are of a legal and
contractual nature, and require
specialized attention.
As each utility has a different
policy for grid connections,
those interested should contact
the customer relations or business
office at the local utility for
further information.
9
3. System Components
• The components you need the tower either has to come light-weight, strong and durable
depend on the job you down, or the service technician to withstand the elements. They
are doing has to go up. are usually constructed of com-
posites of fibreglass, reinforced
• Help in reading technical The generating equipment in
plastic or wood. The turbine
specifications a VAWT is at ground level, but
should also be designed to prevent
VAWTs require a lot more space
the rotor from turning too fast
to be cleared for guy wires.
Wind Turbines during strong winds.
The wind turbine rotor is one of Because any wind turbine may be
The diameter of the rotor blades
the most visible parts of a wind exposed to high winds, rain, snow,
determines how much power is
energy system, but there’s more sun, ice, and even salty air, its parts
generated by the system. There
to the turbine than just the rotor. should be made of tough, durable
are usually two or three blades.
and corrosion-resistant materials.
The most familiar turbine is the Three blades reduces the mechan-
A well-built and well-maintained
horizontal axis wind turbine, ical stresses on the system, but
turbine should have a life
known as a HAWT. The main increases the cost of the rotor.
expectancy of 20 years or more.
propeller-like rotor has an axis
that is parallel to the ground, Turbines consist of several Generator/Alternator
and therefore horizontal to the sub-components (Figure 5): Generators and alternators pro-
wind. A vertical axis wind turbine, duce electricity from the rotation
VAWT, has an axis perpendicular Rotor of the turbine motor. A generator
to the flow of the wind. The rotor consists of blades with produces Direct Current (DC)
specially shaped, aerodynamic sur- power or, as an alternator, it
HAWTs are most common in small faces. When the wind blows over produces Alternating Current
applications, and can be placed the blades, the rotor turns, causing (AC) power. Most small wind tur-
on a tower which does not require the rotation of the drive train and bines used for battery charging
a large area. If servicing has to generator. The blades should be systems use alternators generating
be done to a HAWT, however,
AC power which is converted to
DC for the batteries.
Rotor
Diameter
(D)
Rotor
Gear
AC/DC?
box
Rotor Direct Current (DC) is a flow of elec-
Diameter
(D) tricity in one direction. Alternating
Rotor Rotor Current (AC) flows first in one direc-
Generator height
(H) tion, then in the other. Alternating
Current is used in household electrici-
Hub
height Tower Tower Hub ty because of AC’s ability to be trans-
height
mitted over long distances with mini-
Guy Wire mum loss. DC, however, loses energy
the greater the distance transmitted.
Gear box
Generator You do not need to know the physics,
(HAWT) (VAWT) suffice it to say that the current com-
ing from a battery is DC, while the
current coming from a wall outlet is
▼ AC. Typically, DC-powered appliances
Figure 5. HAWT’s and VAWT’s: Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines.
run at lower voltages than AC.
10
Gearbox
Rotor with
Blades
Generator/Alternator
Optional BOS
Tailvane
(Balance of System)
(Yaw Mechanism)
Equipment
DC to AC Inverter
Nacelle
Battery
Disconnect
Gasoline/Diesel
Lead/Acid Batteries
Generator
Wind Turbine
Disconnect
Tower
▼
Figure 6. Wind energy system components.
11
Specification Sample Importance Units
Data
Rated Output 600 W Maximum power output (usually rated at about Watts or kW
12 to 15 m/s or 40–50 km/h), used to size
wiring and controls for maximum current.
Rated Wind Speed 40 km/h Speed at which rated output is produced. kilometres/hour (km/h) or
metres/second (m/s)
Output Voltage 12 or 24 Determines what type of equipment may be AC or DC
Volts DC can be used or operated.
Cut-in Speed 11 km/h Wind speed at which the turbine kilometres/hour (km/h)
starts to generate power. or metres/second (m/s)
Cut-out Speed 45 km/h Wind speed at which the turbine turns away kilometres/hour (km/h)
from the wind or stalls to protect itself from or metres/second (m/s)
damage and stops producing power.
Blade Diameter 2.5 m Overall diameter of rotating blade, one of the metres (m)
main factors in determining power generated.
Number of Blades 3 Most common is three, but sometimes
two or four are used.
System Weight 20 kg Weight of blades and generator/alternator, kilograms (kg)
to be lifted to top of tower.
Power Curve n/a A graph of power output vs. wind speed; Watts at wind speeds in
required for an estimate of energy production. metres/second (m/s)
Warranty Period 2 years Typically one to three years. year
12
batteries have low-voltage cut-offs
to prevent a excessive DOD.
There are many kinds of suitable
batteries for wind energy systems.
Deep discharge lead acid batteries
are usually the most economical for
wind energy systems. Car batteries
(lead acid SLI – starting, lighting
and ignition – batteries) do not
have a high DOD and will fail pre-
maturely if used in a wind system.
For suitable batteries, check
the box below.
▼
Figure 7. Tilt-up towers tilt down to ground level, where the wind generator Deep Discharge
can be easily installed and serviced. Batteries for Wind
Energy Systems
Balance of Batteries
Many wind energy systems use
Flooded cells are the most com-
mon type of battery; they have
System (BOS) batteries to supply electricity removable caps for adding distilled
13
It is recommended that batteries
be connected in series. Con-
Watt?
nections in parallel may cause You do not have to know the definitions of the electrical units used in the text,
damage because of different nor do you need to know how they relate to each other mathematically, but
states of charge among the it is helpful to know what each represents:
individual battery cells. Amp: A short form for “ampere.” It is a measure of electrical current. Think
Typical specifications on batteries of it as speed, i.e. the rate of electrical flow. Wiring is rated according to how
are explained in the chart below. many amps it can carry.
Volt: If an ampere is speed, a volt can be thought of as pressure. Electricity can
Inverters not move through a wire without something pushing it. That push is measured
Energy stored in batteries is in volts.
available as DC power. Some Watt: When you are looking at how much capacity you need for your wind
appliances and equipment are energy system, this is the number that is really important. Wattage is power.
designed and built to run on
The three measurements are related, and if you need to know the math, the
DC power. Camping, boating
number of Watts available in a circuit can be found by multiplying the Volts by
and recreational vehicle equip- the Amps. For example, a typical household circuit may be 15 Amps. Since your
ment and lights are usually house is supplied at 115 Volts, the circuit has a little more than 1,700 Watts of
designed to be run from DC power available. If you plug in appliances that draw more than 1,700 Watts,
power, because they are designed you’ll blow a fuse or trip the circuit breaker.
to be run from a battery.
Any electrical appliance in your There are different kinds of televisions, radios and small
home, however, must use AC power. inverters. Light duty inverters hand tools. Heavy duty inverters
An inverter converts the DC (100 – 1,000 watts) are typically (400 – 10,000 watts) can be
power in the battery to AC power. powered by 12 volts DC and powered by a range of voltages,
In the conversion process, about are suitable for lights and 12, 24 or 48 volts DC, and
10 percent of energy is lost. small appliances such as can be used to run just about
14
anything found in a home
or small business.
Other BOS Components
There is also the question of the The following components may be used with a wind energy system to fulfill
requirements for safety and specialized functions.
quality of power coming out of
the inverter. If inverter literature Battery Charger
starts talking about “true sine Certain generators can be used to charge lead acid batteries. If the generator
wave” or “modified sine wave,” it does not have a battery charging output, a special battery charger is required.
means the power is high quality, Some inverters can act as battery chargers.
and able to safely power sensitive Rectifier
electronic equipment such as A rectifier converts AC power to DC power. Rectifiers are often used for battery
computers and laser printers. back ups in wind energy systems which have AC generators. The AC power the
generator produces has to be converted to DC power to charge the back up
Inverters are sophisticated pieces batteries in times of strong winds.
of equipment and often provide
a range of other features beyond Disconnect Switch
Disconnect switches, circuit breakers, fuses and other protective equipment
just converting DC to AC. Many,
as recommended by the manufacturer and required by the electrical code are
for example, feature an automatic
important for the safe operation of the system. They electrically isolate the wind
starter for a gas or diesel back turbine from the batteries and the batteries from the inverter and load. They
up generator. can also protect the system from damage caused by any number of things. A
disconnect switch allows maintenance or system modifications to be made safely.
Generator Set (Genset) –
for Hybrid Systems Monitoring Equipment
Even the most basic BOS should include a method for monitoring the equip-
During extended periods of low
ment’s operation. Standard monitoring equipment usually includes a voltmeter
wind, a back-up generator is
for measuring battery voltage and depth of discharge, and an ammeter to
required if continuous power monitor energy production or use. More sophisticated monitoring equipment
is needed. This generator may includes alarms for system problems such as low or high voltage conditions.
be fuelled with gasoline, diesel
oil or propane. The electricity
generated is used directly where Generators require not only up
required, or indirectly after first front capital expenditure, they
charging the batteries. also require fuel, periodic main-
An uninterrupted supply of tenance, rebuilding and even
power may require a “remote replacement. While they can be
start” generator which will kick an important source of power,
in automatically before battery generators are also noisy, create
power is exhausted. The start pollution and require storage
signal is typically provided by of flammable fuels.
the system inverter. Not all
generators can be remotely
started, and not all inverters
support remote start.
15
4. Using Wind Energy to Pump Water
• An age-old technology Wind
Tail Vane Wind
is simple and effective Electric Mechanical
Mechanical
Water Pumping Wind-Electric
Windmills Water Pumping
Traditional water pumping wind- Systems
mills use a crank mounted on the Unlike a mechanical system, a
rotor shaft. They typically have wind-electric system does not have
many blades on a relatively slow to be located near the source of
turning rotor. The equipment the water. A wind energy system
changes the crank’s rotary motion powers an electric pump, which
to an up-and-down motion which moves water from its source (a
drives a piston pump mounted in well or pond) to where it is needed
a well or pond at the base of the (a livestock watering trough, pond
windmill. This series of actions or irrigation system). The power
lifts the water. consumed by the electric pump
can be matched to the power
Mechanical water pumping wind-
output of the turbine so the
mills have their advantages and
wind energy is used efficiently.
disadvantages. They tend to be
reliable, easy to maintain (they Electric water pumping systems
require no BOS components) and do not require elaborate BOS ▼
reasonably priced. But they may components, mainly because Mechanical water pumping
be limited in their applications batteries are not required. system.
because they must be located A reservoir tank for the water
directly above the well or pond, serves as the energy storage
even if the water may be required device.
some distance away.
16
5. How to Plan a Simple Stand-Alone Electric System
17
10
10
10 15
20
25
30
15 20
30
20
25
20
10 25
15
30
5 20 2025
25 20
10
20
15
15
20 10
20 10 15
20
25
The analysis is not valid at higher
elevations in mountainous areas 15
▼
Figure 10. Annual average wind speed map of Canada. Courtesy of Environment Canada.
Wind Energy Once you have a tentative site, Wind monitoring is worth the
Resource Maps monitor wind speed for several effort. It will help you determine
for Canada months. This is especially im- the size of turbine and the
portant if your preliminary infor- amount of battery storage
Copies of the Environment Canada
report Wind Energy Resource Maps
mation shows annual average capacity you’ll need for your
for Canada (ARD-92-003-E) are wind speeds near the minimum energy requirements.
available from: 15 km/h. On-site monitoring
will provide information about
Gary Beaney
periods of calm and low wind.
Climate Service Specialist
Canadian Climate Centre
Monthly or even spot readings
4905 Dufferin Avenue can be compared with the
Downsview, Ontario monthly data from AES.
M3H 5T4
Telephone (416) 739-4328
Fax (416) 739-4446
18
10 m
100 m
▼
Figure 11. Siting a wind energy system.
To review, answer these questions: Step 2: Lighting, on the other hand, does
not require that much power,
1. What is the annual average
wind speed for your site at a
How much and the draw is fairly consistent.
set height above the ground? Energy do Even so, it is best to look for the
most efficient lamps and fixtures.
2. How does the average wind You Require? Remember that fluorescent lamps
speed vary with height? When you determine how much
use far less electricity than incan-
energy you require, you are really
3. What is the frequency and descents, last ten times longer, and
asking two questions. First, how
duration of wind speeds, give the same amount of light.
much total energy do you require
particularly those periods Screw-in compact fluorescent are
over a year to operate all the
below cut-in speed and widely available. DC fluorescent
appliances and equipment your
above cut-out speed? are also available.
system will run? Second, what
4. Is it worth proceeding? is the peak power requirement? Remember always that saving
a kW of energy is more cost-
What is it you want to run?
Note: effective than producing one.
This step is a “go” – “no-go” You have to determine what it is
If you plan to use wind energy
decision point. you expect to run with the elec-
to run systems on a farm,
tricity generated by your small-
remember to distinguish between
scale wind energy system. Some
equipment required to operate
household appliances such as
the farm, and the energy require-
water heaters, clothes dryers,
ments of the home. Power needs
stoves and electric heaters can
for farming equipment vary
draw a large amount of power,
widely, especially when it comes
but do so only intermittently.
to livestock watering, and should
Other appliances, such as refriger-
be accounted for separately.
ators and freezers draw a large
amount of electricity, and the
supply must be reliable.
19
A Note About Worksheet #1.
Energy Efficiency Annual Energy Consumption (sample)
The more power you need, the Appliance/ AC DC Rated Hours Hours Annual Wh
larger and more expensive the sys- Equipment Wattage per day per
tem will have to be. Try to minimize (W) year
power requirements as much as pos- 4 – 24 watt yes 96 5 1825 175,200
sible, because saving a kW usually fluorescent
proves more cost-effective than lamps
producing one. Where possible, use
water pump yes 400 1 365 146,000
the most energy efficient appliances
available. Natural Resources Canada colour yes 90 2 730 65,700
manages the Energuide appliance television (14")
labelling program that collects
high efficiency
energy consumption ratings for
refrigerator yes 250 3 1,095 273,750
major home appliances available
in Canada. To obtain information Total – Annual 660,650 Wh
on Energuide please contact Energy Consumption (661 kWh)
Canada Communications Group
at 1-800-387-2000. The TV draws 90 watts of power Look to the future and changing
for 730 hours for a total annual energy requirements when doing
Estimating Annual energy consumption of (90 watts your estimate as well. Will your
Electrical Energy x 730 hours) 65,700 watt hours. household be expanding or
Requirements In the standard measurement of shrinking in size? How will
You will need two pieces of infor- kilowatt hours, this is 65.7 kWh. this affect energy consumption?
mation for this estimate. First, (Keep in mind that you can take
In the back of this guide,
you need to know how long, in your wind energy system with
Appendix A, Typical Power Ratings
hours, each of your appliances you if you relocate!)
of Appliances and Equipment, will
will run. Second, you need to be helpful in estimating annual
know how much power each electrical energy requirements.
appliance draws. There is also a sample worksheet
Power is measured in watts. We at the top of this page.
are all familiar with wattage of
light bulbs, but every piece of Peak Power Consumption for a Home
electronic equipment will have Wind Energy System – an Example
an indication of how much power
Appliance/Equipment Power (watts)
it draws. Look on the back of
your television set, for example, 4 x 24 watt lamps 96 W
and you will find specifications small colour TV 90 W
inscribed on a plate at the back.
portable phone 6W
A typical power draw might
be 90 watts. clock 3W
20
Check Appendix A, Typical Power The type of tower you need will
Ratings of Appliances and Equip- depend on your site. Is there
ment, at the end of this guide room for the tower guy wire
to note the most power hungry anchors? Is a stand-alone tower
appliances which may be operat- a more viable option? Does the
ing simultaneously. Add up the tower height allow the turbine
wattage to obtain the peak load. to operate 10 metres above
nearby obstructions?
Step 3:
Step 4: Select
▼
Portable Remote Power system,
Canada Olympic Park, Alberta.
Size a Wind
While not all systems are this Turbine Balance of
portable, you can take your
system with you when you and Tower System (BOS)
move. (Photo courtesy of
Nor’wester Energy Systems Ltd.)
You should now have an estimate Equipment
of the wind energy available at BOS equipment depends entirely
your site, and an estimate of how on the answer to the earlier
much energy you need. Sizing question, “What is it you want to
Estimating Peak
the turbine is a matter of trying run?” Will it require power every
Power Requirements
to match the two. day, on demand? Will it require
To ensure you have the right size
AC power? Is the power absolutely
of wind energy system, you need
required 24 hours per day, every
to know more than just annual Helpful Hints day, all year? Let us look at each
electrical energy consumption.
To obtain smooth airflow, the of these questions in turn:
Many appliances, such as refriger-
tower should position the turbine
ators, do not run constantly, Do you need power
of a mini or a small system at 100
but cycle on and off. Similarly, every day on demand?
metres horizontally from the nearest
lighting is not in constant use, obstacle at turbine height (such If “yes,” you will require batter-
nor is an electric iron, electric as larger trees or buildings), and ies. You will need to know what
space heater or many other 10 metres above any obstructions size of battery best fits your sys-
pieces of equipment. which are closer. tem. You should have an experi-
enced wind equipment dealer
To properly size your system, Look at the manufacturer’s specifica-
tions for turbines to get an idea of help you calculate the amount
you must estimate peak power
approximately how much energy of battery storage you need
consumption. Even though it
will be available given your site’s because the estimate is based
is unlikely all your equipment
average annual wind speed. A on several factors.
and appliances will be turned on
more precise estimate will depend
at once, a peak power estimate For example, what is the longest
on the variability of the wind
should be an extreme example. period you can expect to be with-
speed over time.
out adequate wind? You will need
Consider, for example, that you
enough battery capacity to run
might be watching television This is also the time to think your appliances during this period.
with the lights on while you do about towers. A higher tower An example of this calculation is
a few minutes of ironing and will be more expensive, but could shown in the box on the next page.
that your water pump and high give your turbine access to greater
efficiency refrigerator also turn wind energy. A shorter tower Remember also that when the
on automatically. This could be will require a larger turbine to wind is blowing, your wind ener-
your peak load. An example of generate the same amount of gy system must not only run your
this scenario is given in the table energy as a higher tower with a appliance and equipment, it must
on the previous page. smaller, less expensive turbine. generate enough excess power
to recharge your batteries.
21
You also should determine how
much time you want to spend Calculating Battery Storage Capacity
maintaining the batteries. If Battery capacity is measured in amp hours. Here is how you calculate how
maintenance will be regular, many amp hours of battery capacity you will need.
flooded cell batteries are appropri-
From your earlier calculations on electrical requirements, you should have
ate. If not, a maintenance-free an estimate, likely in watt hours, of how much energy you require each day.
battery would be a better choice. Let us say it is 1,300 watt hours (1.3 kWh). Assume three days is the maximum
If the answer to the question is amount of time without adequate wind. You will require (1,300 watt hours x 3)
“no,” your BOS requirements 3,900 watt hours.
will be minor because the turbine A typical battery supply would provide 24 volts. The battery specifications tell
will provide the required power. you that this battery supply will allow for a 50 percent depth of discharge
(DOD). That means only one-half the total capacity is available without draining
Will AC power be required? the battery too far.
Any home, business or factory
To find the number of amp hours needed, simply divide the watt hours
hooked to the electrical grid
by the voltage. In this case, 3,900 watt-hours divided by 24 volts gives us
needs AC power. However, DC
162.5 amp hours.
appliances, equipment and light-
ing are readily available, designed But remember, your battery capacity has to be twice this because you do
for use in cottages, recreational not want to draw more than 50% of the total capacity (i.e. the DOD is 50%).
vehicles, and boats. Cottages, Therefore, you need a battery supply rated at a minimum of 325 amp hours
for example, could have both AC (162.5 x 2) capacity. In fact, it is best to round this number up, say to
and DC power, with DC running 400 amp hours.
the lights and a small water
pump. In these cases, the system Is power absolutely required If the answer is “no,” the combi-
will have separate DC and AC 24 hours per day, every day, nation of wind turbine and back
wiring circuits and fuses or all year? up batteries will be sufficient.
circuit breakers. If the answer is “yes,” you should
be planning a hybrid system which We have included Worksheet #2.
If, however, the wind energy Selecting BOS Equipment (at the
has a back-up, fossil-fuelled genera-
system will be running equip- back of the guide) to help you
tor. Find out more about hybrid
ment or appliances designed check off the BOS equipment for
systems in the next chapter.
to take AC power, you will need a proposed system. (If necessary,
an inverter. An inverter converts The generator could be started refer to Chapter 3 for descriptions
stored DC power (from a battery) manually by the operator, or, if of the components.)
into AC. Many systems actually uninterrupted power is required,
use two identical inverters to a remote start generator would
increase reliability and improve be necessary. This works auto-
operating efficiency. matically when the battery
voltage reaches a pre-set lower
If you will not require AC power,
limit. Remote start generator
you will not need an inverter.
systems are more expensive.
22
Wind Energy in Use
A small stand-alone system installed in southern Alberta allows a farm
to operate independently of the grid. The farm had been connected
to the grid, but the owner wished to have autonomous power and
to reduce the environmental impact of his farm and home energy
use. The farm’s wind energy system supplies power to a residence
for a family of four, a machine shop, a water well and yard lights.
The peak load is about 5 kW. The wind map of Canada shows that
the region has a 18 km/h (5 m/s) annual average wind speed at
10 metres height.
Power is generated by a 10 kW wind turbine on an extra-tall
33 metre tower. Power from the turbine is rectified (i.e. converted
from AC to DC power) to 48 volts DC for storage in high quality
low maintenance gelled electrolyte cell deep discharge batteries
of 1000 Ah capacity. A 5 kW inverter then supplies 120 and
240 volts AC to the farm and house. To reduce peak loads and
electricity consumption, major energy consuming appliances – the
stove, clothes dryer, furnace and water heater – are fuelled by natural ▼
gas. Additional equipment required to control the power safely A small stand-alone wind energy system can
includes a transfer switch, battery charging controls, system monitor supply power to both the farm and residence.
and circuit protection. If the wind turbine has charged the batteries (Information and photo courtesy of Nor’wester
Energy Systems Ltd.)
and is still producing power, a dump load controller “dumps” (or
“shunts”) excess power to pre-heat water for the water heater.
This system is larger than a non-farming home would require as it provides power for both the home and farm.
The installed cost of the wind turbine, the tower, premium batteries and other BOS equipment was $60,000 (1997).
The farm is now free of utility cost increases and the power being consumed has little environmental impact.
23
6. Hybrid Wind Energy Systems
• Hybrid systems provide a ment (such as at a remote home- stand-alone systems. Hybrid sys-
reliable source of electricity stead or for telecommunications tems should be designed for techni-
sites), to small applications (such cal reliability and cost effectiveness.
• Some pointers to help you
as for remote community grids).
assess whether a hybrid sys- If the generator is to start itself
tem might be your answer It is likely not possible to buy an when wind energy production
off-the-shelf hybrid system that drops below a certain point, for
If the preliminary assessment in
is right for your application, and, example, sophisticated control
the last chapter shows that you
just as with stand-alone systems, systems will have to be installed.
need reliable power 24 hours a
a careful assessment of require- Even with these controls, the
day every day, a hybrid system
ments should be made before generator may not start the
should be considered. Hybrid sys-
you start shopping. instant it is needed. If the genera-
tems draw on more than a single
tor is running below its design
source of energy, resulting in a The rules for assessment of a
capacity, it may not be very effi-
reliable supply of electricity. A hybrid system are similar to
cient, driving up operating costs.
number of power sources can be those for stand-alone systems,
used in combination with wind but consider the cost and avail- Batteries may still be desired
energy: solar, gas or diesel genera- ability of the other source of to accommodate excess power
tors, and even hydro power. energy that makes up the hybrid: during periods of high wind,
but if the system is providing a
• you still have to know the
large amount of power, the cost
availability of wind energy at
of battery storage will be high.
your site, just as with a stand-
alone system. For a hybrid, To recap, some of the difficulties
you should also look at the in planning a hybrid system are:
availability of other renewable • The variable nature of the
resources, such as solar. wind and the load make it
• consider the cost of fossil fuel difficult to predict how to
to power the generator; how match these reliably.
dependable is the supply of • Large generator sets used for
▼ fossil fuel, and how difficult back-up do not always start
This remote radio repeater in
Kananaskis, Alberta uses solar
is it to get the fuel to the site? the instant they are needed.
energy to produce electricity in • you still have to know what
addition to wind. (Photo courtesy • Running a generator set
of Nor’wester Energy Systems Ltd.) your power requirements are. below its design capacity
Use the same guidelines as is very inefficient.
were set out in the stand-alone
assessment in the last chapter – • Battery storage can be used
Hybrid systems are far more com-
look at occurrence of peak to provide continuous power
plex than stand-alone systems
loads, daily demand, the in the face of wind variations
and entail more elaborate design
requirement for dependable and the stop-start operation
features. But, depending on your
power. Keep in mind as well of generator sets, but batteries
situation, a hybrid system can be an
the quality of power required. are expensive, especially for
attractive option. They are depend-
Sophisticated equipment, such large loads.
able, more environmentally friendly
than fossil-fuelled generators and, as computers or telecommuni- To ensure that your hybrid system
often, are more economical. cations equipment, requires provides dependable power and
high quality electricity which is cost effective, you should seek
Hybrid systems are as varied as does not fluctuate. professional help to assist with
the needs of wind users, from
Here is where the assessment the required analysis and to
micro and mini applications,
becomes more difficult than for consider the design options.
where dependability is a require-
24
7. Economics
25
equipment to the site can be signif- overhauled after two or three
icant, particularly for remote loca- O&M Costs years of continuous use.
tions. (Costs vary depending on The annual Operating and We have summarized some
the location and application). Maintenance cost for a wind turbine of these expenses in the chart
may be estimated as a percent of the
Access Road Construction: For below and there is a worksheet
initial capital cost of the installed
small systems, this is not an issue, in the Appendix D.
equipment. Values typically range
but for larger community- based
around 3 percent for a well-designed
systems, year-round access by
road may be important, and roads
and well-built wind turbine. Compare the
may have to be built for drainage
maintenance costs run in the
alternatives
and snow clearance. (Costs vary All this information on the cost
depending on the location and range of 3 percent of the initial of your wind energy system over
application). capital cost per year. As with time tells you nothing unless
all mechanical and electrical you look at the cost of other
Erection and Installation: The equipment, maintenance costs methods of generating electricity.
equipment supplier may install are low when the unit is new, A thorough analysis is likely not
the system and erect the tower, and increase over time. A good necessary for some mini and
otherwise, outside services may be quality, properly maintained most micro systems, but as the
required. For larger systems espe- wind turbine can be expected systems get larger, a full economic
cially, special equipment such as to last up to 20 years. analysis is valuable.
cranes or heavy vehicles, winches
or gin poles may be required. If you are making a total cost Depending on the size and cost
These can be rented, but might be calculation of a wind system, of the system, you may want to
costly. Skilled labour may also be use 15 or 20 years for the life call in an experienced profession-
required for mechanical and elec- of the project. al to do this analysis. It may
trical work. (Costs vary depending Other equipment may have to involve such specialized issues
on the application). be replaced during the lifetime of as tax savings, the time value
the wind turbine. Include in your of money and life cycle costing.
Annual Costs estimate the cost of replacing bat- Life cycle costing is all the costs
The most important annual teries every five to ten years. For a incurred over the lifetime of
costs are parts and labour for hybrid system, a small generator the project. From the previous
system maintenance, but, would need to be replaced or section, we have determined the
depending on your specific
application, they may also
include land leasing, property Annual Maintenance Cost Components
taxes and insurance premiums. of a Wind Energy System
Wind turbines require mainte- Component Operation Costs Replacement
nance once or twice a year. Schedule (Approx.)
Mechanically-inclined owners Wind turbine Monitoring, routine lubrication 20 years
may choose to do their own and adjustments; snow,
maintenance, and that will be ice and dirt removal
cheaper than paying a technician Batteries Monitoring for failure and low state 5 to 10 years
to travel to the site and check of charge after recharge, hydrogen
the turbine. build-up, water levels; terminal cleaning
Maintenance costs for most wind Gasoline/diesel Lubrication and servicing; fuel 2 to 15 years
turbines are well-established and generator
should be available from the Distribution Tree clearing and damaged As required
manufacturer. Typically, annual lines parts replacement.
26
approximate cost of a wind energy costs of running a diesel generator wind turbine), and, of course,
system over 15 or 20 years. Now, with the same power capacity the cost of fuel needed to run
we must compare that to the cost over 15 or 20 years. This will the generator.
of alternate methods of generating include the cost of the generator, The table below gives an example
electricity. For example, if the the cost of replacing or over- of life cycle costing comparisons.
alternative is a diesel generator, hauling the generator (since it is
you will have to determine the not likely to last as long as the
0 $7480 $2280
1 0 $194 0 0 $68 $380
2 0 $200 0 0 $70 $391
3 0 $206 $874 0 $73 $403
4 0 $212 0 0 $75 $415
5 $580 $219 0 $580 $77 $428
6 0 $225 $955 0 $79 $441
7 0 $232 0 0 $82 $454
8 0 $239 0 0 $84 $467
9 0 $246 $1044 0 $87 $481
10 $672 $254 0 $672 $89 $496
11 0 $261 0 0 $92 $511
12 0 $269 $1141 0 $95 $526
13 0 $277 0 0 $98 $542
14 0 $285 0 0 $100 $558
15 $779 $294 $1246 $779 $103 $575
16 0 $303 0 0 $107 $592
17 0 $312 0 0 $110 $610
18 0 $321 $1362 0 $113 $628
19 0 $331 0 0 $116 $647
20 0 $341 0 0 $120 $666
27
Using Simple Simple Payback
Payback to Energy requirements in a remote cabin are about 2kWh per day. A 500 W wind
Evaluate a turbine with a 20 metre tower and 220 Ah of batteries will cost about $7,500.
Operation and Maintenance (annual costs) and battery replacement every five
Project years will amount to about 5 percent of the capital costs or ($7,500 x 5%) $375.
In smaller systems, where the
The alternative is a small diesel generator which will cost about
recurring annual costs are rela-
$2,500 and $1.56/kWh to run, including fuel and maintenance.
tively low, you can determine
if a project is viable by using a The net installed cost is the initial cost of the wind energy system,
simple payback approach. Simple less the original cost of the generator: $7,500 – $2,500 = $5,000
payback is a straightforward The net annual savings are the annual cost of the generator:
measure of the number of years $1.56 per kWh x 2 kWh/day x 365 days = $1,139
it would take to have your annual minus the annual cost of operating the wind energy system
energy savings pay for the initial (which we said was $375):
and annual costs of operating the $1,139 – $375 = $764
wind energy system. This method Simple Payback = $5,000 ÷ 764 = 6.54, or about 6-1/2 years.
does not account for inflation or
how the value of money may
change over time. More in-depth
While this approach can be useful economic analysis
under certain circumstances, it is There are other ways to compare
not suitable if the annual costs or more accurately the cost of
the annual savings are large or if various energy alternatives over
they occur in irregular amounts. time. Some of these are fairly
complex. If you are interested
The formula for calculating in this analysis see Appendix F,
simple payback is: Using Net Present Value (NPV) to
simple payback (in years) = net Evaluate a Project and Comparing
installed cost/net annual savings Unit Costs of Energy.
An example is shown in the
box below.
28
8. Other Issues to consider
• You may have your own Environment. Wind energy is non polluting, reduces the demand on the grid,
reasons for choosing and reduces the use of fossil fuels, the construction of hydroelectric dams or
renewable wind energy, nuclear generators. Buyers of wind energy equipment need to decide whether
and these are just as impor- and how to put a price on the environmental advantages of wind power use,
tant to consider as cost and what role the environment should play in the decision-making process.
Chances are you had several Safety. In cold regions, ice can accumulate on wind turbine blades. This can
good reasons to consider wind cause severe vibrations; the ice may be thrown great distances. Hydrogen venting
energy that had nothing to from batteries is another potential safety issue. Climbing of towers by the owner
do with economics. There are or maintenance persons is a potential liability. Special safety precautions are
also other considerations to required if children have access to the system.
think about that have nothing Extreme weather. In some parts of the country, the environment is very hard
to do with technical issues. on equipment and can cause operational and durability problems for the wind
Most of these are difficult to energy system and batteries.
quantify, but this does not Neighbours. The proximity of a wind turbine to a neighbour's property should
mean that they do not be discussed with the neighbour before proceeding with a wind energy system
have technical or economic purchase. Neighbours could be concerned about the size of the system and the
implications, or that they are noise a system’s generator might make.
less important than those Aesthetics. The wind energy system can affect a view, or that of your
which can be costed out. neighbours’, and it might block or change an historic landscape.
There are also other issues Noise. With a hybrid system, generator noise may be a problem. It would
which cannot be quantified, be a good idea to listen to the generator to see how much noise it makes
but which might impact when operating. The turbines themselves are relatively quiet.
your wind energy system. Corrosion. Corrosion of system parts at locations close to the ocean can be
The chart below lists a number a problem.
of issues to consider when Zoning restrictions and other potential legal obstacles. Local municipal
deciding if wind energy is offices should have information about restrictions on elements such as noise
right for your situation. and permissible tower height.
Local bird life. Birds can be injured or killed if they collide with the blades or
the tower; and their breeding, nesting and feeding habits could be disturbed.
To minimize these potential problems, avoid siting a wind energy system on
a migration route or where many birds nest and feed. The system should be
designed to reduce perching and nesting opportunities. This is typically not
a problem with smaller systems.
Electromagnetic interference. Systems sometimes produce electromagnetic
interference that can affect television or radio reception. The interference can
usually be traced to the generator, alternator, or metal blades. This problem
can be avoided if the parts are shielded, filtered or made of wood, plastic or
fibreglass.
Technical know-how. Some small wind energy system can be maintained
by the owner. This may require basic technical skills. It will save money, but
will require time and the inclination to do what is necessary.
Access. The existence of an access road for remote systems will simplify
construction, maintenance and fuel delivery, and will likely bring with it
associated cost benefits.
Insurance, construction standards, private property deed restrictions
should also be considered.
29
9. Buying a Wind Energy System
• This chapter provide you System design: They will help you
with a guide to shopping determine the optimal capacity Dealers vs.
for wind energy system of the wind energy system, and
Manufacturers
the size and configuration of the Local dealers may be more familiar
system components, based on with local conditions, and are in a
Experts the results of the assessments. better position to provide service
Can Help Expert assistance becomes more than a more “remote” manufacturer.
important as a system becomes Also, dealers may have access to
more complex. a choice of systems from a variety
Finding an expert of manufacturers.
Equipment selection and costing:
To find an expert, contact one of Based on their experience, they
the organizations or associations catalogues offer useful informa-
can find the best equipment for
identified in Chapter 11 Need tion about system design.
your system design.
More Information?
Do not hesitate about asking
Cost estimates and financing
suppliers to see equipment manu-
arrangements: The economic
als for BOS or wind turbines
Even if you have diligently fol- assessment and the cost of the
you are especially interested in.
lowed every step in this guide, it final design will lead to accurate
Manufacturer’s typically charge
is very important to consult an cost estimates – then you will
for the manual, but the price
independent expert or a supplier know if you need financing
can usually be applied toward
or manufacturer to ensure that and if so, how much.
the purchase price of the unit
any system you buy and install is Installation, servicing, routine should a purchase be made.
as efficient, cost effective and safe maintenance: For larger and
as possible. Before approaching The manual should describe,
more complex systems, outside
an expert, you should have the in clearly understood terms,
expertise in these areas becomes
details of your preliminary assess- the assembly and installation
more important.
ment, and some ideas about procedure for the unit and
your basic design. Even if you the subsequent operation and
are a do-it-yourselfer, you should Selecting maintenance requirements.
discuss your project with an a supplier Do not buy from a manufacturer
expert before committing to Manufacturers or dealers in wind who does not provide the
a particular system. energy systems can be a valuable required product literature.
Some areas where experts can resource for information. Read all the manuals carefully
be of assistance: Different suppliers specialize and look for details that will
Preliminary assessment: They can in different types of systems. answer these questions:
review your preliminary assess- A supplier should have proven • What type of equipment
ment and confirm the accuracy experience in design and instal- is the inverter capable of
of the energy and wind resource lation of the type of system operating?
estimates, and give you some you require. Suppliers differ
in terms of the level of service • What quality of AC power
advice on your preliminary design.
they provide. Some offer turnkey does the inverter produce?
Detailed assessment: They can (i.e. ready-to-operate) installation. • Does the generator have
visit the site, identify appropriate Others offer the option of direct remote start capability?
applications and do a more purchase from the factory for
detailed resource assessment, and • What is included in the
self-installation.
an in-depth economic assessment. BOS package?
Request and review equipment
• Are the wiring and smaller
catalogues and price lists. Many
parts supplied?
30
Reading Equipment Important Questions
Manuals when Choosing a Dealer:
Standard items to review • Years in business?
in the literature provided • Background or qualifications?
by the manufacturer:
• Familiarity with local electrical requirements, codes, zoning regulations?
• Installation and operating
instructions • Technical and pricing details available?
31
10. Installing, Operating and Maintaining Your System
32
• Make sure you have enough depending on the size of
space to assemble the turbine. the project. Helpful Hints
Make sure you understand Batteries should be kept at the
You have to be careful during
each step in the installation proper operating temperature;
commissioning, and each step
and have the right tools at freezing will damage the cells.
in the procedure should be
the right time. Charge and discharge rates should
well documented (with notes
• For micro units, turbine erec- describing tests conducted not be exceeded.
tion can be done by hand. and results obtained including, Special switches, fuses and circuit
Small units may need a tower where practical, photos). breakers will help ensure the safe
mounted gin pole and, if the operation of battery systems.
turbine is larger than about
10 kilowatts, you may need a
Operation and Lead-acid batteries that are not
sealed require regular maintenance,
crane or base mounted gin Maintenance topping up of water and verifying
pole. A small mistake
during the erection phase
(O&M) state of charge.
Most wind energy systems that Unsealed batteries may give off
can destroy your turbine or are commercially available require hydrogen and should be housed
case injury. Fully understand little owner intervention during in ventilated enclosures.
all the loads and distances operation. For simpler turbines,
involved in this step. such as those used as battery
chargers or water pumpers,
Commissioning the control systems to ensure
Once the wind turbine is erected, safe and reliable operations
it must be commissioned. This are quite simple.
means that tests are performed More complex designs may
on the unit to ensure each of its change maintenance demands.
systems and subsystems performs Many manufacturers offer main-
as they are supposed to. The com- tenance service for the wind
missioning process will check, for turbines they install. The manu-
example, that not only does the facturer should at least have
brake work, but it will reliably detailed information on mainte-
engage during an emergency nance procedures and when
condition, such as high winds. they should be carried out.
Once again, the commissioning Most turbines can operate for
procedure becomes more complex long periods of time without
as the wind energy system troubleshooting or repair. Minor
becomes more complex. maintenance is usually done on
The commissioning procedure a quarterly basis or twice a year.
should be fully outlined in the More comprehensive mainte-
owner’s manual. If the turbine nance is required annually.
is not commissioned properly, Maintenance can range from
the manufacturer may not simple checking of oil levels,
honour warranty claims if which just about anyone can
problems arise later. It may do, to intricate checking of
also be necessary to have a gear backlash or blade pitch
manufacturer’s representative settings, which may require
present during each step of a high degree of expertise.
the commissioning procedure,
33
11. Need More Information?
Natural Resources Canada Free software
Renewable and Electrical available to assist
Energy Division you in your decision.
Energy Resources Branch Renewable energy technologies,
580 Booth Street, 17th Floor such as a wind energy system,
Ottawa, Ontario can be a smart investment.
K1A 0E4 RETScreen™ just made it easier.
RETScreen™ is a standardized
Fax.: (613) 995-0087
renewable energy project analysis
Web Site:
software that will help you deter-
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/redi
mine whether a wind energy
CANMET Energy Technology system is a good investment
Centre for you. The software uses
Natural Resources Canada Microsoft® Excel spreadsheets,
580 Booth Street, 13th Floor and a comprehensive user
Ottawa, Ontario manual and supporting databases
K1A 0E4 to help your evaluation.
Fax.: (613) 996-9418 The RETScreen™ software and
Web Site: user manual can be downloaded
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/es/etb Free from the following web site
The Canadian Wind Atlas at: http://retscreen.gc.ca or by
Web Site: contacting NRCan by phone
http://www.windatlas.ca at 1-450-652-4621 or by fax
at 1-450-652-5177.
Canadian Wind Energy
Association (CANWEA)
100, 3553 - 31 St., NW
Calgary, Alberta
T2L 2K7
Toll Free: 1-800-9-CANWEA
Outside of Canada: 403-289-7713
Fax.: (403) 282-1238
Web Site: http://www.canwea.ca
To read more on wind energy
technologies or other types of
renewable energy technologies,
visit the Web site of NRCan’s
Canadian Renewable Energy
Network (CanREN) at
http://www.canren.gc.ca.
34
Appendix A
36
Typical Daily Energy Consumption of Appliances
12 VDC Loads
Appliance/Equipment Power Rating (watts) Annual kWh
Air Compressor 60 5
Auto Stereo 6 7
Clock, digital 5 44
Drill 144 5
25 watt incandescent bulb 25 46
25 watt equivalent fluorescent 25 46
Circular saw 200 – 1000 5
Television:
b&w (2 hr/day) 20 15
colour (2 hr/day) 60 45
Toaster 1100 40
Ventilation Fan (15 cm blade) 24 5
Water Pump:
13 l/min automatic demand 90 70
11.6 l/min 36 26
7.5 l/min 18 13
37
Appendix B
38
Appendix C
DC to AC Inverter with:
Remote Start Signal
“true sine wave”
39
Appendix D
40
Appendix E
41
Appendix F
Using Net Present Value Most computer spreadsheet grid, as compared to a 500 W
(NPV) to Evaluate a programs have a function to find wind energy system.
Project and Comparing Net Present Value, if you want
In the wind energy system, design
Unit Costs of Energy to try the calculation yourself.
considerations do not permit an
This section on Net Present Value
By comparing the costs of increase in the amount of energy
and the one following on Unit
different energy options the system can provide. The grid,
Costs of Energy are not intended
in today’s dollars, the true on the other hand, can accommo-
to serve as a “how-to,” they are
economic value of any one date an almost unlimited growth
intended only to give you an
option can easily be seen. in demand. To compare them
indication of what a professional
Table 2 shows how Net Present fairly, we have to look at the unit
will consider when doing a full
Value has been applied to four cost of energy generated by the
economic analysis.
possible energy alternatives: a wind wind energy system over its life-
energy system with batteries; a time with the unit cost of the
Using Net photo-voltaic system with batteries; energy generated by the grid.
It is also best to compare the
Present Value an extension to the grid; and, a
net present value of the cost
diesel generator set with batteries.
(NPV) to The calculation shows that despite of a kilowatt hour of energy.
Evaluate the fact the wind energy system We set out the sample
a Project does not have the lowest initial calculations on page 44.
Larger, more costly projects cost, over time, its cost is the
In this case, the wind energy
require a very accurate analysis to lowest of the four options.
option is not the preferred choice.
see it they make economic sense. It makes a number of assump- Extending a line to the grid
This is done using a calculation tions which are detailed in the will cost $1.71 per kilowatt
known as Net Present Value. table caption. hour while wind generation
Net Present Value determines how will cost $1.82 per kilowatt hour,
in today’s dollars.
much money you would have to
put aside today to pay for the
Comparing Unit
start up and operating costs of the Costs of Energy
project over its lifetime – keeping When alternate approaches pro-
in mind that if you put money duce different amounts of energy,
aside today, it would earn interest often the best way to make a
over the course of the project. comparison is by calculating the
For example, a Net Present Value unit cost of the energy, usually
calculation can tell you how expressed in dollars per kilowatt
much money you would have to hour ($/kWh). In these situations,
put in the bank today in order it is important to compare pro-
to have $1,000 in the bank five jects based on the present value
years from now at an interest of their unit costs of energy, to
rate of 5 percent. make sure they are being evaluat-
ed based on a common variable.
For purposes of the Net Present
Value calculation, the rate of Let us consider the example
interest is referred to as the of a wind energy system as an
“discount rate.” Today’s dollars alternative to extending a line
will also be worth more in the to the grid. In our example,
future because of inflation. we will consider establishing
a 2 kilometre line from the
42
Table 2. An Economic Comparison of Costs
500 W Wind 750 W PV System 2 km Extension 1 kW Diesel
Energy System with Batteries to the Grid Genset
with Batteries with Batteries
Initial Annual Initial Annual Initial Cost Annual Initial Annual Fuel,
Cost and O&M Cost Cost and O&M Cost (2 km grid O&M Cost Cost and 5 yr. Oil and
Year 5 yr. battery (3% of 5 yr. battery (1% of extension) ($16/month battery repl. O&M Cost
repl. system cost) replacement system cost) + $0.08/kWh) 3 yr. gen-set (3% of
repl. system cost)
43
Comparing the Costs of a Unit of Energy
500 W Wind Energy System 2 km Extension to the Grid
with Batteries
Energy Supply Energy supply remains constant at Energy supply increases by
1.5 kWh/day, 548 kWh/year over 3 percent each year for 20 years,
the 20-year life of the system starting at 548 kWh in the first year,
based on 1.5 kWh/day for that year
Total energy supplied after 20 years 6,280 kWh (with no load growth 7,980 kWh (with 3 percent load
and after NPV calculation) growth and after NPV calculation)
Total NPV of the system $11,445 $13,629 (includes 3 percent increase
costs after 20 years in total annual cost of electricity due
to increased load)
Present Value of unit cost of electricity $1.82/kWh $1.71/kWh
44
Glossary
45
Rated wind speed is the speci- Voltage is a measure of the
fied wind speed at which a wind electric potential difference
turbine's rated power is achieved. between two points; usually
expressed as volts (V).
Rayleigh wind speed distrib-
ution is a statistical curve whose Watts is the unit to measure
shape approximates the actual the rate at which work is done
shape of a wind speed distribu- (power) or energy is consumed;
tion curve. It is used as a stan- usually expressed as Watts (W)
dardized distribution curve to or kilowatts (kW). Note that
estimate the energy production W = V x A.
performance of a wind turbine. Yaw is the rotation of a HAWT
Rotor is the set of blades of the about its vertical axis to align it
wind turbine including the hub. with the wind.
Rotor speed is the rate of
rotation of a wind turbine rotor Symbols
about its axis. AC = alternate current
Simple payback is the length D = rotor diameter
of time required to recover the (for HAWTS) m
cost of an investment from the
DC = direct current
cash flow produced by the invest-
ment. It does not account for DOD = Depth of discharge
the discount rate. kW = kilowatt
Swept area is the area through kWh = kilowatt hours
which the rotor blades rotate.
It is the area of the disk formed PV = Photovoltaic
by the blade rotation. W = Watt
Tower is the structure of a wind
energy system that supports the
rotor and power train, etc., above
the ground.
Upwind wind energy system
has a rotor which operates up-
wind of the tower. These systems
use yaw mechanisms to keep
them pointed into the wind.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
(VAWT) is a wind turbine whose
rotor axis is vertical to the ground.
These turbines do not have to be
yawed into the wind. They will
accept wind from any direction.
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Notes
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